scientific method essay sample

15 Scientific Method Examples

The scientific method is a structured and systematic approach to investigating natural phenomena using empirical evidence . 

The scientific method has been a lynchpin for rapid improvements in human development. It has been an invaluable procedure for testing and improving upon human ingenuity. It’s led to amazing scientific, technological, and medical breakthroughs.

Some common steps in a scientific approach would include:

• Observation
• Question formulation
• Hypothesis development
• Experimentation and collecting data
• Analyzing results
• Drawing conclusions

Definition of Scientific Method

The scientific method is a structured and systematic approach to investigating natural phenomena or events through empirical evidence. 

Empirical evidence can be gathered from experimentation, observation, analysis, and interpretation of data that allows one to create generalizations about probable reasons behind those happenings. 

As mentioned in the article published in the journal  Nature,

“ As schoolchildren, we are taught that the scientific method involves a question and suggested explanation (hypothesis) based on observation, followed by the careful design and execution of controlled experiments, and finally validation, refinement or rejection of this hypothesis” (p. 237).

The use of scientific methods permits replication and validation of other people’s scientific analyses, leading toward improvement upon previous results, and solid empirical conclusions. 

Voit (2019) adds that:

“…it not only prescribes the order and types of activities that give a scientific study validity and a stamp of approval but also has substantially shaped how we collectively think about the endeavor of investigating nature” (p. 1).

This method aims to minimize subjective biases while maximizing objectivity helping researchers gather factual data. 

It follows set procedures and guidelines for testing hypotheses using controlled conditions, assuring optimum accuracy and relevance in concluding by assessing a range of aspects (Blystone & Blodgett, 2006).

Overall, the scientific method provides researchers with a structured way of inquiry that seeks insightful explanations regarding evidence-based investigation grounded in facts acquired from an array of fields.

15 Examples of Scientific Method

• Medicine Delivery : Scientists use scientific method to determine the most effective way of delivering a medicine to its target location in the body. They perform experiments and gather data on the different methods of medicine delivery, monitoring factors such as dosage and time release.
• Agricultural Research : Scientific method is frequently used in agricultural research to determine the most effective way to grow crops or raise livestock. This may involve testing different fertilizers, irrigation methods, or animal feed, measuring yield, and analyzing data.
• Food Science and Nutrition : Nutritionists and food scientists use the scientific method to study the effects of different food types and diet on health. They design experiments to understand the impact of dietary changes on weight, disease risk, and overall health outcomes.
• Environmental Studies : Researchers use scientific method to study natural ecosystems and how human activities impact them. They collect data on things like biodiversity, water quality, and pollution levels, analyzing changes over time.
• Psychological Studies : Psychologists use the scientific method to understand human behavior and cognition. They conduct experiments under controlled conditions to test theories about learning, memory, social interaction, and more.
• Climate Change Research : Climate scientists use the scientific method to study the Earth’s changing climate. They collect and analyze data on temperature, CO2 levels, and ice coverage to understand trends and make predictions about future changes.
• Geology Exploration : Geologists use scientific method to analyze rock samples from deep in the earth’s crust and gather information about geological processes over millions of years. They evaluate data by studying patterns left behind by these processes.
• Space Exploration : Scientists use scientific methods in designing space missions so that they can explore other planets or learn more about our solar system. They employ experiments like landing craft exploration missions as well as remote sensing techniques that allow them to examine far-off planets without having physically land on their surfaces.
• Archaeology : Archaeologists use the scientific method to understand past human cultures. They formulate hypotheses about a site or artifact, conduct excavations or analyses, and then interpret the data to test their hypotheses.
• Clinical Trials : Medical researchers use scientific method to test new treatments and therapies for various diseases. They design controlled studies that track patients’ outcomes while varying variables like dosage or treatment frequency.
• Industrial Research & Development : Many companies use scientific methods in their R&D departments. For example, automakers may assess the effectiveness of anti-lock brakes before releasing them into the marketplace through tests with dummy targets.
• Material Science Experiments : Engineers have extensively used scientific method experimentation efforts when designing new materials and testing which options could be flexible enough for certain applications. These experiments might include casting molten material into molds and then subjecting it to high heat to expose vulnerabilities
• Chemical Engineering Investigations : Chemical engineers also abide by scientific method principles to create new chemical compounds & technologies designed to be valuable in the industry. They may experiment with different substances, changing materials’ concentration and heating conditions to ensure the final end-product safety and reliability of the material.
• Biotechnology : Biotechnologists use the scientific method to develop new products or processes. For instance, they may experiment with genetic modification techniques to enhance crop resistance to pests or disease.
• Physics Research : Scientists use scientific method in their work to study fundamental principles of the universe. They seek answers for how atoms and molecules are breaking down and related events that unfold naturally by running many simulations using computer models or designing sophisticated experiments to test hypotheses.

Origins of the Scientific Method

The scientific method can be traced back to ancient times when philosophers like Aristotle used observation and logic to understand the natural world. 

These early philosophers were focused on understanding the world around them and sought explanations for natural phenomena through direct observation (Betz, 2010).

In the Middle Ages, Muslim scholars played a key role in developing scientific inquiry by emphasizing empirical observations. 

Alhazen (a.k.a Ibn al-Haytham), for example, introduced experimental methods that helped establish optics as a modern science. He emphasized investigation through experimentation with controlled conditions (De Brouwer, 2021).

During the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century in Europe, scientists such as Francis Bacon and René Descartes began to develop what we now know as the scientific method observation (Betz, 2010).

Bacon argued that knowledge must be based on empirical evidence obtained through observation and experimentation rather than relying solely upon tradition or authority. 

Descartes emphasized mathematical methods as tools in experimentation and rigorous thinking processes (Fukuyama, 2021).

These ideas later developed into systematic research designs , including hypothesis testing, controlled experiments, and statistical analysis – all of which are still fundamental aspects of modern-day scientific research.

Since then, technological advancements have allowed for more sophisticated instruments and measurements, yielding far more precise data sets scientists use today in fields ranging from Medicine & Chemistry to Astrophysics or Genetics.

So, while early Greek philosophers laid much groundwork toward an observational-based approach to explaining nature, Islam scholars furthered our understanding of logical reasoning techniques and gave rise to a more formalized methodology.

Steps in the Scientific Method

While there may be variations in the specific steps scientists follow, the general process has six key steps (Blystone & Blodgett, 2006).

Here is a brief overview of each of these steps:

1. Observation

The first step in the scientific method is to identify and observe a phenomenon that requires explanation. 

This can involve asking open-ended questions, making detailed observations using our senses or tools, or exploring natural patterns, which are sources to develop hypotheses. 

2. Formulation of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for the observed phenomenon based on previous observations & experiences or working assumptions derived from a valid literature review . 

The hypothesis should be testable and falsifiable through experimentation and subsequent analysis.

3. Testing of the Hypothesis

In this step, scientists perform experiments to test their hypothesis while ensuring that all variables are controlled besides the one being observed.

The data collected in these experiments must be measurable, repeatable, and consistent.

4. Data Analysis

Researchers carefully scrutinize data gathered from experiments – typically using inferential statistics techniques to analyze whether results support their hypotheses or not.

This helps them gain important insights into what previously unknown mechanisms might exist based on statistical evidence gained about their system.

See: 15 Examples of Data Analysis

5. Drawing Conclusions 

Based on their data analyses, scientists reach conclusions about whether their original hypotheses were supported by evidence obtained from testing.

If there is insufficient supporting evidence for their ideas – trying again with modified iterations of the initial idea sometimes happens.

6. Communicating Results

Once results have been analyzed and interpreted under accepted principles within the scientific community, scientists publish findings in respected peer-reviewed journals.

These publications help knowledge-driven communities establish trends within respective fields while indirectly subjecting papers reviews requests boosting research quality across the scientific discipline.

Importance of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is important because it helps us to collect reliable data and develop testable hypotheses that can be used to explain natural phenomena (Haig, 2018).

Here are some reasons why the scientific method is so essential:

• Objectivity : The scientific method requires researchers to conduct unbiased experiments and analyses, which leads to more impartial conclusions. In this way, replication of findings by peers also ensures results can be relied upon as founded on sound principles allowing others confidence in building further knowledge on top of existing research.
• Precision & Predictive Power : Scientific methods usually include techniques for obtaining highly precise measurements, ensuring that data collected is more meaningful with fewer uncertainties caused by limited measuring errors leading to statistically significant results having firm logical foundations. If predictions develop scientifically tested generalized defined conditions factored into the analysis, it helps in delivering realistic expectations
• Validation : By following established scientific principles defined within the community – independent scholars can replicate observation data without being influenced by subjective biases or prejudices. It assures general acceptance among scientific communities who follow similar protocols when researching within respective fields.
• Application & Innovation : Scientific concept advancements that occur based on correct hypothesis testing commonly lead scientists toward new discoveries, identifying potential breakthroughs in research. They pave the way for technological innovations often seen as game changers, like mapping human genome DNA onto creating novel therapies against genetic diseases or unlocking secrets of today’s universe through discoveries at LHC.
• Impactful Decision-Making : Policymakers can draw from these scientific findings investing resources into informed decisions leading us toward a sustainable future. For example, research gathered about carbon pollution’s impact on climate change informs debate making policy action decisions about our planet’s environment, providing valuable knowledge-useful information benefiting societies (Haig, 2018).

The scientific method is an essential tool that has revolutionized our understanding of the natural world.

By emphasizing rigorous experimentation, objective measurement, and logical analysis- scientists can obtain more unbiased evidence with empirical validity . 

Utilizing this methodology has led to groundbreaking discoveries & knowledge expansion that have shaped our modern world from medicine to technology. 

The scientific method plays a crucial role in advancing research and our overall societal consensus on reliable information by providing reliable results, ensuring we can make more informed decisions toward a sustainable future. 

As scientific advancements continue rapidly, ensuring we’re applying core principles of this process enables objectives to progress, paving new ways for interdisciplinary research across all fields, thereby fuelling ever-driving human curiosity.

Betz, F. (2010). Origin of scientific method.  Managing Science , 21–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7488-4_2

Blystone, R. V., & Blodgett, K. (2006). WWW: The scientific method.  CBE—Life Sciences Education ,  5 (1), 7–11. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.05-12-0134

De Brouwer , P. J. S. (2021).  The big r-book: From data science to learning machines and big data . John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Defining the scientific method. (2009).  Nature Methods ,  6 (4), 237–237. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth0409-237

Fukuyama, F. (2012).  The end of history and the last man . New York: Penguin.

Haig, B. D. (2018). The importance of scientific method for psychological science.  Psychology, Crime & Law ,  25 (6), 527–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316x.2018.1557181

Voit, E. O. (2019). Perspective: Dimensions of the scientific method.  PLOS Computational Biology ,  15 (9), e1007279. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007279

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Essay Samples on Scientific Method

Understanding the seven steps of the scientific method.

What is the scientific method? A procedural method that has been characterized by natural sciences since the seventeenth century, including systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation, as well as the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. 'Criticism is the backbone of the scientific method' The scientific...

• Scientific Method

The Importance of the Scientific Method in Psychology Experiments

The scientific method is “ the tactic of a process that has characterized physical discipline since the seventeenth century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and therefore the formulation, testing, and altar of hypothesis”. The scientific method is used throughout the world that provides...

Learning to Think Scientifically: A Look at the Scientific Method

Students, and now and again even teachers, commonly anticipate scientists solely use the scientific approach to reply to science-related questions. In fact, you can comply with the scientific technique to nearly any problem. The key is to use the factors (steps) to restrict bias and...

Scientific Method: Its Role in Advancing Science and Technology

Since the human been appear, use the logic and arise different questions, begins the scientific method, after years this practice evolve to what we know this age. Even when we were kids, we use this method not for scientific reasons, just to know something like...

Experimentation & Innovation: The Importance of the Scientific Method

Our life without the scientific method would be unrecognizable. Most individuals don’t realize how our daily life and routine has been improved because of experimentation. Without the scientific method, we would not be so technologically advanced. We would not have all the latest cell phones,...

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The Role of Reasoning in Science: Inductive and Deductive Approaches

Introduction This essay will focus on the principles of the scientific method, considering Francis Bacon’s method of induction contrasted with Karl Poppers’ Hypothetico-Deductive approach as a means of defining what is scientifically accurate. Both approaches are used in modern-day science, where experiment and observation are...

The Common Themes and Diverse Practices of Scientific Methods

Introduction Science in some form or another has been practiced for millennia, to varying degrees of success, and throughout this time, people have argued about which is the way to practice science. The study of the scientific method can be described as the attempt to...

Best topics on Scientific Method

1. Understanding the Seven Steps of the Scientific Method

2. The Importance of the Scientific Method in Psychology Experiments

3. Learning to Think Scientifically: A Look at the Scientific Method

4. Scientific Method: Its Role in Advancing Science and Technology

5. Experimentation & Innovation: The Importance of the Scientific Method

6. The Role of Reasoning in Science: Inductive and Deductive Approaches

7. The Common Themes and Diverse Practices of Scientific Methods

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Friendships among university students

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Phenomenology, Grounded Theory, and Ethnography

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Similarities and Differences between Pedagogy and Andragogy

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Ethical issues surrounding clinical and basic science research

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Behavioralism in comparative politics

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The 10 on 1 Method and an evolving thesis

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The advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaires in research

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The Tuskegee experiment

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High school biology

Course: high school biology   >   unit 1.

• Biology overview
• Preparing to study biology
• What is life?
• The scientific method
• Data to justify experimental claims examples
• Scientific method and data analysis
• Introduction to experimental design
• Controlled experiments

Biology and the scientific method review

• Experimental design and bias

The nature of biology

Properties of life.

• Organization: Living things are highly organized (meaning they contain specialized, coordinated parts) and are made up of one or more cells .
• Metabolism: Living things must use energy and consume nutrients to carry out the chemical reactions that sustain life. The sum total of the biochemical reactions occurring in an organism is called its metabolism .
• Homeostasis : Living organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain the relatively narrow range of conditions needed for cell function.
• Growth : Living organisms undergo regulated growth. Individual cells become larger in size, and multicellular organisms accumulate many cells through cell division.
• Reproduction : Living organisms can reproduce themselves to create new organisms.
• Response : Living organisms respond to stimuli or changes in their environment.
• Evolution : Populations of living organisms can undergo evolution , meaning that the genetic makeup of a population may change over time.

Scientific methodology

Scientific method example: failure to toast.

• Observation: the toaster won't toast.
• Question: Why won't my toaster toast?
• Hypothesis: Maybe the outlet is broken.
• Prediction: If I plug the toaster into a different outlet, then it will toast the bread.
• Test of prediction: Plug the toaster into a different outlet and try again.
• Iteration time!

Experimental design

Reducing errors and bias.

• Having a large sample size in the experiment: This helps to account for any small differences among the test subjects that may provide unexpected results.
• Repeating experimental trials multiple times: Errors may result from slight differences in test subjects, or mistakes in methodology or data collection. Repeating trials helps reduce those effects.
• Including all data points: Sometimes it is tempting to throw away data points that are inconsistent with the proposed hypothesis. However, this makes for an inaccurate study! All data points need to be included, whether they support the hypothesis or not.
• Using placebos , when appropriate: Placebos prevent the test subjects from knowing whether they received a real therapeutic substance. This helps researchers determine whether a substance has a true effect.
• Implementing double-blind studies , when appropriate: Double-blind studies prevent researchers from knowing the status of a particular participant. This helps eliminate observer bias.

Communicating findings

Things to remember.

• A hypothesis is not necessarily the right explanation. Instead, it is a possible explanation that can be tested to see if it is likely correct, or if a new hypothesis needs to be made.
• Not all explanations can be considered a hypothesis. A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable in order to be valid. For example, “The universe is beautiful" is not a good hypothesis, because there is no experiment that could test this statement and show it to be false.
• In most cases, the scientific method is an iterative process. In other words, it's a cycle rather than a straight line. The result of one experiment often becomes feedback that raises questions for more experimentation.
• Scientists use the word "theory" in a very different way than non-scientists. When many people say "I have a theory," they really mean "I have a guess." Scientific theories, on the other hand, are well-tested and highly reliable scientific explanations of natural phenomena. They unify many repeated observations and data collected from lots of experiments.

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Scientific Method

Illustration by J.R. Bee. ThoughtCo. 

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The scientific method is a series of steps followed by scientific investigators to answer specific questions about the natural world. It involves making observations, formulating a hypothesis , and conducting scientific experiments . Scientific inquiry starts with an observation followed by the formulation of a question about what has been observed. The steps of the scientific method are as follows:

Observation

The first step of the scientific method involves making an observation about something that interests you. This is very important if you are doing a science project because you want your project to be focused on something that will hold your attention. Your observation can be on anything from plant movement to animal behavior, as long as it is something you really want to know more about.​ This is where you come up with the idea for your science project.

Once you've made your observation, you must formulate a question about what you have observed. Your question should tell what it is that you are trying to discover or accomplish in your experiment. When stating your question you should be as specific as possible.​ For example, if you are doing a project on plants , you may want to know how plants interact with microbes. Your question may be: Do plant spices inhibit bacterial growth ?

The hypothesis is a key component of the scientific process. A hypothesis is an idea that is suggested as an explanation for a natural event, a particular experience, or a specific condition that can be tested through definable experimentation. It states the purpose of your experiment, the variables used, and the predicted outcome of your experiment. It is important to note that a hypothesis must be testable. That means that you should be able to test your hypothesis through experimentation .​ Your hypothesis must either be supported or falsified by your experiment. An example of a good hypothesis is: If there is a relation between listening to music and heart rate, then listening to music will cause a person's resting heart rate to either increase or decrease.

Once you've developed a hypothesis, you must design and conduct an experiment that will test it. You should develop a procedure that states very clearly how you plan to conduct your experiment. It is important that you include and identify a controlled variable or dependent variable in your procedure. Controls allow us to test a single variable in an experiment because they are unchanged. We can then make observations and comparisons between our controls and our independent variables (things that change in the experiment) to develop an accurate conclusion.​

The results are where you report what happened in the experiment. That includes detailing all observations and data made during your experiment. Most people find it easier to visualize the data by charting or graphing the information.​

The final step of the scientific method is developing a conclusion. This is where all of the results from the experiment are analyzed and a determination is reached about the hypothesis. Did the experiment support or reject your hypothesis? If your hypothesis was supported, great. If not, repeat the experiment or think of ways to improve your procedure.

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Scientific Method, Essay Example

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Observation

This is the main step in a research course in understanding the study problem. The decision on area of study and specific question to be asked has to be researched on everything that entails the problem. Information can be collected from experiences, internet, and books. An example of such a scenario is a tomato garden that has small and big mangoes. The experience elicit interest about the problem and makes a person to learn about the reason plants grow.

The next stage involved in the scientific process is called hypothesis. The term means a probable explanation to a problem, founded on knowledge as well as research. The hypothesis, which is a simple definition, describes what a person thinks about the experiment outcome. The hypothesis of the situation deals on whether the degree of sunlight has an effect in the size of a mango in a garden. In cases that a person makes use of a mango, experiment the hypothesis would be whether the sunlight amount a mango plant receives has an effect on the size. If that is the hypothesis then the more sunlight a mango plant receives then the larger the mango grows.

The hypothesis is founded on the plant requiring sunshine to be in a position to make food by the process of photosynthesis. This means when there is a lot of sun there would be more food for the plant and thus the mangoes become big. Informal and exploratory explanation of plants found in the garden with more sunlight seems to grow bigger.

The tomato experience to prove the hypothesis is increasing sunlight amount to tomato plants as the process would lead to increased size in comparison to identical plants, which received similar care, but limited light.

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Essay: The Use of the Scientific Method

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The scientific method is like a never ending road constantly growing and having numerous possibilities for growth and improvement for any idea. In many aspects, it is the foundation for science and everything that has been proven today. Throughout history, the scientific method has been used to build theories, laws, and essentially create a platform for the scientific community to contribute ideas to one another. For instance, with the mystery of The Miami Circle, the scientific method was used numerous times in order to find the truth behind the mysterious anthropological discovery. With the scientific method, anthropologists were able to trace back the history of the Miami Circle and uncover its truth.

The scientific method is a standardized procedure that is used in creating theories, laws, and ideas, in order to build a consistent, reliable and non-arbitrary depiction of the world. In the scientific method, scientists must first look at the object of interest. Then collect research on the topic to fully understand what they are going to be observing. Next, the scientist must construct a hypothesis, “a proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation” (Bradford 2015). Then, through repeated experimentation, the hypothesis can be finalized as a theory or proven to be false. In science, the scientific method is repeated numerously until a theory is created After considerable testing of the theory by possibly many different scientists, it may become what is known as a law. Theories are not just simply theories and the book does not just simply close. Theories can always be proven wrong or even extended at anytime. One of the best aspects of science has always been its openness to improvement. Theories in science are always being refigured in hopes of improvement ,or even completely changed New research frequently renders old ideas outdated ideas or incomplete ones. There aren’t really heroes in science, but more so a superhero team. Scientists are constantly building off of other people’s work expanding ideas and theories. Theories are always open ended. This is why the use of the scientific method is so important.

With the mystery of The Miami Circle, the use of the scientific method allowed anthropologists to find the purpose of the mysterious holes in the ground. The Miami circle was first discovered July of 1998. Midden was found at the site which yielded the initial building that was set to be constructed on the land. In the beginning the anthropologists hypothesized that the circle was formed by the Almac or the Maya. Through carbon dating, they realized that they were wrong about their initial hunch. There was duricrust found along the holes, which indicated that the holes were there for possible over hundreds maybe even thousands of years. Through carbon dating they found that ,”the carbon-dating tests done on two small bits of charcoal, probably created by Tekesta fires in one of the basins that form the circle, was 1,800 to 2,100 years old” (The Significance of the Tekesta Miami Circle 2002). The anthropologists then speculated that the Miami Circle is believed to have once been occupied by the Tequesta Indians. They then further confirmed this with the findings of tools used by the Tequestas during the excavation. “The holes were structural postholes or part of the foundation for a building. I believe the building was used for ceremonial purposes, as animal bones and unused tools appeared to be offerings” (Ricisak, 2001). Ricisak further proved this hypothesis by the comparisons with other past tribes structural features.

The scientific method is the basis and foundation for almost everything in science, from social science to the physical sciences. The main difference in the implication of the scientific method between social and physical sciences is that in social sciences, “fieldwork is an experiment for testing hypotheses and building theories about the diversity of human behavior and the interaction of people with systems of power— a scientific method for examining how the social world really works” (Guest 2016). While in the physical sciences, the basis mainly consists of experimental data that relies on repeated experiments and constant lab results with standard measurements. While both sciences differ, they share the same scientific model in order to have results and information.

Throughout the whole documentary and the explanation of the Miami Circle, the use of the scientific method was very prevalent. I realized that although one hypothesis is false, the pursue of the truth did not end. In a way, being unsuccessful with one hypothesis only made the anthropologists even closer to uncovering the truth. The scientific method is not just important to the sciences, but I believe that it is important in everyone’s daily lives. “The scientific method is important for people to know because it is a fundamental process in science, but the benefits of teaching individuals this process will go beyond school and classes’ (Hudson 2017). The scientific method teaches people how to think and critically analyze things in any aspect of life. It teaches us how to justify, understand, and analyze almost everything we do or see.

References Cited

Bradford, Alina. 2015. “What Is a Scientific Hypothesis? | Definition of Hypothesis.” LiveScience https://www.livescience.com/21490-what-is-a-scientific-hypothesis-definition-of-hypothesis.html. Accessed July 03, 2017.

James Omeara, Stephan 2016 The Nature of Observing. 78-79 Accessed July 05 ,2017.

Miami Circle 2015 Atlas Obscura. . http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/miami-circle. Accessed July 05, 2017.

Science & Nature Horizon – The Mystery of the Miami Circle. 2001 BBC.http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2000/miamicircle_transcript.shtml. Accessed July 03, 2017.

The Importance of the Scientific Method 2014 InstaScience at Elemental Blogging. http://elementalblogging.com/importance-of-scientific-method/. Accessed July 03, 2017.

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If you drop your shoe and a coin side by side, they hit the ground at the same time. Why does not the shoe get there first, since gravity is pulling harder on it? How does the lens of your eye work, and why do your eye’s muscles need to squash its lens into different shapes in order to focus on objects nearby or far away? These are the kinds of questions that physics tries to answer about the behavior of light and matter, the two things that the universe is made of.

Until very recently in history, no progress was made in answering questions like these. Worse than that, the wrong answers written by thinkers like the ancient Greek physicist Aristotle were accepted without question for thousands of years. Why is it that scientific knowledge has progressed more since the Renaissance than it had in all the preceding millennia since the beginning of recorded history? Undoubtedly the industrial revolution is part of the answer. Building its centerpiece, the steam engine, required improved techniques for precise construction and measurement (early on, it was considered a major advance when English machine shops learned to build pistons and cylinders that fit together with a gap narrower than the thickness of a penny). But even before the industrial revolution, the pace of discovery had picked up, mainly because of the introduction of the modern scientific method. Although it evolved over time, most scientists today would agree on something like the following list of the basic principles of the scientific method:

• Science is a cycle of theory and experiment.

Scientific theories are created to explain the results of experiments that were created under certain conditions. A successful theory will also make new predictions about new experiments under new conditions. Eventually, though, it always seems to happen that a new experiment comes along, showing that under certain conditions the theory is not a good approximation or is not valid at all. The ball is then back in the theorists’ court. If an experiment disagrees with the current theory, the theory has to be changed, not the experiment.

• Theories should both predict and explain.

The requirement of predictive power means that a theory is only meaningful if it predicts something that can be checked against experimental measurements the theorist did not already have at hand. That is, a theory should be testable. Explanatory value means that many phenomena should be accounted for with few basic principles. If you answer every “why” question with “because that’s the way it is,” then your theory has no explanatory value. Collecting lots of data without being able to find any basic underlying principles is not science.

• Experiments should be reproducible.

An experiment should be treated with suspicion if it only works for one person, or only in one part of the world. Anyone with the necessary skills and equipment should be able to get the same results from the same experiment. This implies that science transcends national and ethnic boundaries; you can be sure that nobody is doing actual science who claims that their work is “Aryan, not Jewish,” “Marxist, not bourgeois,” or “Christian, not atheistic.” An experiment cannot be reproduced if it is secret, so science is necessarily a public enterprise.

As an example of the cycle of theory and experiment, a vital step toward modern chemistry was the experimental observation that the chemical elements could not be transformed into each other, e.g., lead could not be turned into gold. This led to the theory that chemical reactions consisted of rearrangements of the elements in different combinations, without any change in the identities of the elements themselves. The theory worked for hundreds of years, and was confirmed experimentally over a wide range of pressures and temperatures and with many combinations of elements. Only in the twentieth century did we learn that one element could be trans-formed into one another under the conditions of extremely high pressure and temperature existing in a nuclear bomb or inside a star. That observation did not completely invalidate the original theory of the immutability of the elements, but it showed that it was only an approximation, valid at ordinary temperatures and pressures.

The scientific method as described here is an idealization, and should not be understood as a set procedure for doing science. Scientists have as many weaknesses and character flaws as any other group, and it is common for scientists to try to discredit other people’s experiments when the results run contrary to their own favored point of view. Successful science also has more to do with luck, intuition, and creativity than most people realize, and the restrictions of the scientific method do not stifle individuality and self-expression any more than the fugue and sonata forms stifled Bach and Haydn. There is a recent tendency among social scientists to go even further and to deny that the scientific method even exists, claiming that science is no more than an arbitrary social system that determines what ideas to accept based on an in-group’s criteria. I think that is going too far. If science is an arbitrary social ritual, it would seem difficult to explain its effectiveness in building such useful items as airplanes, CD players, and sewers. If alchemy and astrology were no less scientific in their methods than chemistry and astronomy, what was it that kept them from producing anything useful?

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