research on project based learning

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• Published: 08 December 2020

Project-based learning: an analysis of cooperation and evaluation as the axes of its dynamic

• Berta de la Torre-Neches   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7305-362X 1 ,
• Mariano Rubia-Avi 1 ,
• Jose Luis Aparicio-Herguedas 2 &
• Jairo Rodríguez-Medina   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6466-5525 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  7 , Article number:  167 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Development studies

Project-based learning is an active method that develops the maximum involvement and participation of students in the learning process. It requires the teacher to energize the learning scenario by promoting the cooperation of students to investigate, make decisions and respond to the challenges of the project. It also requires activating an evaluation system that promotes awareness, reflexivity and a critical spirit, facilitating deeper learning. This case study aims to understand the functioning of cooperative work established during the application of the method, as well as to know how the evaluation process progresses in the perspective of a group of teachers of secondary education that set up this methodology in their classes. The data obtained from interviews with the teachers involved in the study, teachers’ notebooks, and open-question questionnaire applied to high-school students are analyzed. Although the students were organized in small groups in order to develop their collaborative skills, intragroup frictions and conflicts were not sufficiently addressed or supervised in time by the teachers, thus resulting in an incomplete development of the synergies and collaboration necessaries to the project. From the point of view of the evaluation, the importance of the implementation of training and shared evaluation systems is well recognized, although a more traditional evaluation model, which does not sufficiently address the project development process prevails, and the value of the qualification on the final product achieved still weights.

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Introduction.

As a result of the crisis scenario that began in Spain in 2007, the need to incorporate to the Secondary Education stage some subjects with economic contents, was posed in order to introduce and make students understand the socio-economic circumstances in the world. Simultaneously, teaching methods have been incorporating some learning methodologies that aim to make students able to solve, with involvement, the problems presented to them (Martín and Rodríguez, 2015 ). Some of these methods orient learning towards a competitive character such as cooperative methodologies, gamification or project-based learning (PBL) (Hernández March, 2006 ).

The PBL method is a methodological alternative that involves direct contact with the object of study and ends with the realization of a work project by the students initially proposed by the teacher (Bell, 2010 ), applying knowledge and skills and developing an attitude of commitment (Sánchez, 2018 ). In order to do this, students analyze the topic raised, think about it, organize themselves, search for information, work as a team and make decisions. It is, therefore, intended to promote knowledge of the contents as well as the management of skills and attitudes, learning to mobilize those resources said in situation and to solve problems (Perrenoud, 2008 ).

The experience carried out requires students to face real-life problem statements through activities that suit their interests (Krajcik and Blumenfeld, 2006 ), find and use tools to address them and act collaboratively to propose solutions through an action plan (Barret, 2005 ; Bender, 2012 ; Blumenfeld et al., 1991 ). Traditional training models are based in the premise that students have to know the content in order to apply it in solving a problem. The PBL reverses this order and considers that students obtain the knowledge while solving a problem (Jonassen, 2011 ), an aspect that results in a higher quality of the information they handle to solve it, since it is shared, discussed and applied in a concrete situation (Thomas, 2000 ).

Thus, through PBL, students plan, discuss, and implement projects that have real-world impact and are significant to them (Blank, 1997 ; Dickinson et al., 1998 ). They implement skills for the management of interpersonal and team relationships, the teacher acting as a guide and counselor during the learning process (Kolmos, 2012 ; Thomas, 2000 ). This allows students to think about their proposals, develop them and become aware of the process itself and everything that it implies beyond the results achieved (Brundiers and Wiek, 2013 ; García et al., 2010 ).

In this way, the acquisition of social skills, empathetic behavior, dialog and listening (Belland et al., 2006 ), the development of critical and reflective thinking (Mergendoller et al., 2006 ) is favored by activating competencies such as collaboration, decision-making, organization and group responsibility (Blank, 1997 ; Dickinson et al., 1998 ), contributing to the development of a more motivating and participatory learning climate (Lima et al., 2007 ).

This methodological aspect requires, in parallel, the review of the evaluation systems; it appears as necessary to leave behind the traditional cumulative models to introduce a new model of more formative, shared and authentic evaluation that is able to guarantee a greater involvement of the students in the development of their and their peer’s learning process (Brown and Race, 2013 ). An authentic evaluation offers the students opportunities to learn through the evaluation process planned and directed by the teacher. When the evaluation system is carefully designed to articulate with the learning results that are expected to be achieved, it is possible to obtain benefits in terms of greater participation and helps students to advance in the development of their knowledge, skills and attitudes (Brown, 2015 ).

Cooperation as the basis of project-based learning

One of the essential aspects of developing the PBL is the management of cooperation between the group participants, an aspect that must be guaranteed and supervised by offering sufficient feedback (Thomas, 2000 ). For Orlick ( 1986 ) cooperation is directly related to communication, cohesion, trust and skills development for positive social interaction.

However, Díaz-Barriga and Hernández ( 2002 ) consider that group work, which teachers frequently launch in project initiatives, does not necessarily implies true cooperation and there are many interpersonal problems that students face (Prince and Felder, 2006 ). This aspect prevents a real learning of collaboration and its application in action to address the shared phase of project management.

Burdett ( 2007 ) considers that, sometimes within the group, interpersonal relationships are strained since participation in group work involves much more than each member’s knowledge on a given subject: It involves listening, negotiating, giving in; ultimately, skills that favor the dynamics of group work. Such situations of tension and intragroup crises jeopardize the assignment to be developed and the effectiveness of group synergy, as established by Del Canto et al. ( 2009 ), Jhen and Mannix ( 2001 ), Kerr and Bruun ( 1983 ), Putnam ( 1997 ), and Velázquez ( 2013 ) and those are grouped around five critical dimensions: Differences in individual capacities to complete assignments, resulting in the stowaway effect ; imbalance in the functions to be performed; early abandonment in completing assignments due to unresolved discrepancies; struggle to make one’s own ideas prevail and lack of communicative skills.

Also for Kerr and Bruun ( 1983 ) and Slavin ( 2014 ) tensions arise from the lack of a follow-up by the teacher in the group work process entrusted to their students, not monitoring the performance and contribution of each member by thriving the aforementioned stowaway effect, imbalances in workloads borne by each member and unresolved crises in interpersonal relationships, not benefiting the task management, the project development and its fair evaluation.

Intragroup conflicts often cause widespread student complaints, lack of motivation, frustration, and occasionally, a preference for individual work that does seem to guarantee the fair evaluation of the assignment (Gámez and Torres, 2012 ; McConnell, 2005 ).

That is why establishing initial cooperative learning dynamics to learn how to collaborate, assume new responsibilities, communicate and assertively express ideas (Velázquez, 2013 ), is essential to get started in the PBL methodology. Johnson et al. ( 1999a ) define cooperative learning as a work-based methodology in small, usually heterogeneous groups in which students work together to improve their own and other member’s learning.

Several authors understand cooperative learning as an active methodology that favors the reflection of students while completing the assignment; not only des it allow to achieve academic goals, but also social objectives, it stimulates interaction through the proposal of small groups and guides the realization of a type of group work, structured and monitored, to favor the learning of all the members of the group without exception (Dyson, 2002 ; Johnson et al., 1999b ; Kagan, 2000 ; Pujolàs, 2009 ).

According to Johnson and Johnson ( 1999 ) the management of cooperative learning by teachers requires, for its effectiveness, guarantees in the management of positive interdependence, making the students understand that work benefits colleagues by prioritizing “us” over “I”, proactive interaction, individual responsibility, interpersonal skills, and group processing at the end of the work sessions performed.

The teacher establishes a structured process of true cooperation easing the development of academic objectives, but also other competitive objectives: cooperation, communication, social skills (Walberg and Paik, 2002 ).

It is important to note in this regard the role of the evaluation on the projects implemented, developed and presented. Pérez-Pueyo and López-Pastor ( 2017 ) propose a model of formative evaluation through the use of cooperative projects, in which a further step is taken in the autonomy of the students by fully involving them in the teaching process through shared tutoring, especially when the realization of projects that require a lot of involvement or levels of complexity in their realization is encouraged. In addition, the use of tools such as auto evaluations and group co-evaluations (Hamodi et al., 2015 ), allow the teacher to give more effective feedback during the process, based on the information provided by the students.

Based on the contributions of the various authors cited above, who understand cooperative learning as an active methodology that allows students to achieve not only academic goals but also social objectives, thus promoting the learning for all the students without exceptions, the present study aims to achieve the following objectives: Understanding the functioning of cooperative work present in the development of the operational dynamics of the PBL launched.

Knowing how the formative evaluation process develops in the operational dynamics of the PBL.

Participants and context

The study included 16 students on their fourth year of Secondary Education (with an average of 15 years old, 8 females and 8 males) attending Cristo Rey Polytechnic Institute in the city of Valladolid, and taking the elective subject of Economics. Also three male teachers and two female teachers (ages [35–57]) who teach at the same center and stage, in which they apply PBL as an active methodology. All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

During the development of the research, the ability of students to work through PBL was tested, applying the academic project entitled My Business Plan , throughout the subject of Economics in the compulsory secondary education stage. The students were arranged in groups of 4 to 5 members with different capacities and potentialities.

These heterogeneous groups allowed the development of various skills by the students, with the intention of improving them together with intragroup interpersonal relationships.

Data collection and information analysis tools

An in-depth interview was designed for teachers who were to some extent incorporating PBL as an active methodology in the development of their subjects. They thus form a representation of the faculty imparting subjects such as Economics, Geography and History, Biology and Geology, Physics and Chemistry and Philosophy. At the same time, an open-question questionnaire was designed for students. Finally, a reflexive diary was drafted in which observations were recorded from the experiences carried out in class.

In relation to the analysis of the information obtained, the ATLAS.ti software has been used, confectioning a work of textual analysis of the transcripts of teachers’ interviews, the answers on the open questions of the questionnaire answered by the students, alongside with the teacher’s own reflexive diary.

On the three primary documents, a coding process is carried out inductively and deductively through two cycles (Miles et al., 2014 ). Thus, during the process, a constant circular relationship between the codes already obtained and the new ones I created, refining the concepts, grouping them, to infer in higher-level constructs as groups of explanatory codes (Kalpokaite and Radivojevic, 2019 ).

The codes obtained during the first coding cycle were analyzed critically and independently by the four researchers participating in the study establishing a thoughtful debate. Continuous feedback between researchers and their ongoing participation in the regeneration and refinement of codes and groups of codes supported the credibility, reliability and transparency of the research (Neal et al., 2015 ).

It was considered that saturation had been reached at the time where comparisons between the data ceased to show new relationships and properties between them, depleting that representative wealth of a circular analytical process (Flick, 2007 ).

In order to address the credibility aspects of the research in relation to the interpretative difficulties of the phenomenon studied (Lincoln and Guba, 1985 ), a structure of prolonged over time experimentation was developed, with the presence of the researcher at the location, maintaining the same methodological order, establishing her figure as an observer teacher during the time of research; in the analysis of the data, a process of triangulation was developed from the three aforementioned sources of documentary data, this allowing the contrast of the discoveries.

Forty-one explanatory codes of the phenomenon under investigation were established and grouped around four categories: Learning, interaction-collaboration, motivation, organization.

The use of the ATLAS.ti software as a code co-coordinate tool was convenient, allowing to observe how four codes of the categories Learning and Interaction-Collaboration related to each other: cooperation, conflicts, evaluation and project. Their relational study allows to reflect critically on the several handicaps found and whose consideration is essential for the applicability of the practice.

Thus, to address the first objective of the study—knowing the functioning of cooperative work in the development of the operational dynamics of the PBL launched—taking as a starting point the perceptions of the teachers interviewed and the relationships they establish between PBL and cooperation, they show a formula of practical application using cooperative structures in the form of small groups, which they consider makes it easier for students to encourage communication, to develop skills for interpersonal relationships, as well as individual and group responsibility in the fulfillment of the assignments proposed.

(…) I mix it at first with cooperative work, with small groups, with cooperative structures because being such dense subjects (…) and at the end of the school year, the last quarter, we already work on the project (Male Teaching Interview. 4:69).

In the groups, the smaller the better they work, (I would recommend) four tops, like last year (…) this allows everyone to work, if they are too many, the tasks get diluted and if there are very few, and it also happens sometimes, if one is sick or misses class for some reason for too many days, the groups gets resented… then it rally allows to work on relationships and influences the quality of learning very clearly by what I say… one is good at one thing, the other is good at some other thing, and they end up learning from each other (Male Teaching Interview. 4:358).

The same teacher considers, in the application of the methodology, the creation of small working groups, defending this formula as very valuable to develop the communicative and negotiation abilities to reach agreements and coordinate with others, the students winning from an experiential point of view, in socialization and interaction resources.

I divided the class into 4 groups of 4 students each (…), they had ten minutes to explain in front of the rest of the classmates what their business model was by answering various questions. (…) the idea of the project is that they are the ones who work on this concept throughout the course and thus gradually become familiar with that environment and its vocabulary (Reflexive Diary. 3:394).

Through the PBL they work together, they talk more, they must agree on different aspects, and it requires coordination, that is, an effort of all of them, not depending so much on their individual abilities; this approach is very different from the master class, and I do believe that, from a social point of view, socialization develops more and better this way (Reflexive Diary. 4:412).

However, the same teachers interviewed acknowledge that, during the development of the methodology, applying group work strategies for cooperation, numerous frictions and interpersonal conflicts are often triggered within the working groups. A closer attention is put on those students who does not follow the intended pattern of behavior and unleash conflict because they do not assume or carry out their workload.

The most negative aspect are those students who do not want to participate, or find it difficult to participate, or do not get involved and seriously harm the group, and sometimes problems such as friction and conflicts can appear among them for this reason; working individually, logically, there is no such problem (Female Teacher Interview. 4:150).

That student who is a little lazier, they can take advantage of the group work situation so that others work a little for them (Male teacher interview. 4:343).

This aspect is also observed and recorded by the teacher in her reflexive diary, acknowledging incidents that are likely to occur in the groups, generating some interpersonal conflict and influence on group performance to carry out the tasks of the project.

There is a group of four boys who you have to tell off and who I do not intend to bring together in the future for the groups of the project (Reflexive Diary. 3:296).

Z (…) during group work he plays with the table, gets distracted by what other teammates do (…). I think he’s a boy who is too easily distracted and annoys his peers (Reflexive Diary. 3:160).

The students themselves consider that the project suffers when situations in which not all members of the group work in tune occur, creating imbalances in the effort made and in the management of the workloads and involvement assumed, which have an impact not only on the realization of the tasks and assignments and their final evaluation, but also on the intragroup climate.

I don’t like it when there’s someone in my group who doesn’t work and gets the same grade as me or we fail the project all because of him, because we don’t all work equally; sometimes I felt that if I didn’t tell them to do something, they wouldn’t do it (Student Questionnaire. 5:242)

There are groups where only one or two people work and it’s not fair. The rest of them get too comfortable and their work is minimal. I would try watching those who do not work, or not giving them the same grade (Student Questionnaire. 5:123)

When the members of the group do not work, the project can be a disaster; and if a person does not want to do their job then discussions arise; for me the experience is negative because I did work and I did it all by myself (Student Questionnaire. 6:134)

With regard to the second objective of the study, knowing how the formative evaluation process develops in the operational dynamics of the PBL, taking into account the teachers involved in the inclusion of PBL in their teaching practice, it seems to show a difficult development, recognizing the constant presence of tests and evaluations as a generalized tool of measurement of the acquired knowledge. However, it recognizes the value of other competence aspects that must necessarily be considered by applying tools that make it easier for students to raise awareness of the developed learnings, as well as the value of the teacher as a guide who oversees the learning process and controls and leads it.

Evaluation is a complex topic because if you base your work on projects and in the end you give them an exam you are giving more value to the contents and not so much to everything else; that is why for the final evaluation we are already working on taking into consideration the valuable opinions of each one, that of the classmates, the ones shared among students and teachers through auto evaluation practices, co-evaluation and heteroevaluation. In this way they develop their critical ability, their capability to value themselves and others (Male Teacher Interview. 4:323).

I like as a teacher to supervise how they perform the practice of PBL, if everyone works and contributes; then I believe that this work is done in front of them (Male teacher interview. 4:442).

When one works in a group within the classroom the relationship between the students and the teacher is reinforced because they are no longer seen as a figure of authority or a superior, but as a guide who knows, who helps, who collaborates with them and listens to them (Female Teacher Interview. 4:388).

The same teacher in her reflexive diary mentions the use of evaluation practices such as co-evaluation allowing the students to express themselves in order to participate and getting them involved through paper presentations and consequent evaluation between classmates; she also references the heteroevaluation allowing the time for student-teacher dialog based on the assignments and a proposal to solve the project addressed.

What I want is for them to work a little bit and, to make sure of that, as they develop the eight sections on their project, they must make a presentation in front of the rest of their classmates that will be evaluated by themselves and commented by the rest of us (Reflexive Diary. 3:701).

Once the presentations were completed, I gave each group a questionnaire to conduct a co-evaluation on the project addressed; for this evaluation, each group would evaluate the work presented by the other groups, grading representatively each of the sections of the project, so that we could have several grades to be used for the final evaluation of the project (Reflexive Diary. 3:335).

To conclude, the students recognize certain limitations in the evaluation of their work, mainly in a key of a non-follow-up of the process established in the classroom to address the project and the assignments required. They propose solutions to develop a greater control on those people in the group who do not contribute in the realization of the aforementioned assignments, as well as a better management of the final grade that, being the same for the whole group, is detrimental, in their perception, to the formation of a fair value in relation to the unequal effort made. Sometimes the proposed solutions are oriented in an opposite direction to the cooperative spirit that the PBL promotes.

The way I would solve the problem of those colleagues who take advantage of the work of others when working as a group is to set them alone to work; to do their own project; that way, at least they would control those who do not work (Student Questionnaire. 5:168).

As a positive experience, I find working with projects more enjoyable and entertaining; the most negative thing is that it is almost never worked equally, and approximately the same grade is received. It is better to grade individually instead of having a final group grade (Student Questionnaire. 3:356).

The problem with those classmates who take advantage of other’s work when working in a group I would solve by telling the teacher, and giving an individual grade on each assignment done by each group member, specifying who did what (Student Questionnaire. 5:206).

When teaching methods such as PBL are used, in which the teacher poses a question, a challenge or a specific problem connected with the reality that students have to solve (Bell, 2010 ), the degree of involvement of these students seems to increase. In the teaching-learning process, they become the protagonists when they are invited to seek, assess, interpret and share information with the rest of the group members, and they apply a more critical way of thinking, since they are constantly and mutually questioned about why and what are they studying for.

In this sense, the students participate collaboratively in all the proposed assignments: understanding and interpretation of data, collection of information, preparation of partial deliveries, writing of the final report, and oral presentation before others, assessing the problem or challenge proposed with the intention of being able to draw their own conclusions.

In the implementation of these formative dynamics as an alternative to more traditional methodological models, a new way of generating and developing learning is consequently activated, applying a cooperative work model, being the management of group activity to face the project a vital aspect.

In relation to the cooperative dynamics of operation of the PBL experiences developed, the implementation of a methodological model is observed; this model is based, as a starting point, on cooperative structures by which the students are intended to address the project. Such structures materialize in the form of small and heterogeneous groups that seek to guarantee communication between their members (Johnson et al., 1999a ), unleashing a strongly competency learning model (Perrenoud, 2008 ) in which students have to combine the knowledge, skills and attitudes that they learn, in a shared way with their classmates, to face the assignments and carry out the project proposed and presented by the teacher (Bell, 2010 ; Thomas, 2000 ).

In the same way, intentionally, the dynamics proposed by teachers through this methodology intend to trigger learning situations in which negotiation, compromise, listening, agreement-reaching and coordination to make decisions and solve problems are aspects of interaction and socialization necessarily to be encouraged, as established by Belland et al. ( 2006 ) and Bender ( 2012 ).

However, there is a general concern about the management in the classroom of the cooperative structures placed in order to develop the project. Friction, conflicts inherent in group life and the consequence of the cooperation dynamics applied to establish in a shared way the action plan to address the entrusted project are recognized. They identify in certain students a lack of willingness for cooperation and commitment, aspects that generate intragroup tension that for Slavin ( 2014 ) is necessary to keep track of by the teacher during the learning process, for example, paying special attention to those situations in which the stowaway effect occurs (Kerr and Bruun, 1983 ; Slavin, 2014 ).

In this matter, the students themselves describe occasional imbalances in the efforts made to carry out the assignments, the weight of the workloads assumed and, ultimately, a certain lack of harmony when relating to each other when it comes to getting involved in the project. For Del Canto et al. ( 2009 ), Jhen and Mannix ( 2001 ), Putnam ( 1997 ), and Velázquez ( 2013 ) cooperation requires attention on these critical aspects during its development, benefiting the group climate itself and thus, the performance on the assignments. For Gámez and Torres ( 2012 ) and McConnell ( 2005 ), intragroup conflict provokes generalized complaints, loss of enthusiasm and motivation for group members, a source of arguments and frustration, an aspect present in the study in the voice of the students involved.

At the same time, the teaching staff, in relation to the evaluation of the formative dynamics based on the PBL put in place, recognize the importance of paying attention to various competency aspects inherent to the cooperative learning process obtained.

This aspect, in line with what is suggested by Blank ( 1997 ), Dickinson et al. ( 1998 ), Mergendoller et al. ( 2006 ) and Belland et al. ( 2006 ), materializes in the attention to capacities such as empathy, listening, critical thinking, collaboration, decision-making, group responsibility, the teacher assuming a role of leader and guide of all these during the process of learning, as considered by Thomas ( 2000 ), Walberg and Paik ( 2002 ) and Kokotsaki et al. ( 2016 ), supporting the maintenance of a more motivating, participatory and facilitating group work climate (Lima et al., 2007 ).

Despite the use of traditional evaluation dynamics presenting a more finalist nature, such as the test or exam, the teaching staff recognize the value of formative and shared evaluation tools, such as self-evaluation, co-evaluation and heteroevaluation. In this sense, it is observed in the group, not without difficulties (Ertmer and Simons, 2005 ) a certain appreciation for the involvement of the students in the evaluation process, giving them a voice to express their own perception through dynamics such as the presentation of resulting works and shared evaluation in this regard. Paradoxically, the students involved consider a certain lack of follow-up by the teachers on the assignments they carry out and that are a part of the project, in correlation with a conflictive management of the grade in this regard. For Pérez-Pueyo and López-Pastor ( 2017 ) it is necessary to take further steps in the autonomy and personal initiative of the students and their involvement in the evaluation process, the teacher being able to apply techniques such as auto-evaluation, peer evaluation, shared evaluation, self-grading and dialogued grading. The same authors, for example, advocate for intervening in a Secondary Education classroom by applying cooperative projects and final presentations of group papers or events preparation, tutoring in a shared way with their students and involving them in their—and other’s—learning process; The teacher can also complete the methodological initiative by developing group auto-evaluations and co-evaluations, the students evaluating the process of effecting the group assignments or the actual completion of the final presentations. Some recommended instruments to lead the aforementioned evaluation techniques are the group class diary, the auto-evaluation reports and the evaluation scales (Hamodi et al., 2015 ; Hernando et al., 2017 ).

In short, the PBL experience carried out contains all the technical elements to facilitate a learning model of the competence type, which addresses both knowledge and skills to carry out the assignments and to offer solutions to the problems inherent to the given project, as well as the abilities to do so jointly and cooperatively. However, it shows that the methodological practice proposed still suffers from a real follow-up on the group process set, establishing feedback means in the action itself, neglecting the potential conflicts that arise and the smooth completion of the assignments.

In relation to evaluation, the importance of a more formative evaluation model is recognized among the teachers involved, appreciating practices that activate the participation and involvement of students, although the weight of the final products continues to be relevant to the process itself.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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de la Torre-Neches, B., Rubia-Avi, M., Aparicio-Herguedas, J.L. et al. Project-based learning: an analysis of cooperation and evaluation as the axes of its dynamic. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 7 , 167 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-00663-z

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

A study of the impact of project-based learning on student learning effects: a meta-analysis study.

• 1 Institute of Computer and Information Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
• 2 Institute of Smart Education, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China

Introduction: With the educational reform for skills in the 21st century, a large number of scholars have explored project-based learning. However, whether project-based learning can effectively improve the learning effect of students has not yet reached a unified conclusion.

Method: This study uses a meta-analysis method to transform 66 experimental or quasi-experimental research papers based on project-based learning over the past 20 years into 190 effect values from the sample size, mean, and standard deviation of experimental data during their experiments, and to conduct in-depth quantitative analysis.

Results: The results of the study showed that compared with the traditional teaching model, project-based learning significantly improved students’ learning outcomes and positively contributed to academic achievement, affective attitudes, and thinking skills, especially academic achievement.

Discussion: The results of the moderating effects test indicated that the effectiveness of project-based learning and teaching was influenced by different moderating variables, including country region, subject area, type of course, academic period, group size, class size, and experimental period : (1) from the perspective of country geography, the effects of project-based learning in Asia, especially in Southeast Asia, were significantly better than those in Western Europe and North America; (2) in terms of curriculum, project-based learning promotes student learning effects more significantly in engineering and technology subjects, and is better applied in laboratory classes than in theory classes; (3) from a pedagogical point of view, project-based learning is more suitable for small group teaching, in which the group size is 4-5 people teaching the best results; (4) in view of the experimental period, 9-18 weeks is more appropriate and has more obvious advantages for application at the high school level.

1. Introduction

Project-based learning (PBL) is a new model of inquiry-based learning that is centered on the concepts and principles of a subject, with the help of multiple resources and continuous inquiry-based learning activities in the real world, with the aim of producing a complete project work and solving multiple interrelated problems within a certain period of time ( Jingfu and Zhixian, 2002 ). s a new student-centered teaching approach, project-based learning directly points to the goal of cultivating 21st-century skills, especially higher-order thinking skills, and higher-order thinking occurs based on problem-solving, a challenging problem that emphasizes real-world situations and open environments, and project-based learning motivates students to continuously explore in the process of problem-solving, thus promoting the development of higher-order thinking.

In the era of digital transformation of education, the new generation of information technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data, and metaverse are bringing great changes to education at an unimaginable speed, and at the same time posing unprecedented challenges to talent training. Cultivating students with higher-order thinking skills that can adapt to the future development of society and reasonably cope with the complex real world has become an important mission in the current education reform and development around the world ( Ma and Yang, 2021 ). Different types of problems produce different teaching methods and also guide the development of students’ different thinking skills. Project-based learning, as a new type of teaching and learning method in the context of curriculum and teaching reform, takes real life as the background, is driven by practical problems, breaks the disciplinary boundaries, integrates multiple disciplines into one project, and develops students’ future-oriented abilities——creative thinking, problem raising, problem solving, critical thinking, communication and collaboration, etc. The advantages of this approach over traditional teaching and learning models are being recognized and explored. A large number of studies on the effects of project-based learning have been done, but there is not complete agreement on the effects on the development of students’ thinking skills, academic performance, and affective attitudes.

Over the past few decades, project-based learning has received a lot of attention in the field of education. Many studies have shown that project-based learning can improve students’ learning motivation, problem-solving skills, teamwork, and communication skills. However, due to the complexity and diversity of project-based learning, as well as differences in research methods, research findings on its effectiveness and influencing factors vary. A key research question in project-based learning meta-analytic studies is to assess the impact of project-based learning on student learning outcomes, including student performance in the areas of academic achievement, thinking skills, and affective attitudes. By combining the results of multiple independent studies, more accurate and reliable conclusions can be obtained to further understand the effects of project-based learning. In addition, project-based learning meta-analysis studies can help reveal the factors and mechanisms influencing project-based learning. By comparing the learning effects under different project-based learning conditions, researchers can analyze the impact of factors such as project characteristics, instructional design, and learning environment on student learning. This can help guide the design and implementation of project-based learning and promote effective student learning. Based on this, this study compensates for the limitations of individual studies by integrating and synthesizing multiple independent studies in order to systematically assess the effects of project-based learning, provide more accurate and reliable evidence, and reduce the chance of research findings. At the same time, project-based learning meta-analysis can provide a broader perspective to help researchers and educational policy makers gain a comprehensive understanding of the effects and influencing factors of project-based learning, so that they can develop more effective teaching strategies and policies to promote the improvement and development of project-based learning.

2. Literature review and theoretical framework

One view is that project-based learning can significantly improve student learning outcomes, including academic achievement, motivation, and higher-order thinking skills. Karpudewan et al. (2016) explored the feasibility of improving energy literacy among secondary school students using a project-based instructional approach. The quantitative results of the study showed that students exposed to a PBL curriculum had better performance on energy-related knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs. The quantitative results of the study showed that students exposed to the PBL curriculum outperformed students taught using the traditional curriculum. The quantitative results of the study showed that students exposed to the PBL course outperformed students taught with traditional courses in terms of energy-related knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs. The results of Zhang Ying’s intrinsic motivation scale, which was administered to 21 private university students before and after they received project-based learning, showed that there were significant differences in students’ interest, autonomy, and competence before and after, which positively influenced students’ intrinsic motivation to learn ( Zhang, 2022 ). Yun (2022) used the fifth-grade project “Searching for Roots. Xu Hui Yuan” project-based learning as an example to discuss that project-based in-depth ritual education can develop students’ core literacy. Biazus and Mahtari (2022) conducted a quasi-experiment using project-based learning and direct instructional learning models and found that the PBL model had a significant impact on the enhancement of creative thinking skills of secondary school students. Parrado-Martínez and Sánchez-Andújar (2020) explored the effects of project-based learning on ninth-grade students’ writing skills and found that cooperative work in project-based learning potentially promoted students’ critical thinking, communication, and collaboration skills, significantly improving middle school students’ English writing skills. Hernández-Ramos and De La Paz (2009) found that students in project-based learning conditions showed significant improvements in content knowledge measures and growth in their historical thinking skills compared to students in control schools. Most researchers agree that STEM as a form of project-based learning and STEM integration will have a positive impact on education, with the advantages outweighing the disadvantages ( Hamad et al., 2022 ; Wardat et al., 2022 ).

Another view is that project-based learning has the same effect or even some negative effects compared to traditional instruction. García-Rodríguez et al. (2021) conducted an intervention experiment in undergraduate education to test the effectiveness of a student-centered project-based learning approach in promoting student skill acquisition. The study found that students’ problem-solving and information management skills, two instrumental general competencies were not improved. The results of ÇAKICI’s project-based learning activities on fifth-grade children’s science achievement showed that although project-based activities significantly improved children’s science achievement, attitudes toward science did not change. Gratchev and Jeng (2018) explored whether the combination of traditional teaching methods and project-based learning activities improved students’ learning experiences, and data collected over 3 years showed that the two groups’ achievements were very similar, and the findings indicated that students were less motivated to accept new learning methods such as PBL. Parrado-Martínez and Sánchez-Andújar (2020) found that the implementation of PBL did not significantly change students’ perceived utility of teamwork, communication, and creativity. Kızkapan and Bektaş (2017) examined the effects of project-based learning and traditional learning methods on the academic performance of seventh graders, and the results showed no significant differences between the experimental and control groups on post-test “achievement test” scores. Sivia et al. (2019) used a mixed triangulation-convergence approach to examine the difference in student engagement between project-based and non-project-based learning units and found that project-based learning did not significantly increase student engagement. Karaçalli and Korur (2014) used a quasi-experimental design to teach the experimental group using a project-based learning approach, and the results showed no statistically significant effect on students’ attitudes toward learning across groups.

In summary, a review of the literature reveals that the research findings and teaching effectiveness of project-based learning have not yet been uniformly determined, and few studies have systematically analyzed and evaluated the optimal group size, class size, curriculum type, and subject area of project-based learning. Therefore, based on 66 empirical research papers that conducted experimental or quasi-experimental studies on project-based learning and traditional teaching, this study quantifies the true magnitude of the impact of the project-based learning approach on students’ learning outcomes and seeks to summarize the experience of applying project-based learning in schools in order to provide a reference for developing project-based teaching. And an attempt is made to answer the following research questions:

1. Does project-based learning significantly improve students’ thinking skills, academic performance, and affective attitudes compared to traditional teaching methods?

2. How do different moderating variables (type of course, learning section, group size, class size, subject category, experiment period, country region.) affect students’ learning effects?

Since the purpose of this study was to explore the effect of project-based learning on learning effectiveness and to explore other factors that may moderate this effect. Therefore, based on relevant research findings on the effect of project-based integrated learning on learning effectiveness and the results of literature coding, the meta-analytic theoretical framework for this study, as shown in Figure 1 .

Figure 1 . Research framework diagram.

3. Study design

3.1. methods.

Meta-Analysis is a quantitative analysis method that extracts and organizes multiple results of experimental or quasi-experimental studies on the same research question and then produces an average effect value by weighting the sample size, standard mean deviation, and other data from the existing research results and analyzes the effect value to obtain the results. The meta-analysis method has been widely used in education. This study compares and combines literature on the same research topic but with different research results by extracting data such as pre and post-test means, sample sizes, and standardized mean differences from relevant literature, while using the standard deviation (SMD), which can correct for small sample bias, as the effective value to indicate the degree of influence of project-based instruction on student learning outcomes. The study entered the relevant data into CMA meta-analysis software (Comprehensive Meta Analysis 3.0) for data analysis.

3.2. Research process

To ensure the quality of the study, this study strictly followed the meta-analysis criteria proposed by Glass (1976) , which was mainly divided into four assessment procedures: literature collection, literature coding, effect size calculation, and moderating variable analysis, and finally a comprehensive effect size exploration and study results.

3.2.1. Literature search

To ensure the timeliness of the study, this study mainly searched the relevant research on the topic of project-based learning since 2003 to 2023, mainly in CNKI, Springer Link, Web of Science, Semantic Scholar and other databases, and searched the literature by “AND” or “OR” logical word collocation of project-based learning and learning effectiveness keywords. The keywords of project-based learning include: project-based learning, PBL, project teaching; the keywords of learning effect include: learning effect, learning performance, learning achievement, learning*, learning outcome, learning result, etc. And the selected articles are all from SSCI or SCI authoritative journals, Chinese core journals of article literature type and part of the master’s degree thesis. To avoid omissions, this study also supplemented the search with the references of relevant articles.

3.2.2. Literature selection and inclusion criteria

To find articles that meet the subject matter requirements, this study used the ( Page, 2021 ) process for literature processing ( Vrabel, 2009 ), the literature search, screening, and inclusion process is shown in Figure 2 . Combining the needs of the meta-analysis method itself and ensuring the accuracy and rigor of the research results, the following selection and inclusion criteria were used: (1) duplicate literature had to be removed; (2) it had to be a study of the effects of project-based learning versus traditional teaching models on learning effectiveness; (3) it had to be an empirical research type article; (4) complete data that could calculate the effect values had to be available. A total of 91 articles were screened by two researchers in the inclusion phase, and those with inconsistent screening were discussed, and the final decision was made to include 66 articles in the meta-analysis, which met the inclusion criteria for the number of articles in the meta-analysis method.

Figure 2 . Flow chart of literature screening.

3.2.3. Literature code

The concept of project-based learning was first introduced by American educator William Heard Kilpatrick proposed ( Kilpatrick, 1918 ). In the 1920s and 1930s, project-based learning was widely used in the lower grades of elementary and secondary schools in the United States; in 1969, McMaster University in Canada officially launched the PBL teaching model within the school. To compare the variability of the effects of project-based learning in countries around the world, the regions of the countries where the study was conducted were coded and divided into North America, Oceania, Southeast Asia, and other regions. As project-based learning is used more frequently in the classroom, whether there is an ideal group size to facilitate student learning outcomes ( Wei et al., 2020 ), and the impact of group size on academic achievement ( Al Mulhim and Eldokhny, 2020 ), which academic section, subject, and course type is better taught, are questions that should be addressed. Therefore, the coding of this study included the following seven main items: subject category, course type, country region, academic section, class size, group size, and experimental period, and categorized learning outcomes into three main categories: academic achievement, thinking skills, and emotional attitudes. Because this study included 66 documents with 190 effect sizes, only part of the feature coding content is displayed, as shown in Table 1 ( Kelly and Mayer, 2004 ; Mioduser and Betzer, 2007 ; Hernández-Ramos and De La Paz, 2009 ; Domínguez and Elizondo, 2010 ; Keleşoğlu, 2011 ; Çakici and Türkmen, 2013 ; Karaçalli and Korur, 2014 ; Bilgin et al., 2015 ; Astawa et al., 2017 ; Kızkapan and Bektaş, 2017 ; ShiXuan, 2017 ; Yuan, 2017 ; Praba et al., 2018 ; Yexin, 2019 ; Faqing, 2020 ; Gao, 2020 ; Lei, 2020 ; Ling, 2020 ; Linxiao, 2020 ; Lu, 2020 ; Luo, 2020 ; Mingquan, 2020 ; Rui, 2020 ; Yanan, 2020 ; Yang, 2020 ; Akharraz, 2021 ; Cong, 2021 ; Migdad et al., 2021 ; Xiaolei, 2021 ; Wang, 2021a , b , 2022 ; Jina, 2022 ; Ma, 2022 ; Xu, 2022 ; Xuezhi, 2022 ; Yating, 2022 ; Ying, 2022 ; Yuting, 2022 ; Zhang, 2022 ). To ensure the objectivity of the coding process, this study was completed independently by two researchers for the 66 empirical research articles included in the meta-analysis, and the coding results were tested for consistency using SPSS 24.0, and the Kappa value was 0.864, which was greater than 0.7, indicating that the coding effect was valid and the results were credible.

Table 1 . Code list (due to space limitation, only part of the coding content is shown).

3.2.4. Data analysis

Based on the completion of the literature coding, the calculation of the effect size (Standardized difference in means), including sample size, standard deviation, and mean value, was performed by finding the relevant experimental data in the literature. The effect size values were calculated as follows:

Starting with Mean, SD, N in each group.

Raw difference in means.

RawDiff = Mean1-Mean2.

SDP = Sqr (((N1–1) * SD1^2 + (N2-1) * SD2^2)/(N1 + N2–2))).

Standardized difference in means.

StdDiff = RawDiff/SDP.

The next stage was data analysis by (1) publication bias test. A funnel plot was used for qualitative analysis, while a combination of Begg’s rank test and loss of safety coefficient was used for quantitative analysis; (2) Heterogeneity test. The aim was to determine whether there was heterogeneity among the samples in this study; (3) Calculation of effect size values. To quantify the degree of influence of project chemistry learning on learning outcomes; (4) the moderating variables were tested. All data analyses in this study were conducted using Comprehensive Meta Analysis 3.0.

4.1. General effect size results

4.1.1. publication bias test.

In this study, the std. diff in means (SMD) value was selected as the unbiased effect value, and also to ensure the possibility that the results reported in the literature do not deviate from the true results, the publication bias was analyzed qualitatively using funnel plots, and the publication bias was analyzed qualitatively using Begg’s rank test, Trim and Fill and Fail-safe N to quantitatively analyze publication bias. Publication bias is critical to the results of meta-analysis, and if the research literature is not systematically representative of all existing research in the field in general, it indicates that publication bias may exist ( Higgins and Thompson, 2002 ). As shown in Figure 3 , the majority of study effect values were clustered within the funnel plot, and a small number of effect values were relative to the right, with Begg’s rank test Z  = 5.082 > 1.960 ( p  < 0.05), indicating a possible publication bias. Therefore, the severity of publication bias was further identified using the loss of safety factor, which showed N  = 2,546, much larger than “5K + 10” ( K  = 190), suggesting that an additional 2,546 unpublished studies would be required to reverse the results ( Rothstein et al., 2006 ), and it can be concluded that there is no significant publication bias in this study.

Figure 3 . Publication bias funnel plot.

4.1.2. Heterogeneity test

To ensure that the effect values of the independent samples in this study are combinable, Q and I2 values were used to define heterogeneity. Higgins et al. classified heterogeneity as low, medium, or high, as measured by the magnitude of the I2 statistic, which was 25, 50, and 75%, respectively. In addition, if the Q statistic is significant then the hypothesis that there is no heterogeneity among the sample data should be rejected. Based on the forest plot of I2 = 87.4% > 50% and Q  = 1496.2 ( p  < 0.001), the results indicate that there is a high degree of heterogeneity between the samples, therefore, this study used a random effects model for correlation analysis to eliminate some of the effects of heterogeneity, and also further indicates that it is necessary to conduct a moderated effects test to examine the effect of project-based learning on learning effects.

4.2. Results about problem of studies’ fields

4.2.1. the overall impact of project-based learning on student learning outcomes.

Cohen (1988) proposed the effect value analysis theory in 1988, he believed that the effect standard measure effect is determined by the effect value (ES), when the ES is less than 0.2, it means that there is a small effect impact, when the ES is between 0.2–0.8 means that there is a moderate effect, when the ES > 0.8 means that there is a significant effect impact. This study included 190 experimental data from 66 empirical research papers, and as shown in Table 2 , the combined effect value of the impact of project-based learning on student learning outcomes was 0.441, close to 0.5 and p  < 0.001, indicating that project-based learning has a large degree of impact on learning outcomes and is an effective teaching approach.

Table 2 . Main effects test.

In this study, the literature included in the meta-analysis was divided into three subcategories of academic achievement, thinking skills, and emotional attitudes according to the “three-dimensional goals” for analysis. Moderately positive impact (SMD = 0.650), and the total effect values for affective attitudes and thinking skills were 0.389 and 0.386, respectively.

Based on the deeper connotation of “three-dimensional goals,” this study classifies affective attitudes into learning motivation, learning attitude, learning interest, and self-efficacy; thinking skills into creative thinking ability, computational thinking ability, decision-making ability, critical thinking ability, problem-solving ability, problem raising ability, collaboration ability, and comprehensive application ability. As shown in Table 3 . In terms of affective attitudes, project-based learning influenced more on students’ interest in learning (SMD = 0.713), and also had moderate positive effects on learning motivation (SMD = 0.401) and learning attitudes (SMD = 0.536), with lower effects on self-efficacy; in terms of thinking skills, project-based learning had the most significant effects on students’ creative thinking skills (SMD = 0.626) and computational thinking skills (SMD = 0.719) had the most significant effect, followed by problem solving, collaboration, and general application skills, but the effects on decision making, critical thinking, and problem raising skills did not reach a statistically significant level.

Table 3 . Effects of project-based learning on different learning outcomes.

4.2.2. Examining the effects of different moderating variables on student learning

First, in terms of country region as a moderating variable, the overall effect value of its moderating effect on learning effectiveness was 0.358 and p  < 0.001, indicating a moderate effect and the effects varied across countries. In terms of effect values between groups, although project-based learning originated in the United States and was first applied in American countries such as Canada, its effect on student learning outcomes was not significant (SMD = 0.061, p  = 0.429 > 0.05), and there was no significant difference in whether or not project-based learning was used; instead, the application of project-based learning produced better learning outcomes in Asian countries, especially in Southeast Asian countries (SMD = 0.684), followed by West Asia (SMD = 0.594).

Second, looking at the school level as the moderating variable, the overall effect value SMD = 0.355, in order of effect value from smallest to largest, is university (SMD = 0.116) < junior high school (SMD = 0.520) < primary school (SMD = 0.527) < high school (SMD = 0.720), which indicates that there are differences in the effects of project-based learning on the learning outcomes of students in different school levels, with the effects on high school, primary school, and junior high school, while the effect on college was relatively small.

Third, using group size as the moderating variable, the combined effect value of group size on learning effectiveness is 0.592 ( p  < 0.001), which is close to 0.6, indicating that the effect of group size on students’ learning effectiveness is more significant and has a moderate to a high degree of facilitating effect. In terms of the effect values of different sizes, the effect values are all positive, indicating that the group learning style is effective and has different degrees of facilitating effects on learning effects, with the most significant facilitating effect of a group size of 4–5 students on learning effects (SMD = 0.909).

Fourth, to test the applicability of project-based learning on different class sizes, the class sizes were divided into three sizes according to the sample size: small (1 ~ 100 students), medium (100 ~ 200 students), and large (200 ~ 300 students), and the data in Table 4 show that the overall effect value of the moderating effect of class size on the learning effect is 0.378, p  < 0.001, indicating that project-based learning on different class size. Looking specifically at each size, the degree of impact was higher for small class sizes (SMD = 0.483), followed by medium size (SMD = 0.466), but lower and not significant for large class sizes (SMD = 0.106, p  = 0.101 < 0.05).

Table 4 . Results of moderating effects of different moderating variables.

Fifth, when subject categories were viewed as moderating variables, all subject effect values were larger than 0, with a combined effect value of SMD = 0.443 ( p  < 0.001), suggesting that project-based learning had a positive degree of enhancement on learning effectiveness across subjects, reaching a statistically significant difference. Due to the relatively small amount of literature in other categories and life sciences, this study focuses on the effects of project-based learning on learning outcomes in engineering and technology, humanities and social, and natural sciences. In each of the subjects, Engineering and Technology (SMD = 0.619) > Natural Sciences (SMD = 0.484) > Humanities and Society (SMD = 0.284), the results indicate that project-based learning has the most significant impact on learning effectiveness in Engineering and Technology and relatively less in Humanities and Society.

Sixth, the overall effect value SMD = 0.441 when looking at the type of course as a moderating variable, while the between-group effect test between experimental and theoretical classes reached a statistically significant level ( p  < 0.001). The effect of project-based learning on student learning outcomes was more pronounced in experimental classes (SMD = 0.498), which was greater than the overall combined effect value, consistent with the finding that project-based learning is more suitable and effective teaching strategy for engineering and technology disciplines, while the use of project-based teaching in theory classes (SMD = 0.393) was below the average effect value.

Seventh, in terms of the experimental period as a moderating variable, there were significant differences in project-based learning across experimental periods ( p  < 0.001), with a moderating overall effect value of SMD = 0.424. The best effect of instructional facilitation was observed for the duration of 9–18 weeks (SMD = 0.673), which was better than single experiments (SMD = 0.359) and 1–8 weeks (SMD = 0.498), with a relatively weak effect on learning outcomes beyond 18 weeks (SMD = 0.3000).

5. Discussion

This study used meta-analysis to systematically review and quantitatively analyze 66 experimental or quasi-experimental research papers published between 2003 and 2023 on the effects of project-based instruction on student learning, and to dissect the differences brought about by different moderating variables. The results show that: ① project-based learning can significantly improve students’ learning outcomes compared with traditional teaching models; ② the effects of project-based teaching and learning are influenced by different moderating variables, including subject area, course type, academic period, group size, class size, and experiment period. The results derived from the meta-analysis are further discussed and analyzed below.

5.1. Project-based learning has a positive effect on student learning outcomes

First, the combined effect value of SMD = 0.441 ( p  < 0.001) for the effect of project-based learning on learning outcomes indicates that compared to the traditional teaching model, project-based teaching has a moderately positive contribution to students’ academic achievement, thinking skills, and affective attitudes, which is consistent with the results of previous studies ( Wenlan and Jiao, 2019 ). This is consistent with previous studies. Compared with the traditional “teacher teach-student receive-evaluate and feedback” model, project-based learning is closer to a “complete learning process” ( Changming, 2020 ). It is a student-centered learning activity in which students show richer affective attitudes such as interest in learning and attitudes toward learning, which can positively guide students’ motivation to learn and influence their academic performance, and is naturally more effective in developing students’ emotional attitudes and values, and thinking skills.

Second, project-based learning has a significant positive effect on students’ thinking skills (SMD = 0.387, p  < 0.001) and affective attitudes (SMD = 0.379, p  < 0.001), indicating that the effect of project-based learning on students’ learning outcomes is not only the effect of academic performance, but also the effect of self-emotional attitudes and values, creative thinking skills, computational thinking skills, and other higher-order The impact of project-based learning on students’ learning is not only on their academic performance, but also on their self-emotional attitudes and values, creative thinking skills, computational thinking skills and other higher-order thinking skills. Project-based learning is a classroom activity that effectively develops students’ core literacies ( Hongxing, 2017 ) and promotes the development of higher-order thinking ( Weihong and Yinglong, 2019 ). The real value of project-based learning lies in its ability to enhance students’ higher-order thinking skills, such as creative thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and integrated application skills, by exploring real problems in small groups as a way to acquire the core concepts and principles of subject knowledge, and by posing driving questions around a topic based on real situations and students’ deep involvement in the investigation. Education for the future requires project-based learning to develop students’ 21st century skills and core literacies for their future careers and lives.

5.2. Moderating effects of different variables on student learning outcomes

To better analyze the impact brought by different moderating variables, this study categorized the moderating variables into four major categories: first, country region; second, curriculum, including subject categories and course types; third, teaching, including experimental period and learning periods; and fourth, experimental scale, including class size and group size. The results of the meta-analysis show as follows: (1) the application effect of project-based learning in Asia is better than that in countries in Oceania and Western Europe; (2) project-based learning has different degrees of influence on different disciplines and is better applied in the type of laboratory course; (3) in terms of the experimental period, the experimental period of 9–18 weeks is more appropriate and the application advantage of project-based learning at the high school level is more obvious; (4) project-based learning is more suitable for small-class teaching, in which the best effect is achieved when the group size is 4–5 students.

In terms of country region, the combined effect value of project-based learning is 0.358, and the application effect varies in different countries. In the Asian region, especially Southeast Asia, the effect of project-based learning is significantly better than that of Western Europe and North America. This study suggests the following reasons: First, Southeast Asian countries are relatively lagging in economic development, and industrialization and modernization are slower, so students and teachers pay more attention to practical learning methods, and project-based learning is a practice-based, problem-solving-oriented learning method that can better help them adapt and master skills and knowledge in actual work. Secondly, because the level of basic education in some Southeast Asian countries is relatively low due to various factors such as history, culture, and society, the project-based learning method can help students understand practical problems more deeply, comprehend knowledge, and enhance their hands-on and problem-solving abilities. Third, in Western European countries, students and teachers focus more on theoretical knowledge and logical thinking, individual student performance, and competition, and in countries such as Oceania, students and teachers focus more on practicality and teamwork. In Asia, however, the educational culture emphasizes a focus on discipline, order, and respect for teachers, making project-based learning more acceptable to students and parents. Students’ attitudes toward learning are also generally more serious, hard-working, and diligent, focusing on academic performance and opportunities for advancement, so students are more willing to engage in project-based learning in the hope of achieving better learning outcomes. Fourthly, in Asia, especially in East Asia, there is a strong demand for high-quality human resources, and project-based learning can cultivate students’ practical skills and innovative spirit, making them more competitive and capable of adapting to the future society.

In terms of curriculum, the combined effects of project-based learning on different subject areas and different course types were approximately equal, at 0.443 and 0.441, respectively, and the effect on student learning in engineering and technology disciplines was more significant (SMD = 0.619) and larger than the average effect, which is consistent with previous research findings that PBL is more appropriate for teaching in engineering ( Kolmos and De Graaff, 2014 ). Facing the rapidly developing society, the traditional teaching methods seem to be unable to better develop students’ skills to meet the market demand, and the research results also show that the application effect of PBL in experimental classes (SMD = 0.498) is better than that in theoretical classes (SMD = 0.393), because PBL can give students a complete understanding of the process of a project from problem raising to problem-solving, which provides them with valuable practical experience.

From the instructional aspect, the experimental period of 9–18 weeks (SMD = 0.673) had the greatest impact on student learning effects, and the impact of project-based learning for more than 18 weeks (SMD = 0.359) was relatively low, while the results of the study showed that project-based learning had a greater impact at the high school level (SMD = 0.720), followed by elementary school, middle school, and university, a finding that supports the results of Mehmet’s study ( Ayaz and Soeylemez, 2015 ). The moderating effect of the experimental period showed that the longer the experiment, the better the effect of about half a semester, and the project-based learning did not have a lasting and stable effect on students’ learning outcomes. Currently project-based learning is carried out more often at the primary and secondary school levels, and the teaching effect is more significant, but the application effect in universities is relatively low (SMD = 0.116), and the results of the study also indicate that the application promotion effect is most obvious in engineering and technology disciplines, so in the follow-up study, the application of project-based learning at the higher education level should be actively explored.

In terms of experimental scale, the effect of project-based learning on small class teaching (SMD = 0.483) is greater than that of medium class (SMD = 0.466) and large class (SMD = 0.106), and the teaching effect is better for group size of 4–5 people (SMD = 0.909), 8 people and above (SMD = 0.514), and 6–7 people (SMD = 0.436) in decreasing order. Therefore, project-based learning is more suitable for small-class teaching, and the number of people in the group collaborative learning is more conducive to the learning effect of around 4–5 people, which is almost consistent with the results of Wei et al. (2020) study on the effect of cooperative learning on learning effect. The relationship between class size and educational output has been discussed by a number of economists from the perspective of the economics of education, and is referred to as the “class size effect.” In small classes, teachers can spend more time on teaching and learning, each student can receive more attention from the teacher, and teachers and students can have more time to interact, thus having more opportunities to demonstrate and participate in collaborative group learning. In terms of group size, although there is no uniform standard, in general, too few or too many group members are not conducive to a higher degree of impact on the learning effect. From the research results, the best learning effect is produced by 4–5 students, with more reasonable task distribution among group members, all with a clear division of labor and sufficient interaction, which is more conducive to the formation of the group effect, thus better promoting the learning effect.

5.3. How does the impact of project-based learning on learning outcomes occur?

The results of the study show that project-based learning has a moderate positive contribution to learning effectiveness under different measurement measures dimensions, and how its effect occurs. The theoretical framework of the impact of project-based learning on learning effectiveness is drawn in conjunction with the specific processes and key features of project-based learning, as shown in Figure 4 , and will be analyzed in the following in conjunction with the theoretical framework.

Figure 4 . Theoretical framework for the impact of project-based learning on learning effects.

In terms of the specific process of project-based learning, it includes five steps: identifying project goals and scope, developing a project plan, implementing the project, monitoring project progress and solving problems, completing the project and presenting and evaluating it, and these steps include key activities that affect learning outcomes such as problem orientation, cooperative learning, and authenticity, which together affect students’ learning outcomes.

Specifically, project-based learning is usually oriented to real-life problems, requiring students to apply their knowledge and skills to solve problems, and the driving questions stimulate students’ interest in learning; it integrates the knowledge and skills of multiple disciplines, blending theoretical knowledge with practice and cultivating students’ creative thinking skills and comprehensive application skills; in the process of implementing projects, group members divide the work and cooperate to identify problems and After the project is completed and presented, the teacher gives timely feedback and evaluation to influence students’ attitude in project-based learning and improve the learning effect. In conclusion, the specific process and characteristics of project-based learning are the key factors to enhance students’ learning effect. Reasonable design of project characteristics and the application of different variables in project-based learning can effectively enhance students’ learning effect.

5.4. When is it more effective to use project-based learning?

The findings suggest that learning effects are influenced by different moderating variables, and this study suggests combining the effects of different variables for project-based learning in order to achieve the optimal effect size. For high school students in the field of engineering and technology subject areas of laboratory courses to 9–18 weeks as the experimental period, based on small class teaching, and group size of 4–5 people using the PBL method of teaching, to promote the improvement of student learning outcomes more effective. In experimental courses, the use of project-based learning can enable students to gain a deeper understanding of the principles and practical operations of experiments, increase their interest and motivation, and promote the development of their active learning and innovative thinking skills, thus improving learning outcomes. Small class teaching and group work can better meet students’ individual needs, enhance their sense of participation and belonging, and increase their interest and motivation in learning. Finally, the 9–18 weeks experimental cycle allows students to make the most of their time and explore the subject matter in depth, enabling them to gain deeper understanding and experience in their learning. It is hoped that the results of this study will provide a reference for front-line educators to carry out project-based teaching and explore more effective ways to promote learning outcomes.

6. Conclusion

This study conducted a meta-analysis of 66 empirical research papers on the use of project-based learning interventions for learning, and the findings provide evidence for the use of project-based learning in education to develop students’ core literacy and higher-order thinking skills, and 21st-century skills. The results show that: (1) project-based learning can significantly improve students’ learning outcomes compared with traditional teaching models; (2) the effects of project-based teaching are influenced by different moderating variables, including subject area, course type, academic period, group size, class size, and experiment period. From the perspective of countries and regions, the effect of project-based learning in Asia, especially in Southeast Asia, is significantly better than that in Western Europe and North America; from the perspective of courses, project-based learning has a more obvious effect on promoting students’ learning in engineering and technology disciplines, and the application effect in experimental classes is better than that in theory classes; from the perspective of teaching, project-based learning is more suitable for small-class teaching, in which the best effect is achieved with a group size of 4–5 students From the perspective of teaching, project-based learning is more suitable for small class teaching, and the best effect is achieved in group size of 4–5 students.

7. Limitation

Although our findings have important implications for educators, they still have some limitations. For example, some studies using project-based learning for teaching and learning lacked sufficient statistical information for inclusion in the analysis, and most of the studies did not provide a specific classification of learning effectiveness, limiting our ability to analyze learning effectiveness enhancement in more detail. Subsequent research can be carried out in depth in two aspects: (1) the current empirical studies on project-based learning focus on primary and secondary schools, with less research on the impact on universities and young children; with the popularity of higher education, future research can be conducted on the above research subjects; (2) taking the digital transformation of education as an opportunity to explore the integration of technology and project-based learning to better develop students’ core literacy and 21st century skills.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

YM: critically review the work, provide commentary, supervise and direct the writing of the draft. LZ: conceptualization, methodology, validation, quantitative data analysis, writing, review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This work was supported by the Chongqing graduate education teaching reform research project (No. yjg201009), the Postgraduate Research Innovation Project of Chongqing in 2023 (No. CYS23419, No. CYS23416), and the Special Project of Chongqing Normal University Institute of Smart Education in 2023 (No. YZH23013).

Acknowledgments

We would like to sincerely thank all the teachers and students of Computer and Information Science, Chongqing Normal University, for their support and contributions to us, especially for the support from the Smart Education Research Institute.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: project-based learning, learning effects, 21st century skills, higher-order thinking, meta-analysis

Citation: Zhang L and Ma Y (2023) A study of the impact of project-based learning on student learning effects: a meta-analysis study. Front. Psychol . 14:1202728. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1202728

Received: 09 April 2023; Accepted: 13 June 2023; Published: 17 July 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Zhang and Ma. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Yan Ma, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

The Comprehensive Guide to Project-Based Learning: Empowering Student Choice through an Effective Teaching Method

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In K-12 education, project-based learning (PBL) has gained momentum as an effective inquiry-based, teaching strategy that encourages students to take ownership of their learning journey. 

By integrating authentic projects into the curriculum, project-based learning fosters active engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. This comprehensive guide explores the principles, benefits, implementation strategies, and evaluation techniques associated with project-based instruction, highlighting its emphasis on student choice and its potential to revolutionize education.

What is Project-Based Learning?

Project-based learning (PBL) is a inquiry-based and learner-centered instructional approach that immerses students in real-world projects that foster deep learning and critical thinking skills. Project-based learning can be implemented in a classroom as single or multiple units or it can be implemented across various subject areas and school-wide. 

In contrast to teacher led instruction, project-based learning encourages student engagement, collaboration, and problem-solving, empowering students to become active participants in their own learning. Students collaborate to solve a real world problem that requires content knowledge, critical thinking, creativity, and communication skills.

Students aren’t only assessed on their understanding of academic content but on their ability to successfully apply that content when solving authentic problems. Through this process, project-based learning gives students the opportunity to develop the real-life skills required for success in today’s world. 

Positive Impacts of Project-Based Learning

By integrating project-based learning into the classroom, educators can unlock a multitude of benefits for students. The research evidence overwhelmingly supports the positive impact of PBL on students, teachers, and school communities. According to numerous studies (see  Deutscher et al, 2021 ;  Duke et al, 2020 ;  Krajick et al, 2022 ;  Harris et al, 2015 ) students in PBL classrooms not only outperform non-PBL classrooms academically, such as on state tests and AP exams, but also the benefits of PBL extend beyond academic achievement, as students develop essential skills, including creativity, collaboration, communication, and critical thinking. Additional studies documenting the impact of PBL on K-12 learning are available in the  PBL research annotated bibliography  on the New Tech Network website.

New Tech Network Project-Based Learning Impacts

Established in 1996, New Tech Network NTN is a leading nonprofit organization dedicated to transforming teaching and learning through innovative instructional practices, with project-based learning at its core.

NTN has an extensive network of schools across the United States that have embraced the power of PBL to engage students in meaningful, relevant, and challenging projects, with professional development to support teachers in deepening understanding of “What is project-based learning?” and “How can we deliver high quality project-based learning to all students?”

With over 20 years of experience in project-based learning, NTN schools have achieved impactful results. Several research studies documented that students in New Tech Network schools outperform their peers in non-NTN schools on SAT/ACT tests and state exams in both math and reading (see  Hinnant-Crawford & Virtue, 2019 ;  Lynch et al, 2018 ;  Stocks et al, 2019 ).  Additionally, students in NTN schools are more engaged and more likely to develop skills in collaboration, agency, critical thinking, and communication—skills highly valued in today’s workforce (see  Ancess & Kafka, 2020 ;  Muller & Hiller, 2020 ;  Zeiser, Taylor, et al, 2019 ). 

NTN provides comprehensive support to educators, including training, resources, and ongoing coaching, to ensure the effective implementation of problem-based learning and project-based learning. Through their collaborative network, NTN continuously shares best practices, fosters innovation, enables replication across districts, and empowers educators to create transformative learning experiences for their students (see  Barnett et al, 2020 ;  Hernández et al, 2019 ).

Key Concepts of Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning is rooted in several key principles that distinguish it from other teaching methods. The pedagogical theories that underpin project-based learning and problem-based learning draw from constructivism and socio-cultural learning. Constructivism posits that learners construct knowledge through active learning and real world applications. Project-based learning aligns with this theory by providing students with opportunities to actively construct knowledge through inquiry, hands-on projects, real-world contexts, and collaboration.

Students as active participants

Project-based learning is characterized by learner-centered, inquiry-based, real world learning, which encourages students to take an active role in their own learning. Instead of rote memorization of information, students engage in meaningful learning opportunities, exercise voice and choice, and develop student agency skills. This empowers students to explore their interests, make choices, and take ownership of their learning process, with teachers acting as facilitators rather than the center of instruction.

Real-world and authentic contexts

Project-based learning emphasizes real-world problems that encourage students to connect academic content to meaningful contexts, enabling students to see the practical application of what they are learning. By tackling personally meaningful projects and engaging in hands-on tasks, students develop a deeper understanding of the subject matter and its relevance in their lives.

Collaboration and teamwork

Another essential element of project-based learning is collaborative work. Students collaborating with their peers towards the culmination of a project, mirrors real-world scenarios where teamwork and effective communication are crucial. Through collaboration, students develop essential social and emotional skills, learn from diverse perspectives, and engage in constructive dialogue.

Project-based learning embodies student-centered learning, real-world relevance, and collaborative work. These principles, rooted in pedagogical theories like constructivism, socio-cultural learning, and experiential learning, create a powerful learning environment, across multiple academic domains, that foster active engagement, thinking critically, and the development of essential skills for success in college or career or life beyond school.

A Unique Approach to Project-Based Learning: New Tech Network

New Tech Network schools are committed to these key focus areas: college and career ready outcomes, supportive and inclusive culture, meaningful and equitable instruction, and purposeful assessment.

In the New Tech Network Model, rigorous project-based learning allows students to engage with material in creative, culturally relevant ways, experience it in context, and share their learning with peers.

Why Undertake this Work?

Teachers, administrators, and district leaders undertake this work because it produces critical thinkers, problem-solvers, and collaborators who are vital to the long-term health and wellbeing of our communities.

Reynoldsburg City Schools (RCS) Superintendent Dr. Melvin J. Brown observed that “Prior to (our partnership with New Tech Network) we were just doing the things we’ve always done, while at the same time, our local industry was evolving and changing— and we were not changing with it. We recognized we had to do better to prepare kids for the reality they were going to walk into after high school and beyond.

Students embrace the Model because they feel a sense of belonging. They are challenged to learn in relevant, meaningful ways that shape the way they interact with the world, like  these students from Owensboro Innovation Academy in Owensboro, Kentucky . 

When change is collectively held and supported rather than siloed, and all stakeholders are engaged rather than alienated, schools and districts build their own capacity to sustain innovation and continuously improve. New Tech Network’s approach to change provides teachers, administrators, and district leaders with clear roles in adopting and adapting student-centered learning. 

Part of NTN’s process for equipping schools with the data they need to serve their students involves conducting research surveys about their student’s experiences. 

“The information we received back from our NTN surveys about our kids’ experiences was so powerful,” said Amanda Ziaer, Managing Director of Strategic Initiatives for Frisco ISD. “It’s so helpful to be reminded about these types of tactics when you’re trying to develop an authentic student-centered learning experience. It’s just simple things you might skip because we live in such a traditional adult-centered world.” 

NTN’s experienced staff lead professional development activities that enable educators to adapt to student needs and strengths, and amplify those strengths while adjusting what is needed to address challenges.

Meaningful and Equitable Instruction

The New Tech Network model is centered on a PBL instructional core. PBL as an instructional method overlaps with key features of equitable pedagogical approaches including student voice, student choice, and authentic contexts. The New Tech Network model extends the power of PBL as a tool for creating more equitable learning by building asset-based equity pedagogical practices into the the design using key practices drawn from the literature on culturally sustaining teaching methods so that PBL instruction leverages the assets of diverse students, supports teachers as warm demanders, and develops critically conscious students in PBL classrooms (see  Good teaching, warm and demanding classrooms, and critically conscious students: Measuring student perceptions of asset-based equity pedagogy in the classroom ).

Examples of Project-Based Learning

New Tech Network schools across the country create relevant projects and interdisciplinary learning that bring a learner-centered approach to their school.  Examples of NTN Model PBL Projects  are available in the NTN Help and Learning Center and enable educators to preview projects and gather project ideas from various grade levels and content areas.

The NTN Project Planning Toolkit is used as a guide in the planning and design of PBL. The Project-based learning examples linked above include a third grade Social Studies/ELA project, a seventh grade Science project, and a high school American Studies project (11th grade English Language Arts/American History).

The Role of Technology in Project-Based Learning

A tool for creativity

Technology plays a vital role in enhancing PBL in schools, facilitating student  engagement, collaboration, and access to information. At the forefront, technology provides students with tools and resources to research, analyze data, and create multimedia content for their projects.

A tool for collaboration

Technology tools enable students to express their understanding creatively through digital media, such as videos, presentations, vlogs, blogs and interactive websites, enhancing their communication and presentation skills.

A tool for feedback

Technology offers opportunities for authentic audiences and feedback. Students can showcase their projects to a global audience through online platforms, blogs, or social media, receiving feedback and perspectives from beyond the classroom. This authentic audience keeps students engaged and striving for high-quality work and encourages them to take pride in their accomplishments.

By integrating technology into project-based learning, educators can enhance student engagement, deepen learning, and prepare students for a digitally interconnected world.

Interactive PBL Resources

New Tech Network offers a wealth of resources to support educators in gaining a deeper understanding of project-based learning. One valuable tool is the NTN Help Center, which provides comprehensive articles and resources on the principles and practices of implementing project-based learning.

Educators can explore project examples in the NTN Help Center to gain inspiration and practical insights into designing and implementing PBL projects that align with their curriculum and student needs.

Educators can start with the article “ What are the basic principles and practices of Project-Based Learning? Doing Projects vs. PBL . ” The image within the article clarifies the difference between the traditional education approach of “doing projects” and true project-based learning.

Project Launch

Students are introduced to a project by an Entry Event in the Project Launch (designated in purple on the image) this project component typically requires students to take on a role beyond that of ‘student’ or ‘learner’. This occurs either by placing students in a scenario that has real world applications, in which they simulate tasks performed by adults and/or by requiring learners to address a challenge or problem facing a particular community group.

The Entry Event not only introduces students to a project but also serves as the “hook” that purposefully engages students in the launch of a project. The Entry Event is followed by the Need to Know process in which students name what they already know about a topic and the project ask and what they “need to know” in order to solve the problem named in the project. Next steps are created which support students as they complete the Project Launch phase of a project.

Scaffolding

Shown in the image in red, facilitators ensure students gain content knowledge and skills through ‘scaffolding’. Scaffolding is defined as temporary supports for students to build the skills and knowledge needed to create the final product. Similar to scaffolding in building construction, it is removed when these supports are no longer needed by students.

Scaffolding can take the form of a teacher providing support by hosting small group workshops, students engaging in independent research or groups completing learner-centered activities, lab investigations, formative assessments and more.

Benchmarks (seen in orange in the image) can be checks for understanding that allow educators to give feedback on student work and/or checks to ensure students are progressing in the project as a team. After each benchmark, students should be given time to reflect on their individual goals as well as their team goals. Benchmarks are designed to build on each other to support project teams towards the culminating product at the end of the project.

NTN’s Help Center also provides resources on what effective teaching and learning look like within the context of project-based learning. The article “ What does effective teaching and learning look like? ” outlines the key elements of a successful project-based learning classroom, emphasizing learner-centered learning, collaborative work, and authentic assessments. 

Educators can refer to this resource to gain insights into best practices, instructional strategies, and classroom management techniques that foster an engaging and effective project-based learning environment.

From understanding the principles and practices of PBL to accessing examples of a particular project, evaluating project quality, and exploring effective teaching and learning strategies, educators can leverage these resources to enhance their PBL instruction and create meaningful learning experiences for their students.

Preparing Students for the Future with PBL

The power of PBL is the way in which it encourages students to think critically, collaborate, and sharpen communication skills, which are all highly sought-after in today’s rapidly evolving workforce. By engaging in authentic, real-world projects, and collaborating with business and community leaders and community members, students develop the ability to tackle complex problems, think creatively, and adapt to changing circumstances.

These skills are essential in preparing students for the dynamic and unpredictable nature of the future job market, where flexibility, innovation, and adaptability are paramount. 

“Joining New Tech Network provides us an opportunity to reframe many things about the school, not just PBL,” said Bay City Public Schools Chief Academic Officer Patrick Malley. “Eliminating the deficit mindset about kids is the first step to establishing a culture that makes sure everyone in that school is focused on next-level readiness for these kids.”

The New Tech Network Learning Outcomes align with the qualities companies are looking for in new hires: Knowledge and Thinking, Oral Communication, Written Communication, Collaboration and Agency.

NTN schools prioritize equipping students with the necessary skills and knowledge to pursue postsecondary education or training successfully. By integrating college readiness and career readiness into the fabric of PBL, NTN ensures that students develop the academic, technical, and professional skills needed for future success. 

Through authentic projects, students learn to engage in research, analysis, and presentation of their work, mirroring the expectations and demands of postsecondary education and the workplace. NTN’s commitment to college and career readiness ensures that students are well-prepared to transition seamlessly into higher education or enter the workforce with the skills and confidence to excel in their chosen paths.

The Impact of PBL on College and Career Readiness

PBL has a profound impact on college and career readiness. Numerous studies document the academic benefits for students, including performance in AP courses, SAT/ACT tests, and state exams (see  Deutscher et al, 2021 ;  Duke et al, 2020 ;  Krajick et al, 2022 ;  Harris et al, 2015 ). New Tech Network schools demonstrate higher graduation rates and college persistence rates than the national average as outlined in the  New Tech Network 2022 Impact Report . Over 95% of NTN graduates reported feeling prepared for the expectations and demands of college. 

Practices that Support Equitable College Access and Readiness

According to  a literature review conducted by New York University’s Metropolitan Center for Research on Equity and the Transformation of Schools  ( Perez et al, 2021 ) classroom level, school level, and district level practices can be implemented to create more equitable college access and readiness and these recommendations align with many of the practices built into the the NTN model, including culturally sustaining instructional approaches, foundational literacy, positive student-teacher relationships, and developing shared asset-based mindsets.

About New Tech Network

New Tech Network is committed to meeting schools and districts where they are and helping them achieve their vision of student success. For a full list of our additional paths to impact or to speak with someone about how the NTN Model can make an impact in your district, please send an email to  [email protected] .

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Project-Based Learning Research

From 2013 to 2023, Lucas Education Research collaborated with esteemed university education researchers to build a robust evidence base demonstrating that rigorous project-based learning is an effective approach for students from many backgrounds.

Explore the research findings and additional materials , or read our press release announcing the outcomes .

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A Simple, Effective Framework for PBL

This plan was designed to guide teachers who haven’t had formal training in project-based learning.

Teachers trying their hand at project-based learning (PBL) may be uncertain as to how to strengthen their project ideas and make them the best possible learning experiences for students. For teachers without access to training, a research-informed framework for PBL and a few strategies for defining and organizing the student experience can considerably improve outcomes.

The High Quality PBL (HQPBL) framework , when executed effectively, provides elements like authenticity, project management, and public products for educators to use for creating the conditions for learning to stick and continue after projects.

For example, content or elective teachers can increase authenticity in projects by bringing in industry experts (e.g., engineers, environmental scientists, computer programmers, activists) at the launch to introduce the type of work that students will be learning to do.

Teachers can also help students improve their work by having them develop public products with a call to action advocating for causes they care about and instructing audiences of community members on the next steps to take.

Before diving into the framework, let’s quickly dispel two of the biggest misconceptions and roadblocks to attempting PBL that I’ve heard from educators.

Common PBL Hurdles

1. I have to prepare my students for exams (or cover lots of content) and can’t dedicate an entire school year or semester to planning or teaching this way. I agree—do not abandon the teaching practice you have carefully honed. Instead, implement one project a semester, connect it to learning in your area as best as possible, and implement it for no more than two to three weeks at a time.

2. I’m a content teacher and am not exactly sure how to make real-world projects. I admit this can be tricky the first time around. Focus on important problems in the community (e.g.,  health, financial inclusion, environment ). Let the kids pick the issue(s) they want to tackle and develop a plan for knowing their topic inside and out, along with solutions.

See this video example where educator Jose Gonzalez of Compton Unified School District in California implemented a terrific interdisciplinary project: allowing students to choose their path to advocate for change in their communities.

Using the High Quality PBL Framework

Established in 2018, the HQPBL framework is a consensus of both the research and the accumulated practice of PBL leaders and experts worldwide. It can be used with learners of all ages, but it’s particularly well-suited to middle and high school students who are passionate about solving meaningful problems.

The framework is designed to provide educators who have no access to formal training with resources that enable them to enact PBL practices on their own by setting the criteria for the student experience using the following six elements.

1. Intellectual challenge and accomplishment. Students investigate challenging problems or issues over an extended period of time. I recommend two to three weeks for teachers new to the process. Throughout this period, they should develop the essential content knowledge and concepts central to academic disciplines. Therefore, I encourage teachers to have students use the thinking routines and problem-solving strategies they typically use (e.g., Blooms, design thinking, scientific Inquiry, computational thinking) to think critically in their content area.

2. Authenticity. Projects focus on real-world connections that are meaningful to students—including their cultures and backgrounds . Additionally, the tools and techniques they employ mimic those used by career professionals. By inviting experts into the classroom and having students assume authentic career roles (e.g., engineer, doctor, auto technician), they can learn valuable career pathway options and see how their work and the solutions they develop impact others.

3. Public product. The students’ final products are presented to the public as a culminating event. This means the work they produce is seen and discussed with the broader community—including parents, industry professionals, other classes, administrators, and community members.

When students know that others will see their work, this may motivate them to put their best foot forward. Public products are not limited to presentation nights—student work can be displayed as public art, as exhibits, or online via social media, YouTube, and safe school websites.

4. Collaboration. Working with others is a PBL hallmark where students collaborate with both adults and their peers in a number of different ways. Adults serve as mentors and guides and can include teachers, community members, or outside experts. In teamwork between students , each learner contributes their individual skills and talents. I find that learners of all ages need good collaboration tools— team contracts and task lists are an excellent place to start.

5. Project management. Students help manage the project process, using tools and strategies similar to those used by adults. I’ve seen teachers using several tools for assisting learners in keeping their work organized—good ones include scrum boards , using design thinking during the ideation process, and maintaining important documents in Google Classroom and Schoology.

I’ve also found that some learners benefit greatly from keeping a daily schedule before attempting to help manage projects. As students’ capacity for self-management increases, teachers take on the role of facilitator, helping guide students through the process rather than directing it.

6. Reflection. The learning process is enhanced by frequent reflections that help students think about their progress and how to improve their work. I like to have them complete products in drafts and jump-start reflection through critique protocols —this helps learners retain content and skills longer and gives them the awareness of how they learn best by using reflection for metacognition. Other methods for reflection may include journaling, the 3-2-1 strategy , and the one-minute paper .

“Framework first, mindset second” is a powerful principle I use for helping colleagues understand that having good general guidelines for doing something new is the prerequisite to developing second-nature expertise. The HQPBL framework can be a good place to start for beginning to use PBL as a research-informed instructional approach.

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A new research base for rigorous project-based learning

By Kristin De Vivo | Jan 24, 2022 | Feature Article

A series of rigorous studies show that authentic, student-driven approaches to project-based learning improve student outcomes.

Deborah Peek-Brown has always believed in weaving project-based learning into her instruction. But when she looks back on the projects she integrated into her lessons early in her 30-year career as an elementary science teacher, she says that a lot was missing. “We did cookbook experiments that were usually just validating what we did in class,” she recalls. Today, Peek-Brown helps support other teachers in moving to a project-based approach in which projects drive the lesson, as opposed to being tacked on at the end. Students learn through asking authentic questions about real problems and creating projects that tackle those problems. “That power of ‘I can figure things out for myself,’ is such an important skill for kids to develop and one that they will use for the rest of their lives,” Peek-Brown says.

Project-based learning (PBL) is an educational approach in which students explore real-world problems through individual and group projects. When done well, it allows students to make sense of why content is useful and how it might be applied. The approach that Peek-Brown, an education specialist at Michigan State University, uses today to support elementary science teachers is one of four PBL programs studied in a new body of research that has generated strong evidence — based on “gold-standard” studies, using randomized control methods — showing that rigorous PBL improves student learning. (Research briefs for the studies are available at www.lucasedresearch.org/research/research-briefs .)

Funded by Lucas Education Research (which I lead) — a division of the George Lucas Educational Foundation — the research findings are the culmination of seven years of effort to develop and study rigorous PBL curricula and aligned supports used across grades and subjects. The studies were not meant to evaluate progressive education writ large, or even to evaluate all forms of PBL, but they did take a careful look at the effects of pairing high-quality project-based curriculum with the implementation of complementary instructional practices. Specifically, the findings, released in 2021, show that:

• Embedding project-based learning in Advanced Placement courses increased the probability of students earning a passing score on AP tests by about 8 percentage points in the first year and 10 percentage points after teachers had two years of experience with the project-based curriculum (Saavedra, Liu, et al., 2021).
• Middle school students in California who learned science with a project-based curriculum outperformed their peers by 11 percentage points on a science assessment and also did better on the state’s end-of-year math and English language arts assessments (Deutscher et al., 2021).
• Third-grade students in Michigan who used an interdisciplinary project-based science curriculum performed 8 percentage points better than peers in traditional classes on a key science assessment (Krajcik et al., 2021).
• Second-grade students in Michigan who used a project-based social studies and literacy curriculum demonstrated five to six more months of learning in social studies and two to three more months in informational reading than a comparison group (Duke et al., 2020).

Taken together, these studies provide clear evidence that rigorous project-based learning has a strong effect on student achievement. The research also found that these PBL programs improved certain aspects of social and emotional learning, and these effects were consistent across racial and socio-economic groups.

Questions and challenges about PBL

The definitional challenge.

It has taken many years, even decades, to develop an evidence base that focuses on the building blocks of effective PBL, largely because PBL itself has been difficult to define with precision, and it has meant different things to different people. Historically, for instance, many schools have assigned students to complete projects at the end of a unit — perhaps by doing an experiment or making a simple poster or shoebox diorama — rather than letting projects themselves drive student learning throughout the unit. Should that be called PBL, or is it something else entirely (i.e., the assignment of projects as a means of consolidating previous learning)?

It has taken many years, even decades, to develop an evidence base that focuses on the building blocks of effective PBL, largely because PBL itself has been difficult to define with precision.

In my own work, I’ve often heard educators say of good PBL instruction, “It’s hard to describe, but you know it when you see it.” I’ve also been in plenty of classrooms in which the instruction was called project-based learning but didn’t actually reflect the core practices that many of us associate with PBL — that is, the instruction didn’t allow for student inquiry or self-discovery, didn’t address authentic problems that young people care about, and wasn’t tied to key teaching and learning standards. Similarly, advocates have often disagreed with one another over the extent to which PBL requires students to drive their own learning or whether PBL ought to be treated as synonymous with student-centered learning or active learning. (As I see it, PBL does entail greater student agency than traditional instruction, but students don’t have to drive their learning all the time. There are times when traditional, direct instruction by a teacher is appropriate and necessary.) In short, it has been tricky to come up with an operational definition of PBL that is concrete enough to allow for rigorous research into its effects.

Through the Lucas Education Research (LER) research projects, we sought to create some clarity and consensus, based on evidence, around what effective PBL looks like. More specifically, we wanted to determine the extent to which well-designed project-based curriculum units and aligned professional development for teachers could support the implementation of consistent, effective instructional practices. Our hypothesis was that if we could define specific indicators of high-quality PBL, we could then conduct research to evaluate its effectiveness. In this way, we could begin to understand for whom PBL works and under what conditions.

Our research partners identified and described a powerful approach to learning that is consistent with the latest science on how people learn. They defined specific characteristics of rigorous project-based curricula, identified core teaching practices, and described the kind of professional development that would be needed to teach in these ways. Importantly, the research teams implemented and studied the curriculum and practices across various learning environments to ensure replication and reliability.

Across the board, the curricular programs highlighted in the LER studies feature project-based units that foster inquiry, engagement, and a need to learn more. The programs studied allow — to varying degrees — for a balance between student-led discovery followed by lecture or text-based instruction.

The question of who benefits

A definitional challenge isn’t the only obstacle to widespread adoption of PBL in schools. Another key challenge has been the deficit-based view that PBL works for some kids and not others. Too many adults have been led to believe that struggling learners and disadvantaged students need basic content and traditional approaches more than they need complex forms of instruction like PBL. As a result, students from low-income backgrounds, students of color, and English learners are less likely than others to experience approaches that are deeply engaging, ask enough of them, and develop student ownership of their learning (TNTP, 2018).

Too many adults have been led to believe that struggling learners and disadvantaged students need basic content and traditional approaches more than they need complex forms of instruction like PBL.

The new studies should dispel the view that PBL is only effective for some students. For example, in the study showing that students in PBL versions of AP courses outperformed those learning in more traditional ways, a majority of the students in four of the five districts studied were Black and Latinx (Saavedra, Liu, et al., 2021). In addition, a significantly higher proportion of the students in the study were from low-income households than is typical for AP test-takers. Students in the PBL middle school science program also attended high-poverty, diverse schools, and, notably, English learners in the PBL course outperformed peers on a state-developed language proficiency test (Deutscher et al., 2021). Additionally, 3rd-grade students in a PBL science course performed at superior levels on a state assessment, and this held true across racial and ethnic groups and socio-economic levels; it also held true regardless of reading ability level, meaning that struggling readers in the PBL class outperformed struggling readers in the traditional class on the science measure (Krajcik et al., 2021). Finally, the 2nd-grade students who outperformed their peers in reading and social studies attended low-performing schools serving low-income families (Duke et al., 2020).

The problem of implementation

Another criticism of PBL is that it’s labor intensive and hard to implement quickly. And it’s true that, as with most worthwhile educational programs, teacher practice improves over time with project-based learning. However, the new research found that teachers benefited rather quickly from having strong PBL curricula aligned with high-quality professional development opportunities. In the AP study, for example, the PBL curriculum had robust effects on student performance after just one year of implementation, though the gains were larger when teachers had two years of experience with the curriculum (Saavedra, Rapaport, et al., 2021).

Each of the programs highlighted in the new research studies included both strong curricular resources and high-quality professional development. Those professional development programs included sustained professional learning opportunities for teachers, active and collaborative learning experiences, and strong ties between the professional development offering and teachers’ classroom contexts.

Identifying key traits of high-quality PBL

The new studies come four years after MDRC, a social-policy research organization based in New York City and Oakland, CA, published a broad review of the research landscape and highlighted numerous studies that found positive associations between PBL and students’ development of knowledge and cognitive skills (Condliffe et al., 2017). However, the MDRC review also found that the field hadn’t come together to define clear PBL design principles and noted that the lack of a shared vision complicated efforts to determine whether PBL programs were effective and being implemented well. The new research helps greatly in this regard. Across the four new studies, researchers found common and important characteristics of successful project-based learning programs.

The new research found that teachers benefited rather quickly from having strong PBL curricula aligned with high-quality professional development opportunities.

For starters, PBL lessons should be rooted in purposeful and authentic experiences generated by students asking relevant questions. Driving questions that are feasible to explore and meaningful to students should anchor a unit of study, enabling students to explore and address issues beyond the four walls of their classroom — both in their community and the broader world. For example, in a unit within the 3rd-grade science curriculum, Multiple Literacies in Project-Based Learning, students observe squirrels and develop and revise a model of how a squirrel meets its needs and survives in the environment. A driving question and a series of related questions guide what students do in the unit.

In addition, well-designed project-based learning units are built from content standards, and the projects themselves should deepen student knowledge of core subjects and disciplinary practices. So, for example, teachers should use scientific methods to explore key questions specific to a scientific discipline. Or, in a history class, they should ask students to consider the reliability of primary sources and compare them to other sources, just as historians do when studying a topic. PBL generally lends itself to interdisciplinary learning, and the new studies confirmed that students engaged in PBL can simultaneously build knowledge and develop skills related to a range of content areas.

Schools with a culture of collaboration and innovation appear to be the best candidates for project-based learning. Trusting relationships and a healthy school climate contribute to student and teacher success with PBL. This finding from the new research aligns with an earlier American Institutes for Research study that found educators in schools successfully implementing PBL emphasized interpersonal skills (Huberman et al., 2014).

Finally, it is essential that educators are supported with high-quality professional learning opportunities so they can ground project-based lessons in evidence-based teaching and learning practices. These practices include providing feedback to students in a strategic and timely manner, creating opportunities for students to reflect on and revise their own work, and empowering students to share their learning with others through the presentation of products they create and public performances. (For more details about teaching practices, see Grossman et al., 2021.)

Calls for a deeper focus on developing students’ critical thinking and analytical skills, fostering agency, and teaching young people to work collaboratively in schools — just as they’ll likely have to do in college and careers — have resulted in an increased interest in PBL. Parents, educators, and policy makers are growing in their understanding that strong PBL improves student engagement (an area that has received particular attention amid disrupted learning due to the pandemic) and connects academic content to the broader world beyond school. In recent years, school networks centering project-based approaches to instruction (such as the New Tech Network, The Deeper Learning Network, and the High Tech High Network) have helped elevate the role of rigorous PBL in advancing teaching and learning goals. Some traditional districts have made strong gains in this area, too. For example, San Francisco Unified School District is expanding its use of project-based learning and now has a strong, well-regarded PBL science program in its middle schools.

I’ve been fortunate to have a close-up view of the PBL programs highlighted in the new studies and to hear from educators, administrators, and students who have used these approaches. Their insights give me confidence that we need to share their experiences, help tell their stories, and work to further scale rigorous PBL. For example, it’s inspiring to hear the perspective of retired Michigan principal Lynn Bigelman, who observed teachers at her school using the 2nd-grade social studies and literacy curriculum, Project PLACE. She was wowed when she saw 7- and 8-year-olds engaged in a civics and government unit in which they came up with a proposal for improvements to a local park and presented it to a city councilman:

The children had a voice, and they were able to speak with the local city council member and get improvements done to their playground. Problem solving, critical thinking, and civic learning were all happening . . . . They did PowerPoints and presentations on how to improve their local park. They used a lot of reading and writing skills, and students used 21st-century skills such as inquiry, critical thinking, agency, and problem solving.

Amber Graeber, a curriculum coordinator at Des Moines Public Schools, who has taught the AP U.S. Government and Politics course using project-based learning,  said the approach transformed her teaching:

Now, my students have a reason to learn and a need to know. The question in the beginning of each unit sparks my students’ curiosity. And they feel like they matter, which makes them much more engaged. They really remember what they learn because they experience it — they don’t just read it.

Students who have taken the PBL courses have strong opinions, too. Gil Leal, who participated in the project-based version of the AP Environmental Science program during high school, said that the course inspired him to major in environmental science in college:

In other classes, it was lecture, readings, test. But in AP Environmental Science we worked on projects with other students, discussed our ideas, considered different perspectives, and I learned so much more this way.

What comes next

As we look ahead, I hope the researcher and practitioner communities continue to work together to examine and share insights into how we can more successfully scale and sustain high-quality project-based learning. Researchers from schools of education and K-12 teachers around the country forged close working relationships as part of this effort to study rigorous PBL and develop curricular resources. Together, they contributed significantly to the research landscape. This model could continue to yield new information about what works best for whom and under what conditions.

In addition, as schools look for innovative, evidence-based ways to improve learning — particularly following the massive education disruption students and teachers faced in the pandemic — school and system leaders should strongly consider the role project-based learning can play in fostering engagement and improving other positive student outcomes. The new studies provide clear evidence that this approach to teaching and learning works across student populations, grade bands, and subjects. Furthermore, the research offers guidelines for characteristics to look for in the selection, development, and implementation of high-quality PBL curriculum, and it helps debunk long-standing concerns and myths that have prevented greater uptake of PBL.

Educators and school leaders should feel confident that if they pursue rigorous project-based learning, they will likely see student achievement and student engagement increase, and they also will see young people experience other lasting benefits. Deborah Peek-Brown, the veteran Michigan researcher and educator, summed it up well, saying:

PBL builds up students’ sense of being able to accomplish things and allows them to develop ownership of their work. If we can develop that in kids, we’re going to see them become amazing citizens and do amazing things as they go on in the rest of their lives.

Condliffe, B., Quint, J., Visher, M., Bangser, M., Drohojowska, S., Saco, L., & Nelson, E. (2017). Project-based learning: A literature review . MDRC.

Deutscher, R.R., Holthuis, N.C., Maldonado, S.I., Pecheone, R.L., Schultz, S.E., Wei, R.C., & Lucas Education Research. (2021). Project-based learning leads to gains in science and other subjects in middle school and benefits all learners . Lucas Education Research.

Duke, N.K., Halvorsen, A-L., Strachan, S.L., Kim, J., & Konstantopoulos, S. (2020, June). Putting PjBL to the test: The impact of project-based learning on second graders’ social studies and literacy learning and motivation in low-SES school settings. American Educational Research Journal .

Grossman, P., Hermann, Z., Schneider Kavanagh, S., & Pupik Dean, C.G., (2021). Core practices for project-based learning: A guide for teachers and leaders . Harvard Education Press.

Huberman, M., Bitter, C., Anthony, J., & O’Day, J. (2014). The shape of deeper learning: Strategies, structures, and cultures in deeper learning network high schools . American Institutes for Research.

Krajcik, J., Schneider, B., Miller, E., Chen, I.C., Bradford, L., Bartz, K.,  . . . & Lucas Education Research. (2021). Project-based learning increases science achievement in elementary schools and improves social and emotional learning . Lucas Education Research.

Saavedra, A.R., Liu Y., Haderlein, S.K., Rapaport, A., Garland, M., Hoepfner, D., . . . & Lucas Education Research. (2021). Project-based Learning Boosts Student Achievement in AP Courses . Lucas Education Research.

Saavedra, A.R., Rapaport, A., Lock Morgan, K., Garland, M., Liu, Y., Hu, A., . . . & Haderlein, S.K. (2021). Knowledge in action efficacy study over two years . Center for Economic and Social Research.

TNTP. (2018, September 25). The opportunity myth: What students can show us about how school is letting them down — and how to fix it . Author.

This article appears in the February 2022 issue of  Kappan,  Vol. 103, No. 5, pp. 36-41.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Kristin De Vivo

KRISTIN DE VIVO is the executive director of Lucas Education Research, a division of the George Lucas Educational Foundation, San Rafael, CA.

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• Position paper
• Open access
• Published: 28 November 2019

Promoting deep learning through project-based learning: a design problem

• Emily C. Miller 1 &
• Joseph S. Krajcik   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5413-507X 2  

Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research volume  1 , Article number:  7 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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In this paper, we present a design solution that involves the bringing together of Project-based Learning (PBL) with the theory of usable knowledge (Pellegrino & Hilton, Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century, 2012). Usable knowledge is the ability to use ideas to solve problems and explain phenomena, an approach to science learning put forth by the Framework for K-12 Science Education (National Research Council (NRC), A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas, 2012) to optimize science learning environments. We offer a process for designing a curricular system that enhances how students learn science as a progression toward sophisticated practice of usable knowledge by focusing on coherence, depth, and motivation. We saw the potential of these distinct approaches for informing one another, and we extrapolate on 4 years of research that involves the process of iterating on our curricular design to best integrate the two approaches to support student learning.

The work discussed in this manuscript was funded by the George Lucas Educational Foundation. The George Lucas Educational Foundation did not contribute to the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript. All ideas, findings and perspectives are those of the authors and not of the George Lucas Educational Foundation.

Our global community faces challenges of food security, access to potable water and threats such as climate change and habitat loss. Communities require scientifically literate citizens to make evidence-based decisions. All learners throughout the globe need to experience science education in which they develop the ability to use and apply scientific ideas and practices toward making decisions in science. The field calls for science learning environments that develop students’ ability to explain natural events, and design solutions to challenges using science ideas and practices.

The capacity to enact knowledge to solve a problem requires a deeper level of science understanding than memorizing information or procedures. Knowledge-in-use is the capacity that learners need to apply knowledge to make decisions and solve problems, and to evaluate when and how to get more information when necessary (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012 ). The knowledge-in-use perspective presents a significant shift from traditional understandings of science knowledge as memorized facts and procedures and subsequently, to the teaching and learning of science. It is only through exposure to authentic disciplinary experiences with questions and problems with open-ended, and unresolved solutions, that students develop deeper, more connected level of knowledge (Schneider et al., 2016 ). In this way, students are tasked to leverage scientific and engineering practices for authentic purpose, the scientific ideas become tools, which are then harnessed toward arriving at the solution, rather than goals. The knowledge-in-use approach is similar to how the STEM world approaches science ideas in order to solve local and global issues. Knowledge-in-use perspective has gained prominence in the United States through the Framework for K-12 Science Education (National Research Council (NRC), 2012 ). Reform documents in Finland, (Finnish National Board of Education (FNBE), 2015 ; Germany (Kulgemeyer & Schecker, 2014 ) and PISA (OECD, 2016 ) emphasize similar knowledge-in-use theories of science learning in national standards. The emphasis on knowledge-in-use reflects an increased awareness by educators, learning scientists, policymakers, and the public of the facilities required by global citizens in the twenty-first Century.

We ask, “How do we design learning environments to support learners in developing knowledge-in-use to promote the deeper application of learning called for by international reform standards documents?

Third grade students are often tasked to write a report about an animal and describe how that animal survives in its habitat (e.g., Gillam, 2018 ; Leveen, 2007 ). Third graders will read nonfictions texts, take notes, and then record the same information in descriptive passages. In this case, science knowledge is considered as discreet information, and the basis for the final grade is the correctness and thoroughness of the information presented. Knowledge-in-use describes science knowledge as the application of big ideas of biology and habitat. Knowledge-in-use is related to the student conceptualizing the problem, and then subsequent collection and synthesis of data, and culminating in developing and defending their solution. Knowledge-in-use must revolve around an authentic problem, where there is more than one answer, such as engineering habitat to protect a species of butterfly.

Research from learning sciences (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2019 ; NRC, 2007) supports the design of learning environments that engage students in authentic contexts where they make sense of natural phenomena by using disciplinary ideas and scientific and engineering practices. We propose that project-based learning (PBL) is one platform to promote the deeper learning of knowledge-in-use, which encompasses the vision of international reform documents.

In this paper, we elaborate on our four-year design process for developing PBL environments that promote a progression toward deep knowledge-in-use. As more and more national standards include similar approaches to learning, we realize that researchers from different countries are grappling with how to promote knowledge-in-use and could use use our process to inform their work. We developed a process that brings together the rigorous knowledge-in-use-based standards in the United States (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2019 ; National Research Council (NRC), 2012 ; NRC, 2007), with the motivating, creative, and individualized advantages of PBL (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ). Through a reflective, iterative design and redesign process we envision an alliance between rigor and motivation. We aim to iterate a design that maximizes deeper learning of performance standards through highlighting affordances, and mitigating the drawbacks, of these two approaches to science knowledge and to learning environments. We present one solution designed to sustain student interest across time, and that simultaneously builds important learning goals anchored in national standards.

We encourage countries to modify the design principles we put forth to fit their environment and standards. In the spirit of collaboration, we are excited to find out how the design principles we offer here may contribute to the solutions being put forth in other countries.

Example of standards that emphasize knowledge-in-use

The Framework for K- 12 Science Education (National Research Council (NRC), 2012 ) and Science and Engineering for Grades 6–12: Investigation and Design at the Center (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2019 ) build on learning theory (e.g., constructivism (Piaget, 1964 ) and situated cognition (Brown et al., 1989 ) to present a vision for science teaching and learning that moves classroom learning away from the acquisition of disconnected science concepts and memorized procedures to learning environments where students simultaneously develop disciplinary core ideas (DCIs), science and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts -- to make sense of real-world phenomena or design solutions to problems. Disciplinary core ideas (DCIs) are central to the disciplines of science as they represent a few of the most key ideas of earth and space sciences, physical science, life science and engineering. Disciplinary core ideas are powerful intellectual tools as they allow individuals to explain and predict a host of phenomena, serve as tools for investigating and exploring more complex ideas and solving problems, and are the building blocks for learning within a discipline (Duncan, Krajcik, & Rivet, 2016 ). Each DCI is useful in explaining a comprehensive range of natural phenomena and engineering problems. For example, ESS2.C: The Roles of Water in Earth’s Surface Processes is a component idea of the larger DCI Earth’s systems. Footnote 2 Crosscutting concepts (CCCs), such as cause and effect and structure and function are ideas that occur within and across disciplinary boundaries and are applied as lenses to ask questions of any phenomena. Scientific and engineering practices are the ways of knowing and doing which scientists and engineers employ to study and explore the natural and designed worlds. Although each of the dimensions is important on its own, to make sense of phenomena or solve problems, the dimensions work together to support students in the process. This integration of the three dimensions is referred to as three-dimensional learning (3D-learning).

The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS; NGSS Lead State Partners, 2013 ) follow the vision of the Framework to present standards that incorporate all three dimensions: DCIs, SEPs and CCCs. Because each performance standard joins a practice with an idea and a crosscutting concept, they require students to use knowledge to explore or achieve something.

The 3D-learning of the NGSS is not intuitive and it is difficult for teachers to operationalize (Penuel, Harris, & DeBarger, 2015 ). Teachers must change their teaching practice and understand learning as trajectory toward generative ideas while supporting practices that involve critical thinking about natural events. PBL presents a potentially accommodating platform for operationalizing this knowledge-in-use perspective. In PBL environments, the development of concrete artifacts to solve a meaningful problem is aligned with learning goals. In the same way that ideas are tools for making sense of a natural event, they can be employed for developing artifacts. The artifacts in PBL can motivate students to sustain in their cognitive work and stick with challenging ideas.

• Project-based learning

PBL is grounded in major theoretical ideas: (1) active construction, (2) situated learning, (3) social interactions, and (4) cognitive tools (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 ). There are different versions of PBL (Barron et al., 1998 ; Krajcik et al., 1998 ), but all have in common the following: PBL uses a driving question that is meaningful to learners. This question drives student exploration and sustains motivation across time. Projects result in artifacts that are concrete and answers the driving question and culminates a learning sequence. Last, in PBL, the question and the artifact have an authentic connection to the community (Helle, Tynjälä, & Olkinuora, 2006 ). Project-based learning can be a platform for social studies, science, technology, and increasingly for language literacy and mathematics contexts.

Research across these disciplines have refined PBL for meeting specific practices associated with those disciplines (Bell, 2010 ; Boaler, 2002 ; Krajcik & Mun, 2014 ). In addition, discussions that bring together PBL approaches across disciplines is beginning. Project-based learning structures science learning environments around questions that engage students in collaborative sense-making of phenomena. Because PBL focuses on students and their interests, it tailors to the intellectual resources and experiences of diverse students and is responsive to culture, race, SES, and gender (Boaler, 2002 ; Geier et al., 2008 ; Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx, & Soloway, 1994 ).

Project-based learning has acceptance by teachers and communities as an invigorating approach that motivates students to learn (Beneke & Ostrosky, 2009 ; Chu, Tse, & Chow, 2011 ). Teacher take-up of PBL is documented and when well supported by administration, there is success in the approach. Students will sustain in problem spaces, and their learning endeavors are fueled by construction, social contexts, and creative problem solving and community connection (Krajcik et al., 1994 ). PBL succeeds when teachers have autonomy, wherewithal, and flexibility to modify the pace of instruction, scaffold learning, and create differentiation (Barron et al., 1998 ). Teachers must rely on their own expertise to scaffold productive and equitable interactions among students from different demographic groups. To this end, researchers emphasize the need for principal support of teachers as experts who can leverage individualized understanding of their students (Lam, Cheng, & Choy, 2010 ).

Current programs that feature school-wide models for PBL can be found across the United States as well in many other countries such as Finland, Germany, Israel, and Denmark (Schneider et al., 2016 ; Tal & Miedijensky, 2005 ; Thomas, 2000 ). However, PBL models have not resolved questions of scale and sustainability, especially for less well-funded public schools (Coburn, 2003 ). They are often funded privately or featured in charter schools in the US, such as High Tech High, Think Global School, Envision Schools, My Tech High, Da Vinci Schools and schools associated with the Buck Institute for Education (Larmer, Ross, & Mergendoller, 2009 ).

Challenges with scale, sustainability and PBL persist for the field, especially integrating PBL with reform-based standards or top-down initiatives (Coburn, 2003 ; Halvorsen et al., 2012 ). This may be due to the emphasis of PBL in individualism and creativity. Projects that are student-driven can become off track and result in lost teaching time in which academic standards are not met, and unproductive engagement (Blumenfeld et al., 1991 ). Barron et al. ( 1998 ) suggest one avenue to address curriculum standards through PBL. They included a design step in a PBL in which 5th grade students are to make a proposal for their design to a solution to rocket investigation. They compared two projects that engaged students in physics concepts, but one project included the step of submitting a rocket design according to specification from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The specification of the proposal guided students toward meeting content learning goals. Blumenfeld et al. ( 1991 ) also suggest that standards can be addressed in PBL. They call for research to designate lesson elements that are both fixed for the purpose of meeting standards, as well as elements that have flexibility and allow for student choice to remain true to PBL intent.

Despite the wide acceptance that PBL enjoys as curricular approach for students, PBL remains under researched (Halvorsen et al., 2012 ), especially in elementary education. Studies support PBL as motivating for students, and preliminary evidence indicates that PBL enhances student learning of challenging content and other skills such as problem solving and confidence (Kokotsaki, Menzies, & Wiggins, 2016 ). A major call for the field has been to gather evidence that PBL environments correlate with student learning of knowledge-in-use standards in rigorous gold standard randomized control trials (Kokotsaki et al., 2016 ).

This bringing together of the PBL approach with the rigorous knowledge-in-use standards for designing student learning environments has been our team’s ongoing work (Krajcik, Palincsar, & Miller, 2015 ; Miller, Codere, Severance, & Krajcik, 2019 ). We interrogate the process for capitalizing on two distinct approaches, one of student learning and another of learning environment design and pedagogies. Our effort is to develop a process for curricular systems (e.g., assessment, written curriculum and professional learning) that brings together the rigorous performances of the NGSS with the motivating, student centered approach of PBL. In this way, we hope to solve the challenges related to PBL: 1) tension in meeting standards, 2) scale and sustainability in multiple contexts, and 3) strong research support for the use of PBL in multiple contexts.

• Design-based research

We use a design-based research method (Barab & Squire, 2004 ) where we conjecture, build and test the theory of educational curricular system materials (Sandoval, 2014 ). The DBR method enables us to evaluate and refine innovations around persistent educational problems, impact classrooms, and simultaneously make substantial contributions to the research literature. The team has completed three distinct cycles of redesigning parts of the system of curriculum. Each cycle includes focus on problem and data analysis, and design or revision of theoretical framings and materials, implementation, and evaluation.

Our work is based on the Multiple-Literacies in Project-based Learning (ML-PBL) project that endeavors to design engaging learning environments for 3rd – 5th grades (upper elementary school) to improve science achievement, engagement, and social and emotional learning. ML-PBL is a designed-based learning environments that capitalize on PBL and the NGSS to:

Engage all students in sense-making

Use language literacy and mathematical tools to develop science understanding

Design, develop and test a system for advancing science teaching and learning that builds a vision for enacting project-based learning and meeting NGSS for 3rd - 5th grades.

The system includes:

○ Highly developed and specified educative teacher materials (i.e., how to promote discourse, use of the driving questions; scaffolded sequence of lessons)

○ Highly developed and specified student materials (i.e., first-hand experiences, readings, writing experiences, model construction)

○ Professional learning supports (i.e., face-to-face meeting, video conferences, educative supports)

○ 3-dimensional formative and end-of-unit assessments

Support students to solve problems, think critically, develop creativity and think innovatively.

Develop curriculum materials with both fixed and flexible elements so they can be translated across various school contexts to enable scalability. PBL curriculum design should be able to inform what components of principles need to fixed – or, in other words, “best practice” regardless of context –and which design principles should be responsive and adaptive to different contexts.

To design, test and revise our materials, the ML-PBL group went through the following cycles of development, testing and revision. The first year of ML-PBL we conducted teaching experiments for the 3rd grade materials with just a few teachers to explore if the questions and phenomena we selected were compelling to learners. In the second year, we focused on pilot studies of the 3rd grade materials and teaching experiments of the 4th grade materials. Our pilot studies reached a greater number of teachers but still allowed us as researchers to watch closely what occurred in the classrooms. In the 3rd year, a field study with comparison teachers was conduct on the 3rd grade materials and pilot study of the 4th grade materials. Now in the 4th year, the Multiple Literacies Team has focused on an efficacy study with matched randomized controls of the Grade 3 units; revising and field-testing Grade 4 units; and teaching experiments of Grade 5 units.

In each cycle, we have focus classrooms in each grade where we collect rich ethnographic data, the primary source for evaluation and redesign of theory of integrated pedagogy materials for PBL and the NGSS. The thick data collection in these contexts responds to open ended research questions involving teacher and student discursive and collaborative practices, shifts in community, and science teaching and learning as ML-PBL is enacted.

This paper presents the theoretical alignment and material development of PBL and the knowledge-in-use of the NGSS (ML-PBL). And we present our approach to motivating sustainability and scale, and coherence with fixed and flexible aspects of implementation for the current cycle, as we are currently engaged in the efficacy study. The findings of our work result in emerging theory for design features of project-based learning and the ongoing development of ML-PBL.

PBL design to offer sustained focus in coherent material

Standards based on a knowledge-in-use approach describe progressions in which the student demonstrates scientific understanding of ideas and practices with increasing sophistication over time. Development of such knowledge requires a coherent design of curriculum materials. Coherence is the careful design that builds the ability to apply knowledge over time, where not only the ideas are developing, but the scientific practices and problem solving capacity are mutually reinforced. In the PBL curriculum, application of knowledge must be supported over the span of the project as the final project is developed, revised and presented to the community.

Coherence involves the system of activity that develops over time, and is guided by common goal expectations and norms of the discipline (Ford & Forman, 2006 ; Reiser, 2014 ). This practice builds by students collaboratively and incrementally developing and refining knowledge (Gouvea, Jamshidi, & Passmore, 2014 ). Each time learners figure out additional, succeeding piece of knowledge, they add to the developing explanation, model, or designed solution. The activities shape a narrative that provides an intentional path toward building understanding, anchored in students’ meaningful knowledge building experiences. In a coherent design, students have a reason for learning what they are learning (Edelson, 2001 ; Reiser, 2014 ), and are tasked to apply previous steps for accomplishing subsequent steps. Project-based learning can be designed for the coherence and to inform the requisite perseverance for students to build robust scientific understandings over time.

An example of coherence is a description of a series of lessons involving protected birds in the area. Students are tasked to design a bird feeder for the protected bird. This project demonstrates coherence by engaging students in lessons to develop the following ideas sequentially:

Not all birds look the same and birds have different traits. This idea is developed through field research and data comparison.

Traits correspond to the environment that birds can survive in, and the resources that are available for the bird to access. This idea is developed through data analysis and argumentation about which body shape, feet and beaks are most suited to certain environments, and a resource inventory near the school.

Environments change throughout the year, changing the resources that are available, and some birds must adapt to these changes by migrating. This idea is developing through student creating models of phenology and mathematical thinking involving maps and migration patterns.

Students have three critical ideas necessary for designing a bird feeder, and none of the ideas could be deeply understood without the preceding focused engagement in the phenomenon.

Bringing together project-based learning with knowledge-in-use

The task in designing, developing and testing PBL instructional units is to create learning environments that will peak students’ interests and drive them to learn and meet national standards (Schneider et al., 2016 ), designers need to pick complex and compelling phenomena and corresponding driving questions that will drive and sustain student learning and is thus an essential aspect of our work.

Establishing the driving question sets the stage for meeting all of the other key features of PBL and supporting learners in developing knowledge-in-use. The driving question focuses students’ planning and carrying out collaborative investigations and guides the development of artifacts, which are concrete representations of the results of students’ investigations. Throughout PBL, students collaborate and use cognitive tools in their investigations and in building artifacts that represent their emerging understandings. As such, the PBL classroom is a sense-making and knowledge-generating environment. Our design approach focuses on designing project-based learning environments that engage learners in pursuing questions about the natural world, design-based problems and natural events in which they live and meeting national standards, in our case the NGSS.

PBL and the NGSS integrated design

The integration of the PBL and the NGSS results in key generalizable approach for knowledge-in-use and curriculum and related instructional approached. In particular, we emphasize the usefulness of driving questions related to phenomenon and engineering solutions and the use of student ideas as cognitive tools that support knowledge building, driven by the discourse of sensemaking. Our design principles incorporate the PBL features and the learning goals of three-dimensional learning. We focused on picking phenomena and problems that meet standards, but at the same time compelling to the learner. The bold print represents the additions to the PBL features through integration with the NGSS and three-dimensional learning.

Lessons start with a driving question about a phenomenon and engineering problem , a problem to be solved or experience to be explained that promote wonderment about the world.

Lessons focus on Three-Dimensional learning goals (NGSS) that students are required to demonstrate mastery on key science standards and assessments.

Students participate in the Framework and the NGSS scientific practices – processes of investigating events and problem solving that are central to expert performance in the discipline.

Students explore the driving question by engaging in collaborative sensemaking activities to engage in shared knowledge building -- the solutions to the driving question.

While engaged in the practices of science, learning is scaffolded with discourse tools that help students participate in activities normally beyond their ability.

Overtime students iteratively and cohesively create a set of tangible products that scientifically address the driving question with increasing sophistication. These are shared artifacts, publicly accessible external representations of the class’s learning with local impact.

The phenomena and problems in PBL that students make sense of are the drivers of an increasingly complex demand for figuring out the driving question that the students investigate throughout the unit (Krajcik & Czerniak, 2018 ). Each new phenomenon or problem builds off the last and offers new insight toward the driving question. This careful and purposeful building meaning of phenomena through 3-D learning to acquire “usable” knowledge, builds coherence across the unit, and is what our team refined and iterated over time as a key solution to sustaining student engagement to develop knowledge-in-use. The artifact in ML-PBL is authentically connected to the community and solves a problem or explains a phenomenon in the design or natural world. The artifact leverages the engineering design solution and associated standards in the NGSS. Students must employ science ideas to collect information about a local science problem, develop a solution, test their solution and communicate their results to others.

We developed learning sets, or weekly coherent sets of lessons to help our teachers track the coherence of the lesson and across lessons that comprised the developing project. We included in learning sets driving questions of smaller grain-size toward the overarching driving question, usually comprising 5 lessons each. Each learning set, approximately 6 per unit, is responsive to the driving question, has its own tethered driving question and evidence statements. Evidence statements describe the learning that takes place in the lesson, and explicitly meet the goals of the lesson. As each learning set progresses, the understanding of the phenomenon is deepened, and the explanation becomes more sophisticated.

Each new learning set demands students deepen scientific understandings, referred to as conceptual tools (Blumenfeld et al., 1991 ), which they must use to make sense of the phenomenon (see Fig.  1 ) or solve the engineering problem (see Fig.  2 ). Footnote 3 In the phenomenon driven units (see Fig. 1 ), the demand to make sense of the phenomenon has direct implications for the development of the artifact. In some instances, to motivate learning and sustain engagement over time, our units focus on a driving question that is problem driven (see Fig. 2 ). In the problem driven unit, the impetus to solve a problem motivates the need to explore and explain the phenomenon.

How application of ideas as conceptual tools is developed and used over time to engage with a phenomenon

How application of ideas as conceptual tools is developed and used over time to engage with a solution to a problem

One third grade unit in ML-PBL engages learners in the driving question, “Why do I see so many squirrels but no stegosauruses?” This unit provides an authentic phenomenon for the students to explain (see Fig. 1 ). The students engage in a variety of investigations and modeling activities that include observing the squirrel outside, analyzing the structure of squirrels, making claims about how the needs of the squirrel relate to meeting its needs in the environments, and organizing and comparing information about squirrels and stegosauruses. The final artifact is a model that explains the stegosaurus’s extinction event and the eutherian mammal survival story of the same time period. Students integrate all they have figured out about adaptations, traits, and interactions with the environment as well as the re-creation of the ancient prehistoric environments using fossils, to make an argument that changes in the environment might have caused the extinction of one animal and not the other. Another unit, entitled, “How can I help the birds in my community grow up and thrive”, provides an authentic problem for the students to solve (see Fig. 2 ). The students engage in a variety of investigations and modeling activities that include bird observations and data collection, collecting information about birds – including traits, social behavior, life cycle, and ecology – modeling a chosen birds’ response to change in weather and in climate, and designing a bird feeder for that bird. Thus, the students are motivated to sustain effort in deep science learning, propelled by their problem and through this engagement learning scientific ideas and practices key to the NGSS.

The original storyline (Krajcik & Shin, 2013 ; Nordine, Krajcik, Fortus, & Neumann, 2019 ) included the overarching driving question and lessons that built in sophistication as learners investigated the driving question. It also included the 3-D learning goals and the expectation that students would figure out phenomenon or solving problems that linked to the driving question. We adapted design components to become more responsive to the elementary setting and raised new questions about fixed and flexible design principles. Our efforts to embed creativity through multiple possible solutions of each driving question enrich the conversation about utility in broad and more specific contexts.

Design for coherence to promote deeper, sustained learning

For students to develop capacity for application of more sophisticated ideas, scientific practices and crosscutting concepts called for by the NGSS, they must leverage the motivating PBL practices to sustain attention and iterate on these applications. They need to learn to tolerate mistakes and recalibrate their use of ideas and modify representations to match the evidence. This is challenging for students and their teachers who support the learning. As such we need stronger evidence if PBL serves as an platform to design for the coherence and the requisite perseverance for students to build knowledge-in-use and thus robust understandings over time.

In our work, we revise the storyline approach by interrogating what is meant by coherence within units, across units, and across grade levels. Our research integrates learning of challenging science ideas aligned to the NGSS with students’ engagement in science practices, language development, math, and technology. In addition, upper elementary is a context where students and teachers are steeped in community-building and attention to equity. Last, we found that our upper elementary teachers were less familiar with science ideas, and less comfortable with teaching science, which impacted our educative supports and grain size of coherence. With this in mind, we designed the units to achieve across unit coherence and within unit coherence, which was divided into learning set coherences. In these ways, we found that the new context pushed our design process to be re-shaped specific to elementary school context. We have become increasingly and reflexively:

intentional about the coherence, within a unit and across units;

purposeful in designing coherence in the enactment and artifacts -- building and using evidence statements in each lesson that adhere to the storyline and driving question;

attentive to coherence with respect to integrations of science with language development and math ideas and practices, discourse supports, SEL, and cultural competencies (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ) thereby describing shared language and community being built over time;

more attentive in creating community and responsive learning environments over time;

more attention to smaller grain size coherence levels of within and across learning sets within the larger storyline. Grain size coherence characterizes consideration to lesson level, rather than learning set level, development of ideas.

PBL curriculum design using ML-PBL design features enhance and provides directions on developing PBL materials– or, in other words, best practice regardless of context to meet the three dimensions of learning contained in the NGSS--with design principles that are responsive and adaptive to different contexts, part of the student centered approach in PBL. With a focus on coherence, and aligning PBL with the NGSS, we have designed, enacted, researched, and revised units that promote rigorous knowledge that teachers can operationalize. Our design reshaped the PBL principles for utility in broad and more specific contexts (Miller et al., 2019 ).

Consistent with the call to lessen inequality and increase educational opportunities for all children (NRC, 2012 ; OECD, 2016 ), PBL can reshape science education by engaging all learners in meaningful and robust knowledge building experiences. As a paucity of robust research on PBL exists, the design prepared to advance the understanding of how to develop and design PBL environments and support all learners in developing deeper and more useable science knowledge. While we recognize PBL is not the only approach that can promote knowledge-in-use, PBL does show promise – still there are important questions for the field to answer. In particular, we need more rigorous evidence to support the use of PBL as promoting knowledge-in-use and scalable across contexts.

Multiple Literacies in Project-Based Learning (ML-PBL) resources employ features of PBL to design, develop and test NGSS aligned elementary learning environments with a coherent design that promotes student learning of the big ideas of science and social and emotional learning, with artifacts that connect to authentic community-based contexts. We have crafted teacher and student materials integrated with long-term professional learning. ML-PBL is unique in that it integrates multiple literacies (i.e., communicating with community, arguing data, modeling phenomena, design problems, and presentation of solution to older students and staff members and stakeholders) along with new ambitious standards in science (NGSS, Lead States, 2013 ) to support children in developing application or useable science knowledge (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012 ). A key feature of our work is the focus on students making sense of compelling and complex phenomena or designing solutions to problems. Everyday, place-based phenomena and problems are compelling to learning because they can spark and sustain interest. The coherent design with fixed and flexible features support learners in building usable knowledge of DCIs, CCCs and SEPs. Learners engage in collaboration and discourse to make sense of phenomena or problem in creative ways. We continue to review enactment to understand what features of the curriculum are associated with shifts in teacher practices, and which features correlate with deeper learning. While our design principles emerged from work in elementary classrooms, many of the principles our applicable to PBL environments at other grade levels (Schneider et al., 2016 ).

We add to the conversation in the field the tenacious or sticky problem of implementing theory in classrooms and recognizing the pull for dilution. Our ML-PBL design approach invigorates the learning through a coherent design that recognizes the need to purposeful and strategic introduction of related phenomenon and continued iteration of the artifact with new questions that supports students in developing useable knowledge. In addition, we propose that the NGSS and three-dimensional learning benefit the PBL approach because the goal of deeper learning and artifact development coincide and mutually reinforce one another. We continue to seek models of teacher sense-making and community building in professional learning around productive struggle of implementation, and flexibility in practice for differentiation and context that enables creativity and responsiveness.

We continue to perfect the design --the tension between fixed and flexible elements in the flow of learning called for multiple trials. We continue to seek models of teacher sensemaking and community building in professional learning around productive struggle of implementation, and flexibility in practice for differentiation and context that enables creativity and responsiveness.

In the global community collaboration is a capacity we are all working to advance and strengthen. It’s important for nations to come together and take on similar challenges of bringing together knowledge-in-use and designs that work to improve learning environments. We offer this design process for developing PBL and hope other countries use their own efforts to build toward this effort.

Availability of data and materials

All ML-PBL materials are Creative Commons Open Sources and are freely available for public use. The materials have the designation of Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Interested individuals can access the materials at https://open.mlpbl.com/#/. Individuals interested in the data and supporting documents can contact the corresponding author.

ESS stands for Earth and Space Science, which is the Science Discipline; The 2 is related to the Disciplinary Core Idea Earth’s Systems; And the C denotes Component idea, Weather and Climate in The Framework for K-12 Science Education, pp. 171. (National Research Council (NRC), 2012 )

The figures use the abbreviation LS, which refers to Learning Set, the short series of lessons that address one or two specified performance expectations.

Abbreviations

Three-dimensional learning

Crosscutting Concepts

Disciplinary Core Ideas

Multiple Literacies in Project-based Learning

National Academy of Science

Next Generation of Science Standards

National Research Council

Project-Based Learning

Scientific and Engineering Practices

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Emily Miller is a Senior Researcher Consultant at Create for STEM, co-Principal Investigator on Multiple Literacies for Project-based Learning and ABD candidate in UW Madison.

Joe Krajcik is the Principal Investigator on Multiple Literacies for Project-based Learning, the Lappan-Philips Professor of Science Education and Director of CREATE 4 STEM at Michigan State University.

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RESEARCH: A Review of the Research on Project-Based Learning

A review of the research on project-based learning.

This review covers research studies published between 1984 and 1999 conducted at the elementary and secondary levels that focus on project based learning, problem based learning, expeditionary learning, and problem based instruction. This review focuses on research on PBL practices that meet five criteria: centrality, driving question, constructivist investigations, autonomy, and realism. Key topics in this review include: definitions of Project-Based Learning, underpinnings of PBL research and practice, student characteristics and PBL, implementation challenges, and effectiveness research

Citation: Thomas, J. W. (2000). A Review of the Research on Project-Based Learning, 1-45. San Rafael, CA: The Autodesk.

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Call for Proposals: Revitalizing STEM education to equip next generations with STEM Competency (Extended deadline: 12 May 2024)

The 15-month project aims to create innovative educational solutions, to increase institutional and professional capabilities, and share knowledge and best practices at both regional and global levels. The project will identify innovative proposals composed of STEM Research Activities and STEM Educational Activities presented by applicant teams. After 6 months of implementation, project teams will be invited to co-create and consolidate results to co-develop a STEM education knowledge hub and a regional inventory of STEM educational resources.

A supervisory board will select up to 5 promising proposals. Project proposals will need to consider national and local STEM educational landscapes and coordinate with relevant stakeholders. Selected teams will receive funding from the project of a total of up to 26,000 USD to implement their innovative STEM education projects within a 6-month period. 

The selected project teams will have the opportunity to share results, best practices, methodologies, and lessons learnt. The generated knowledge will then be scaled up within and across the region.

Each proposal will include both STEM Research Activities and STEM Educational Activities, whose implementation will be executed by project teams in close collaboration with UNESCO.

For STEM Research Activities , the research should focus on one of the following domains:

• Correlation between investments in STEM and educational outcomes
• Female participation in STEM education
• Flexible teaching and learning models and inclusive approaches
• Technologies development and application in STEM education in schools
• Effectiveness of the educational system to deliver STEM education
• National ecosystems and policies for STEM education

For STEM Educational Activities , the activities should relate to one of the following modalities:

• STEM teaching and learning activities for students
• Strengthening teacher development and inclusive STEM pedagogies

Educational agencies, universities, research agencies, independent experts, NGOs, and schools from UNESCO Member States in Europe  (with a priority focus on South-East Europe and the Mediterranean) are all eligible applicants. 

Interested applicants are requested to submit all documents to [email protected] by 12 May 2024 by 23:59 (CET). Applicants may direct questions related to the preparation of the application to the same email address.

For more details on the selection criteria and supporting documents, please download the attached “Call for Proposals” and “Application Form”.

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Students reflect on lecture-based versus project-based learning at Uni High

“There’s a difference between researching stuff on your own, learning it the way you want to learn it, and really getting into it, and having someone just talking at you,” says sophomore Alyssa Neubauer of Uni’s mainly project-based learning curriculum. 

While Uni classes have a variety of different structures — Uni’s Admissions page states that school curriculum can vary “ year to year based on research, experience, student feedback, and experimentation” — many classes tend to be project-based versus lecture-based. 

Students discuss the pros and cons of both traditional and project-based learning. 

Sophomore Emmie Vargas says she enjoys project-based learning because it helps her develop her time-management skills. 

“[Project-based learning] allows you to be ready for college, especially with presentations and projects,” Vargas says. “Personally, I do a lot better with a working environment. Having something to work on constantly, with time management, that’s a really big thing for me.” 

Uni students tend to favor project-based learning versus lecture-based learning. In a poll on the Uni High Gargoyle’s Instagram, 64% of respondents said they preferred project-based classes versus the 36% that preferred the traditional method of teaching. 

Junior Jacque Butts thinks project-based learning gives students too much free time. 

“I think that a lot of Uni classes are project-based, and sometimes it’s fun. But a lot of the time, if you’re stuck with a project you don’t like, you’re forced to learn a lot about that subject,” says Butts. “And even if you do like a subject, you’re not really being taught anything … [in class].” 

Senior Savindi Devmal thinks the structure of a class depends on its subject, citing Uni’s physics classes as an example.

“I think physics, for example, physics is all lecture. There are no projects in physics, but I think that’s the best way to teach it,” Devmal says. 

She adds that history classes are best taught through a project-based structure. 

“I also like how in history, in Mr. Leff’s class[es], we do a lot of project-based stuff, and that makes sense to me,” says Devmal. “When you’re researching and learning about a topic, it just feels more interactive when you’re doing the research and it’s not someone telling you all the information.” 

Executive Teacher of the Social Studies Department Andrew Wilson notes that while lectures are occasionally used in history classes at Uni, project-based learning suits the subject better. 

“Lectures are really great for conveying information,” says Wilson. “If you want people to take in and know a lot of information, that’s great. But if your emphasis is more on skills, like if I want to help you be a critical thinker, be a better writer, be a better researcher, be able to do analysis — that’s gonna require you to do some projects.” 

“We want you to be able to look for information, be able to assess it, and find what you need to find,” Wilson adds. “And you don’t really do that if people are lecturing you and you’re just taking in the information, then taking a test.” 

Wilson points out that group projects tend to be a con of project-based learning for some students. 

Many history classes across Uni’s curriculum involve group projects, and a common complaint is group work, says Wilson. 

“It’s kind of nice to work with groupmates, but sometimes it’s not great to work with group members who don’t pull their weight and don’t do their work,” Wilson says. 

“Working with other people who don’t pull their weight, or procrastinate, or don’t have good time management skills can bring down your project as a whole, and it’s frustrating to deal with things like that,” Vargas agrees. 

However, Wilson thinks that this facet of project-based learning isn’t a flaw, as it allows students to learn to “work with people.” 

Butts prefers lecture-based learning in her classes. 

“I prefer lectures because I’m being taught directly about a subject and I get to ask questions, instead of just being left to do it all by myself,” Butts says. 

Devmal thinks there should be a balance between both lecture- and project-based learning in classes. 

“I do think there should be a balance between lectures and project-based learning, because there’s value in both. I don’t think it’s great to have all lectures or all projects, but I also think it depends on the subject,” she says. 

As Vargas discusses project-based learning, she works on her essay for Wilson’s World History Since 1500 class. 

“I picked a good topic for [my project],” says Vargas. “I was able to work with it, manage my time, and not do it all the week before it was due.” 

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Computer Science > Robotics

Title: research on robot path planning based on reinforcement learning.

Abstract: This project has conducted research on robot path planning based on Visual SLAM. The main work of this project is as follows: (1) Construction of Visual SLAM system. Research has been conducted on the basic architecture of Visual SLAM. A Visual SLAM system is developed based on ORB-SLAM3 system, which can conduct dense point cloud mapping. (2) The map suitable for two-dimensional path planning is obtained through map conversion. This part converts the dense point cloud map obtained by Visual SLAM system into an octomap and then performs projection transformation to the grid map. The map conversion converts the dense point cloud map containing a large amount of redundant map information into an extremely lightweight grid map suitable for path planning. (3) Research on path planning algorithm based on reinforcement learning. This project has conducted experimental comparisons between the Q-learning algorithm, the DQN algorithm, and the SARSA algorithm, and found that DQN is the algorithm with the fastest convergence and best performance in high-dimensional complex environments. This project has conducted experimental verification of the Visual SLAM system in a simulation environment. The experimental results obtained based on open-source dataset and self-made dataset prove the feasibility and effectiveness of the designed Visual SLAM system. At the same time, this project has also conducted comparative experiments on the three reinforcement learning algorithms under the same experimental condition to obtain the optimal algorithm under the experimental condition.

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