my country india essay in tamil

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My Country Essay

India has such a deep history and culture that one will become lost in its beauty while looking for it. India is a nation renowned for its cultural richness, delicious cuisine, and friendly people. Here are a few sample essays on the topic ‘My Country’.

100 Words Essay On My Country

Indian culture plays a significant role in people's lives. With its vibrant culture, cuisine, history, and traditions, it makes people's lives happier. Despite the fact that it is recognised as the birthplace of Buddhism and Hinduism, all people of all faiths coexist harmoniously in this region. People fall head over heels in love with India's diverse cuisine and spices, which are famous worldwide. Along with the well-known Taj Mahal, it features amazing architecture and monuments. It has given the world many things, like ayurveda, zero, yoga, and many others. The diverse set of values distinguishes India from other countries of the world.

200 Words Essay On My Country

India, also known as Hindustan, is the biggest democracy in the world. It is a secular and democratic country, meaning that the citizens of India have the right to vote in choosing their leaders. India is known as a country with "Unity in diversity". It means that people with different cultures and traditions speaking different languages live together. India is bounded in the north by the snow-capped Himalayas and in the south by Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean. In the east by the Bay of Bengal and in the west by the Arabian Sea.

India shares its borders with countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. India is one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been recorded as the second most populous country after China.

India has immensely contributed to the fields of literature and science. Authors like Rabindranath Tagore, Ruskin Bond, Kiran Desai and many more have contributed largely to Indian literature. In the field of science, India made advancements in nuclear physics, astrophysics and so on. India attracts tourists due to its rich heritage and beautiful climate. India today is striving to become a global leader and a force to be reckoned with.

500 Words Essay On My Country

India is my motherland and I recognise myself as an Indian before anything else. India is also known as ‘Bharat’ and ‘Hindustan’, it is the biggest democracy in the world. It is known for its vast diversity and rich culture. India is one of the world's oldest civilisations, dating back over 4000 years. India is home to many renowned artists, chivalrous warriors and leaders who have contributed largely to making India what it is today.

Political Scenario | 'Unity in diversity' is the best phrase to explain the vast diversity present in our country. People of various cultures, speaking different languages, reside in India. India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic with a parliamentary government. This means that a Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister advises the President, the constitutional head of the country. Indians elect their leaders and are free to do anything they desire but under the confines of the law.

Indian History | India's history is divided into ancient, medieval, and modern history. The ancient period began in prehistoric times and ended in the Gupta period. The Middle Ages began in the Post Gupta period and ended with the arrival of the Europeans. From 1858 to 1947, the British ruled India and were exploiting its rich culture and wealth, leading to extreme poverty among the Indians. Then started the Modern period, which was marked by the advent of new technologies, discoveries and ideas.

India's Beauty | India is a country with beautiful landmarks and heritage. Each state of India has its history. Some of the famous landmarks of India are the Taj Mahal, the Jagannath Temple, the Gateway of India, the Red Fort, Qutub Minar, the golden temple, the Sanchi Stupa and so on. There are several tourist attractions in India which people visit during their holidays. Kashmir, Puri, Darjeeling, Kerala, Shillong, Goa, Andaman and Nicobar island are some of those.

Technological Advancements | India is not lagging behind anymore when it comes to technological advancements and science. India has immensely contributed to science and technology in the past few years. Technology has played an important role in boosting India's economy. The growth in this field ponders on the evolution of Indian scientific research. India has contributed on the grounds of astronomy, nuclear physics, astrophysics and many more. Indians take immense pride in their country for its rich diversity and aims to preserve India's heritage.

India During Pandemic

India has the second-largest population in the world and yet it managed the COVID-19 pandemic admirably with its vaccines Covaxin and CoverShield, which protected everyone from the deadly virus. India put a lot of effort towards developing the domestic market with all the Covid-19-related supplies during the pandemic.

India introduced the following protocols and procedures to effectively handle the pandemic situation—

India introduced early bidding procedures and quality assurance protocols.

Efficient supply chain management system was established based on computerised models that help predict cases and hospitalisations, including interprovincial oxygen and intensive care unit requirements based on epidemiological trends.

Expeditious and quality-assured move of COVID products to government e-procurement sites was established which enabled states to access these products at competitive prices without going through a bidding process.

Explore Career Options (By Industry)

Construction
Entertainment
Manufacturing
Information Technology

Data Administrator

Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Bio Medical Engineer

The field of biomedical engineering opens up a universe of expert chances. An Individual in the biomedical engineering career path work in the field of engineering as well as medicine, in order to find out solutions to common problems of the two fields. The biomedical engineering job opportunities are to collaborate with doctors and researchers to develop medical systems, equipment, or devices that can solve clinical problems. Here we will be discussing jobs after biomedical engineering, how to get a job in biomedical engineering, biomedical engineering scope, and salary.

Ethical Hacker

A career as ethical hacker involves various challenges and provides lucrative opportunities in the digital era where every giant business and startup owns its cyberspace on the world wide web. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path try to find the vulnerabilities in the cyber system to get its authority. If he or she succeeds in it then he or she gets its illegal authority. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path then steal information or delete the file that could affect the business, functioning, or services of the organization.

GIS officer work on various GIS software to conduct a study and gather spatial and non-spatial information. GIS experts update the GIS data and maintain it. The databases include aerial or satellite imagery, latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates, and manually digitized images of maps. In a career as GIS expert, one is responsible for creating online and mobile maps.

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Geothermal Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as geothermal engineers are the professionals involved in the processing of geothermal energy. The responsibilities of geothermal engineers may vary depending on the workplace location. Those who work in fields design facilities to process and distribute geothermal energy. They oversee the functioning of machinery used in the field.

Database Architect

If you are intrigued by the programming world and are interested in developing communications networks then a career as database architect may be a good option for you. Data architect roles and responsibilities include building design models for data communication networks. Wide Area Networks (WANs), local area networks (LANs), and intranets are included in the database networks. It is expected that database architects will have in-depth knowledge of a company's business to develop a network to fulfil the requirements of the organisation. Stay tuned as we look at the larger picture and give you more information on what is db architecture, why you should pursue database architecture, what to expect from such a degree and what your job opportunities will be after graduation. Here, we will be discussing how to become a data architect. Students can visit NIT Trichy , IIT Kharagpur , JMI New Delhi .

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive.

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Product manager.

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.

Operations Manager

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Stock Analyst

Individuals who opt for a career as a stock analyst examine the company's investments makes decisions and keep track of financial securities. The nature of such investments will differ from one business to the next. Individuals in the stock analyst career use data mining to forecast a company's profits and revenues, advise clients on whether to buy or sell, participate in seminars, and discussing financial matters with executives and evaluate annual reports.

A Researcher is a professional who is responsible for collecting data and information by reviewing the literature and conducting experiments and surveys. He or she uses various methodological processes to provide accurate data and information that is utilised by academicians and other industry professionals. Here, we will discuss what is a researcher, the researcher's salary, types of researchers.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues.

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems.

Safety Manager

A Safety Manager is a professional responsible for employee’s safety at work. He or she plans, implements and oversees the company’s employee safety. A Safety Manager ensures compliance and adherence to Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) guidelines.

Conservation Architect

A Conservation Architect is a professional responsible for conserving and restoring buildings or monuments having a historic value. He or she applies techniques to document and stabilise the object’s state without any further damage. A Conservation Architect restores the monuments and heritage buildings to bring them back to their original state.

Structural Engineer

A Structural Engineer designs buildings, bridges, and other related structures. He or she analyzes the structures and makes sure the structures are strong enough to be used by the people. A career as a Structural Engineer requires working in the construction process. It comes under the civil engineering discipline. A Structure Engineer creates structural models with the help of computer-aided design software.

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description: A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Field Surveyor

Are you searching for a Field Surveyor Job Description? A Field Surveyor is a professional responsible for conducting field surveys for various places or geographical conditions. He or she collects the required data and information as per the instructions given by senior officials.

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Pathologist

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Veterinary Doctor

Speech therapist, gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth.

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Are you searching for an ‘Anatomist job description’? An Anatomist is a research professional who applies the laws of biological science to determine the ability of bodies of various living organisms including animals and humans to regenerate the damaged or destroyed organs. If you want to know what does an anatomist do, then read the entire article, where we will answer all your questions.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs.

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Photographer

Photography is considered both a science and an art, an artistic means of expression in which the camera replaces the pen. In a career as a photographer, an individual is hired to capture the moments of public and private events, such as press conferences or weddings, or may also work inside a studio, where people go to get their picture clicked. Photography is divided into many streams each generating numerous career opportunities in photography. With the boom in advertising, media, and the fashion industry, photography has emerged as a lucrative and thrilling career option for many Indian youths.

An individual who is pursuing a career as a producer is responsible for managing the business aspects of production. They are involved in each aspect of production from its inception to deception. Famous movie producers review the script, recommend changes and visualise the story.

They are responsible for overseeing the finance involved in the project and distributing the film for broadcasting on various platforms. A career as a producer is quite fulfilling as well as exhaustive in terms of playing different roles in order for a production to be successful. Famous movie producers are responsible for hiring creative and technical personnel on contract basis.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion.

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Individuals who opt for a career as a reporter may often be at work on national holidays and festivities. He or she pitches various story ideas and covers news stories in risky situations. Students can pursue a BMC (Bachelor of Mass Communication) , B.M.M. (Bachelor of Mass Media) , or MAJMC (MA in Journalism and Mass Communication) to become a reporter. While we sit at home reporters travel to locations to collect information that carries a news value.

Corporate Executive

Are you searching for a Corporate Executive job description? A Corporate Executive role comes with administrative duties. He or she provides support to the leadership of the organisation. A Corporate Executive fulfils the business purpose and ensures its financial stability. In this article, we are going to discuss how to become corporate executive.

Multimedia Specialist

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications.

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product.

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans.

Process Development Engineer

The Process Development Engineers design, implement, manufacture, mine, and other production systems using technical knowledge and expertise in the industry. They use computer modeling software to test technologies and machinery. An individual who is opting career as Process Development Engineer is responsible for developing cost-effective and efficient processes. They also monitor the production process and ensure it functions smoothly and efficiently.

AWS Solution Architect

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Essay on “My Country” Complete Essay for Class 10, Class 12 and Graduation and other classes.

Essay No. 01

India is my country. India is the seventh largest country of the world after Russia, Canada, China, U.S.A Brazil and Australia. In population, she is the second largest country of the world. It is only 2.4 per cent of the total area of the world. Our country has about 1605 per cent of the total population of the world. Thus every seventh person of the world is an Indian. Due to its vastness in size. It is described as a sub- continent. The international boundary of India passes through a variety of land forms- barren desert lands. Green agricultural fields, gushing rivers, snow- clad mountains and densely forested mountains.

The tropic of cancer runs through the middle of the country, dividing into two parts – the North India and the South India. Monsoon climate and various soils lead to a variety of agricultural crops in our country. Long growing season also helps Indian farmer raise agricultural crops throughout the year Various crops such as rice, wheat, barley, maize, jowar, and bajra are grown here. Beside these, we have pulses, oil seeds, sugarcane, potatoes, tea, coffee and fruits. India has been a leading producer of species since time immemorial.

The level of the development of manufacturing industries decides the strength of a country’s economy. We have industries divided into two major groups – agro – based and mineral – based industries. We have textile industries. Textile includes cotton, jute, wool, silk and synthetic fibers. The sugar industry ranks second amongst the agro- industries in India. Uttar Pradesh is the leader producer of sugar.

In India we have a federal form of government. It means that we have two separate levels of government – at the centre and at the state level. At present the Indian Federation includes 25 States and 7 Union territories. The Constitution of India provides for a parliamentary form of government. President is the nominal executive head of the country. A large number of powers are vested in him by the Prime Minister and other members of Council of Ministers. The President is bound to act on the advice of Council of Ministers. The central government has three organs – the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. The Central Legislative is known as Parliament. The Central Executive includes President, Vice President, Prime Minister an Union Council of Ministers. The judiciary is the Supreme Court of India. The Prime Minister is the ex-officio chairman of the Planning Commission. Thus we see that the Prime Minister is the real ruler of the country.

In my country linguistic, religious, social and political diversity has played an important role in making the Indian culture rich. The Hindu Dharm spread the felling of tolerance. Buddhism and Jainism spread the principle of non- violence and Islam spread the idea of one God.

India stretches from Kashmir in the north to Kanyakumari in the South and from Kandla in the west to Kohima in the east. Transport and communication network is essential for economic integration, social interaction and the defence of the country. We have National Highways, State Highways, District Roads and village roads. Every district city is connected with railway network. In India, big cities are Delhi, the capital of India, Bombay, Chennai, Calcutta, Jaipur, Patna, Nagpur, Agra. The most pious rivers are Ganga, Yumuna, Naravada, Mahanadi , etc. we have the Himalayas in the north, Nilgiri in the south , Vindhyachal in the centre. Our country is called India, Hindustant or Bharat. It is my county. I have been living in it since my birth, I am proud of it. I am always prepared to sacrifice everything even my life for my country.

Essay No. 2

India is my country. She is dear to me than everything else in the world. She is a great country. It has a great past. All of us are proud of her culture and civilization. She has produced great sons and daughters who served her beyond limits. It is one of the oldest countries of the world. Its age-old traditions and culture are worth the name. the history of this country dates back to thousands of years. The glories of times that it was called the “Golden Sparrow” and traders throughout the world wished to travel here and see its glories glorious ancient period of this country was so peaceful that she produced masterpieces of literature and men of letters. It was the age of Vedas, Mahabharata and Ramayana. The great men and women of that age continue to be the torch-bearers of our culture till this day. The great Shree Rama and Shree Krishna were the products of that age.

The modern times saw many upheavals in this country. the foreign invaders looted the rich heritage of this country for hollowed this country. The country suffered foreign rule for centuries together which changed its face to a large extent. Such was the strength of the cultural heritage of the this country that in spite of suffering the foreign yoke for centuries together , the soul of this country remained unchanged. It tried to adapt with every new influence received with every new ruler. Many foreign cultures, languages, religions and thoughts influenced the fabric of this country but the base remained unchanged because of its strong foundations. Britishers were the last to slave this country for more than a century. They left no stone unturned to leave their influences permanently. It was the last blow. Which left the masses of this country poor, terror- stricken, fearful, needy and diseased.

Then after a continued struggle of our freedom fighters for long decades our country saw the face of Independence on 15 th August, 1947 form the foreign rule and she became the largest democracy of the world but completely bruised. The Britishers played the dirtiest game of the modern times by encouraging her partition and Pakistan came into being. The process took its tool as thousands of innocent citizens were killed in the frenzy of Hindu- Muslim strives.

Now my country is taking strides towards her development though not so speedily but still satisfactorily. We are proud of our mixed culture and secular democratic set- up. It has raised our prestige in the international community as we have been successfully continuing our development processes and democratic institutions despite many hazards.

I wish my country progress by leaps and bounds and keep its integrity and honour quite intact for all times to come.

Essay No. 03

My Motherland

India—A Great Country

The name of my country is India. It is a very big country. In the matter of population it is next only to China. Its population is more than 100 crore of people.

India is divided into several States. Some of the big States are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, etc. Among the Union Territories there are Chandigarh, Pondicherry, etc.

Jammu and Kashmir lies in the north of India. The southernmost Indian State is Tamil Nadu. India is spread from Kashmir to Kanya Kumari and from Assam to Gujarat.

The Indian people believe in different religions. They eat different kinds of food and wear different kinds of clothes. They speak different languages. But they are all Indians.

India is an ancient country. It remained under foreign rule for many centuries. In 1947, it became independent. It adopted a democratic set up. It became a republic in 1950.

India is a sovereign, secular country. All the citizens of India have equal rights. They have some fundamental rights and duties.

Among India’s neighbours are China, Myarunar, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and Afghanistan. India is a peace loving country. It wants friendship with all the countries of the world, particularly with its neighbours.

India is making a rapid progress in all fields, particularly in telecommunications. It is paying attention to industrialization on war footing. It is already self-sufficient in food. For having become a big military and economic power, India is now known as “The Asian Tiger”

India is trying to tackle the problems of unemployment, illiteracy, disease, corruption, poverty, etc. Let us hope for the best.

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Essay on Tamil Culture

Students are often asked to write an essay on Tamil Culture in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Tamil Culture

Introduction.

Tamil culture is one of the oldest and richest cultures in the world. Originating from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, it has a history that dates back over 2000 years.

At the heart of Tamil culture is the Tamil language. It’s one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world, known for its rich literature and poetry.

Art and Architecture

Tamil culture is renowned for its unique art and architecture. The Dravidian style of architecture, seen in many temples, is a significant part of this culture.

Festivals like Pongal and Tamil New Year reflect the vibrant spirit of Tamil culture, showcasing its traditions, music, and dance.

In conclusion, Tamil culture, with its deep-rooted traditions, is a testament to the rich heritage of India. It continues to thrive and inspire people worldwide.

250 Words Essay on Tamil Culture

Tamil culture, one of the oldest and richest cultures globally, is the embodiment of the traditions, values, and art forms of the Tamil people. It is an intrinsic part of the Indian subcontinent, primarily in the state of Tamil Nadu and among the Tamil diaspora worldwide.

Language and Literature

The Tamil language, recognized as a classical language by UNESCO, is the lifeblood of Tamil culture. It has a rich literary tradition with works like Thirukkural, a treatise on ethics, and Silappatikaram, an epic of love and revenge, reflecting the philosophical and moral depth of the culture.

Tamil culture has significantly contributed to Indian art and architecture, with the Dravidian style of temple architecture and Bharatanatyam dance form being its most recognized symbols. The grandeur of temples like Brihadeeswarar Temple and the aesthetic beauty of Bharatanatyam are testimonies to the artistic excellence of this culture.

Cuisine and Festivals

Tamil cuisine, known for its flavors and health benefits, is another essential aspect of Tamil culture. The use of rice, lentils, and spices is predominant, with dishes like Dosa, Sambar, and Rasam being popular. Pongal, Diwali, and Karthigai Deepam are some of the vibrant festivals celebrated, which strengthen communal harmony and reflect the culture’s spiritual depth.

The Tamil culture, with its profound philosophical insights, artistic brilliance, and communal harmony, has a significant impact on the Indian subcontinent and the world. It is a culture that has not only survived but thrived over millennia, adapting to changes while retaining its unique identity.

500 Words Essay on Tamil Culture

Tamil culture, one of the oldest and richest cultures in the world, is the embodiment of the traditions, values, and artistic expression of the Tamil people. Originating from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, it has a rich history dating back over two millennia, influencing and being influenced by other cultures. This essay will delve into various aspects of Tamil culture, including its language, literature, music, dance, and cuisine.

The Tamil language, recognized as a classical language by the Indian government, is the lifeblood of Tamil culture. It is one of the longest surviving classical languages in the world, with literature dating back to the 3rd Century BC. The Thirukkural, written by the poet Thiruvalluvar, is a seminal work in Tamil literature, offering wisdom and guidance on ethics, love, and statecraft. The Sangam literature, comprising of 2,381 poems, provides a window into the ancient Tamil world.

Music and Dance

Music and dance are integral to Tamil culture. Carnatic music, a classical music form of South India, has its roots in Tamil Nadu. The compositions of the Trinity of Carnatic music – Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri – continue to be celebrated worldwide. Similarly, Bharatanatyam, one of the oldest dance forms in India, originated in Tamil Nadu. It is a beautiful blend of Bhava (emotion), Raga (melody), and Tala (rhythm), and is traditionally performed in temples.

Tamil cuisine is a culinary treasure trove, offering a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. It is characterized by the use of rice, lentils, and spices like mustard, fenugreek, and asafoetida. The Chettinad cuisine, known for its fiery and aromatic dishes, and the simple yet delicious meals served on banana leaves are iconic elements of Tamil culinary culture.

Festivals form an essential part of Tamil culture, reflecting the community’s religious and agricultural practices. Pongal, a harvest festival, is one of the most important Tamil festivals. It is a time of thanksgiving to nature, marked by cooking the Pongal dish, a sweet rice preparation. Other significant festivals include Karthigai Deepam, a festival of lights, and Tamil New Year, celebrated with feasting and cultural performances.

Tamil culture, with its rich language, literature, music, dance, cuisine, and festivals, is a testament to the Tamil people’s resilience and creativity. It is a culture that has not only survived but thrived, despite numerous challenges. It continues to evolve while maintaining its unique identity, contributing to the multicultural tapestry of India and the world. As we move forward, understanding and appreciating this ancient culture becomes even more crucial in fostering a sense of unity in diversity.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Happy studying!

Essay on India of My Dreams for Students and Children

500 words essay on india of my dreams.

India is a country where people of all cultures and religions coexist together. I suppose that each of us has dreamt about some version of India. Obviously, we may dream about anything at any time, and as Indian citizens, we are continuously looking for methods to improve our country and see a better India. Peace and prosperity are my hopes for our great country. India will be a great country when every citizen follows the rule of law, supports the nation with their families, and does something to make India a better place.

The India of my dream would be a country where women are safe and walk freely on road. Also, it will be a place where there is freedom of equality to all and everyone can enjoy it in their true sense. Furthermore, it would be a place where there is no discrimination of caste, color, gender , creed, social or economic status, and race. In addition, I see it as a place that sees an abundance of development and growth.

How can we make our dream India possible?

If we collectively look into everything, we will be able to identify the causes and solutions to all of the world’s problems. Similarly, building a great nation and resolving its deep-rooted problems is an attainable goal. India must have the following characteristics in order to become a Great Country:

Law That Is Just and Effective
Society of Peace
Equality of opportunity for everyone
Uncorrupted systems
Unbiased educational system

When these things become a reality, the entire country will take notice, and everyone will have the opportunity to enjoy a healthy and prosperous life. That is why we must all work together to bring about change in our country and contribute to improving people’s lives. Every person must work with their family and society, as well as support our government, which is also doing its bit by providing adequate education, transportation, food for everybody, and employment opportunities to all segments of society.

Technological Advancement

I would like to see India become more scientifically, technologically, and agriculturally sophisticated. I want to see an India where rationality and scientific ideas triumph over blind faith and bigotry. Because the present age is the age of science and information technology, I would like to bring India to the pinnacle of scientific and technical advancement. Scientific and technological developments are required since they are a critical stepping stone in the development of a country.

Women Empowerment

There is a lot of discrimination against women. But, still, the women are stepping out of their houses and making a mark on different fields and on society. In addition, there are a lot of areas that need to be worked upon whether it is female feticide or restricting them to the household task. Besides, many NGO and social groups have come forward to promote women empowerment .

However, we have to work hard to change the mindset of society. I dream of India as a country that sees women as its assets, not as liabilities. Also, I want to place women on an equal level as men.

Though there are many initiatives by the government to promote education. But there are many people who do not realize its true importance. The India of my dream will be a place where education will be mandatory for all.

I wish there were no uneducated people in India of my dreams. I would like to see India implement a system of education that allows every individual to earn a living. In my dream India, I would like the people of my country to appreciate the value of education and to encourage their children to pursue school rather than working in menial professions at a young age.

Employment Opportunities

Although there are many educated people in India. But, due to corruption and many other reasons they are unable to get a decent job. Besides, there are many employment opportunities in the country but they are either limited or don’t pay well enough. One of the reasons for this is weak industrial growth in the country.

In addition, reservation is a hindrance in this path as most of the deserving candidates lose their good opportunities because of it. Many of these deserving candidates go abroad and work for the economic growth of other countries . The Indian of My dream will be a place where the deserving candidate will get the job first rather than reserved candidates.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Caste Discrimination

Though India got independence in 1947, still we are not able to get complete independence from caste, religion, and creed discrimination. It is shameful to see how in certain parts of the country the people of the lower section of the society are denied the basic rights .

However, there are various social groups that speak for their rights and help them to oppose this oppression. Besides, I dream of an India where there is no discrimination of any kind.

Corruption is one of the major reasons that are hindering the growth of the nation . Instead of making an effort to serve the growth of the country the officials and politicians are busy filling their own pockets. So, I dream of an India where the minister and official are dedicated to their work and wholly for the development of the country.

A big number of well-educated persons appear to be unemployed as a result of politicians’ severe corruption and harshness. Because of the reservation system, the majority of deserving individuals have been denied the opportunity. My hope for India is that deserving applicants, not reserved candidates, receive the correct jobs. I would also like to see India become a place where the government’s primary focus is on the benefit of the country.

In conclusion, the India of my dream will be an ideal country where every citizen will be equal. Also, there is no discrimination of any type. In addition, it will be a place where women are seen as equals to men and respected equally.

Gender Discrimination and Inequality

It’s terrible to see how, despite showing themselves in every aspect of life, women are still regarded as inferior to males. My ideal India will be one in which women are protected in all circumstances, good or bad. There will be no more torture, domestic violence, or male dominance over women. Women will be able to pursue their dreams with greater freedom. In my future country, they should be treated equally and have the right to care. It would be a location where the safety of women would be of the first importance.

Medical Support

The sole goal of the medical profession shall be to protect people free from discomfort and sickness, with proper regard and respect for age and with all due consideration for the health of all the best medical facilities available. Not for profit, but for the sake of service. The elderly would be properly cared for, and life would appear to be worth living for as long as they lived. People in my ideal country would be born healthy, hopeful, and happy, and they would live happily ever after.

FAQs about Essay on India of My Dreams

Q.1 Why India of my dream is difficult to achieve? A.1 India of my dream is difficult to achieve because there are many social, religious, and political problems. Only after getting rid of them, we can think about the India of my dream.

Q.2 Does corruption is the only hindrance in the path of development in India? A.2 No, there are many other hindrances in the path of development of India but corruption is a hindrance.

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Class 3 Essay
Class 3 My Country Essay

My Country Essay for Class 3

India is our country. Being its citizens, we must know at least the most important facts about our country. Here, we present to you My Country Essay for Class 3 kids. Students get this topic for Essay writing during the tests and exams.

With such a diverse collection of religions, languages, dialects, traditions and beliefs, India truly exhibits “Unity in Diversity”. Given below is an Essay on My Country. You can also download the essay in PDF form, through the link provided below.

Download “10 Lines on My Country” PDF for Free

The name of my country is India.
India is also known by the names Hindustan and Bharat.
India is a democratic country.
Here, people belonging to different religions- Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and Christians live in harmony with each other.
India is admired across the world for its rich culture and traditions.
It is the seventh-largest country in the world.
It is also the second most populated country in the world.
My country believes in the slogan “Unity in diversity”.
India has diversity in language, food, folk dance, clothes, cultures and traditions.
I love my country and I am proud to be an Indian.

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Essay on India in English for Children and Students

Table of Contents

Essay on India : India is the seventh-largest country and the most populous democracy in the world. It is located in South Asia and was officially declared the Republic of India after its independence from British rule. India has unique topographical features – plains of central India, rain forests of the northeast, icy cold Himalayan region, and dry arid desert in the west, among others. India’s cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity is as diverse as its geography.

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Indian culture differs from place to place and is a union of several different cultures spread across the length and breadth of the continent. Although there are 22 Languages imbibed in the Constitution of India, more than 1900 dialects or mother tongues are spoken throughout the nation. India’s huge cultural and linguistic diversity is one of its most distinguished features.

Long and Short Essay on India in English

India is one of the most famous countries in the world. Every citizen of India must know about its history, struggle, culture, and other important things.

Students are generally given this topic in their schools to write some paragraphs or full essays in the class tests or main exams.

Here we have given below long and short essays on India, which are well-written essays to help students under various word limits.

They can select anyone of these India essays according to the words limit:

Essay on India 100 words

India is a famous country all over the world. Geographically, our country is located to the south of the Asia continent. India is a high population country and well protected from all directions naturally. It is a famous country for its great cultural and traditional values all across the world. It contains a mountain called Himalaya, which is the biggest in the world.

Three big oceans surround it in three directions: the south with the Indian Ocean, the east with the Bay of Bengal, and the west with the Arabic sea. India is a democratic country that ranks second in its population. The national language of India is Hindi however, almost fourteen nationally recognized languages are spoken here.

Essay on India 150 words

India is a beautiful country and famous all over the world for its unique cultures and traditions. It is famous for its historical heritages and monuments. Citizens here are very polite and understanding in nature. It was a slave country earlier to 1947 under British rule.

However, after many years of hard struggles and sacrifices of the great Indian freedom fighters, India got freedom from British rule in 1947. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru became India’s first Prime Minister, hoisted the Indian flag when India got freedom, and proclaimed, “When the world sleeps, India will wake to life and freedom.”

India is a democratic country where its public is authorized to take decisions for the betterment of the country. India is a famous country for the saying “Unity in Diversity” because people of many religions, castes, cultures, and traditions live together in unity. Most of the Indian heritages and monuments have been added to the world heritage sites.

Essay on India 200 words

India is my mother country, and I love it very much. The people of India are very honest and truthful in nature. People of various unique traditions and cultures live here together without any problem. The mother tongue of my country is Hindi however many languages are spoken here by people of different religions without any foundation. India is a great country of natural beauty where great people took birth from time to time and did great works. Indians are heart-touching in nature and heartily welcome guests from other countries.

In India, the Indian philosophy of life is called Sanatan Dharma and has become the main factor in maintaining unity in diversity here. India is a republic country where its citizens have the power to take decisions about the country.

There are many natural sceneries, places, monuments, historical heritage of ancient time, etc., which attracts people’s minds from every corner of the world. India is famous for its spiritual works, Yoga, martial arts, etc. A huge crowd of pilgrims and devotees come here to see and enjoy the beauty of famous places, temples, and other world heritage sites in India.

Essay on India 250 words

My country India is a land of Shiva, Parvati, Krishna, Hanuman, Buddha, Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda, Kabir, etc. It is a country where great people took birth and did great work. I love my country very much and salute it. It is famous for its biggest democracy and oldest civilization in the world. It is the second most populous country in the world after the chain.

It is a country where courteous people of many religions and cultures live together. It is a country of great warriors such as Rana Pratap, Shivaji, Lal Bahadur Shashtri, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh, Lala Lajpat Rai, and so many.

It is a rich country where great people took birth in literature, art, and science, such as Rabindranath Tagore, Sara Chandra, Premchand, C.V. Raman, Jagadish Chandra Bose, APJ Abdul Kalama, Kabir Das, etc. Such great people of India were proud of my country. All the great leaders came from villages and led the country to go ahead.

They fought for many years and sacrificed their lives to make India an independent country from British rule. It is a country where famous rivers and oceans are run regularly, such as the Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Narmada, Brahmaputra, Krishna, Kavery, Bay of Bengal, Arabic sea, etc. India is a beautiful country surrounded by the oceans from three sides. It is a country where people are very intellectual and spiritual and believe in God and Goddess.

Essay on India 300 words

India is my motherland country where I took birth. I love India and have proud of it. India is a big democratic country that ranks second in population after China. It has a rich and glorious past. It is considered the country of old civilization in the world. It is a land of learning where students from many corners come to study in the big universities.

It is famous for its various unique and diverse cultures and tradition of people of many religions. Some people abroad as well follow Indian culture and tradition because of being attracted to nature. Various invaders came and steal the glory and precious things of India. Some of them made it a slave country; however various great leaders of the country became successful in making my motherland free of Britishers in 1947.

The day our country got freedom means the 15 th of August is celebrated every year as Independence Day. Pt. Nehru became the first prime minister of India. It is a country rich in natural resources, yet the inhabitants here are poor. It is growing continuously in technology, science, and literature because of eminent people like Rabindra Nath Tagore, Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, Sir C.V.Raman, Shri H. N. Bhabha, etc. It is a peace-loving country where people of many religions follow their own culture and tradition as well as celebrate their festivals without any interference.

There are many glorious historical buildings, heritages, monuments and sceneries which attract people mind from different countries every year. Taj Mahal is a great monument in India and a symbol of eternal love and Kashmir as the heaven on the earth. It is a country of famous temples, mosques, churches, Gurudwaras, rivers, valleys, fertile plains, highest mountain, etc.

Essay on India 400 words

India is my country, and I am proud to be an Indian. It ranks as the seventh largest country in the world as well as the second most populated country in the world. It is also known as Bharat, Hindustan, and Aryavart. It is a peninsula means surrounded by oceans on three sides as Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The national animal of India is a tiger, the national bird is a peacock, national flower is the lotus, and the national fruit is mango.

The flag of India has a tricolor, and saffron means purity (the uppermost), white means peace (the middle one having an Ashok Chakra), and green means fertility (the lowest one). Ashok Chakra contains equally divided 24 spokes. The national anthem of India is “Jana Gana Mana,” the national song is “Vande Mataram,” and the national sport is Hockey.

India is a country where people speak many languages, and people of different castes, creeds, religions, and cultures live together. That’s why India is famous for the common saying of “unity in diversity.” It is well known as the land of spirituality, philosophy, science, and technology. People of various religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism have lived together in ancient times.

It is a famous country for its agriculture and farming, which are the backbones from ancient times. It uses its own produced food grains and fruits. It is a famous tourist paradise because it attracts people from all over the world. It is rich in monuments, tombs, churches, historical buildings, temples, museums, scenic beauty, wildlife sanctuaries, places of architecture, etc., which are its source of revenue.

It is where Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, golden temple, Qutab Minar, Red Fort, Ooty, Nilgiris, Kashmir, Khajuraho, Ajanta and Ellora caves, etc., wonders exist. It is a country of great rivers, mountains, valleys, lakes, and oceans. The national language of India is Hindi. It is a country where 29 states and UTs. It has 28 states which again have many small villages.

It is a chief agricultural country famous for producing crops of sugarcane, cotton, jute, rice, wheat, cereals, etc. It is a country where great leaders (Shivaji, Gandhiji, Nehru, Dr. Ambedkar, etc.), great scientists (Dr. Jagadeeshchandra Bose, Dr. Homi Bhabha, Dr. C. V Raman, Dr. Naralikar, etc.) and great reformers (Mother Teresa, Pandurangashastri Alhavale, T. N. Sheshan) took birth. It is a country where diversity exists with strong unity and peace.

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Essay on My Country India: At a Glance

Essay on my country India: An a Glance for class 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘India’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on India

Essay Contents:

Essay on the Pre-Dominance of the Rural Sector

Essay # 1. Geographical Structure of India :

The geographical region of the country is broadly grouped into three well-defined regions i.e:

(i) The Himalayas

(ii) The Indo-Grangetic Plains and

(iii) The ancient peninsular shield.

The Himalayan mountain belt to the north and the nagalushai mountains in the east are regions of mountain building movement. In a series of mountain building movements commencing about seven crore years ago, the sediments and the -basements of rocks in various configurations rose to great heights.

The Indo-Gangetic plains are a great alluvial tract that separates the Himalayas from the peninsula to the south. The peninsula is a region of relative stability and rare seismic disturbances. Highly metamorphosed rocks of the earliest periods occur over more than half of its area the rest being covered by the coal bearing Gondwana formations and later sediments and lava flows belonging to the Deccan trap formation.

Essay # 2. Geographical Features of the Country:

The main land comprises four well-defined regions, namely, the great mountain zone, plains of the Ganga and the Indus, the desert region and the southern peninsula. The Himalayas comprise three almost parallel ranges interspersed with large plateau and valleys some of which like the Kashmir and Kulu Valleys are fertile, extensive and of great science beauty.

Some of the highest peaks in the world are found in these ranges. The mountain wall extends over a distance of about 2.4 thousand kms with a varying depth of 240 to 320 Km. In the east between India and Burma and India and Bangladesh the hill ranges are much lower. The Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Naga hills running almost east-west join the Chain of the mizo and Arakan hills running north-south.

Plains of the Ganga and the Indus, about 2.4 thousand Kms long and the basins of three distinct river systems, the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, form 240 to 320 Kms broad. They are one of the world’s greatest stretches of flat alluvium and also one of the most densely populated areas on earth.

The desert region can be divided into two parts—the great desert and the little desert. The great desert extends from the edge of the Rann of Kuchchh beyond the Luni River between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur up to the northern wastes.

The peninsular plateau is marked off from the plains of the Ganga and the Indus by a mass of mountain and hill ranges varying from 460 to 1220 meters in height. Prominent among these are the Aravalli, Vindhya, Satpura, Maikala and Ajanta.

The peninsula is flanked on one side by the Eastern Ghats, where the average elevation is about 610 metres and on the other by the Western Ghats. The Southern point of the plateau is formed by the Nilgiri hills where the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats meet.

Essay # 3. Climate of India :

The climate of India may be broadly described as tropical monsoon type.

There are four seasons in India:

(i) Winter season (January – February)

(ii) Hot weather season, summer (March – May)

(iii) Rainy reason, Southwestern monsoon period (June – September) and

(iv) Post-monsoon period in the Southern peninsula (October – December).

In India, rainfall is erratic and ill distributed. Cherrapunji gets 11, 419 mm of annual rainfall the highest in the country. In contrast, Rajasthan, Kachchh and the high Ladakh plateau of Kashmir extending westward to Gilgit are regions of low precipitation. They have a yearly rainfall of between 100 mm and 500 mm.

The change in environmental situation is reported to have positive effect on the climatic conditions of the country. Due to these, the average rainfall of the Cherrapunji is declining whereas, the state Rajasthan experiencing floods.

Essay # 4. Indian Agriculture :

The agricultural sector contributes nearly 8 per cent of the national Income, provides livelihood to about two-third of the population, supplies the bulk of wage goods required by the non-agricultural sector and raw materials for a large section of industry. It also provides a substantial portion of the Country’s exports, Transport. Marketing, Processing and other aspects of agricultural production and utilization have also a strong bearing on the national economy.

In India the net area available for crop agriculture is about 165 million hectares, accounted for about 50 per cent to the total geographical area of the country. The percentage of net area shown to total area is stood at 46.6 per cent in 1993-94.

The distribution of farmers according to land holdings shows that about 13 per cent of the land is hold away by 58 per cent Marginal Farmers, 16 per cent of land by 18 per cent small farmers, 22 per cent of land by 14 per cent of Semi-medium farmers, 29 per cent of land by 8 per cent medium farmers and the remaining 20 per cent of land by only 2 per cent large farmers.

The fragmentation of holding upon inheritance among the successors as also the distribution of acquired surplus land among the weaker lots of farming community, increases the number of marginal and small land holdings in the country. This smallholding causes low per-capita productivity and existence of poverty among marginal and small farmers.

Water is indispensable to agricultural production. The important source of water in our country is rainfall; nearly two- third of agricultural land is in rain fed areas. The remaining one-third of the area is prone to vagaries of monsoon like, droughts, and floods. In India 35 per cent of the net cropped area was irrigated by artificial irrigation sources like canals, wells, tube-wells, tanks and other sources.

After 50 years of planned economic development the country failed to attain substantial level of irrigation facilities. Needless to add that, if higher production growth targets in agriculture are to be attained then increasing the use of available irrigation potential and extension of the facility over larger cropped land would have to be attended to with due urgency. It is noteworthy that the share of our country to total irrigated land in the world has stood at 19.4 per cent.

The farmers of India generally use wooden or Iron ploughs for the cultivation of land. The use of power tillers and tractors is less. In the country about 12 Lakh tractors are in operation. The share of the country to world tractors in use was 4.6 per cent according 1995.

The consumption of chemical fertilizer is an essential input for agricultural development. It is observed that Indian farmer uses 14 million tonnes chemical fertilizers on 1995-96 as against 131 million tonnes in the world level use. The percentage share of fertilizers used in India to World is about 10.7 per cent.

The important crops grown in India are, Rice (Paddy), Wheat, Cereals, Potatoes, Groundnuts, Rapeseeds, Coffee, Sugarcane, Tea, Jute and Cotton etc. It is also observed that more than 50 per cent of the Jutes produced in World produced in India.

Essay # 5. Geographical Diversity of India:

India is the seventh largest country in the world. The country is well marked from the rest of Asia by mountains and the sea, which gives the country a distinct geographical entity. Lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends measures 3,214 km from north to south between extreme latitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between extreme longitudes. It has a land frontier of about 15,200 km.

The country lies between 8°4′ and 37°6′ north of the Equator and is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south. The total length of the coastline of the mainland, Lakshadweep group of islands, and Andaman and Nicobar group of islands is 7,516.5 km.

In the east lies the Bangladesh. In the northwest, Afghanistan and Pakistan border India. The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Straits separate India from Sri Lanka. The Andaman and Nicobar Island in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea are parts of the territory of India. There are as many as 200 islands in Andaman alone, extending for 350 km. There are 19 islands in the Nicobar group.

The Lakshadweep is a group of islands in the Arabian Sea. They are formed on a coral deposit off the Kerala coast. The southern most of this lies just to the north of the Maldives Island which is an independent territory.

The Indian Subcontinent :

The Mountains:

The Indian subcontinent is a southern region of Asia situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean. Exact definitions of the Indian subcontinent differ but it usually includes the core lands of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. The region is also called South Asia. This region is characterised by great diversity in its physical features.

Physically, the massive country is divided into four relatively well defined regions—the Himalayan Mountains, the Gangetic river plains, the southern (Deccan) plateau, and the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar. The Himalayas in the far north include some of the highest peaks in the world. The highest mountain in the Indian Himalayas is Kanchenjunga (8,586 m) which is located in Sikkim on the border with Nepal.

To the south of the main Himalayan lays the Lesser Himalaya, rising to 3,600-4,600 m, and represented by the Pir Panjal in Kashmir and Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh. Further south, flanking the Indo-Gangetic Plain, are the Siwaliks which rise to 900-1,500 m.

The Plains :

The northern plains of India stretch from Assam in the east to the Punjab in the west (a distance of 2,400 km), and extends to south to terminate in the saline swamplands of the Rann of Kachchh (Kutch), in the state of Gujarat. Some of the largest rivers in India including the Ganga (Ganges), Ghaghara, Brahmaputra, and the Yamuna flow across this region. The delta area of these rivers is located at the head of the Bay of Bengal, partly in the Indian state of west Bengal but mostly in Bangladesh.

The plains are remarkably homogenous topographically. The agriculturally productive alluvial silts and clays of the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in north-eastern India, for example, contrast strongly with the comparatively sterile sands of the Thar Desert which is located at the western extremity of the Indian part of the plains in the state of Rajasthan.

India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. The total area of wetlands (excluding rivers) in India is 18.4% of the country, 70% of which comprises areas under paddy cultivation. A total of 1,193 wetlands, covering an area of about 3,904,543 ha, were recorded in a preliminary inventory coordinated by the Department of Science and Technology, of which 572 were natural.

Two sites —Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur)—have been designated under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) as being especially significant waterfowl habitats.

The country’s wetlands are generally differentiated by region into eight categories- the reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south, together with the lagoons and the other wetlands of the southern west coast, the vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Gulf of Kachchh, freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo Ghana National park) and Madhya Pradesh, the delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast (Chilika Lake), the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic plain, the floodplain of the Brahmaputra, the marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the Himalayan foothills, the lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh, and the mangroves and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar.

India possesses a great diversity of its natural ecosystems. The panorama of Indian forests ranges from evergreen tropical rain forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats and the northeastern states, to dry alpine scrub high in the Himalayas to the north. Between the two extremes, the country has semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forests, thorn forests, subtropical pine forests in the lower montane zone, and temperate montane forests.

The main areas of tropical forest are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, which fringe the Arabian Sea coastline of peninsular India, and the greater Assam region in the northeast. Small remnants of rain forest are found in Odisha state. Semi evergreen rain forest is more extensive than the evergreen formation partly because evergreen forests tend to degrade to semi-evergreen with human interference. There are substantial differences in both the flora and fauna between the three major rain forest regions.

The Western Ghats Monsoon forests occur both on the western (coastal) margins of the ghats and on the eastern side where there is less rainfall. These forests contain several tree species of great commercial significance (e.g. Indian rosewood Dalbergia latifolia, Malabar Kino Pterocarpus marsupium, teak, and Terminalia crenulata), but they have now been cleared from many areas. In the rain forests there is an enormous number of tree species.

The tropical vegetation of northeast India (which includes the states of Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya as well as the plain regions of Arunachal Pradesh) typically occurs at elevations up to 900 m. It embraces evergreen and semi-evergreen rain forests, moist deciduous monsoon forests, riparian forests, swamps, and grasslands. Evergreen rain forests are found in the Assam Valley, the foothills of the eastern Himalayas, and the lower parts of the Naga Hills, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Manipur where the rainfall exceeds 2,300 mm per annum.

The Andaman and Nicobar islands have tropical evergreen rain forests and tropical semi-evergreen rainforests as well as tropical monsoon moist monsoon forests. The tropical evergreen rain forest is only slightly less grand in stature and rich in species than on the mainland.

Marine Environment :

The nearshore coastal waters of India are extremely rich fishing grounds. The total commercial marine catch for India has stabilised over the last ten years at between 1.4 and 1.6 million tonnes. Coral reefs occur along only a few sections of the mainland, principally the Gulf of Kutch, off the southern mainland coast, and around a number of islands opposite Sri Lanka. This general absence is due largely to the presence of major river systems and the sedimentary regime on the continental shelf.

Elsewhere, corals are also found in Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Island groups although their diversity is reported to be lower than in southeast India.

Indian coral reefs have a wide range of resources which are of commercial value. Exploitation of corals, coral debris, and coral sands is widespread on the Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kutch reefs, while ornamental shells, chanks, and pearl oysters are the basis of an important reef industry in the south of India. Commercial exploitation of aquarium fishes from Indian coral reefs has gained importance only recently and as yet no organised effort has been made to exploit these resources. Reef fisheries are generally at the subsistence level and yields are unrecorded.

Other notable marine areas are seagrass beds, which although not directly exploited are valuable as habitats for commercially harvested species, particularly prawns, and mangrove stands. In the Gulf of Mannar, the green tiger prawn Penaeus semisulcatus is extensively harvested for the export market.

Five species of marine turtle occur in Indian waters- Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Loggerhead Caretta caretta, Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricate, and Leatherback Dermochelys coriacea. Most of the marine turtle populations found in the Indian region are in decline. The principal reason for the decrease in numbers is deliberate human predation. Turtles are netted and speared along the entire Indian coast. In southeast India, the annual catch is estimated at 4,000-5,000 animals, with C. mydas accounting for about 70% of the harvest. In the Gulf of Mannar, turtles are still reasonably common near seagrass beds where shrimp trawlers operate.

Essay # 6. Physical Diversity of India :

Himalayan Mountains :

The Himalayas and the associated mountains arcs the subcontinent on the northwest-southeast direction for about 2,400 km between the gorges of the Indus and the Tsango-Brahmaputra. This mountain range separates the Indo-Gangetic Plain from the Tibetan Plateau. The section between the Indus and the Sutlej and the Kali rivers is termed as Kumaon Himalayas.

The other two sections between the Kali and the Tista and between the latter river and the Dihangare is described as the Nepal and the Assam Himalayas. Kanchenjunga (8,598 m) is the highest mountain peak in India. The Greater Himalayas which have an average altitude of 6,000 m have within them almost all the prominent peaks such the Everest (8,848 m), Kanchenjunga (8,598 m) Nanga Parbat (8,126 m), Nanda Devi (7,817 m), and Namcha Parbat (7,756 m).

The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain :

The great plain of India is formed by the Indus, Ganga, and the Brahmaputra rivers. The plain extends for 3,200 km between the mouths of the Ganga and the Indus, all along the foot of the mountain rim, with a width varying from 150 to 300 km. The longitudinal extent from the banks of the Ravi and the Sutlej to the Ganga delta alone is of 2,400km. The plain is narrowest in Assam and broadens towards the west. It is 160 km wide near the Rajmahal Hills and 280 km near Allahabad. The plains are alluvial in nature.

Peninsular Plateau :

Rising from the alluvial plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, south of the Yamuna Ganga line, the great Indian plateau extends towards the south to encompass the whole of the peninsula. With a general elevation of 600-900m, the plateau makes an irregular triangle with its concave base lying between Delhi ridge and Rajmahal hills and the apex formed by Kanya Kumari.

The Shillong Plateau, a highly dissected tract interspersed with forest, descends in a deep slope towards the Surma valley. The northern outliers are represented by the Mikir and the Rengma hills.

Western Ghats :

The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Hills, are well known for its rich flora and fauna. It is considered as one of the 25 most biodiverse hotspots in the world. The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north, go south past Goa, through Karnataka and into Kerala and Tamil Nadu and end at Kanyakumari embracing the Indian Ocean.

The major hill range starting from the north is called Sahyadri in northern Maharashtra and Sahya Parvatam in Kerala. The Biligiri ranges southeast of Mysore in Karnataka, meet the Shevaroys (Servarayan range) and Tirumala range farther east, linking the Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats. In the south the range is known as the Nilagiri Malai in Tamil Nadu.

The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan Coast or simply Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara, and the southern portion is called Malabar region or the Malabar Coast. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, while the eastern foothill of central Karnataka state is known as Malanadu. The Biligirirangan Hills lies at the confluence of the Western and Eastern Ghats.

Eastern Ghats :

The Eastern Ghats, also called the Purva Ghat or Mahendra Parvata are a discontinuous range of mountains along India’s eastern coast. The Eastern Ghats run from West Bengal state in the north, through Odisha and Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south, passing some parts of Karnataka. They are eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of peninsular India, known as the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.

The mountain ranges run parallel to the Bay of Bengal. The Deccan Plateau lies to the west of the range, between the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats. The coastal plains, including the Coromandel Coast region, lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The Eastern Ghats are not as high as the Western Ghats.

The Eastern Ghats form a discontinuous crest on the eastern periphery of the plateau. They are represented by an irregular line of hills, such as the Nallamalais, Velikondas, Palkondas, and the Pachaimalais. These hills are often referred to as the northern hills in the northern sector, Cuddapah ranges in the middle, and the Tamil Nadu hills in the south.

The Coastal Plains and the Islands :

The plateau is flanked by coastal plains of varied width extending from Kutch to Odisha. There are striking differences between the eastern and the western coastal plains; with notable exception of Gujarat, the west coast has narrow alluvial margin interspersed by hilly terrain. It has indentation except in the south where the beautiful lagoons introduce an element of diversity.

The eastern coast on the other hand has a wide plain with well-developed deltas of the major rivers. The climatic transition between the southwest monsoon regime of the north and the northeast monsoon regime of the south has given rise to interesting differences in the alluvial features in the two different stretches of the east coastal plain.

River System of India :

India has seven major rivers (Indus, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna, and Mahanadi). These rivers along with their numerous tributaries make up the river system of lndia. Most of the rivers pour their waters into the Bay of Bengal.

The rivers may be classified as follows:

a. The Himalayan

b. The Deccan

c. The Coastal

d. The rivers of the inland drainage basin.

a. The Himalayan Rivers:

The Himalayan Rivers are generally snow-fed and flow throughout the year. During the monsoon months (June to September), the Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall and the rivers carry the maximum amount of water, causing frequent floods. Three major rivers that originate from the Himalaya are Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus, along with the five smaller rivers- Beas, Jhelum, Sutlej, Ravi, and Chenab.

b. The Deccan Rivers:

The Deccan Rivers are generally rain-fed and, therefore, fluctuate greatly in volume. A very large number of them are non-perennial. Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, Narmada, Tapti, Indravati, Tungabhadra, and Bhima are the main Deccan Rivers.

c. The Coastal Rivers:

The coastal rivers, especially on the west coast, are short and have limited catchment areas. Most of these are non-perennial as well. The rivers on the inland drainage basin are few and ephemeral.

d. The Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin:

The rivers of the inland drainage basin drain towards individual basins or salt lakes like the Sambhar or are lost in the sands, having no outlet to the sea.

Essay # 7. Cultural Diversity of India :

The National list of communities brought out by Archaeological Survey of India elucidates that there are 2,205 different communities living in India. Indian population is polygenetic and is an amazing amalgamation of various races and cultures.

The people of lndia are believed to be composed of 6 main racial stock:

2. Proto—Australoids or Austrics

3. Mongoloids

4. Mediterranean or Dravidian

5. Western Brachycephals

6. Nordic Aryans

The Six Racial Stocks :

1. Negroids:

The Negroids or the Brachycephalic (broad headed) from Africa were the earliest people to have come to India. They have survived in their original habitat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese, and the Great Andamanese are some of the examples. Some hill tribes like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans, and Kurumbas are found in some patches in southern part of mainland India.

2. Pro-Australoids or Austrics:

These groups were the next to come to India after the Negritos. They are people with wavy hair lavishly distributed all over their brown bodies, long headed with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, noses with low and broad roots, thick jaws, large palates and teeth, and small chins. The Austrics of India represent a race of medium height, dark complexion with long heads, and rather flat noses but otherwise of regular features.

The Austrics laid the foundation of the Indian civilisation. They cultivated rice and vegetables and made sugar from sugarcane. Now these people are found in some parts of India, Myanmar, and the islands of South East Asia. Their languages have survived in the central and eastern India.

3. Mongoloids:

These people are found in the northeastern part of India in the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Tripura. They are also found in northern parts of West Bengal, Sikkim, and Ladakh. Generally, they are people with yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high cheekbones, sparse hair, and medium height.

4. Dravidians:

These are the people of south India. They have been believed to come before the Aryans. They have different sub-groups like the Paleo-Mediterranean, the true Mediterranean, and the Oriental Mediterranean. They appear to be people of the same stock as the peoples of Asia Minor and Crete and pre-Hellenic Aegean’s of Greece. They are reputed to have built up the city civilisation of the Indus valley, whose remains have been found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa and other Indus cities.

5. Western Bracycephals:

These include the Alpinoids, Dinarics, and Armenoids. The Parsis and Kodavas also fall in this category. They are the broad headed people living mainly on the western side of the country such as the Ganga Valley and the delta, parts of Kashmir, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

6. Nordics or the Indo-Aryans :

This group were the last one to immigrate to India. They came to India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B.C. They are now mainly found in the northern and central part of India.

Essay # 8. Soils of India:

It is broadly divided into five groups:

1. Alluvial Soils:

Such soils include deltaic alluvium, calcareous alluvium, coastal alluvial soils and coastal sands, formed by transportation in streams and rivers and are deposited in flood plains or along coastal belts; generally deep soils.

Geologically it is of two types:

(a) Khadar or newar alluvium which is sandy, light coloured and less kankary.

(b) Bhangar or older alluvium, more clayey, dark and full of kankar.

2. Black Soils:

The typical soil derived from deccan trap is called regur or black cotton soils; the sedentary soil derived from granite and gneiss mostly, clayey in nature, practically uniform throughout profile, parent rocks are generally hornblendic type, rich in lime and magnesia and limesoda-type feldspar, varying quantities of gypsum deposited in the layer, layers in 45% of the black soils. It is highly argillaceous, very fine grained and dark and contains a high proportion of Ca and Mg-carbonates.

It is rich in lime, magnesia and alumina, moderate potash and poor in P 2 O 5 , N and O.M. rich in montmorillonite and beidelitic group of clay minerals, high CEC40- 60 me/100 g of soil. Occurrence Maharashtra, west M.P., parts of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and some parts of T.N.

3. Red Soils:

Redsoil in T.N. occupy the largest area. Occurrence vast areas of T.N., Karnataka, Goa, Daman and Diu, South East Maharashtra, East Andhra, M.P., Orissa and Chhotanagpur, Santhal Parganas, Mirzapur, Jhansi, Hamirpur. Such soils formed from ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks, colour due to wide diffusion of iron rather than to a high content, poor in N, P 2 , O 5 and humus, potash; Some red soils are of lateritic origin and of a quite different nature, rich in kaolinitic type of minerals.

Light soils, silica-sesquioxide ratio is 2.0, Soils generally shallow and low is soluble salts. p H of soil 7.0-7.5, the soils under lift irrigation are commonly called garden lands and hungry and thirsty, opposite of black soils in almost all physical and chemical properties.

In the light and frequent rains of south west monsoon, red soils permit sowing being done earlier than other soils hence called early soils. The black soils are not much benefited by light showers in the early season due to its lower permeability. Thus such black soils are moistened sufficiently in the later period of season-called ‘late soil’. Aeration and warming up of soil are hampered in heavy soils.

4. Laterite Soils:

Occurrence:

Hills of Karnataka, Kerala, M.P. Eastern ghat of Orissa, Maharashtra, W.B., T.N., and Assam; poor in lime and magnesia and N, occasionally P 2 O 5 but K 2 O deficient, occasionally higher humus.

Formed under heavy rainfall and high temp alternating. The heavy rains leach the salts and left it a porous matrix with a characteristics vesicular structure, facilitating easy drainage. Mixture of hydrated oxides of Al and Fe with small amount of manganese oxide, titania and others are present.

5. Desert Soils:

West Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, lying between Indus river and Aravali range. The desert sand is composed of quartz but feldspar and hornblende grains also occur with a fair proportion of calcareous grains.

Essay # 9. Grasslands of India:

These grasslands are maintained in various seral (successional) stages by a variety of biotic factors. The grasslands of India are not of primary origin. These have originated secondarily in many areas due to destruction of natural forests by biotic interference, particularly due to excessive grazing and land clearing for agriculture.

According to the dryness of the area, the Indian grasslands may be categorized into three types:

1. Xerophilous Grasslands:

These are found in semi-desert areas of north and west India.

2. Mesophilous Grasslands:

These are found in areas of Uttar Pradesh having moist deciduous forests.

3. Hygrophilous Grasslands:

These are found in wet regions of India.

Classification of Indian Grasslands:

Whyte et al. (1954) classified the Indian grasslands on the basis of dominant grass species into eight major grass associations.

(i) Sehima-Dichanthium Association:

These grasslands develop on black soil. They are found in some areas of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, south western Uttar Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. Dominant grass species in the grasslands are Sehima sulcatum, S. nervosum, Dichanthium annulatum, Chrysopogon montanus and Themeda qua drivalvia.

(ii) Dichanthium-Cenchrus Association:

These grasslands develop on sandy- loam soils. They are found in Plains of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, eastern Madhya Pradesh, coastal Maharashtra and Tamilnadu. Dominant species in these grasslands are Dichanthium annulatum and Cenchrus ciliaris.

(iii) Phragmitis-Saccharum Association:

These grasslands develop in marshy areas. They are found in terai regions of northern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal, Sundarban region of Bengal, Tamilnadu, and Kaveri delta. Dominant species in these grasslands are Phragmitis karka, Saccharum spontaneum, Imeerata cylindrica and Bothriochlo pertusa.

(iv) Cymbopogon Type:

These grasslands develop on low hills. They are found in Eastern Ghats, Vidhyas, Satpura, Aravali and Chota Nagpur. Dominant species in the grasslands is Cymbopogon.

(v) Arundinella Type:

These grasslands develop on high hills. They are found in Western Ghats, Nilgiris and lower Himalayas from Assam to Kashmir. Dominant species in the grasslands are Arundinella nepalensis, A. setosa and Themeda anthera.

(vi) Bothriochloa Type:

These grasslands develop on paddy tracts in areas of heavy rainfall in Lonavala tract of Maharashtra. Dominant species in the grasslands is Bothriochloa odorata.

(vii) Deyeuxia-Arundinella Association:

These grasslands develop in temperate areas of upper Himalayas between 2100-3500 m altitudes. Dominant species in the grasslands are Deyeuxia, Arundinella, Brachypodium, Bromus and Festuca.

(viii) Deschampsia-Deyeuxia Association:

These grasslands develop in temperate to alpine regions having thin soil cover over rocky substratum. They are found in Kashmir and in Himalayas above 2600 m altitude. Dominant species in the grasslands are Deyeuxia, Deschampsia, Poa, Stipa, Glycera and Festuca.

Essay # 10. Natural Resources of India :

Natural resources are those valuable material found in nature. India is a repository of a large variety of natural resources.

A. Land Resources :

In terms of area, India ranks seventh in the world. It accounts for 2.42% of total area of the world. Land utilisation figures are available for about 92.9% of the total geographical area. Out of a total land area of 304.2 million hectares, about 170.0 million hectares is under cultivation. Food grains have preponderance in gross cropped areas as compared to non-food grains.

According to Agricultural Census, the area operated by large holdings (10 hectares and above) has declined and area operated under marginal holdings (less than one hectare) has increased. This indicates that land is being fragmented.

B. Forest Resources :

India’s forest cover is 23.07 % of the geographical area. Of this, 8.35 million hectare is very dense forest, 31.90 million hectare is moderately dense forest, and the rest 28.84 million hectare is open forest.

The per capita forest in India (0.5 hectare) is much less than that in the world (1.9 hectares). According to the National Policy on Forests (1988), one-third (33%) of the country’s area should be covered by forests in order to maintain ecological balance.

C. Mineral Resources:

1. Iron-Ore:

India possesses high quality iron-ore in abundance. The total reserves of iron- ore in the country are about 14.630 million tonnes of haematite and 10,619 million tonnes of magnetite. Haematite iron is mainly found in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa, and Karnataka. The major deposits of magnetite iron is available at the western coast of Karnataka. Some deposits of iron ore are also found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.

2. Coal and Lignite :

Coal is the largest available mineral resource. India ranks third in the world after China and USA in the realm of coal production. The main centres of coal in India are the West Bengal-Bihar region, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh. Bulk of the coal production comes from Bengal-Jharkhand coalfields.

3. Bauxite :

Bauxite is a main source of metal like aluminium. The areas of bauxite deposits in India are- Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Goa, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh. Major reserves are concentrated in the Fast Coast bauxite deposits of Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.

Mica is a heat resisting mineral which is also a bad conductor of electricity. It is used in electrical equipments as an insulator. India stands first in sheet mica production and contributes 60% of mica trade in the world. The important mica bearing pegmatite occurs in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, and Rajasthan.

5. Crude Oil :

Oil is being explored in India at many places of Assam and Gujarat. Digboi, Liadarpur, Naharkatia, Kasimpur, Palliaria, Rudrapur, Shivsagar, Mourn (all in Assam), and Hay of Khambhat, Ankaleshwar, and Kalol (all in Gujarat) are the important places of oil exploration in India. The exploration of oil reserves is still on the way in other parts of the country.

India possesses only a limited gold reserve. There are only three main gold mine regions—Kolar Goldfield, Kolar district and Hutti Goldfield in Raichur district (both in Karnataka), and Ramgiri Goldfield in Anantpur district (Andhra Pradesh).

7. Diamond :

As per UNEC, the total reserves of diamond is estimated at around 4,582 thousand carats which are mostly available in Panna (Madhya Pradesh), Rammallakota of Kurnur district of Andhra Pradesh, and also in the basin of the Krishna river.

The new kimberlite fields have been discovered in Raipur and Pastar districts of Chhattisgarh, Nuapada, and Bargarh districts of Odisha, Narayanpet-Maddur Krishna areas of Andhra Pradesh, and Raichur- Gulbarga districts of Karnataka.

8. Limestone :

Limestone is available almost in all the states of the country and every state contributes in its production. Andhra Pradesh is the leading state followed by Rajasthan, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Tamil Nadu.

9. Manganese :

Manganese is used in the production of steel and other iron compounds. The total resources of manganese ore in the country ate placed at 379 million tonnes. Its maximum deposit is found in Karnataka. Besides Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Goa also possess relatively large deposits of manganese. Some deposits are also found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and West Bengal.

10. Copper:

As per United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC), the total resources of copper ore are placed at 1.39 billion tonnes with a metal content of 11,418 thousand tonnes. Important copper producing areas are Singhbum (Bihar), Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh), Jhunjhunu, and Alwar (Rajasthan), Khammam (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurga and Hasan districts of Karnataka, and Sikkim.

11. Barytes:

It is a colourless or white mineral which consists of barium sulphate. Barium metal is obtained from barytes. Barytes is available in Mangampet of Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh.

12. Chromite:

It is a mineral of brown black shade with which chromium and its other compounds are prepared. Chromite deposits of economic significance occur in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Manipur, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu. The largest share (about 96%) of the total geographical resource is accounted by Cuttack district in Odisha.

13. Dolomite :

It is mostly a colourless mineral (sometimes white or pink) which is the main source of calcium magnesium carbonate. Magnesium and its compounds are obtained from dolomite. As per UNFC, the reserves of all types of dolomite are estimated at 7.533 million tonnes which are mostly found in Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra.

14. Fluorspar :

It is a shining mineral which contains calcium fluoride. Fluorine and its compounds are obtained from fluorspar. This mineral is mainly available in Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan.

15. Gypsum :

Gypsum is a colourless or white mineral which contains calcium sulphate. It is used in the production of cement and plaster of Paris. Most of its deposits are found in Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Gujarat.

Essay # 11. Allied Activities of the Country:

Allied activities assume crucial importance in the rural economy is more than one aspect. They play a very important role in bringing about a balance in the production system and utilization of resources, in smoothening the income flows between seasons in ensuring participation of people with no or inadequate land resources in productive activities and bringing about a balance in nutritive value of firm products.

The land as a basis of production system is either not available for number of people or is available in very adequate quantity Therefore, crop husbandry cannot be looked upon as a source of self-employment and income for a substantial proportion of the population in the rural areas. For these sections of people i.e.; landless labourers and Marginal farmers, allied activities can provide a source of gainful self-employment.

The allied activities such as dairy, sheep and goat husbandry, piggery, poultry and fishery etc. have a very important role to play in stabilising the rural economy of the rural people.

India is the top of the world having one-sixth of the livestock population – less than one fifth of cattle, half of the buffaloes, and over one- fifth of goats and sheep’s. Despite of its international importance, it contributes only 20 per cent of the gross value of output from agriculture. Whereas this is more than 50 per cent in advanced countries of the world.

Essay # 12. Industrialization in India:

Industrialization has a major role to play in the economic development of the under developed countries. The gap in per-capita incomes between the developed and underdeveloped countries is largely reflected in the separate in the structure of their economies; the former are largely industrial economies, while in the latter production is confined predominantly to agriculture.

India is a country of rural dominant economy depends mostly on agriculture, small and rural industries, small business and retail trade for her development.

In order to attain rural industrialization the adoption of labour-intensive technology in labour abundant areas and capital-intensive technology in labour-scarce economies only attacks the peripheral problem in rural economies. Creation of employment opportunities in urban sector by developing large-scale industrial base seems to have failed to attract the rural masses in the country.

It is therefore, felt necessary to create such opportunity in the rural sector. Moreover, creation of job opportunities does not need as much investment in this rural industrial sector as in the large-scale sector. As against this background, the planners and policy makers have been laid more emphasis on the development of small and rural industries.

It is observed that, the share of small industries in the entire factory sector in terms of number of units has been high annual 90 per cent but in employment, it accounts for around 35 per cent on the other hand it accounts for about a fourth in gross output and one-fifth of the value added in the entire factory sector.

The traditional village industries also exist in India. One of the special characteristics of the traditional village industries is that they cannot provide fulltime employment to workers, but instead can provide only subsidiary or part-time employment opportunities to agricultural labourers and artisans.

Among traditional village industries, handicrafts possess the highest labour productivity; besides, handicrafts make a significant contribution to earning foreign exchange for the country. Under these circumstances, active encouragement of handicrafts is required in priority basis.

It is also evident that, labourers and artisans living below the poverty line, while modern small industries can provide a good source of living largely carry on traditional village and small industries.

Hence, if with an expansion of employment, the number of persons living below the poverty line has also to be reduced, and then a rapid and much larger expansion of the modern small sector will have to be planned. However, the important sectors of the rural industries are, Khadi Cloth, Handlooms, Sericulture, Handicrafts, Coir industry, Small-scale industries, Power looms and Village industries.

Essay # 13. Infrastructure of the Country:

The prosperity of a country depends directly upon the development of agriculture and industry. Agricultural development however, requires power, credit, transport facilities on the other hand industrial development requires, Machinery, Equipment Technically sound manpower, Appropriate Management, Energy, Banking facilities, Transport services and Communication facilities etc.

All these facilities and services constitute collectively the infrastructure of an economy and the development and expansion of these facilities are an essential condition for attaining agricultural and industrial development in a country.

However Infrastructure facilities often referred to as economic and social overheads like:

(ii) Transport

(iii) Communications

(iv) Banking, Finance and Insurance

(v) Science and Technology and

(vi) Social overheads.

(1) Energy:

Energy is an essential input of all productive economic activity. The main source of energy in rural areas are Fuel wood, Agricultural wastes, Animal dung as the traditional and non-commercial energies, coal, electricity, oil and gas are the non-traditional commercial energy available in the rural areas of the country. Taking the economic condition of the rural areas, the rural people mostly depend upon the traditional and non-commercial energy sources to meet their demands.

In the course of time, these sources are declining rapidly. As against this background, the planners and policy makers laid more emphasis on the production of fuel woods through the adoption of social forestry in the rural areas of the country. In the context of rural electrification, about 86 per cent of the total villages in India are electrified.

The states like Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab, Tamilnadu and Tripura attained cent per cent in connection with rural electrification. The states like Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa are lagging behind the national percentage.

(2) Transport:

India is essentially an agrarian and rural based country, and roads constitute a critical element in the transportation. Road construction and maintenance generate sizeable employment opportunities. This also helps the rural people to a great extent for transportation of goods and human resources.

The rural road network now connects about 70 per cent of the villages in India. But the percentage of villages connected with all-weather roads has stood at only 48 per cent. This requires special attention by planners and policy maker while preparing programmes for rural development.

(3) Communications:

The Communication system comprises posts, Telegraphs, Tele communication system, Broadcasting, Television and Information services. The postal network has been expanded throughout the country and in recent years, with special emphasis on the rural, hilly and tribal areas. In India there are 16 post offices serving one lakh population.

The coverage of postal network is more in smaller arid underdeveloped states like Mizoram, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Manipur. Whereas the network is comparatively low in other developed and bigger states. The growth of Telecommunications is directly related to and woven with the growth of technologies in other sectors like the electronics, satellite communication, broadcasting network etc.

It is to note here that there are 1.36 lakh rural post offices in India. The rural population per post office is reported to be about 5.7 thousand and area served by a post office was 21.5 square kilometers. There are about 17 thousand Telephone Exchanges served in rural areas of the country. Besides, there are 1.86 lakh public telephones exist in rural India on 1996.

(4) Credit Institutions :

The credit requirement of the rural economic sectors generally met by two sources, i.e.; Non-Institutional and institutional. The non-institutional credit agencies comprise money lenders, indigenous bankers, landlords, traders and commissioning agents, friends and relatives etc. They play an important role in dispensing credit in rural areas. About 40 per cent of the total rural credit requirement is met by non- institutional sources.

The Institutional Credit, at present is provided by agencies like, co-operative banks, commercial banks and Regional Rural banks. National Bank for Agriculture & Rural Development (NABARD) is the apex institution for these institutional agencies. Besides, over the years an integrated structure of financial institutions has been evolved for providing term finance and other assistance to industrial sector.

They comprise of IDBI, IFCI, ICICI, and SIDBI etc. The investment institutions comprise UTI, LIC, GIC also indirectly contribute towards the rural credit needs. Besides, there is also a network of state level institutions the SFCs and SIDCs. In India their exists the State Bank of India its Associated Banks (7) and 19 Nationalized banks bringing the total public sector bank to 27.

They are directed to advance credit up to 40 per cent of the total bank credit to the priority sector. The priority sector in India comprises of agriculture, Small-scale Industry, Transport operators, retail trade and small business, professional and self-employed, housing loan to weaker sections and education. It is also evident that within the priority sector, agriculture continued to account for the maximum share of advances at about 18 per cent.

However, there are 35.3 thousand rural branches accounted for about 58 per cent of the total bank branch network. The population per bank branch is stood at 11 thousand. Despite of importance on opening of rural braches, the rural people are inadequately served with commercial banks. The population per bank branch should reduce in such a way that the rural people will feel comfortable.

The total priority sector advance was stood at Rs 99,507 crores on 1998. This is about 33.5 per cent of the total bank credit. The volume of priority sector advance is increasing but the percentage share to the total bank credit declining steadily.

This situation arised due to ongoing economic reforms as well as banking sector reforms. Out of total priority sector advance, about 35.1 per cent credit was advanced to agricultural sector, 43.7 per cent to small-scale industries, and remaining 21.2 per cent to other priority sector.

The second important source of institutional finance is Regional Rural Banks. These banks were introduced to cater into the credit needs of the rural people. They were started functioning since 1976 in India.

There are 196 Regional Rural Banks in India according to 1996. Over the period of twenty years they covered about 427 districts of the country, with the branch network of about 14.5 thousand. The total deposits mobilised by the RRBs was stood at Rs 14,188 crores ad the total loans and advances reached at Rs 7505 crores.

The last important source of institutional credit in the rural areas is co-operatives. Co-operatives, in our country treated as important instrument of rural development. At the primary level there are, Primary Agricultural Credit Societies, Farmers Service Societies, Primary Co-operative Banks, Primary non- agricultural credit societies and Primary Land Development Banks operating to serve rural people/areas of the country.

At the secondary or middle level there are, Central Co-operative Banks and Central Land Development Banks act as a link between primary co-operatives and higher co-operatives operated/instituted at the State level. These are State Cooperative Banks and State Land Development Banks.

It is revealed from the available data that, there are, 4.10 lakh cooperative societies serving rural population of the country. The total membership of these societies is stood at 1978 lakh during the year 1995-96. Furthermore, the co-operative network is highest in Maharashtra, where there exist about 20 thousand Primary Agricultural Credit Societies. Whereas, only 35 PACs are functioning in Sikkim.

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the apex institution for these Institutional Credit Agencies. It provides finance and re-finance facilities to the institutional credit agencies operating at rural areas of the country.

The important purposes for which NABARD advance finance/re-finance facilities are, Minor irrigation, Land Development, farm mechanism, plantation, Horticulture, Poultry, Sheep/Goat/Piggery, Fisheries, Dairy development, Forestry, Storage & Market yards, IRDP and other non-farm sector. According to 1995-96 about 1149 such schemes were sanctioned with the total disbursement of Rs 3922 crores.

(5) Science & Technology :

The application of Science and Technology to agriculture, industry, transports and for all other economic and non-economic activities has become essential for rapid economic development.

The council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), The Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) are helping the economic sectors for adoption of improved technologies for the production. In the mean-time, Technology missions have been introduced to bring about significant improvements in the fields of drinking water, immunisation, oilseeds, literacy, telecommunications, and dairy.

The core inputs of the technology mission are people’s participation and application of Science and Technology for the development in the areas referred to above. The said missions engaged in the rectification of old technologies and adoption of new one in more scientific manner. Some of the missions able to attain tremendous success.

(6) Social Overheads :

The Social overheads comprises of health, hygiene and education etc. The constitution of India lays down that “the state shall regard the raising of level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties.” To give effect to this directive, health has been given due priority. Public Health is primarily the responsibility of the State Governments.

The Central Government, however, guides, sponsors and supports major schemes for improving the health of the people. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Co-ordinates the work of the State Governments. The Central Council of Health advises the ministry on policies and programmes in all their aspects.

The latest information indicates that nearly 56 per cent of hospitals accounting for 30 per cent of beds were under the ownership of private or voluntary organisations while 44 per cent of hospitals with about 70 per cent beds were under government run facilities and were looked after by the local bodies.

Thus, the hospitals run by government were fewer in number and much-too overcrowded in terms of beds. It is evident that, only one-third of the number of hospitals with only 20 per cent of the number of beds in the country is located in rural areas.

These lower proportions of government managed public health facilities and locations in rural areas speaks about the scarce attention given to the provision of public health facilities for the masses, resulting in its lop-sided availability for the poor as against the urban affluent classes of population in the country.

In the opinion of those concerned among the medical profession, what needs urgent attention is expansion of facilities providing simple and cheap but effective preventive health care rather than the prevalent emphasis on sophisticated, personalised, expensive and urban-based medical services.

Human Resource Development is an integral part of the programmes aiming at improving the quality of life, and extension of educational facilities is an essential effort in that direction. The working group on education has recognised education as a crucial input in the process of human resource development.

Economic and social development plans of the country have invariably stressed that for the improvement of the quality of life of every individual there has to be an investment in man. The government is therefore, keen that education should find its right place in national planning and the investments in education should find its right place in national planning and the investments in education should reflect its pivotal role.

The realisation of this basic purpose, education systems and programmes are expected to be redirected towards a set of goals and tasks among which, the most important are:

(i) To guarantee equality of opportunity for all in education to improve their quality of life and to participate in the tasks of promoting the general well-being of the society,

(ii) To afford all young people and adults irrespective of age, the means for self-fulfillment within the frame-work of a harmonious development which reflects the needs of the community.

(iii) To provide for a continuous process of life long education for their physical, intellectual and cultural development and for inculcating capabilities to cope with and influence social changes

(iv) To establish dynamic and beneficial links between education, employment and development with due regard for the economic and social aims of community and

(v) To promote the values of national integration, secularism, democratic way of life and dignity of labour.

It is evident that, Education is a key input in breaking the vicious circle of poverty and low productivity. The literacy rate in the country according to 1991 Census was just above half of the population i.e.; 52.1 per cent while the male literacy was 64.1 per cent and the female literacy was 39.3 per cent.

The rate of literacy in rural and urban areas was 45 per cent and 73 per cent respectively in the same period. A number of steps were taken to increase the level of literacy but the goal is not achieved till date. Greater attention needs to be paid to this sector.

Essay # 14. Per Capita Income :

India is rich in natural resources and manpower. These resources however not been exploited fully and are capable of greater utilisation. The Per capita Gross National Product for India was estimated at US $ 380. This is about 71 times less than the per capita GNP of industrialised countries and 13 times less than the world average.

However, the per capita Net National Products/Income stood at Rs 9578 in the year 1995-96. It is also evident that the NNP is ill distributed among the states of the country. The slow growth rate of GNP and NNP and faster rate of growth of population results India as a poor country. The situation in rural areas is worse in our country.

The contribution of rural sector is about one-third of the gross domestic product. The growth rates during Eighth Plan shows that the Economy achieved a total growth rate of about 6.8 per cent.

The sectorial growth rate shows that, agriculture and allied activities was 4 per cent, mining & quarrying 3.5 per cent, manufacturing 9.2 per cent, electricity & water supply 7.4 per cent, construction 5.2 per cent, transport 9 per cent, communication 14.9 per cent and other services 5.6 per cent. The percentage share of agriculture & allied sector to GDP was 27 per cent on 1996-97.

Essay # 15. Demography of India :

In terms of population, India is the second largest country in the world next only to China. It accounts for 15.6 per cent of the world population. According to 1991 census, the population of India is 846 million.

Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state of India and the population of Haryana is the smallest among the major states. The distribution of male and female population was stood at 52 per cent and 48 per cent respectively. The ratio of females per 1000 male is 929 in 1991 census.

The Density of population is 267 persons per square kilometer. According to 1991 census 74.3 per cent of the total population live in rural areas and the remaining 25.7 per cent in urban areas of the country. It is thus observed that, India is predominated by rural population.

The rural populations generally live in about 576 thousand villages of the country. The distribution of scheduled caste and Scheduled Tribe population is India in 16.5 per cent and 8.1 per cent respectively to the total population.

Essay # 16. Work Force in India :

Out of the total population, workers constitute about 37.5 per cent. The distribution of work force is 79.2 per cent and 20.8 per cent respectively, for rural and urban areas in the country. Among the total male workers 75.1 per cent were employed in rural areas and the remaining 24.9 per cent were in the urban areas. Among the female workers, the rural workers accounted for about 89.2 per cent and urban workers at 10.8 per cent.

Obviously, the percentage of total workers in the rural areas among the total workers in the country is 79.2 per cent while the percentage of population living in the rural areas is 74.3 per cent. Sex-wise, 75.1 per cent of the male workers and 89.2 per cent of the female workers in the country have been enumerated in rural areas whereas 73.81 per cent of the male population and 74.8 per cent of the female population lived in rural areas.

The distribution of work force in rural areas of the country shows that, there are 35.8 per cent main workers and 4.3 per cent marginal workers. The distribution of rural main workers shows that 48.2 per cent are cultivators, 32.2 per cent are agricultural labourers, 2.2 per cent workers employed in household industries and the remaining 17.4 per cent workers in rural areas reported to be engaged in other activities in rural economy, more particularly in service sectors.

Essay # 17. Unemployment and Poverty in India:

The planning commission has prepared estimates of unemployment by applying the rates of unemployment as obtained from NSS data to the projected population. The backlog of unemployment for planning process in the beginning of Eighth plan (1990-95) was 28 million.

The new entrants to the labour force during the plant period was estimated to be 37 million, bringing the total to about 65 million. It was also estimated that the new entrants to the labour force during the Ninth plan (1997-2002) would be about 41 million. This volume of unemployment would be about 106 millions during the Ninth Plan period.

The people of India generally employed in organized sector and unorganized sector. The organized sector is the hub of the Indian economy and so it tends to loom large in public imagination. However, it accounts for only about 13 per cent of our total labour force.

On the other hand, the unorganized sector accounts for the remaining 87 per cent covering a large part of agricultural workers, and those engaged in small and cottage industry, trade, professional services etc. The entire unorganized segment falls within the private sector.

Poverty can be defined as a social phenomenon in which a section of the society is enables to fulfil even its basic necessities of life. When a substantial segment of a society is said to be plagued with mass poverty.

The countries of the Third World exhibit invariably the existence of mass poverty, although pockets of poverty exist even in the developed countries of Europe and America. Poverty in economic literature is of two types, i.e; the absolute and the relative.

In the absolute standard, the minimum physical quantities of cereals pulses, milk, butter etc. are determined for subsistence level and then the price quotations convert into monetary terms the physical quantities. Aggregating all the quantities included, a figure expressing per capita consumer expenditure is determined.

The population whose level of income is below the figure is considered to be below poverty line. According to the relative standard, income distribution of the population in different fractile groups is estimated and a comparison of the standard of living of the top 5 to 10 per cent with the bottom 5 to 10 per cent of the population reflects the relative standardards of poverty. In India the incidence of poverty is commonly determined by adopting the absolute standards methods.

In India, about 35.9 per cent of the total population reported to be live below poverty line in 1993, 1994. The incidence of rural and urban population living below poverty line is 37.3 per cent and 32.4 per cent respectively, in India. The percentage of population below poverty line in Bihar is highest in the country at 54.6 per cent and least in Punjab at 11.8 per cent in the year under observation.

It is also observed that Bihar stood first with 58.2 per cent and Goa the last with 5.3 per cent of the rural population live below poverty line. In Madhya Pradesh about 48.3 per cent of the urban population live below the poverty line, which is highest in the country. Taking the high incidence of poverty in India into consideration it is required more positive steps to eradicate poverty at a faster rate.

Essay # 18. Pre-Dominance of the Rural Sector :

1. In India, about Three-Fourth of its population live in rural areas.

2. The distribution of work force in the country indicates that about 79.2 per cent of the total workers depend on rural economic activities for their livelihood.

3. The concentration of un-employment and under employment is high in rural areas. The traditional economic sectors in the rural areas failed to provide ad-equate and appropriate employment opportunities to the increasing rural masses. This is perhaps due to rapid growth of population and changing attitude of employment.

4. The poverty in rural areas is deep seated with 49.7 per cent of the total population live below poverty line in Orissa and 37.3 per cent at all-India level. This is the major constraint for development.

5. Agricultural sector provide livelihood to about two-third of the total population and three-fourth of the rural population. Most of the small and marginal farmers live in rural areas of the country. The Agricultural labourers and non-agricultural labourers are also belonging to the countryside. The productivity of the sector and the living standard of the people attached to the sector is remaining under developed. Special attention is needed for the development of the important economic sector.

6. Allied activities to agriculture comprises of animal husbandry, poultry, fishery and forestry etc. These activities play very important role in rural economy. It is also evident that, the economic weaker sections, particularly, small and marginal farmers, agricultural and non-agricultural labourers are availing alternative employment opportunities during lean agriculture seasons. Besides, a considerable percentage or rural people depend on this sector for their livelihood. Despite of its importance in the economy the sector is remain underdeveloped. This sector requires more attention for its development.

7. The Small – Scale Industries, village, cottage and other artisan based industries play a prominent role in the rural economy. Despite of its importance, the sector and the artisans in particular remain neglected. This is perhaps due to application of traditional and years old Techniques of Production, lack of awareness, education and above all inadequate attention in economic planning, implementation etc. As an important economic sector, it requires more attention.

8. The rural areas of the country is also lacking adequate infrastructure. The promotion of the infrastructural facilities is the essential condition for the attainment of economic development as well as rural development in the country.

9. Institutional credit regarded as one of the important input for transformation of the rural economic activities from traditional to modern. It is observed that the rural area of the country is inadequately served with the credit institutions.

10. The social overheads comprises of Health, Nutrition, Education etc. are also not developed up to the required level after 50 years of planned economic development in the country. The situation in rural areas is reported to be precarious.

As against this background, the Socio-economic upliftment in the rural areas needs greater attention.

The planners, policy makers have given utmost attention for the attainment of Economic development through rural development. Greater emphasis has been given for the rural development during different plan periods. Beginning from the First Five Year Plan (1950-51) priority has been given for the rural development.

A number of rural development programmes/schemes has also been initiated in this respect. Despite of Multi-dimensional plans for rural development the desired goal has not been achieved till date.

As against this background, a humble attempt is made to highlight important rural development programmes/schemes, initiated/introduced/implemented in our country, since First Plan period to the end of Eighth Plan Period (1992-97). A little attempt was also made to highlights the plan approaches and strategies for rural development in India.

Essay on Development Banks of India
Essay on Orissa | India
Essay on Population Explosion | India
Essay on Urbanisation in India

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Read More உழைப்பே உயர்வு கட்டுரை – Hard Work Essay in Tamil (Ulaipe Uyarvu) உழைப்பே உயர்வு கட்டுரை - Hard Work Essay in Tamil :- கடின உழைப்பே உயவுக்கு சிறந்த வழியாகும் .உழைப்பில்லாமல் வெற்றி என்பது வெறும் கனவாகும்.நல்ல ... Read More Bharathiar Katturai in Tamil – பாரதியார் கட்டுரை Bharathiar Katturai in Tamil - பாரதியார் கட்டுரை :- தமிழகத்தில் உள்ள குழந்தைகளுக்கு திருக்குறளுக்கு அடுத்து சொல்லித்தரப்படுவது பாரதியார் பாடல்களே ஆகும் . பாரதியார் கவிஞர் ... Read More Velu Nachiyar Essay in Tamil – வீர மங்கை வேலுநாச்சியார் Velu Nachiyar Essay in Tamil - வீர மங்கை வேலுநாச்சியார் :- ஆங்கிலேயரை எதிர்த்து பதினேழாம் நூற்றாண்டிலேயே போர்தொடுத்தவர் வீரமங்கை வேலுநாச்சியார் ஆவர் .தமிழகத்தின் சிவகங்கையின் ... Read More Pongal essay in Tamil -Katturai- பொங்கல் பண்டிகை கட்டுரை Pongal essay in Tamil -Katturai- பொங்கல் பண்டிகை கட்டுரை :- பொங்கல் பண்டிகை தமிழர் கலாச்சாரத்தை உலகுக்கு உணர்த்தும் திருவிழா ஆகும் .this is a ... Read More Essay About Rain in Tamil – மழை கட்டுரை Essay About Rain in Tamil - மழை கட்டுரை :- புவியின் நன்னீர் சுழற்சிக்கு மழையே உறுதுணையாக ஒன்றாகும். அதிக மழை பெறுவதும் அதை சேமிப்பதும் ... Read More Thannambikkai Essay in Tamil – தன்னம்பிக்கை கட்டுரை Thannambikkai Essay in Tamil - தன்னம்பிக்கை கட்டுரை :- தன்னம்பிக்கை என்பது உங்களின் மீது உங்கள் திறமையின் மீது உங்கள் செயல் பாடுகளின் மீது நீங்கள் ... Read More Maram katturai in Tamil -மரம் கட்டுரை (essay about trees in Tamil) Maram katturai in Tamil -மரம் கட்டுரை (essay about trees in Tamil) :- மனிதனுக்கு தேவையான பிராணவாயு மற்றும் உணவு பொருட்களை தரும் மரங்களை ... Read More Global Warming Essay in Tamil : Boomi veppamayamathal katturai in Tamil Global Warming Essay in Tamil : Boomi veppamayamathal katturai in Tamil :- பூமி வெப்பமயமாதல் கட்டுரை புவி வெப்பமயமாதல் என்பது மிக முக்கிய ... Read More Tamilar Panpadu Katturai in Tamil – தமிழர் பண்பாடு கட்டுரை Tamilar Panpadu Katturai in Tamil :- எப்போதுமே இந்திய கலாச்சாரத்திற்கு உலகளவில் வியத்தகு வரவேற்பு உண்டு .குறிப்பாக கலாச்சாரங்களின் உச்சம் என இந்திய கலாச்சாரங்களின் தலைமையாக ... Read More My School Essay in Tamil Katturai – எனது பள்ளி கட்டுரை My School Essay in Tamil Katturai - எனது பள்ளி கட்டுரை :- எனது பெற்றோர்களுக்கு அடுத்த படியாக ஒழுக்கத்தையும் அறிவையும் புகட்டுவதில் அதிக பங்கு ... Read More kalvi katturai in tamil – கல்வி கட்டுரை kalvi katturai in tamil - கல்வி கட்டுரை :- கல்வியே ஒரு மனிதனுக்கு அடிப்படை தேவையாகும் , கல்வியே அறியாமை மற்றும் மூடத்தனத்தை வேரறுக்கும் ஆயுதமாகும் ... Read More Desiya Orumaipadu Katturai in Tamil – தேசிய ஒருமைப்பாடு Desiya Orumaipadu Katturai in Tamil - தேசிய ஒருமைப்பாடு :- இந்தியா வேற்றுமையில் ஒற்றுமை என்ற பத்திர்ற்கு ஏற்ப பல்வேறு கலாச்சாரங்கள் ,பல்வேறு மதங்கள் ,பல்வேறு ... Read More Abdul Kalam Essay in Tamil (Katturai) அப்துல் கலாம் கட்டுரை ஆவுல் பக்கிர் ஜைனுலாபுதீன் அப்துல் கலாம் சுருக்கமாக ஏ.பி.ஜே. அப்துல் கலாம் என்று அழைக்க படுகிறார் , அப்துல் கலாம் அக்டோபர் 15, 1931 இல் பிறந்தார் ... Read More salai pathukappu katturai in tamil |road safety essay சாலை பாதுகாப்பு கட்டுரை salai pathukappu katturai in tamil |road safety essay :- சாலைப் பாதுகாப்பு என்பது பூமியிலுள்ள ஒவ்வொரு நபரும் வாகனங்களைப் பயன்படுத்துகிறார்களோ இல்லையோ சரியான கவனம் ... Read More Tamil Katturai about Forest in Tamil language காடு Tamil Katturai about Forest in Tamil language காடு : காடு என்பது ஒரு இயற்கை சுற்றுச்சூழல் அமைப்பாகும், இது பன்முகத்தன்மை மற்றும் பன்முக மரங்கள் ... Read More Baking soda in Tamil – சமையல் சோடா அல்லது அப்பச்சோடா Baking soda in Tamil - சமையல் சோடா அல்லது அப்பச்சோடா பேக்கிங் சோடா, சோடியம் பைகார்பனேட் என்றும் அழைக்கப்படுகிறது, இதுசமையலில் பரவலாகப் பயன்படுத்தப்படுகிறது. இது கார்பன் ... Read More Noolagam Katturai in Tamil – நூலகம் Noolagam Katturai in Tamil - நூலகம் :- சிறந்த கல்வி அறிவை பெறுவதற்கு நாம் நூலகத்தையே நாடுகிறோம். ஆயிரக்கணக்கான புத்தகங்கள் நமக்கு நூலகம் மூலமாக எளிதாக ... Read More Pen Kalvi Katturai In Tamil – பெண் கல்வி கட்டுரை Pen Kalvi Katturai In Tamil - பெண் கல்வி : - தொட்டிலை காட்டும் பெண் கை உலகை ஆளும் சக்தி படைத்தது என்று சான்றோர் ... Read More Sutru Sulal Pathukappu Katturai In Tamil | சுற்று சூழல் பாதுகாப்பு Sutru Sulal Pathukappu Katturai In Tamil :- சுற்று சூழலே தூய்மையே நாம் உயிர் வாழ்வதற்கும் நமது உலகை பாதுகாப்பதர்கும் அடிப்படை ஆகும் ,அத்தகைய சுற்று ... Read More Indian Culture Tamil Essay – இந்திய கலாச்சாரம் கட்டுரை Indian Culture Tamil Essay - India Kalacharam Katturai - இந்திய கலாச்சாரம் கட்டுரை இந்திய கலாச்சாரமானது பல்வேறு கலாச்சாரங்களின் தொகுப்பாகும் , வேற்றுமையில் ஒற்றுமை ... Read More Kalviyin Sirappu Tamil Katturai – கல்வியின் சிறப்பு கல்வி என்பது மனித வாழ்வின் முக்கியமான ஒன்று என்பது நமக்கு தெரியும் , எனவேதான் கல்வி கண்போன்றது என்று சொல்ல படுகிறது , கல்வி பயின்ற மனிதனை ... Read More Tamil essay writing competition topics | Tamil Katturaigal | Katturai in Tamil Topics Here is the full list of Essay Writing Competition Topics 2021 தமிழ் பேச்சு போட்டி மற்றும் கட்டுரை போட்டிகளுக்கான தலைப்புகள் இங்கே கொடுக்க ... Read More Top 10 Freedom Fighters In Tamilnadu| சுதந்திர போராட்ட வீரர்கள் top10 Tamilnadu freedom fighters : இந்திய சுதந்திர போராட்டத்தில் கலந்து கொண்ட தமிழகத்தை சேர்த்த முக்கிய தலைவர்களை பற்றி நாம் இப்போது பார்க்கலாம் சுதந்திர போராட்டத்தில் ... Read More ஸ்ரீநிவாச இராமானுஜர் காஸ், கும்மர் மற்றும் மிகைப்பெருக்கத் தொடர்களுக்கான விளைவுகளை தனி ஒரு ஆளாக இருந்து கண்டுபிடித்தவர், ஸ்ரீநிவாச இராமானுஜன். மிகைப்பெருக்கத் தொடரின் பகுதி தொகைகளையும், பொருட்களையும் ஆய்வு செய்வதில் ... Read More கல்பனா சாவ்லா விண்வெளிக்கு பயணம் செய்த இந்தியாவின் முதல் பெண்மணி என்ற பெருமைக்குரிய கல்பானா சாவ்லா, பல பெண்களுக்கு ஒரு முன் மாதிரியாகத் திகழ்கிறார் என்றால் அது மிகையாகது. ஒரு ... Read More டாக்டர் பி.ஆர். அம்பேத்கர் விடுதலை இந்தியாவின் முதல் சட்ட அமைச்சராகவும், இந்திய அரசியல் சாசனத்தின் தந்தையாக விளங்கியவர்,‘பீம்ராவ் ராம்ஜி அம்பேத்கர்’. இவர் ஒரு சமூக சீர்திருத்தவாதியாக மட்டுமல்லாமல், மிகச்சிறந்த பொருளியல் அறிஞராகவும், ... Read More சுவாமி விவேகானந்தர் Vivekanandar Essay in tamil | Vivekanandar Powerpoint சுவாமி விவேகானந்தர் சுவாமி விவேகானந்தர் அவர்கள், வேதாந்த தத்துவத்தின் மிக செல்வாக்கு மிக்க ஆன்மீக தலைவர்களுள் ஒருவராக ... Read More தாதா சாகேப் பால்கே தாதா சாகேப் பால்கே அவர்கள், ‘இந்திய சினிமாவின் தந்தை’ என்று அழைக்கப்படுபவர். 19 ஆண்டுகளாக திரையுலகில் இருந்து, முழு நீளப் படங்களான ‘ராஜா ஹரிச்சந்திரன்’, ‘மோகினி பஸ்மாசுர்’, ... Read More விசுவநாதன் ஆனந்த் Viswanathan Anand the grandmaster from india |former world chess champion | Essay in tamil font‘இந்திய சதுரங்க கிராண்ட் மாஸ்டர்’ எனப் புகழப்படும் ... Read More திப்பு சுல்தான் மைசூர் பேரரசை ஆட்சி செய்த மன்னர்களுள் குறிப்பிடத்தக்க ஒருவராக கருதப்படுபவர், திப்பு சுல்தான். தொடக்ககாலத்தில் ஆங்கிலேயருக்கு சிம்மசொப்பனமாக விளங்கி, கிழக்கிந்திய கம்பெனியின் அதிகாரத்தை உடைத்தெறியும் அளவுக்குப் பெரும் ... Read More தி. வே. சுந்தரம் ஐயங்கார் தி. வே. சுந்தரம் ஐயங்கார் அவர்கள், உண்மையான தொலைநோக்குப் பார்வை மற்றும் கொள்கைகள் கொண்ட மனிதராவார். 1930களில், வாகனங்களில் செல்வதே ஒரு தூரத்துக் கனவாகப் பல இந்தியர்களுக்கு ... Read More சோனியா காந்தி இத்தாலியில் பிறந்து, இந்தியாவின் முன்னாள் பிரதம மந்திரியாக இருந்த இந்திராகாந்தியின் மருமகளாகவும், ராஜீவ் காந்தியின் மனைவியாகவும் இந்திய மண்ணில் காலடி எடுத்து வைத்தவர், சோனியா காந்தி அவர்கள் ... Read More அடல் பிஹாரி வாஜ்பாய் – Atal Bihari Vajpayee Essay அடல் பிஹாரி வாஜ்பாய் - Atal Bihari Vajpayee Essay :-அடல் பிஹாரி வாஜ்பாய் அவர்கள், நமது சுதந்திர இந்தியாவின் 10வது பிரதம மந்திரி ஆவார். நான்கு ... Read More என்.ஆர். நாராயண மூர்த்தி என். ஆர். நாராயண மூர்த்தி கர்நாடகாவை சேர்ந்த ஒரு புகழ்பெற்ற தொழிலதிபர் ஆவார். இன்ஃபோசிஸ் என்றழைக்கப்படும் தகவல் தொழில்நுட்ப நிறுவனத்தை நிறுவியவர். தொழில் நுட்பத்துறையில் மட்டுமல்லாமல், இன்ஃபோசிஸ் ... Read More ஸ்ரீ ராமகிருஷ்ண பரமஹம்சர் ஸ்ரீ ராமகிருஷ்ண பரமஹம்சர் அவர்கள், 19 ஆம் நூற்றாண்டில் வாழ்ந்த இந்தியாவின் தலைசிறந்த ஆன்மீகவாதிகளுள் ஒருவர். ‘கடவுள் ஒருவரே, வழிபாட்டு முறைகள் அனைத்தும் கடவுளை அடைவதற்கான பல ... Read More ராஜா ராம் மோகன் ராய் ‘ராஜா ராம் மோகன் ராய்’ என்றும், ‘ராம் மோகன் ராய்’ என்றும் போற்றப்படும், ராஜா ராம் மோகன் ராய் அவர்கள் ‘நவீன இந்தியாவை உருவாக்கியவர்’ என்று அழைக்கப்பட்டார் ... Read More சந்திரசேகர ஆசாத் சந்திரசேகர ஆசாத் ஒரு இந்திய விடுதலைப் போராட்ட வீரர் ஆவார். தன்னுடைய மாணவப் பருவத்திலிருந்தே பாரத நாட்டின் மீது தீவிர பற்றுடையவராகவும், சோசலிச முறையில் இந்தியா விடுதலை ... Read More சத்ரபதி சிவாஜி மராட்டியப் பேரரசை ஆட்சி செய்த மன்னர்களில் தலைச்சிறந்து விளங்கியவர், சத்ரபதி சிவாஜி அவர்கள். இளம் வயதிலேயே திறமைப் பெற்ற போர்வீரனாகவும், சிறந்த ஆட்சியாளராகவும், நிர்வாகியாகவும் மற்றும் வல்லமைப்பெற்ற ... Read More எம். விஸ்வேஸ்வரய்யா கிருஷ்ணராஜ சாகர் அணையின் சிற்பி’ என கருதப்படும் எம். விஸ்வேஸ்வரய்யா ஒரு புகழ்பெற்ற இந்தியப் பொறியாளர் ஆவார். இவர் எடுத்துக்கொண்ட காரியத்தில் முதன்மையாக இருக்க வேண்டும் என்ற ... Read More Kodikatha Kumaran Essay In Tamil கொடி காத்த குமரன் என எல்லோராலும் போற்றப்படும் திருப்பூர் குமரன் விடுதலை போராட்ட களத்தில் தன் இன்னுயிரை தந்து இந்திய தேசிய கொடியை மண்ணில் விழாமல் காத்து ... Read More ராஜா ரவி வர்மா ராஜா ரவி வர்மா அவர்கள், இந்திய கலை வரலாற்றில் மிகப் பெரிய ஓவியர்களுள் ஒருவராக கருதப்படுபவர். தமிழில் மிகப்பெரும் காவியங்களாகத் திகழும் மஹாபாரதம் மற்றும் ராமாயணத்தின் காட்சிகளைத் ... Read More ஆ.ப.ஜெ.அப்துல் கலாம் விவேகானந்தருக்கு அடுத்த படியாக இந்திய இளைஞர்களின் மீது அதீத நம்பிக்கை வைத்த ஒரு தலை சிறந்த தலைவர் ஆ. ப. ஜெ. அப்துல் கலாம் ஆவார் .இந்திய ... Read More பாரதிதாசன் “தமிழுக்கும் அமுதென்று பேர், அந்தத் தமிழின்பத் தமிழெங்கள் உயிருக்கு நேர்” என்ற தேன் சுவைசொட்டும் பாடல் வரிகளுக்கு சொந்தக்காரர், ‘பாவேந்தர் பாரதிதாசன்’ அவர்கள். பெரும் புகழ் படைத்த ... Read More எஸ். சத்தியமூர்த்தி எஸ். சத்திய மூர்த்தி அவர்கள், ஒரு தேசபக்தர் மற்றும் இந்திய விடுதலைக்காக பாடுபட்ட விடுதலை வீரரும் ஆவார். சிறந்த வழக்கறிஞராக விளங்கிய எஸ். சத்தியமூர்த்தி அவர்கள், தமிழக ... Read More ஸ்ரீ ராமகிருஷ்ண பரமஹம்சர் ஸ்ரீ ராமகிருஷ்ண பரமஹம்சர் அவர்கள், 19 ஆம் நூற்றாண்டில் வாழ்ந்த இந்தியாவின் தலைசிறந்த ஆன்மீகவாதிகளுள் ஒருவர். ‘கடவுள் ஒருவரே, வழிபாட்டு முறைகள் அனைத்தும் கடவுளை அடைவதற்கான பல ... Read More ராஜா ராம் மோகன் ராய் ‘ராஜா ராம் மோகன் ராய்’ என்றும், ‘ராம் மோகன் ராய்’ என்றும் போற்றப்படும், ராஜா ராம் மோகன் ராய் அவர்கள் ‘நவீன இந்தியாவை உருவாக்கியவர்’ என்று அழைக்கப்பட்டார் ... Read More ராணி லக்ஷ்மி பாய் ராணி லக்ஷ்மி பாய் அவர்கள், இந்தியாவின் வடக்கு பகுதியில் அமைந்துள்ள மதிப்பார்ந்த மாநிலமான ‘ஜான்சியின்’ ராணியாக இருந்தவர். இவர் 1857 ல் தொடங்கிய இந்தியாவின் சுதந்திரத்திற்கான முதல் ... Read More கம்பர் “கம்பன் வீட்டுத் கட்டுத்தறியும் கவிபாடும்” என்றொரு பழமொழியே உருவாகும் அளவிற்கு, கம்பரது புகழும், கவித்திறமையும் அனைவராலும் இன்றளவும் பேசப்பட்டு வருகிறது. ‘கவிபேரரசர் கம்பர்’, ‘கவிச்சக்ரவர்த்தி கம்பர்’, ‘கல்வியில் ... Read More திருபாய் அம்பானி ‘ரிலையன்ஸ்’ என்கிற மாபெரும் சாம்ராஜ்ஜியத்தை உருவாக்கி பங்கு சந்தைகளின் ‘முடிசூடா மன்னனாக’ விளங்கிய, ‘திருபாய் அம்பானி’ என்று அழைக்கப்படும் ‘தீரஜ்லால் ஹீராசந்த் அம்பானி’ அவர்களின் வாழ்க்கை வரலாறு ... Read More வ.உ.சிதம்பரனார் கட்டுரை VO Chidambaram in Tamil Essay வ.உ.சிதம்பரனார் கட்டுரை VO Chidambaram in Tamil Essay :- ‘வ. உ. சி’ என்று அழைக்கபடும் வ. உ. சிதம்பரம் பிள்ளை அவர்கள், ஆங்கிலேயே அரசுக்கு ... Read More ரவீந்திரநாத் தாகூர் Rabindranath Tagore Biography in Tamil ரவீந்திரநாத் தாகூர் அவர்கள், இந்திய கலாச்சாரத்தின் அடையாளமாகத் திகழ்ந்தவர். அவர் ஒரு கவிஞர், தத்துவஞானி, இசையமைப்பாளர், எழுத்தாளர், மற்றும் ஒரு கல்வியாளரும் கூட.1913ல், அவரது கவிதைத் தொகுப்பான ... Read More சரோஜினி நாயுடு Sarojini Naidu biography in Tamil சரோஜினி நாயுடு Sarojini Naidu biography in Tamil:- சரோஜினி நாயுடு இந்தியாவின் புகழ் பெற்ற கவிஞர் , பிரபலமான சுதந்திர போராட்ட வீரர் மற்றும் சிறந்த ... Read More எம். எஸ். சுப்புலக்ஷ்மி – ms subbulakshmi biography in tamil எம். எஸ். சுப்புலக்ஷ்மி - ms subbulakshmi biography in tamil :- "இந்தியா இந்த தலைமுறையில் ஓர் மாபெரும் கலைஞரை உருவாக்கியுள்ளது என்பதில் நீங்கள் பெருமிதம் ... Read More Jawaharlal Nehru Essay In Tamil ஜவாஹர்லால் நேரு வாழ்க்கை வரலாறு கட்டுரை Jawaharlal Nehru Essay In Tamil ஜவாஹர்லால் நேரு வாழ்க்கை வரலாறு சுதந்திர இந்தியாவின் முதல் பிரதமரான ஜவஹர்லால் நேரு குழந்தைகள் மற்றும் இளைஞர்கள் நலன் கருதி ... Read More Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan Essay in Tamil Font சர்வபள்ளி ராதாகிருஷ்ணன் கட்டுரை Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan Essay சர்வபள்ளி ராதாகிருஷ்ணன் வாழ்கை வரலாறு சர்வபள்ளி ராதாகிருஷ்ணன் அவர்கள், சுதந்திர இந்தியாவின் முதல் குடியரசுத் துணைத்தலைவரும், இரண்டாவது குடியரசுத் தலைவரும் ஆவார், ஆசிரியராகத் தன் பணியைத் தொடங்கிய டாக்டர் ராதாகிருஷ்ணன் ... Read More Kamarajar Essay In Tamil |காமராஜர் வாழ்க்கை வரலாறு கட்டுரை Kamarajar Essay In Tamil :- This is a full biography of Kamrajar, This is an essay prepared by the Tamil ... Read More Sardar Vallabai Patel Tamil Essay | Tamil Katturai in Tamil Font Sardar vallabai Patel essay in tamil for kids and children, Sardar vallabai patel essay in english in another page please ... Read More Subramaniya Siva சுப்பிரமணிய சிவா வாழ்கை வரலாறு கட்டுரை சுப்பிரமணிய சிவா வாழ்கை வரலாறு கட்டுரை Subramaniya Siva Subramaniya Siva - சுப்பிரமணிய சிவா சுப்ரமணிய சிவா இந்திய சுதந்திர போராட்டத்தில் தமிழக மக்களுக்கு தனக்கு ... Read More

சாம்சங் எம் 31

இரண்டுநாள் பேட்டரி பவருடன் கூடிய , மிக துல்லியமான காட்சிகள் வழங்கும் திரை,துல்லிய இசை,சூடாகாத பேட்டரி என அணைத்தது அம்சங்களும் நிறைந்த இந்த போன் தற்போது சலுகை விலையில்

Essay on India My Country

India is my country It is my motherland It lies in South Asia. It is a very vast country It is the land of a hundred crore people. It is the land of Shiva and Krishna, Buddha and Mahatma Gandhi.

My country is the biggest democracy in the world. It has the oldest civilization in the world. It is a rich country. It has many natural resources like forest, mines, rivers. animals, etc. India’s soil is very fertile. Therefore it is the largest wheat producer in the world.

In literature and science, it has produced many famous persons like Rabindranath Tagore, Prem Chand Sarat Chandra, CV Raman, Homi Jehangir Bhabha, Jagdish Chandra Bose and Dr Abdul Kalam.

India is the land of villages and fields. Its fields are fed by the mighty rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Narmada and Kaveri. The Gangetic valley is the most fertile region of our land.

The oceans that guard her coasts on three sides and the mighty Himalayas in the north have given my country natural frontiers from all sides. India is a secular state and various religions bloom here without hindrance.

We have inherited our culture through the centuries There is unity in diversity. We speak many languages, worship many gods and yet we have the same spirit. the spirit of India, running through the country, binding us together India has many tourist places.

The Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri the Qutub Minar, Red Fort, Gateway of India. Hawai Mahal, Rock Garden in Chandigarh, Chittorgarh and Mysore are a few of the many wonders which attract people from all over the world.

Kashmir is very rich in its natural beauty. Kashmir has been described as a paradise on earth. The country of valleys, rivers and lakes and mountains is a fit abode for gods.

Ooty, Nilgiris Hills, Shimla and the temples of South India, as also Khajuraho Ajanta and Ellora caves, are the places one can boast of It is the land of my dreams I love my country very much

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"I did my democratic duty to protect the country": Tamil Nadu CM on the first day of voting

C hennai ( Tamil Nadu ) [India], April 19 (ANI): As the country goes to the polls during the first phase of Lok Sabha elections , Tamil Nadu Chief Minister MK Stalin cast his vote in Alwarpet, Chennai and said that he performed his democratic duty to protect the country.

MK Stalin also appealed to the voters to do their democratic duty. Taking to his official X Handle, the Tamil Nadu CM posted his pictures during the voting and said, "I have done my Democratic duty. I request All should do their democratic duty."

The Tamil Nadu CM also motivated the young voters to cast their vote with enthusiasm. "Everyone vote correctly. Especially young people, who are first-time voters should vote with enthusiasm! The future of our India is in your hands..."

Earlier, Union Minister and BJP candidate from Nilgiris, L Murugan on Friday cast his vote at a polling station in Koyambedu in Chennai. The minister urged the voters, especially the first-time voters, to come forward and cast their vote for a developed and corruption-free nation, Viksit Bharat. "I urge the voters to come forward and cast their vote for Viksit Bharat, a developed nation and corruption-free nation. So, I appeal to the first-time voters, women, and all voters to come forward to vote 100 per cent."

In the 2019 general elections, the DMK-led Secular Progressive Alliance, comprising the Congress, VCK, MDMK, CPI, CPI (M), IUML, MMK, KMDK, TVK, and AIFB, registered a landslide victory, winning 38 out of the 39 seats in the state.

Voting is underway for all 39 seats in Tamil Nadu in the first phase of the general elections.

Voting for the first phase of Lok Sabha elections 2024 began on Friday across 102 parliamentary constituencies spread over 21 states and Union Territories as the mega seven-phase electoral exercise commenced at 7:00 am. Voters will exercise the franchise until 6:00 pm.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi is seeking his third consecutive term, while the opposition bloc-INDIA- a coalition of opposition parties formed to take on the BJP in the general elections, is eyeing ousting him from power.

According to the data released by the Election Commission of India (ECI), a total of 1.87 lakh polling stations have been set up, while 18 lakh personnel have been deployed across the 102 constituencies going to the polls. (ANI)

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Guest Essay

The Troubling Trend in Teenage Sex

A pile of bed linens on a night stand next to a bed.

By Peggy Orenstein

Ms. Orenstein is the author of “Boys & Sex: Young Men on Hookups, Love, Porn, Consent and Navigating the New Masculinity” and “Girls & Sex: Navigating the Complicated New Landscape.”

Debby Herbenick is one of the foremost researchers on American sexual behavior. The director of the Center for Sexual Health Promotion at Indiana University and the author of the pointedly titled book “Yes, Your Kid,” she usually shares her data, no matter how explicit, without judgment. So I was surprised by how concerned she seemed when we checked in on Zoom recently: “I haven’t often felt so strongly about getting research out there,” she told me. “But this is lifesaving.”

For the past four years, Dr. Herbenick has been tracking the rapid rise of “rough sex” among college students, particularly sexual strangulation, or what is colloquially referred to as choking. Nearly two-thirds of women in her most recent campus-representative survey of 5,000 students at an anonymized “major Midwestern university” said a partner had choked them during sex (one-third in their most recent encounter). The rate of those women who said they were between the ages 12 and 17 the first time that happened had shot up to 40 percent from one in four.

As someone who’s been writing for well over a decade about young people’s attitudes and early experience with sex in all its forms, I’d also begun clocking this phenomenon. I was initially startled in early 2020 when, during a post-talk Q. and A. at an independent high school, a 16-year-old girl asked, “How come boys all want to choke you?” In a different class, a 15-year-old boy wanted to know, “Why do girls all want to be choked?” They do? Not long after, a college sophomore (and longtime interview subject) contacted me after her roommate came home in tears because a hookup partner, without warning, had put both hands on her throat and squeezed.

I started to ask more, and the stories piled up. Another sophomore confided that she enjoyed being choked by her boyfriend, though it was important for a partner to be “properly educated” — pressing on the sides of the neck, for example, rather than the trachea. (Note: There is no safe way to strangle someone.) A male freshman said “girls expected” to be choked and, even though he didn’t want to do it, refusing would make him seem like a “simp.” And a senior in high school was angry that her friends called her “vanilla” when she complained that her boyfriend had choked her.

Sexual strangulation, nearly always of women in heterosexual pornography, has long been a staple on free sites, those default sources of sex ed for teens . As with anything else, repeat exposure can render the once appalling appealing. It’s not uncommon for behaviors to be normalized in porn, move within a few years to mainstream media, then, in what may become a feedback loop, be adopted in the bedroom or the dorm room.

Choking, Dr. Herbenick said, seems to have made that first leap in a 2008 episode of Showtime’s “Californication,” where it was still depicted as outré, then accelerated after the success of “Fifty Shades of Grey.” By 2019, when a high school girl was choked in the pilot of HBO’s “Euphoria,” it was standard fare. A young woman was choked in the opener of “The Idol” (again on HBO and also, like “Euphoria,” created by Sam Levinson; what’s with him ?). Ali Wong plays the proclivity for laughs in a Netflix special, and it’s a punchline in Tina Fey’s new “Mean Girls.” The chorus of Jack Harlow’s “Lovin On Me,” which topped Billboard’s Hot 100 chart for six nonconsecutive weeks this winter and has been viewed over 99 million times on YouTube, starts with, “I’m vanilla, baby, I’ll choke you, but I ain’t no killer, baby.” How-to articles abound on the internet, and social media algorithms feed young people (but typically not their unsuspecting parents) hundreds of #chokemedaddy memes along with memes that mock — even celebrate — the potential for hurting or killing female partners.

I’m not here to kink-shame (or anything-shame). And, anyway, many experienced BDSM practitioners discourage choking, believing it to be too dangerous. There are still relatively few studies on the subject, and most have been done by Dr. Herbenick and her colleagues. Reports among adolescents are now trickling out from the United Kingdom , Australia , Iceland , New Zealand and Italy .

Twenty years ago, sexual asphyxiation appears to have been unusual among any demographic, let alone young people who were new to sex and iffy at communication. That’s changed radically in a short time, with health consequences that parents, educators, medical professionals, sexual consent advocates and teens themselves urgently need to understand.

Sexual trends can spread quickly on campus and, to an extent, in every direction. But, at least among straight kids, I’ve sometimes noticed a pattern: Those that involve basic physical gratification — like receiving oral sex in hookups — tend to favor men. Those that might entail pain or submission, like choking, are generally more for women.

So, while undergrads of all genders and sexualities in Dr. Herbenick’s surveys report both choking and being choked, straight and bisexual young women are far more likely to have been the subjects of the behavior; the gap widens with greater occurrences. (In a separate study , Dr. Herbenick and her colleagues found the behavior repeated across the United States, particularly for adults under 40, and not just among college students.) Alcohol may well be involved, and while the act is often engaged in with a steady partner, a quarter of young women said partners they’d had sex with on the day they’d met also choked them.

Either way, most say that their partners never or only sometimes asked before grabbing their necks. For many, there had been moments when they couldn’t breathe or speak, compromising the ability to withdraw consent, if they’d given it. No wonder that, in a separate study by Dr. Herbenick, choking was among the most frequently listed sex acts young women said had scared them, reporting that it sometimes made them worry whether they’d survive.

Among girls and women I’ve spoken with, many did not want or like to be sexually strangled, though in an otherwise desired encounter they didn’t name it as assault . Still, a sizable number were enthusiastic; they requested it. It is exciting to feel so vulnerable, a college junior explained. The power dynamic turns her on; oxygen deprivation to the brain can trigger euphoria.

That same young woman, incidentally, had never climaxed with a partner: While the prevalence of choking has skyrocketed, rates of orgasm among young women have not increased, nor has the “orgasm gap” disappeared among heterosexual couples. “It indicates they’re not doing other things to enhance female arousal or pleasure,” Dr. Herbenick said.

When, for instance, she asked one male student who said he choked his partner whether he’d ever tried using a vibrator instead, he recoiled. “Why would I do that?” he asked.

Perhaps, she responded, because it would be more likely to produce orgasm without risking, you know, death.

In my interviews, college students have seen male orgasm as a given; women’s is nice if it happens, but certainly not expected or necessarily prioritized (by either partner). It makes sense, then, that fulfillment would be less the motivator for choking than appearing adventurous or kinky. Such performances don’t always feel good.

“Personally, my hypothesis is that this is one of the reasons young people are delaying or having less sex,” Dr. Herbenick said. “Because it’s uncomfortable and weird and scary. At times some of them literally think someone is assaulting them but they don’t know. Those are the only sexual experiences for some people. And it’s not just once they’ve gotten naked. They’ll say things like, ‘I’ve only tried to make out with someone once because he started choking and hitting me.’”

Keisuke Kawata, a neuroscientist at Indiana University’s School of Public Health, was one of the first researchers to sound the alarm on how the cumulative, seemingly inconsequential, sub-concussive hits football players sustain (as opposed to the occasional hard blow) were key to triggering C.T.E., the degenerative brain disease. He’s a good judge of serious threats to the brain. In response to Dr. Herbenick’s work, he’s turning his attention to sexual strangulation. “I see a similarity” to C.T.E., he told me, “though the mechanism of injury is very different.” In this case, it is oxygen-blocking pressure to the throat, frequently in light, repeated bursts of a few seconds each.

Strangulation — sexual or otherwise — often leaves few visible marks and can be easily overlooked as a cause of death. Those whose experiences are nonlethal rarely seek medical attention, because any injuries seem minor: Young women Dr. Herbenick studied mostly reported lightheadedness, headaches, neck pain, temporary loss of coordination and ear ringing. The symptoms resolve, and all seems well. But, as with those N.F.L. players, the true effects are silent, potentially not showing up for days, weeks, even years.

According to the American Academy of Neurology, restricting blood flow to the brain, even briefly, can cause permanent injury, including stroke and cognitive impairment. In M.R.I.s conducted by Dr. Kawata and his colleagues (including Dr. Herbenick, who is a co-author of his papers on strangulation), undergraduate women who have been repeatedly choked show a reduction in cortical folding in the brain compared with a never-choked control group. They also showed widespread cortical thickening, an inflammation response that is associated with elevated risk of later-onset mental illness. In completing simple memory tasks, their brains had to work far harder than the control group, recruiting from more regions to achieve the same level of accuracy.

The hemispheres in the choked group’s brains, too, were badly skewed, with the right side hyperactive and the left underperforming. A similar imbalance is associated with mood disorders — and indeed in Dr. Herbenick’s surveys girls and women who had been choked were more likely than others (or choked men) to have experienced overwhelming anxiety, as well as sadness and loneliness, with the effect more pronounced as the incidence rose: Women who had experienced more than five instances of choking were two and a half times as likely as those who had never been choked to say they had been so depressed within the previous 30 days they couldn’t function. Whether girls and women with mental health challenges are more likely to seek out (or be subjected to) choking, choking causes mood disorders, or some combination of the two is still unclear. But hypoxia, or oxygen deprivation — judging by what research has shown about other types of traumatic brain injury — could be a contributing factor. Given the soaring rates of depression and anxiety among young women, that warrants concern.

Now consider that every year Dr. Herbenick has done her survey, the number of females reporting extreme effects from strangulation (neck swelling, loss of consciousness, losing control of urinary function) has crept up. Among those who’ve been choked, the rate of becoming what students call “cloudy” — close to passing out, but not crossing the line — is now one in five, a huge proportion. All of this indicates partners are pressing on necks longer and harder.

The physical, cognitive and psychological impacts of sexual choking are disturbing. So is the idea that at a time when women’s social, economic, educational and political power are in ascent (even if some of those rights may be in jeopardy), when #MeToo has made progress against harassment and assault, there has been the popularization of a sex act that can damage our brains, impair intellectual functioning, undermine mental health, even kill us. Nonfatal strangulation, one of the most significant indicators that a man will murder his female partner (strangulation is also one of the most common methods used for doing so), has somehow been eroticized and made consensual, at least consensual enough. Yet, the outcomes are largely the same: Women’s brains and bodies don’t distinguish whether they are being harmed out of hate or out of love.

By now I’m guessing that parents are curled under their chairs in a fetal position. Or perhaps thinking, “No, not my kid!” (see: title of Dr. Herbenick’s book above, which, by the way, contains an entire chapter on how to talk to your teen about “rough sex”).

I get it. It’s scary stuff. Dr. Herbenick is worried; I am, too. And we are hardly some anti-sex, wait-till-marriage crusaders. But I don’t think our only option is to wring our hands over what young people are doing.

Parents should take a beat and consider how they might give their children relevant information in a way that they can hear it. Maybe reiterate that they want them to have a pleasurable sex life — you have already said that, right? — and also want them to be safe. Tell them that misinformation about certain practices, including choking, is rampant, that in reality it has grave health consequences. Plus, whether or not a partner initially requested it, if things go wrong, you’re generally criminally on the hook.

Dr. Herbenick suggests reminding them that there are other, lower-risk ways to be exploratory or adventurous if that is what they are after, but it would be wisest to delay any “rough sex” until they are older and more skilled at communicating. She offers language when negotiating with a new partner, such as, “By the way, I’m not comfortable with” — choking, or other escalating behaviors such as name-calling, spitting and genital slapping — “so please don’t do it/don’t ask me to do it to you.” They could also add what they are into and want to do together.

I’d like to point high school health teachers to evidence-based porn literacy curricula, but I realize that incorporating such lessons into their classrooms could cost them their jobs. Shafia Zaloom, a lecturer at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, recommends, if that’s the case, grounding discussions in mainstream and social media. There are plenty of opportunities. “You can use it to deconstruct gender norms, power dynamics in relationships, ‘performative’ trends that don’t represent most people’s healthy behaviors,” she said, “especially depictions of people putting pressure on someone’s neck or chest.”

I also know that pediatricians, like other adults, struggle when talking to adolescents about sex (the typical conversation, if it happens, lasts 40 seconds). Then again, they already caution younger children to use a helmet when they ride a bike (because heads and necks are delicate!); they can mention that teens might hear about things people do in sexual situations, including choking, then explain the impact on brain health and why such behavior is best avoided. They should emphasize that if, for any reason — a fall, a sports mishap or anything else — a young person develops symptoms of head trauma, they should come in immediately, no judgment, for help in healing.

The role and responsibility of the entertainment industry is a tangled knot: Media reflects behavior but also drives it, either expanding possibilities or increasing risks. There is precedent for accountability. The European Union now requires age verification on the world’s largest porn sites (in ways that preserve user privacy, whatever that means on the internet); that discussion, unsurprisingly, had been politicized here. Social media platforms have already been pushed to ban content promoting eating disorders, self-harm and suicide — they should likewise be pressured to ban content promoting choking. Traditional formats can stop glamorizing strangulation, making light of it, spreading false information, using it to signal female characters’ complexity or sexual awakening. Young people’s sexual scripts are shaped by what they watch, scroll by and listen to — unprecedentedly so. They deserve, and desperately need, models of interactions that are respectful, communicative, mutual and, at the very least, safe.

Peggy Orenstein is the author of “Boys & Sex: Young Men on Hookups, Love, Porn, Consent and Navigating the New Masculinity” and “Girls & Sex: Navigating the Complicated New Landscape.”

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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An earlier version of this article misstated the network on which “Californication” first appeared. It is Showtime, not HBO. The article also misspelled a book and film title. It is “Fifty Shades of Grey,” not “Fifty Shades of Gray.”

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Why Modi Is So Popular

Soon likely to win a third term, india’s prime minister has shaped the country in profound ways..

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It’s easy to see Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi as a strongman, says FP’s editor in chief, Ravi Agrawal . A magnetic figure and a brilliant orator, Modi looks likely to win a near-unprecedented third term in the country’s upcoming elections. But it would be a mistake to see the Hindu nationalist changes he’s brought to the country purely as an example of top-down management, Agrawal cautions in this FP Live discussion—and as he argues in the magazine’s most recent issue, in an article called “The New Idea of India.” People are increasingly aware of Modi’s policies and measures, Agrawal says, “and so when people vote for him, there must be at least some broader desire to go along with” his vision of what India is, and should be.

What, then, is this vision? In our interview, Agrawal makes the case for a conceptual shift in the country’s idea of itself, from the secular republic envisioned by Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first prime minister, to an India that “prioritizes culture and religion” in the state’s affairs under Modi. Agrawal also talks about the growing divide between the country’s north and south; and, in asserting a newly robust foreign policy, how India has made the most of both Russia’s Ukraine invasion and the Israel-Hamas war. Don’t miss his essay in FP’s India issue, which is out now .

Amelia Lester: Talk to us about just how big Indian elections tend to be.

Ravi Agrawal: While the U.S. presidential elections might be the most consequential for the world in 2024, India’s is clearly the biggest. It has a population of 1.4 billion, in which there are more than 960 million eligible voters. That’s why this election is spread out over 44 days. It’s a spectacular exercise that spans the length and breadth of India. There will be polling booths in the Himalayas. In 2019, there was a polling booth near a forest in Gujarat, outside a lion sanctuary, which was basically catering to one eligible voter. Every time India votes, it’s the biggest election in history. So it really is an enormous exercise.

AL: You called your essay “ The New Idea of India .” What’s the significance of that title? What was the old idea of India?

RA: The title was a play on a 1997 book called The Idea of India . 1997 was the 50th year of India’s independence. The old idea of India, as it were, was the vision of its founding fathers. In 1950, when the Indian Constitution came into being, India’s leaders and its people agreed on a secular republic: a country that had liberal values, whose constitution drew on Western ones—but in a very Indian way. India was then, and still is today, a patchwork of different cultures, languages, and histories, and the constitution tried to knit these into one unified idea of what India could be. It was a secular coalition different from, for example, Pakistan, which was founded on the basis of religion.

That old idea of India was best embodied by Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first prime minister. This is a person who went to Harrow School, was educated at Cambridge, and went by the first name “Joe” until his 20s. He was fairly anglicized. It was very important to him that India remained secular. One of his greatest fears was that India would become a purely Hindu nation. He wanted to avoid that, despite the fact that 80 percent of India is Hindu. About 14 percent of the country is also Muslim—a sizable minority that has now grown to include 200 million people. It was important to him that the country would stitch all of these groups together and be secular.

AL: So what then is the new idea of India?

RA: I should hasten to add, it’s not actually new. In a sense, this is a new-old idea of India. But I framed it around India’s prime minister, Narendra Modi, who has now been in power for 10 years and likely will get another five years. His vision of India is a vision that prioritizes culture and religion over notions of secularism and liberalism. His vision of India is that of a Hindu-first country. He feels that India has always been a Hindu civilization, and its time has come.

I say it’s a new-old idea because the idea is more than 100 years old. There were thinkers in the 1920s—the activist Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, for example—who first came up with the idea of a Hindu nation. But that idea didn’t win out in 1947 when India became independent. The BJP [Bharatiya Janata Party] traces its roots to those leaders 100 years ago. As it becomes stronger, and as it wins a greater vote share and has more power in parliament, it’s more likely to prioritize this Hindu-first idea; it will be more public about it and more proud of it.

AL: It struck me that the provocation you were trying to advance in your essay was that Modi isn’t imposing his will from the top down, as I think is sometimes represented in the West. You say there is, in fact, demand for the BJP’s vision of what India should be.

RA: Yes. This is the somewhat controversial part of my essay. It’s very easy to see Modi as this strongman—a dictatorial leader with an authoritarian bent. And he is, of course, a magnetic figure and a brilliant orator, especially in Hindi. There’s something about his cult of personality that clearly leads to a larger vote share for his party, the BJP. It’s also easy to interpret the Hindu nationalist changes he’s bringing to the country as an example of purely top-down management.

But what I wanted to put forward is that this is also popular. It would be wrong to ignore the popularity not only of Modi, but also of his policies and measures, which the people are increasingly aware of. They are openly telegraphed in his speeches; they are clearly in the BJP’s manifesto. And so when people vote for him, there must be at least some broader desire to go along with what the BJP’s vision of India is and should be.

It’s important to grapple with the demand side of this equation because it means that India itself could be changing. Indians broadly made a social compact in 1947 to prioritize secularism, and that social compact may be changing. Half of the country’s population is under the age of 25, and if younger Indians especially are making a new bet on this vision that prioritizes a large religious majority, a leader who embraces a less collaborative, less democratic, CEO style of leadership, then it’s important to engage with the demand side of that equation. It means that were Modi to leave, he would be replaced by someone else like that. As India approaches these elections, it’s important for the rest of the world to understand what’s changing nationally in this way, and not just in New Delhi.

The paradox here is that Modi, of course, believes that all of the things he’s doing—building toilets, dramatically expanding roads and highways, improving train lines, building new airports, electricity connections, gas connections—are for the greater good. His “new welfarism” is very popular—although time will tell how much of this infrastructure works. But there is this sort of authoritarian bent to how he conducts policy.

The New Idea of India

Narendra Modi’s reign is producing a less liberal but more assured nation.

Modi’s Messenger to the World

How the diplomat-turned-politician S. Jaishankar became the chief executor of India’s assertive foreign policy.

Is India Really the Next China?

The case for its economic ascent is strong, but government policies still stand in the way.

AL: There’s a growing divide between India’s north and south. Why has that come about, and what could it mean in the longer term?

RA: This has become a big talking point in India and elsewhere among India-watchers. India is roughly diamond-shaped, and the Vindhyas mountain range loosely divides India’s north and south. In the northern parts of India, above the Vindhyas, most people speak Hindi. And the southern parts include a variety of states—Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka—where people speak different languages.

But beyond the linguistic and culture divide, there’s an economic divergence between the north and the south. A baby born in Uttar Pradesh has a lower chance of reaching the age of 5 than a child born in Afghanistan. Whereas in Kerala, in India’s south, that same baby would have a higher chance than a child born in the United States. There’s a difference in education rates and in GDP per capita. For example, average incomes in some of the southern states are higher by orders of magnitude than incomes in some of the northern states.

The BJP is far more popular in the north than it is in the south. This is partly why I described some of the ruling party’s agenda as Hindi-first. I think language matters because of Modi’s proficiency in Hindi.

The divergence I’m describing could end up leading to growing resentment in the south, where people pay higher taxes. This is, of course, where India’s tech sector is flourishing. And they receive less benefit from those taxes because the more populated north gets most of it. So there is a north-side divide, and that divide could be exacerbated over time.

Prefer to listen? Follow the FP Live podcast for the entire conversation, plus other in-depth discussions, wherever you get your podcasts.

AL: You barely mentioned the opposition in your essay.

RA: No matter where you sit on the partisan divide in India, everyone should be able to agree that you need a good opposition. And India has struggled to put forward a proper national alternative to the BJP. The old alternative used to be the Congress party. There are regional parties that do well across different states. There has to be some way to knit them all together to create a stronger, more united opposition that the country sees as a viable alternative.

AL: Why do you think they found it so difficult to do that?

RA: Part of it is because, at least in the Congress party, they’ve got a leader in Rahul Gandhi (no relation to Mahatma Gandhi) who is reluctant to step aside. And yet, he is a reluctant leader. You often sense that he’d rather do almost anything than be in the thrust and parry of Indian politics. As I said earlier, India needs a stronger, more united opposition.

It’s also worth pointing out that the BJP has done well to marginalize its opposition. They’ve been able to use levers of the state. BJP proponents will say they have not used these levers, that this is just independent institutions acting, but this is where it gets disputed. The Congress party, for example, has not been able to access its bank accounts because of allegations of tax improprieties that go back decades. The opposition will say, why now? Doesn’t that hurt democracy? The BJP will say, but they’re corrupt, so that’s what had to happen.

I think overall, though, it does create this sense of the BJP as this juggernaut that will win anyway and seems quite intent on crushing its opposition and winning with huge margins.

AL: Russia’s invasion of Ukraine is in its third year. The Israel-Hamas war is continuing. Western democracies have really stumbled as many in the world see an inconsistent response to those two conflicts. How would you characterize India’s response, and what does that tell us about the new India?

RA: India’s response has been to make the most of it.

On Ukraine, as has been widely reported in FP and elsewhere, before the Russian invasion of Ukraine, India was purchasing just about 1 percent of Russia’s total crude exports. Today, that is upward of 50 percent. So for all the Western sanctions on Russian crude, India mopped up a lot of it on the cheap. Now, this isn’t necessarily a bad thing for the world, because if India didn’t buy it, global oil prices would go up dramatically. This would then end up hurting Americans, and it would hurt [President Joe] Biden at the polls. So there’s a real understanding that this kind of works for everyone. India gets to buy oil on the cheap. And, of course, it loves to market that internally and externally as a sort of victory of Indian foreign policy.

On the Middle East, it’s a little bit more complicated. I think India in Nehru’s time had much more sympathy for the Palestinian cause. Under Modi, the India-Israel relationship has strengthened significantly. So India is more likely now to just sit on the sidelines and, as it often does, try to play both sides.

The old Indian foreign policy was one of nonintervention and nonalignment. In a sense, that hasn’t changed too much. The bigger change is India trying to apply its self-interest, or what India calls “strategic autonomy.” It likes to try to look at any global situation and pick the thing that works to its advantage. A lot of foreign policy now is economics, as we know, and India uses the economy and the market that India represents in a very powerful way. By using India’s growing purchasing power as a calling card, India is able to play a more muscular, significant role in foreign policy than it could even 10 years ago.

Amelia Lester is the executive editor at Foreign Policy .

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