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Understanding Building Typology

Updated: March 8, 2024

In this article, we will explore the different types of building typologies and their advantages, as well as provide case studies of different building typologies in action. Understanding building typologies can help us make better informed design decisions, starting from the very beginning in the design brief development phases through to construction and the aftercare of the building.

What is building typology?

Building typology is a classification system used to categorize buildings based on their function, form , and construction . It is a way of grouping similar types of buildings together and analyzing their characteristics and features. Building typologies are used in a variety of contexts, including architectural design, urban planning, and building science.

In architectural design, building typologies help architects to understand the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings and make informed design decisions. For example, a residential building typology may have different requirements than a commercial building typology, such as a higher density of units in a residential building compared to an office building.

In urban planning, building typologies are used to analyze the characteristics and distribution of different types of buildings within a city or region. This can help planners to understand the needs and demands of the built environment and make informed decisions about the development and use of land.

In building science, building typologies are used to understand the performance and durability of different types of buildings. For example, a building typology that is designed for a specific climate or environment may have different construction materials and features than a building typology designed for a different climate or environment.

Overall, building typologies are an important tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings. They play a vital role in various fields and are essential for informed design, planning, and building performance.

Types of building typologies

There are several ways to classify building typologies, including based on function, form, and construction type.

Classification based on function:

Residential buildings: Buildings that are used for dwelling purposes, such as houses, apartments, and condominiums.
Commercial buildings: Buildings that are used for business purposes, such as office buildings, retail stores, and restaurants .
Industrial buildings: Buildings that are used for manufacturing, production, or storage purposes, such as factories and warehouses.
Educational buildings: Buildings that are used for educational purposes, such as schools and universities.
Healthcare buildings: Buildings that are used for healthcare purposes, such as hospitals and clinics.
Cultural buildings: Buildings that are used for cultural or recreational purposes, such as museums and theaters.

Classification based on form:

Low-rise buildings: Buildings that are less than three stories tall.
Mid-rise buildings: Buildings that are between three and six stories tall.
High-rise buildings: Buildings that are six stories or taller.

Classification based on construction type:

Timber-framed buildings: Buildings that are constructed using a frame made of wood or other timber materials.
Steel-framed buildings: Buildings that are constructed using a frame made of steel.
Concrete-framed buildings: Buildings that are constructed using a frame made of concrete.

Understanding these different types of building typologies is important us as architects and designers as it helps us to analyze and compare different types of buildings and make informed design decisions. It is also useful for building owners and managers, as it helps them to understand the characteristics and needs of their building and plan for maintenance and upgrades.

Examples of building typologies

Here are some examples of building typologies in different functions:

Residential building typology : Row houses Row houses are a type of residential building typology that consists of a row of attached houses sharing a common wall. They are typically two or three stories tall and have a narrow, linear footprint. Row houses are a common typology in urban areas and are often used to maximize land use and density. They offer a range of benefits, including a sense of community, shared outdoor space, and reduced energy consumption.

Commercial building typology : Shopping mall A shopping mall is a type of commercial building typology that consists of a large, enclosed space with a variety of retail stores, restaurants, and other businesses. Shopping malls are typically multi-level buildings with a mix of indoor and outdoor spaces. They are designed to be convenient and appealing to shoppers, with a range of amenities such as parking, restrooms, and customer service areas.

Industrial building typology : Factory A factory is a type of industrial building typology that is used for manufacturing or production purposes. Factories are typically large, single-story buildings with a high ceiling and a large floor area to accommodate heavy machinery and equipment. They are often located in industrial or suburban areas and are designed to be efficient and cost-effective.

The Architecture review has an excellent essay series on typologies here .

Advantages of using building typologies

Improved understanding of building characteristics and needs : Building typologies provide a way to categorize buildings based on their function, form, and construction type. This helps to understand the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings and allows for better analysis and comparison.

For example, understanding the characteristics of a residential building typology can help architects to design buildings that are suitable for dwelling purposes, such as apartments or condominiums.

Easier comparison of different types of buildings : Building typologies provide a common framework for comparing different types of buildings, which makes it easier to understand their similarities and differences. This can be useful for architects, urban planners, and building scientists who need to analyze and compare different types of buildings in order to make informed design decisions.

For example, comparing the characteristics of different types of residential buildings, such as apartments and houses, can help to understand the pros and cons of each typology and how they might be best suited to different contexts and needs.

Improved design decision-making : Building typologies can inform design decisions by providing a range of options and considerations for different types of buildings. For example, an architect designing a residential building might consider the characteristics and needs of different residential building typologies in order to choose the most suitable one for the project.

This can help to ensure that the building is functional, efficient, and meets the needs of the users.

Enhanced building maintenance and management : Building typologies can also help building owners and managers to understand the characteristics and needs of their building, which can aid in the planning and execution of maintenance and upgrades. For example, understanding the construction type of a building can help to identify the materials and systems that need to be maintained, such as the structure, envelope, and mechanical systems.

Additionally, understanding the function of a building can help to identify the specific needs and demands of the users, such as the number and type of rooms, the level of accessibility, and the required amenities.

FAQ’s about building typology

What does typology mean in architecture.

In architecture, typology refers to the classification of buildings based on their function, form, and construction. Typology is used to group similar types of buildings together and analyze their characteristics and features.

It is an important tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings and is used in a variety of contexts, including architectural design, urban planning, and building science. By understanding building typologies, architects, urban planners, and building scientists can make informed design decisions and analyze the performance and durability of buildings.

Building owners and managers can also use typology to understand the characteristics and needs of their building and plan for maintenance and upgrades.

What are the 3 types of buildings?

There are many ways to classify buildings, and the specific types of buildings will depend on the context and purpose of the classification. Here are three common ways to classify buildings:

Based on function: Buildings can be classified based on their primary function, such as residential, commercial, industrial, educational, healthcare, cultural, or recreational.
Based on form: Buildings can be classified based on their form or shape, such as low-rise, mid-rise, or high-rise.
Based on construction type: Buildings can be classified based on their construction type, such as timber-framed, steel-framed, concrete-framed, or masonry.

These are just a few examples of the many ways that buildings can be classified. There are many other factors that can be considered when classifying buildings, including location, size, age, style, materials, and more.

Understanding the different types of buildings is important for architects, urban planners, and building scientists as it helps them to analyze and compare different types of buildings and make informed design decisions.

It is also useful for building owners and managers, as it helps them to understand the characteristics and needs of their building and plan for maintenance and upgrades.

What are typologies in design?

Typologies in design refer to the classification of design elements, such as products, objects, or systems, based on their characteristics and features. Typologies are used to group similar types of design elements together and analyze their characteristics and features.

They are an important tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of design elements and are used in a variety of contexts, including product design, industrial design, and systems design.

By understanding design typologies, designers can make informed design decisions and analyze the performance and durability of their designs. Typologies can be classified based on a variety of factors, including function, form, materials, and more.

Understanding design typologies can help designers to better understand the characteristics and needs of their designs and ensure their success.

What is the meaning of housing typology?

Housing typology refers to the classification of housing based on their characteristics and features. It is used to group similar types of housing together and analyze their characteristics and features.

Housing typologies are an important tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of housing and are used in a variety of contexts, including architectural design, urban planning, and building science.

By understanding housing typologies, architects, urban planners, and building scientists can make informed design decisions and analyze the performance and durability of housing. Housing typologies can be classified based on a variety of factors, including function, form, construction type, and more.

Understanding housing typologies can help architects, urban planners, and building scientists to better understand the characteristics and needs of different types of housing and ensure their success. It can also be useful for building owners and managers to understand the characteristics and needs of their housing and plan for maintenance and upgrades.

In conclusion, building typology is a crucial tool for understanding and analyzing the characteristics and needs of different types of buildings. It is used in various fields, including architectural design, urban planning, and building science, to inform design decisions and analyze the performance and durability of buildings.

Building typologies can be classified based on function, form, and construction type, and understanding these different types is important for architects, urban planners, and building scientists.

Building typologies also have several advantages, including improved understanding of building characteristics and needs, easier comparison of different types of buildings, improved design decision-making, and enhanced building maintenance and management.

Whether you are an architect, urban planner, building scientist, or building owner/manager, understanding building typologies can help you to make informed design and management decisions and ensure the success of your building projects.

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Housing Typologies

Development Action Group: Sustainable medium-density housing 132 9. A range of housing typologies Contrary to popular belief, 'housing' does not only refer to a house as a physical structure, but encompasses all the different elements that constitute a human settlement. Urban environments that display high quality private space, communal space and access to facilities, contribute positively to the living conditions of residents. The physical, social, psychological and cultural environments contribute to the creation of a 'sense of place'. A high quality urban environment brings about a positive sense of place, which in turn contributes to high levels of resident satisfaction, ownership and identity. 1 Building and site design, in particular, contribute significantly to the 'sense of place' and quality of a housing development. 2 More specifically, building costs, service provision and service costs, the nature of the unit, the configuration of the open space system and residents' perception of and satisfaction with their housing environment, are all determined by housing typology. According to Kevin Lynch, the basic texture of a city is determined by the predominant type and mix of its residential buildings. He summarises the models in a matrix pitting building height against ground coverage: 3 Table 22: Building height and ground coverage determining city texture Ground coverage Building height High (over 6 storeys) Moderate (3-6 storeys) Low (1-2 storeys) High (over 50%)-Dense walk-ups Courtyard housing Moderate (10-50%) High slabs Ground-access walk-ups Attached houses Low (under 10%) Towers in the green-Free standing housing Housing typologies discussed in this book include row-housing and semi-detached housing, three-to four-storey walk-ups, courtyard housing, flats, single room accommodation and cluster housing. These typologies are also illustrated in the eleven case studies. A combination of typologies used in the same development for different income groups and household configurations enable residential environments to offer choice and diversity. The promotion of mixed use, which includes social facilities and trading space for small or micro-enterprises, as is the case in Sakhasonke Village, can help create vibrant housing environments and support residents' livelihood activities, and enhance their general well-being. When making decisions about the choice and appropriateness of different housing typologies, consideration must be given to the availability and cost of land, the socioeconomic profile of end-users, the urban context and natural systems. Architectural, urban design and planning solutions that are not based on adequate knowledge about the end-users' expectations, needs and values may have unintended consequences that are contrary to the intentions of planners and designers. 4 Family separation was an insidious by-product of apartheid spatial planning and design. It is therefore imperative that design facilitates family life as this is critical to socio-spatial transformation in South Africa. The importance of cooperation between experts in fields such as economics, the built environment, ecology, sociology and psychology become apparent in the attempt to provide sustainable housing. Untermann and Small 5 emphasise the importance of planners' and designers' understanding and knowledge of the house analysis and design components as part of the overall process. They organise this into four parts: 9. A RANGE OF HOUSING TYPOLOGIES

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Eliana Rosa de Queiroz Barbosa

The research investigates the possibilities of a more inclusive and diverse urban landscape and transforming areas in Sao Paulo, concerning important issues regarding the development of the city and new housing typologies, with the aim of improving "mixity" and diversity in high density areas. The housing shortage in Brazil today is estimated at around 5.4 million dwellings, 81% or which are urban. Only in the city of Sao Paulo, the housing deficit is estimated to be around 630.000 housing units. The city, the biggest and most important of Brazil, offers a landscape engraved by its uneven development, a scenario in which affordable housing was rarely on the public agenda. Slum areas and segregated social housing complexes were, along its historical development, the only housing solution for the poor, increasing problems of marginalization, violence and widening the inequality gap and social tensions in the city. Recent events show some hope. In 2001, The Statute of the City was approved in the national congress, creating a new set of urban tools which gave social housing a higher importance in Brazilian urban development. At this moment, a paradigm shift is necessary in order to conciliate the necessary mass housing production with a more cohesive urban planning. This is in accordance with the UN Habitat Global Housing Strategy framework that relies on "inclusive cities as the foundation for sustainable development, ensuring social integration and elimination of urban divide". New forms of dwelling are investigated with the aim of creating liveable neighbourhoods with a better integration of uses.

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Bashir Kazimee

Amira Osman

Medium-density mixed housing (MDMH), social housing (SH) being one component of that, is perceived to have the capacity to contribute to the transformation of fragmented South African cities more than the massive roll-out of government-subsidised “one-house-per-plot typology”. It is also perceived that higher densities are more economically and environmentally sustainable. If these perceptions lead to large numbers of MDMH projects being built in the near future, these will have a felt impact environmentally, socially and economically. Against this background, this paper presents the outcomes of a CSIR multi-year research project titled ‘Medium Density Mixed Housing (2007-09)’. The study as carried out by Landman et al lists some critical success factors for MDMH as well as a spatial analysis tool (SAT) to gauge the performance aspects with regard to integration, accessibility, efficiency, image and aesthetics, surveillance, ownership and target hardening. With particular reference ...

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Typology: co-housing

12 September 2023 By Tom Wilkinson Typology

Co-housing forms provide housing security for the squeezed middle classes, often leaving the most vulnerable behind

The modern idea of communal housing in the west was a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. The terrible living conditions of the urban working classes, and the atomisation of their erstwhile social structures, provoked top-down and bottom-up responses: from reforming capitalists and utopian intellectuals on the one hand and, on the other, working-class organisers such as the Rochdale Pioneers. After setting up their famous chain of co-operative shops, in 1861 some of the Pioneers had rent on their homes raised by their landlord, an envious local shopkeeper. Spurred to action by this vindictive petit bourgeois, they started the first housing co-op – a lesson for landlords and their tenants everywhere.

Of course, shared housing has a much longer history than this, and examples can be found the world over. Communal longhouses are a common type, often housing extended families of up to 100 people: the rumah betang of Borneo features a shared veranda on one side of the stilted building and private dwellings on the other. These structures were of interest to modernists seeking new forms of living (the Smithsons included an image of one in their 1970 book Ordinariness and Light ), but they needn’t have looked so far afield. Western domesticity was far from nuclear before the 19th century, and medieval households generally featured a jumble of kith and kin, and others besides. The monastery is a prominent example of a communal architecture from this period.

Inspired by Charles Fourier’s phalanstère , Jean-Baptiste André Godin imagined the familistère : three imposing residential buildings with internal courtyards and adjoining facilities including a bar, school, swimming pool, laundry rooms, shops and gardens

Credit: Agefotostock / Alamy

Today, 150 years later, Swiss co-operatives are behind some of the most innovative co-housing, such as Zwicky Süd by Schneider Studer Primas

Credit: © Istvan Balogh, Zurich

This diversity of forms and social contexts makes a typology of co-housing rather nebulous. Here, I will stick with the post-industrial period and adopt a loose definition: co-housing as a dwelling for a group of people who wish to live more communally than is common in the society around them. This is often a matter of pooling resources in order to build; however, since this approach to financing does not necessarily affect the design of co-housing I will focus on cases where communal ideals are embodied in the architecture itself.

The ancestor of such buildings is Charles Fourier’s phalanstère , an extraordinary proposal for a vast megastructure in iron and glass. Alongside apartments, this would have included communal facilities of all kinds, among them workshops, ballrooms and dining rooms, and special spaces to accommodate the free sexual activity that Fourier saw as an essential part of his socialist utopia. The phalanstère was never built, but his ideas inspired experiments in communal living around the world. The most successful and architecturally impressive of these is Jean-Baptiste André Godin’s familistère at Guise, with its three iron and-glass-roofed courts (1859–84). Built by a stove manufacturer for his workers, this is an example of paternalistic, top-down co‑housing; nevertheless, the familistère was structured as a co-operative run by its inhabitants, with the aim of fostering new, more communal ways of living.

Rumah betang is a typical communal longhouse from Borneo. Standing on stilts, 30–150m in length, it is home to extended Dayak families

Credit: Niday Picture Library / Alamy

Modernist architects such as the Smithsons looked to these architectures and their interiors to imagine new ways of living

Credit: The Print Collector / Alamy

This point highlights the vital significance of regulation to co-housing. The spaces themselves are important, but without an adequate legal framework they could not be built or maintained. Co-financing and co-ownership or co-tenancy agreements had to be formulated and given legal backing. Faced by demographic concerns, and attracted by the private nature of these projects, many governments saw the advantages of encouraging workers to organise housing for themselves, and often passed legislation to facilitate this. The variety of such legal forms is bewildering, and they have an intimate relationship with the social and architectural form – and the success – of the experiment in question.

Communal housing flourished once more in revolutionary Russia, when the abolition of bourgeois property rights enabled a wave of experimentation. Inspired by the phalanstères of their socialist forebears, the kommunalka – communal apartment – was adopted by the revolutionaries to kill two birds – housing crisis and bourgeois individualism – with one stone. It had in fact developed in the 19th century as a response by landlords to the influx of peasants to the cities. Such kommunalka were older tenement buildings in which the apartments were subdivided so that each resident household would have one private room, while sharing a bathroom and kitchen with several others. The Bolsheviks expanded this type enormously by expropriating and carving up large houses in city centres, which incidentally facilitated the mutual surveillance of residents. Many still live this way, despite the construction of millions of single family apartments under Khrushchev, Brezhnev and their capitalist successors.

Basel’s Freidorf, or Free Village, was a testing ground for an ideological third way between socialism and capitalism, designed by Hannes Meyer in the early 1920s

Credit: Hannes Meyer

The Freidorf covered all aspects of life: groceries were to be purchased at the co-operative shop

Credit: Staatsarchiv Baselland

Residents paid using the co-operative’s currency

And exercised together on the main square

In the 1920s, revolutionary architects – especially the OSA Group – envisioned more radical designs for communal living. The best known of these is the Narkomfin building in Moscow (1932), designed by OSA leader Moisei Ginzburg for the finance ministry. This was intended to facilitate the transition to full socialism, its apartments having graduated degrees of individualism: some have their own small kitchens, others are mere sleeping cells entirely dependent on shared cooking and dining facilities. In Britain at the same time, Wells Coates designed the Isokon building (1934) for Jack and Molly Pritchard. Again there are minimum apartments and a central kitchen, from which, however, meals were delivered to the flats. This was a bourgeois collectivism, with the building intended to maintain capitalist structures in the face of social change; at Isokon, communal dwelling was a solution to the servant problem, allowing middle-class people to pool their resources and share a fractional butler, as Le Corbusier memorably put it. His Unité d’Habitation (1952) was inspired by Narkomfin and featured internal streets and childcare facilities – another recurring feature of such schemes, no matter their political motivation.

After the war, models such as the Unité were adopted by the welfare state. However, their patrons often sought to transform society less radically than the architects they employed, for a mixture of budgetary and ideological reasons. This was in some cases a tragic story, as Berthold Lubetkin’s biography attests: he was left deeply embittered by his experiences of trying and failing to convince local authorities to provide the kind of communal facilities he saw as central to his projects, such as kindergartens. Nevertheless, he did manage to incorporate shared drying facilities and grand stairwells in an attempt to condense the residents into a critical mass.

Moisei Ginzburg’s Narkomfin in Moscow is both an architectural and social experiment, expressing the optimistic beginning of communism

It featured on the cover of The Beautiful Life in 1930

Meanwhile, in London, Wells Coates designed Lawn Road Flats, known as the Isokon, a building that looked more radical than it actually was

Credit: Pritchard Archive / University of East Anglia

While their ideals are far behind, the Narkomfin was restored in the summer of 2020, and the Isokon’s ground floor now hosts a gallery that is open to the public

As western European governments took over the provision of housing in the Trente Glorieuses , grassroots attempts at communal living tended to decline, but they were revived by the counterculture of the 1960s. This was in some regards a reaction to the bureaucratisation of housing under the welfare state. Communes countered the administered conformism of the ‘social’ dwelling, whether in Berlin squats or geodesic dome villages in Colorado. Elsewhere, campaigners fought to win the support of the authorities for co-operatives, as in Canada, where the government subsidised thousands of housing units.

It was in this context that the term bofællesskab or co-housing was coined by Danish architect Jan Gudmand-Høyer. From the mid-1960s, he helped set up more than fifty examples of what he described as ‘the missing link between utopia and the dated single-family house’, both in Denmark and the US. A key aspect of these projects was the participatory design process and the desire to foster a community which, it was felt, was of no interest to state housing programmes, if not actively destroyed by them.

A piece of land in Jystrup where a sawmill once stood has been transformed into co-housing by Vandkunsten Architects

Credit: Vandkunsten

The glass-covered interior street, reminiscent of Fourier’s phalanstère , is the backbone of the project, used for play and communal meals

Depending on the size and site, Gudmand‑Høyeresque co-housing can take the form of low-rise apartment blocks, terraced housing or clustered single-family homes. The type is defined by its shared facilities, almost always incorporating rooms (or a ‘common house’ in the case of suburban examples) for communal dining and cooking. Multigenerational living is another key aspiration of many of these projects, and so play facilities are another common feature; they may also include workshops, guest rooms, community stores and laundries. One particularly striking example at Jystrup, completed by Vandkunsten Architects in 1984, features a glazed street linking the dwellings. Intended to encourage mingling during the harsh Danish winter, the design recalls Fourier’s pioneering phalanstère , albeit without the radical socio-sexual change he envisioned.

These middle-class utopias saw a second surge in popularity as neoliberals dismantled the welfare state, selling off public housing and withdrawing support from co-operatives. The reaction was driven by urban returnees unable to afford increasingly expensive central properties, yet with sufficient means to initiate their own projects. Post-reunification Berlin, for instance, has seen a rise in Baugruppen (building groups); one of these, led by architects ifau and Jesko Fezer with Heide & von Beckerath, completed a particularly attractive project on Prinzenstrasse in 2015. The concrete-framed building with its timber facade has a double-height communal space on the ground floor and an open kitchen on the roof, as well as shared balconies on each floor.

50 is a co-housing project designed by ifau and Jesko Fezer with Heide & von Beckerath in Berlin’s trendy Kreuzberg neighbourhood. Balconies that wrap around the building encourage conversations between neighbours, while a sunken community space invites in passers-by

Credit: Andrew Alberts

Above, the 19 dual-aspect apartments are bright and airy

There was a comparable burst of activity in Switzerland at around the same time, although local conditions were rather different – Zurich was experiencing a renaissance after a period of decline, but here co-ops had a long and illustrious history, which needed only to be reignited. One of the earliest and most distinguished examples is Hannes Meyer’s Freidorf (Free Village) estate in Basel, completed in 1921. This initially had a co-operative shop from which residents were obliged to purchase groceries, using a special Freidorf currency, no less, and profits from the shop were used to subsidise rents. Since the ’90s, co‑operative projects have flourished once more. Today, five per cent of the country’s housing stock is run this way, rising to 20 per cent in Zurich. Because these projects must be designed in open competition, they have resulted in some exciting and novel architectural approaches, such as Zwicky Süd by Schneider Studer Primas (2016), with its filigree-industrial balconies and walkways.

Co-operatives and co-housing have often appealed to social democratic governments precisely because they are not politically radical, but because they are not fully socialised they often exclude the poor. Nevertheless, thanks to government support and favourable financing, such projects often offer residents secure tenancies and rents significantly lower than market rate. However, more rapacious property markets, like those of the UK, New Zealand and US, are less welcoming to such initiatives. Instead, the idea of co-housing has been co-opted, especially in London, as a developer-led ‘solution’ to the housing crisis. The language is the same – one recent example at Canary Wharf is called ‘The Collective’, and its marketing website speaks of ‘a haven of community and creativity’, but the reality is tiny rooms and massive service charges, in other words a drawn-out adolescence in overpriced student halls. Meanwhile, those without the means for this indignity are forced to endure young adulthood at home with their families, or overcrowded ‘houses of multiple occupancy’ – a return in fact to that venerable form of capitalist co-housing, the slum.

Lead image: Inspired by Charles Fourier’s phalanstère , Jean-Baptiste André Godin imagined the familistère in France . Credit: Agefotostock / Alamy

Co-housing Denver in Denver, US by Productora

Credit:Onnis Luque

The commercial core of Downtown Denver rapidly disintegrates to give way to low-density neighbourhoods: a vast suburban landscape of single-family houses. Yet Productora observed that these homes are often shared by several, smaller households. Just three kilometres from the city centre, their experimental, low-cost housing reflects these living arrangements. The plot is double the size of its neighbours, with twin houses at the front, facing the street; the gabled roofs take their cue from the surroundings but their bright blue stands out. Each house contains three studios equipped with a bathroom and kitchenette, as well as a shared bathroom and living room with a full kitchen. The communal rooms turn inwards, their glazed surfaces facing one another to suggest a single, larger space. At the back of the plot are two accessory dwelling units, for a further two studios. The architects wanted to ‘stage a subtle balance between the need for privacy and the possibility of social interaction’.

Wohnhaus Abakus in Basel, Switzerland by Stereo Architektur

Credit:Daisuke Hirabayashi

Non-profit housebuilders such as co-operatives and public foundations play an essential role in Switzerland; it is largely thanks to them that Swiss housing is admired for its high quality and innovative forms. In response to an open call launched by the Habitat Foundation for a project on a former industrial site in the north of Basel, Stereo Architektur joined forces with the cooperative Mietshäuser Syndikat Basel and future inhabitants to give shape to a unique housing block. Each floor comprises a ‘core flat’ that is flexible in size, to accommodate different types and sizes of households as well as needs that may evolve over time. On the southern end of the floor plan, one or two rooms per floor are part of a ‘vertical flatshare’; these rooms are intended for students, refugees and others who rarely enjoy the benefits of co-operative housing. The vertical flatshare also includes several communal spaces on the ground floor. An external staircase connects the courtyard to the rooftop terrace, accessible to all.

De Warren Amsterdam in Amsterdam, the Netherlands by Natrufied Architecture

Credit:Jeroen Musch

The joint effort of Dutch practice Natrufied Architecture and housing co-operative De Warren, this project on Centrumeiland in Amsterdam also relied heavily on the ideas contributed by future residents during a series of workshops. It was for instance decided that 30 per cent of the building’s floor area would be dedicated to shared programmes; De Warren Amsterdam now boasts 800m 2 of communal spaces, including a large auditorium, a children’s playroom, a music studio, a multifunctional room, various co working places, a meditation room, a greenhouse, a roof terrace and several communal living rooms and kitchens, which are all connected by a long central staircase. These facilities are enjoyed by the residents of the building’s 36 apartments. Largely made of bio‑based materials including a CLT structure, flax insulation and recycled wooden finishes, De Warren Amsterdam was built by residents, and now provides housing that is both affordable and truly sustainable – it produces more energy than it uses.

Credit:Boris Zeisser

AR September 2023

Since 1896, The Architectural Review has scoured the globe for architecture that challenges and inspires. Buildings old and new are chosen as prisms through which arguments and broader narratives are constructed. In their fearless storytelling, independent critical voices explore the forces that shape the homes, cities and places we inhabit.

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Disguised Density: An Excerpt from “The State of Housing Design 2023”

An aerial view of a housing development on a Southern California hillside with a mix of predominantly black and predominantly white two or three story houses clustered around a central street.

Viewed from above, the buildings of Bestor Architecture’s 18-unit Blackbirds housing complex resemble single-family homes. © Iwan Baan.

This essay is an excerpt from The State of Housing Design 2023 , a book published by the Joint Center for Housing Studies (JCHS) and available to purchase through Harvard University Press. A research center jointly affiliated with the Harvard Kennedy School and the Graduate School of Design, the JCHS has published a widely read annual report, The State of the Nation’s Housing , for over 35 years. The State of Housing Design 2023 provides a design-focused complement to this initiative and was the impetus for a half-day event of talks and panels at the GSD. Edited by Sam Naylor, Daniel D’Oca, and Chris Herbert, The State of Housing Design 2023 is organized around 25 themes that characterize design practice today.

In 2016, architect Barbara Bestor used the term “ stealth density ” to describe a multifamily residential development that her firm, Bestor Architecture, designed in Los Angeles’s Echo Park. The neighborhood, historically a mix of Latinx families and bohemian artists and writers, was slowly, then very rapidly, gentrifying in LA’s overheated housing market. Any new construction was bound to be suspect—both as a harbinger of displacement and disruption of the old, streetcar-era urban fabric. Although the term “stealth” conveys a contextually sensitive approach, a way to fit into an existing condition, it also reflects the anxieties of a neighborhood in transition. Changing a neighborhood’s physical character threatens both longtime and recent residents.

Bestor drew inspiration from the modest single-family homes and occasional low-rise courtyard apartment buildings that line Echo Park’s hilly streets. Named Blackbirds, Bestor’s complex combines these two typologies to organize a series of duplexes and triplexes around a central parking court. Each building stealthily resembles a single-family home; the design uses pitched roofs and exterior paint color to break up the bulk of larger volumes, so new construction blends into the surrounding scale. “Two free-standing houses are connected by flashing, and the roofline creates the illusion of one house mass,” Bestor explained to the online publication Dezeen. “Three houses, whose separation is masked, has the illusion of being two houses.”¹

A view of people standing in a shared driveway area with a few cars. They are surrounded by a dense cluster of modernist homes.

Stealth density is just one possible expression of this strategy. The editors of this book chose “disguised density,” and a 2019 Brookings Institution report used the term “gentle density” to argue that replacing detached single-family houses with more homes on a lot could help reduce housing prices in desirable locations without disrupting the neighborhood. This “missing middle” between the stand-alone home and the dreaded apartment tower takes the form of multifamily townhouses, duplexes, and semi-detached structures packed tightly on a lot. “Building more housing on single-family parcels doesn’t require skyscrapers,” noted the report’s authors, Alex Baca, Patrick McAnaney, and Jenny Schuetz.²

Stealth. Disguised. Gentle. With each, language is used to deflect the fears and misconceptions that have accumu- lated around multifamily housing—biases that align multiunit buildings with the past specters of bleak public housing projects. That new development must slip quietly into a neighborhood underlines the long-held entitlement of home ownership and bias of single-family zoning. The Brookings Institution report, for example, notes that Washington, DC, requires special permission for higher density in areas zoned single-family. Zeroing in on zoning-code terminology, the report identifies how the language of the code privileges low-density to “protect [single-family] areas from invasion by denser types of residential development.” Words like “protect” and “invasion” suggest that code is weaponized against outside threats. Indeed, the report’s authors stress that “‘protection’ entrenches economic and racial segregation.”³ Both Blackbirds and Lorcan O’Herlihy Architects’ (LOHA) multifamily housing development, Canyon Drive, follow City of Los Angeles policy guidelines.

A view of a townhouse with a sloping, curved wall on one side and a glass wall with windows on another. A man stands in a second-floor open floor-to-ceiling window.

The Small Lot Subdivision Ordinance, first adopted by the city in 2005 and amended in 2016, was touted as a solution to increase affordability in a tight market via infill housing. The ordinance included reduced setback requirements and lot sizes. Building more units—in the form of detached townhouses—on a lot zoned multifamily or commercial was meant to target first-time homebuyers, although it is arguable if this plan was truly successful. In early 2022, two-bedroom, two-bath units at Canyon Drive were sold for around $1.4 million each. Although the price is conceivably less than a ground-up, single-family home on the same lot, the units sold for considerably more than the $1 million average home price in Los Angeles.

The authors of the ordinance recognized that increased density and potentially bulky massing indicative of multifamily housing would set off alarms, so a series of design guidelines dictates specific articulations of facades, entryways, and rooflines to prevent blank and boxy edifices ill-suited to the surrounding context. At Canyon Drive, for example, each unit has a unique identity. LOHA inflected the roofs of the townhouses so that each facade resembles a mid- century-modern A-frame perched atop the garage podium. Similarly, in Greenville, Mississippi, the pitched roofs and shaded front porches that characterize the 42 townhouses of The Reserves at Gray Park suggest that individuation is neither simply an appeasement to NIMBYs nor a market strategy, but also a way of establishing identity and dignity for residents.

An aerial view of connected townhouses surrounded by green fields and forest. A curving road runs along the townhouse site.

Composed of one-, two-, and three-bedroom units, the afford- able housing project by Duvall Decker with the Greater Greenville Housing and Revitalization Association serves low- and very-low-income renters. It’s the city’s largest single-unit housing development in more than 30 years.⁴ Here, disguised density works to deflect the stigma historically associated with affordable housing, while demonstrating that an alternative to a detached single-family home might offer more than the suburban ideal. What if the American Dream was not about individual ownership and a green front lawn but, as illustrated at The Reserves at Gray Park, found in shared public spaces designed to foster community interaction and sustainable site planning?

In many ways, disguised density is a study of aesthetics and perception: both a design exercise in vernacular typologies and a strategic game of hide-and-seek. But camouflage can’t always ward off NIMBY critiques. Opponents of the Ashland Apartments in Santa Monica accused Koning Eizenberg Architecture of “shoe-horning too much building into the site” and brought concerns about increased traffic to Santa Monica’s Architectural Review Board.⁵ The opponents were large neighbors—Santa Monica homeowners concerned about the project’s direct impact on their quality of life and property values. Considered a “preferred project” by the City of Santa Monica, the 10-unit development on a terraced hillside reflects higher density than normally allowed under code but was given an exception to incentivize more family housing to the area. Studios and two- and three-bedroom apartments are divided among four structures. According to the architects, the project achieves a density of 30 units/acre by bridging scales between a residential neighborhood (the source of the complaints) and a high-density, mixed-use development along Lincoln Boulevard to the west.

A view of a courtyard surrounding by a cluster of white modernist buildings. A person with a bicycle walks through the courtyard.

In 2019, the same year that Ashland Apartments opened, Architecture Australia ran an article about architects Hank Koning and Julie Eizenberg, describing their work as “smart, generous and empathetic,”⁶ which is best embodied at Ashland in the abundance of private and shared outdoor spaces that allow residents room to socialize and take advantage of Southern California indoor-outdoor living.

Ashland Apartments sits on a previously unbuilt lot in the center of the block and is edged on three sides by the backyards of adjacent properties. With no street frontage of its own, the other houses in this highly desirable neighborhood mask its overall density. A long, narrow (and contentious) driveway connects from the curb to the under- ground parking lot. The multiyear clash was, literally, a skirmish over “not in my backyard.”

Although density triggers fears of “too big,” “too much,” or “invasive,” at the heart of these kinds of fights is a battle over the continued viability of single- family zoning in neighborhoods, cities, and states where homelessness is on the rise, affordable housing is out of reach, and sprawl is no longer an option. As a paradigm, single-family zoning was built on pastoral fantasies and systems of social and racial exclusion. Bursting the fever dream of individual homeownership and the loose-fit urbanism it produces is bound to provoke conflict. During an event hosted by Laboratory for Suburbia that questioned what “house” means—both as a spatial product and as home— Gustavo Arellano, an Orange County–based journalist who writes on issues of politics, race, and suburbia, suggested we shatter our collective intoxi- cation, using language that verges on revolution. “[I have to] throw this rock into the windows of the dream I have, and other people have, about where we’re at right now” he said, holding up a painted rock from his childhood.⁷

The sanctity of the American Dream is now undergoing arguably radical, even heretical, change. Across the US, states are rethinking the primacy of single-family zoning, which makes it possible to build multifamily housing in residential neighborhoods—with or without stealth, gentle, or disguised density. Oregon passed legislation eliminating exclusive single-family zoning in 2019. California followed in 2021 with SB 9: The California Home Act, which allows for up to four units on a single-family parcel and promotes infill development.⁸ Its passage was not free from pushback. Under SB 9, landmarked and historic districts are exempt, so the City of Pasadena, a place known for both beautiful craftsman homes and racist histories of redlining, proposed an urgency ordinance declaring the entire city a landmark district, a move that garnered critical media attention and a warning by California Attorney General Rob Bonta.⁹

The Outpost, a four-story, 16-unit project in Portland, Oregon, takes advantage of the state’s higher-density policy and sets a new paradigm for both preservation and how we live together. Beebe Skidmore Architects preserved an existing nineteenth-century home on the property and worked with real estate developer Owen Gabbert and co-living platform Open Door to build a mini-tower: two handsome board-and-batten-clad cubes stacked with a twist.

A dark green building of four stories stands on a street among single-family homes.

From the outside, The Outpost’s density doesn’t appear particularly disguised. Its contemporary design displays few tropes of contextual sensitivity, like pitched roofs or vernacular overhangs, even though the other house on the site has both. What is concealed, however, is an experiment in communal living. Shared spaces include the kitchen plus dining and living areas. The project also offers a greater lesson, as disguised density asks us to question the sanctity of the single-family home. As reported by Jay Caspian Kang, suburban neighborhoods are more diverse than our collective imaginary.¹⁰ Existing homes contain multiple generations, older single people, or groups of TikTok influencers. Designing multifamily housing within single-family neighborhoods challenges the notion of the nuclear family as the default resident.

Designing with disguised density strategies allows housing to respond to shifting social and urban planning realities. But is it enough? Well-designed, dense, “missing-middle” housing is necessary to address scarcity and affordability; our language shouldn’t hide the urgency. Disguised density may yield too much agency to NIMBY anxieties and, in doing so, favors modesty over the true need for larger, multiunit buildings.

“Bestor Architecture Uses ‘Stealth Density’ at Blackbirds Housing in Los Angeles,” https://www .dezeen.com/2016/09/28/bestor-architecture-blackbirds-housing-stealth-density-echo-park-los-angeles/.
“‘Gentle’ Density Can Save Our Neighborhoods,” https://www.brookings.edu/research/gentle-density-can-save-our-neighborhoods/.
“$224K Grant from Planters Bank and Trust and FHLB Dallas Creates 42 Homes,” https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/2018061500 5840/en/224K-Grant-from Planters-Bank-and-Trust-and-FHLB-Dallas-Creates-42-Homes.
Construction of Santa Monica Apartment Building Appealed,” https://www.surfsantamonica.com/ssm_site/the_lookout /news/News-2015/January -2015/01_23_2015_Construction_of_Santa_Monica _Apartment_%20Building _%20Appealed.html.
“‘Smart, Generous and Empathetic’: The Housing Projects of Koning Eizenberg Architecture,” https://architectureau.com/articles/hank-koning -and-julie-eizenberg/.
“Sprawl Session 3: House as Crisis,” https:// laboratoryforsuburbia.site /SS3.
“Senate Bill 9 Is the Product of a Multi-Year Effort to Develop Solutions to Address California’s Housing Crisis,” https://focus.senate .ca.gov/sb9.
Attorney General Bonta Puts City of Pasadena on Notice for Violating State Housing Laws,” https://oag.ca.gov/news/press-releases /attorney-general-bonta-puts-city-pasadena-notice-violating-state-housing-laws.
“Everything You Think You Know About the Suburbs Is Wrong,” https://www.nytimes.com /2021/11/18/opinion/suburbs-poor-diverse.html.

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How Can Modular Design Be Used to Revolutionize Housing Architecture?

Written by Enrique Tovar
Published on April 25, 2024

Housing is a diverse architectural typology whose configuration is determined not only by those who design it but also by the use of those who live in it. Therefore, homes are fundamentally adaptable structures that evolve in line with their time and users, undergoing constant changes manifested in the ways of living. The house conceived today will not be the same as the one built tomorrow, so it becomes necessary to maintain a critical and profound approach to the role it plays in the built environment.

In this sense, modular architecture has consistently presented itself as a dynamic design strategy that has revolutionized housing, developing versatile solutions for sustainable spaces and construction practices. Thus, modular housing has been fertile ground for exploring and deepening ways of inhabiting space and addressing human needs. From the prefabricated catalog houses of the 19th century to the post-World War II housing boom, its evolution reflects both past proposals and the exploration of new concepts for the future.

Understanding the transformation of habitat through modular design requires a comprehensive examination of its sustainability and practical implementation. Moreover, it's crucial to consider the global impact of these trends on future architecture. This pursuit drives exploration into conceptual, material, technological, and political innovations in housing and urban strategies. Buildner's promotion of such explorations via architectural competitions demonstrates how housing architecture can be continually revolutionized, akin to Jean Prouvé's demountable houses , the demountable concept of the Dymaxion House , or Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian houses.

A Path for Facing the Housing Crisis

Around the world, the lack of affordable housing continues to be a growing problem, especially with diminishing natural resources, climate change, and economic crisis. Events such as MICROHOME —an annual competition launched by Buildner—seek simple solutions for smaller and more efficient living. The proposals developed around this topic focus on off-grid modular homes of up to 25 square meters. Their approaches are as diverse as their strategies; using fewer materials, encouraging flexibility, and promoting sustainable communities to address poverty and climate change.

The variety of housing approaches demonstrates that while the housing crisis is a global concern, its manifestations vary based on local context. In their examination of affordable housing , researchers have highlighted how major cities like Berlin, Paris, and Toronto grapple with limited housing stocks.

To enhance housing conditions in urban areas, various proposals have offered radical ideas. These include using spaces under highways , building on top of underutilized infrastructure, reworking laneways between existing residential developments, and building new structures that combine architectural programs. Such initiatives aim to enhance vacant urban cores.

Minimizing Waste and Construction Time

The pressing need for sustainable and adaptable architecture has spurred the exploration of alternative ways to build efficiently. These techniques, such as modular construction, leverage technology to streamline processes around construction, including the transport of materials , reducing execution time, and minimizing waste, thereby promoting cleaner and more efficient construction sites. In addition, advances in digital fabrication, such as 3D printing and robotics , allow for greater precision and customization.

In terms of materials, architects are increasingly opting for environmentally friendly options that work cohesively with the dismountable, foldable, and collapsible systems that some modular housing propose, such as recycled steel, cross-laminated timber (CLT) , and bamboo , along with energy-efficient insulation systems. At the same time, the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar panels and geothermal heating systems, further enhances the sustainability of modular home proposals, closing the loop between processes, materials, energy, and climate control systems.

Design Competitions as an Industry-Wide Tool for Education and Innovation

To sustain the momentum of innovation in architecture, ongoing dialogue and critical analysis about modular housing are key. Design competitions are crucial in this space, serving as educational tools and creative hubs to foster ideas. These competitions offer opportunities for creative freedom that might otherwise be restricted by traditional projects while integrating current concepts around innovation, sustainability, and technology .

Design competitions represent a way to transcend established norms, becoming drivers of positive change based on contemporary issues. Through them, significant ideas that contribute to finding solutions for contemporary discussions are highlighted and recognized.

That is why Buildner, in the spirit of addressing the current challenges of architecture, works closely with leading architects in various fields to create competitions that foster creative thinking. It also collaborates with international juries to evaluate the designs submitted by individuals, teams, and studios from around the globe. These jury panels provide an objective assessment in the search for innovative ideas that inspire the next generation of designers to propose sustainable and replicable solutions that tell a story and challenge the status quo.

Approaching modular housing through design competitions offers a perspective that, with each iteration, introduces new ideas to a building system whose efficiency allows the replacement or addition of elements without impacting the rest of the system. This flexibility encourages the exploration of new ideas concerning homes, a concept familiar to all and therefore constantly challenged. Through the analysis of past and future cases, modular housing emerges as a blank canvas that deftly balances standardization with customization in contemporary living.

This article is part of the ArchDaily Topics: Modular Housing , proudly presented by BUILDNER .

BUILDNER celebrates architecture competitions as an effective tool for achieving progress by fostering groundbreaking ideas that push the industry forward. “Through academic and project competitions, we are building an inclusive and diverse community of architects and designers, by promoting critical topics such as affordable, sustainable and small-scale housing to address global challenges. Our goal is to inspire the next generation of designers to propose innovative solutions and challenge the status quo.”

Every month we explore a topic in-depth through articles, interviews, news, and architecture projects. We invite you to learn more about our ArchDaily Topics . And, as always, at ArchDaily we welcome the contributions of our readers; if you want to submit an article or project, contact us .

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10 House Styles That Will Inspire Your Essay

Table of Contents

There is a wide variety of house styles to inspire your essay. Whether you are looking for a rustic farmhouse, a modern country home, or even an expensive London penthouse, this list of 10 house styles will provide enough inspiration to write about any house on the market.

American Colonial
French Provincial
Spanish Colonial
English Country
Dutch Colonial
Mediterranean
English Vernacular
Scottish Baronial

This list covers different types of homes including small apartments and single family homes. From the traditional Victorian cottage to contemporary bungalows with built-in fireplaces, there is something for every style preference here!

The 3 Most Common House Styles in North American Architecture

North American architecture has kept to the aesthetic principles of the style which is characterized by its horizontal lines. This style is commonly seen in homes with large windows, wide doors, and lots of balconies.

Prairie Style: Typically found in small towns throughout North America, this house features a low roof line and a porch that wraps around the entire house.
Ranch Style: This ranch style home looks like a log cabin on a large lot with additions over time. The floor plan is usually rectangular with a pitched roof and an open area for gathering outdoors.
Mediterranean Style: This house is towering and has an asymmetrical shape which changes from one side to another due to different terraces on each level of the building. The facade also typically has as many as four columns as well

What are the House Styles?

House styles are a type of architectural style in which a building is covered in a variety of materials. There are a total of 10 house styles in the United States, with 4 predominant ones. The most common house styles are the Georgian, Colonial, Tudor, and French Country. Most houses are either Georgian, Tudor, or Colonial. The French Country style is not common.

The information in this section is helpful for people who want to know about the different house styles that exist today.

How to Choose the Most Appropriate House Style for Your Essay Topic

There are many factors to consider when deciding on the right house style for your essay, including the topic of your paper, your audience, and your objective. These factors include the length, purpose of your essay, and how formal or informal you want it to be. Let’s start by taking a look at the different styles.

In order to help you put thought in the right place you can search for more information on https://meiguodaixie.com/ .

Different Essay Styles

This is an example of a formal academic paper that has no personal expression in it. The introduction includes the author’s name and their institution, which shows respect to future readers of this paper.

This is an example of a high school level essay that includes personal expressions and emotions. The introduction contains information about what will be discussed in this paper, which is information about reading habits amongst students in high school age groups.

In the third type of essay in this list, you discuss a more casual topic that may not have been included in the other two lists. This could be something that crops up from time to time, for example your work schedule, your family plans for the weekend, or just a general chat about what you’re up to these days.

The Unique Features of Each House Style

The house style is the main stylistic feature of a company. It gives an overall sense of how the company communicates its brand.

The unique features of each house style are usually based on cultural values or personal preferences. British English typically makes use of more words like ‘a’ and ‘the,’ while American English uses more words like ‘I’ and ‘you.’ This can be seen in the distinctions between British and American English, for example.

The Style Style Box is a tool that helps you identify which house style your company uses.

And Beyond! What Are Some Other Things You Should Consider When Choosing a Style for Your Essays?

When choosing a house style for your essays, you should also consider the following factors: the tone of the essay, length, and format.

When you are writing an essay on a particular topic, one of the most important decisions you make is which house style to use for your paper. Before selecting a house style, it is essential that you consider what tone of voice or voice that will be best suited for this particular paper.

The tone will determine what type of audience your essay is going to appeal to and how convincing it will be. For example, if you are writing an argumentative paper on gender bias in sports, then there is no need to write in a more formal tone as it would not enhance its persuasive nature. In contrast, an informal tone will help achieve the informal atmosphere of the text.

Lana Rose, an esteemed home decor and improvement specialist, has led our content team since 2017. After graduating with honors in Environmental Design from the University of British Columbia, Lana worked on sustainable design projects for seven years. Her shift to writing in 2014 was driven by a desire to share eco-friendly home improvement ideas. When not exploring the latest home decor trends, Lana is an avid gardener, blending her professional insights with personal passions to create content that resonates with a broad audience.

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A chronological exploration of the evolution of housing typologies in Gulf cities

Adel M. Remali 1 ,
Ashraf M. Salama ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1241-414X 1 ,
Florian Wiedmann 1 &
Hatem G. Ibrahim 2

City, Territory and Architecture volume 3 , Article number: 14 ( 2016 ) Cite this article

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This paper traces the evolution of housing typologies in four major cities in the Gulf region, namely Doha, Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Manama. The study reviews the formation and historical events in the region, which had a significant impact on new social as well as economic realities and consequently evolving housing types during the last two centuries. The methodological approach is based on reviewing a number of case studies representing local housing typologies throughout distinctive historic periods which were categorized in four periods: the post-nomadic, traditional, modern, and contemporary. The main objective is to identify the process of transformation by applying a comparative assessment of the different periods in order to examine continuities or ruptures between them. Thus, particular layout elements were analysed and compared. Conclusions are drawn to underline contemporary challenges while offering projections for future housing typologies in the selected cities and other similar ones.

Housing transformations worldwide are the result of major demographic and socio-economic changes in addition to technological advancements and socio-political interventions. In the case of vernacular settlements housing has always been a direct expression of the state of know-how of construction techniques, available local construction materials as well as local climatic and cultural conditions (Turner 1976 ). Consequently, it is argued that the community itself and its particular environmental conditions are the producers of housing typologies, which have usually led to a high degree of continuity of architectural styles and representation in spite of a high level of individuality due to missing construction standards. Today, vernacular settlements and their rather homogenous housing typologies can still be found and studied in the case of preserved pre-industrial medieval settlements in Europe as well as in remote rural areas in the developing world, where colonial influences have been limited, such as Yemen or Mali (Lauber et al. 2011 ).

In the case of settlements, which became important centres of political power, the extensive growth and subsequent exposure to new construction materials and techniques in addition to increasing top-down political intervention led to first new development tendencies. Ancient examples can be found in the case of Greek as well as Roman settlements following rigid infrastructural grids and standardized housing sizes as well as layouts (Owens 1992 ). However, only after the industrial revolution, the vernacular bottom-up drivers of the general housing evolution were completely replaced by an increasingly standardized construction industry which was coupled with the emergence of modern urban planning that began to implement clear and rigid housing policies (Hall 2002 ). The top-down planning and administration of housing development enabled more efficient housing supply and first mass housing schemes, but consequently a diminishing influence of local communities.

The experience of early industrial cities during the nineteenth century has resulted in the emergence of the “Garden City” movement, which was initiated by Ebenezer Howard ( 1898 ). Such a movement can be viewed as a direct reaction to the missing but desired link between residents—individually or collectively, and their private homes. The invention and industrial mass production of the car has been the precondition of enabling one of the biggest housing revolutions in the twentieth century, the new ideal of single-family dwellings in a green suburban environment along the peripheries of major cities (Duany et al. 2010 ). In spite of the general homogeneity of the newly emerging suburbs and the common practice of mass housing projects, the individual needs and wants of higher-income groups have been reflected in ground floor plans and major design elements leading to a new phase of individual identification between families and their homes.

Due to the on-going fragmentation of urban areas, the resulting traffic congestion as well as limited lifestyle choices in suburban settings, a new housing tendency has emerged at the end of the twentieth century, commonly referred to as gentrification and the rebirth of downtown areas in the Global North. While residents in developed countries rediscovered city centres as potential homes, cities in the Global South have witnessed the increasing phenomenon of gated communities. The analysis of the historic housing evolution in particular regions can provide in-depth insights on how living standards as well as lifestyles transformed and how contemporary housing conditions reflect the various historic and cultural roots. A review of any housing transformation therefore aims to enhance awareness and thus enables a conscious approach in designing future houses.

Since the Gulf region is a very particular case that integrates typical development tendencies from both the Global North and the Global South (Salama and Wiedmann 2013 ), this paper is based on studying housing transformations in four Gulf cities, namely Doha, Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Manama. In this paper, the four major historic periods of housing evolution in the selected cities are critically analysed. Based on identifying typical types that represent different phases of development a comparative assessment is conducted to explore discontinuities and gaps and/or continuities and overlaps of housing development and to discuss alternative approaches for the development of future housing typologies in the Gulf region.

Methodological approach

The crux of the examination is to explore the transformation of the dwelling’s layout and its spatial interior spaces over time in terms of the composition and functions of the housing unit. The typological analysis places emphasis on key specific qualities of the dwellings while identifying their characteristics in order to establish differences that can be utilized for typological classification. The investigation of typological evolution and transformation in the selected four Gulf cities adopts a multi-layered methodological approach that involves the following two preparatory procedures:

Review of theoretical underpinnings and conceptual tenets on housing typologies; and

Identification of four historic periods that have resulted from various events with significant impacts on socio-economic and socio-cultural realities.

These two procedures offer a substantial base for conducting a typological analysis as a third procedure. With the purpose of carrying out the typological analysis of housing evolution in the Gulf region, the third procedure is devised as a sampling approach. Eighteen samples of housing types were selected from a wide variety of houses that represent successive historic eras in each of the selected cities. After a detailed study of all samples, six examples are selected to represent the four historic periods that are categorized as: post-nomadic, traditional, modern and contemporary. The first two periods are represented by a singular housing model, which is considered to be a predominant housing typology in that era. Four models, two models each, represent the second two periods.

Beside the singular house or villa model, multi-storey buildings were introduced as residential modern and contemporary models. The selection of these models is based on the internal layout characteristics of the housing typology in Gulf cities. Twenty-six models of residences are selected from four major cities in the region. These samples primarily represent the majority of housing models of formally designed dwellings during the last century. Notably, not all the models were covered in this study and therefore it cannot be considered exclusive (Fig. 1 ).

Source Redeveloped by the authors

The various case studies of housing types in the four Gulf cities.

For an effective comparative analysis the reproduction of scaled floor plans was a necessary procedure. The architectural floor plans reveal the typological transformation of the housing production and the way in which the residential units were designed in each period. The dwelling’s layout is analytically defined, described and its evolution is traced within the selected historic eras.

The preceding procedures resulted in a series of outcomes in the form of observations and interpretations with respect to the typological housing evolution in each city. This is conducted by graphically analysing the types in order to detect the evolutionary characteristics of each period. In this examination, the analysis is centred on the ground floor of the housing unit, the house or villa. Therefore, it should be noted that all examples of the modern period and the example of the modern period of Manama do not include bedrooms in the analytical drawings since family bedrooms are located in the upper floor which is accessible by stairways that are demonstrated in the drawings.

Theoretical underpinnings on housing typologies

The main concern of typology as a realm of investigation is to address the conceptual basis by which buildings can be classified and categorised into types. Demiri ( 1983 ) notes that typology is about the formal and spatial characteristics of buildings, which are rooted in culture and history. Typology in this sense is regarded as the “classification of models” (Salama 2006 ). According to Petruccioli ( 2007 ), a type is the organic ensemble of the common characteristics of buildings in a defined culture over a specific period of time. Thus, typological process is conceived in the context of this discussion as a dynamic process that changes and develops according to evolutionary paradigms of a particular society and that cannot be restricted to one formal scheme.

Petruccioli ( 2007 ) points out that it is possible to establish an explanation of the common generic sources and characteristics of types. Typological process is defined as dynamic evolutionary paradigms of a certain type of buildings of a particular society, in order to provide a clear generative interpretation of form transformation (Leupen et al. 1997 ). It is important to note that writings on typology emphasize that it should not aim at architectural styles; it is rather a set of descriptive categories that define the spatial characteristics of buildings over time (Gulgonen and Laisney 1982 ).

Typology has been used either as a basis for analysing buildings and cities (analytical typology) or as a basis for designing buildings (generative typology) (Leupen et al. 1997 ). The birth of a type is conditioned by the fact that a series of buildings share an obvious functional and formal analogy among themselves (Petruccioli 1998 p. 11). This is considered as a typo-morphological approach of interpreting and classifying the spatial and morphological characteristics of buildings as stated by Petruccioli ( 1998 ). Furthermore, the different variations within the same category of a type require clear identification in order to fully understand and interpret the building types in different cities. However, another level of typological analysis, which classifies the buildings within the different categories on the basis of their differences also, needs to be performed. It should be noted that each of the emerging typologies would include in itself the generic type. In essence and in the content of this investigation, typological analysis permits the examination, classification, recognition and description of residential buildings across different historic eras and across similar or different contexts.

Housing itself is a spatial phenomenon that has been linked with the subjective perception of shelter, security, comfort and desire (Alexander 1985 ). The individual home is a comfortable environment that is associated with intimate and relaxing behaviour shaped in specific size and type of spaces to enhance the spatial and social interaction (Chandhoke 2003 ). The residential unit has been recognised as a reciprocal interaction between the physical space, social life and interests of the householders, which have been rooted in peace, faith and purity (Philips 2008 ).

Alexander ( 1985 ) identifies two aspects as a base of a successful housing typology; how its uniqueness is expressed and how it is an appropriate social place connecting the family with other people and the society at large. Throughout history, housing typologies have been examined with respect to aspects of stronghold territory, in which certain measures of safety and protection have continuously been applied. This specific spatial organisation has limited the number of people who can easily enter private dwellings, which are restricted realms, requiring strangers to seek a permission to cross the private boundary (Bower 1980 ). In addition, Douglas ( 1991 ) adds that the spatial configuration of someone’s habitat is not only what is located within the private physical boundaries, but also how people express their sense of belonging to the domain beyond the territory’s border. The immediate outdoor areas of a dwelling are considered a vital and active part of the private living area (Abdelmonem 2015 ). Therefore, the traditional dwellers look at the adjacent public space as an extension of their private spaces.

The preceding theoretical tenets offer important insights toward understanding the evolutionary process of housing transformation within Gulf cities. In this respect, the paper examines the evolution and transformation of housing typologies from the perspective of the individual’s experience and perception into a meaningful production of space. It discusses the production of residential models throughout the different periods as a set of activities shaping their spatial organisation.

The four periods of settlement development in the Gulf

The review of historical events in the region (Fig. 2 ), which had a significant impact on new social as well as economic realities, enables an understanding of various historic eras that can be classified into four periods as follows:

Source Authors

The key events within local urban governance impacting housing development in the four selected Gulf cities.

The Post-Nomadic Period (until 1763)

The traditional period (1763–1945), the modern period (1945–1990), the contemporary period (since 1990).

Before the British colonial influence commenced during the nineteenth century, the Gulf region was the home of Bedouin tribes and a very few oasis settlements. The traditional Bedouin economy was based on raising livestock, which is determined by the supply of water and the availability of grazing land (Ibn Khaldun 2004 ). The gradual exploration of underground oases permitted first date plantations and limited agriculture which the rich fishing grounds enabled a further supply chain of small settlements. The first oases settlements were thus the direct result of Bedouin culture and the gradual adjustment to agricultural lifestyles. Due to the limited water supply of each oasis a parallel and symbiotic coexistence of Bedouin and settled tribes have emerged over centuries and in spite of growing interdependencies a history of conflicts and slow population growth are clear indicators of very challenging living conditions.

In spite of the important geopolitical location along historic trading routes, Portuguese, Persian and Ottoman colonial influences have remained rather limited on settlements along the Gulf coast due to the harsh climatic conditions. The tribal structure combined major top-down decision-making, such as the distribution of land to the various clans, as well as self-organization and responsibility regarding the development and use of land (Salama and Wiedmann 2013 ). The built environment was thus a direct result of the inner socio-political and cultural circumstances and in addition to first cubic dwellings made of clay, mud and coral stones, a large part of the population still resided in tents and so called barasti huts, which were made of palm fronds.

In 1763 the British Empire installed an official colonial subdivision in the Gulf region, known as “Persian Gulf Residency” due to increasing trading activities towards India (Peterson 2008 ). The interaction between the various tribes and the British East India Company have mainly focused on preventing emerging piracy and to establish ports for repairing ships as well as for trade, which was limited to pearls. As a result, the commencing international pearl trade became the most important factor in settlement growth, which was accelerated by the move of inland tribes as well as Indian and Persian merchant families in addition to East-African slaves, engaged as pearl divers (Al-Maani and Alsharari 2014 ).

The population of most settlements remained below 50,000 inhabitants. However, the import of new construction techniques, such as the Persian wind towers, and the large income differences between the various social classes in addition to the segregation of the various ethnic groups led to an increasing differentiation of building typologies, from large courtyard complexes of wealthy clan leaders to palm frond huts of pearl divers. The ports and first large-scale markets led to defined public centres, where all social groups interacted. The various neighbourhoods were developed in proximity to these commercial centres. While an official urban administration was not yet established, emerging conflicts between neighbours were usually solved by official gatherings of tribal leaders (Hakim 2007 ).

The first phase of modern urbanization was dominated by the development of first infrastructural networks, including water, electricity and sewage (Fuccaro 2009 ). First roads were built to connect ports and newly established airports with oil fields and first settlements for guest workers, engaged in the oil production and infrastructural development. The rapid wealth increase led to the introduction of social welfare mechanisms and the focus on enhancing the living conditions of the local populations in order to avoid political disputes of tribal leaders, supported by the British protectorate (Abdulla 2010 ). The most important development during this period was the establishment of modern housing connected to modern infrastructure.

Due to the rather narrow distances between buildings and small plot sizes in traditional settlement areas, the local populations moved to newly built suburban neighbourhoods, which followed Western construction methods and standards. The import of a modern construction industry was entirely detached from the local population and first housing typologies were thus mainly influenced by the common housing design and standards of more developed countries in the Middle East, such as Egypt and the Levant. This was an outcome of the vast immigration from the region and South-Asia and led to these rapidly growing settlements. While the first planning units were focused on developing an infrastructural backbone and first building standards (Al-Sammani 2011 ), the national independence of most Gulf countries between 1961 and 1971 led to the foundation of first public administration jurisdictions and the establishment of capital cities (Wiedmann 2012 ).

During the following decades the provision of sufficient housing for the local population has remained one of the most important public sector responsibilities. In 1976 a decree was issued in Bahrain to establish the Ministry of Housing in order to provide social housing for citizens with limited income. This gave a boost to expand large-scale housing projects in Isa Town and Hamad Town in 1978 and 1984 (Wiedmann 2012 ; Al-Nabi 2012 ). During the 1980s, the National Housing Programmes were established in the UAE, providing free funds of Dhs 200,000 (Approx $US 60,000) with serviced land (Al-Mansoori 1997 ). In 1984, Qatar’s Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture (MMAA) defined a three-level classification system of houses: free houses, public houses and senior staff houses. As part of this system a new policy that allowed the involvement of users in the design of their own houses or villas (a two-story self-contained house) was introduced, which was based on a catalogue developed by the municipality that included a few alternative designs (Nagy 2000 ).

The end of the Cold War and the rising global trade instigated a new role of the Gulf region, as main trading and transit hub due to its geopolitical location (Khalaf 2006 ). In addition to the enhanced impact of globalisation, rulers launched new national development visions in order to initiate economic diversification (Salama and Wiedmann 2013 ). After the introduction of free economic zones and tourism the liberalisation of local real-estate markets led to an unprecedented construction boom at the beginning of the new millennium, particularly in Dubai followed by all major Gulf cities (Wiedmann et al. 2012 ). Subsequently, the housing market witnessed a rapid diversification to accommodate the interests of investors and the emerging government-private developers. Due to rising land prices and limited land with access to infrastructural grids the construction boom introduced luxurious apartments as housing alternative to suburban villas for upper income groups, including local populations.

Despite the rapid expansion of the private sector rulers have remained the main driving force of any development due to their decision-making capacity with respect to direct investments of oil and gas revenues in infrastructure and key projects as well as the fact that most development land has still remained under their control, and in particular, the newly reclaimed land on waterfronts. In addition, the public sector has remained in charge of supplying housing, such as the Sheikh Zayed Housing Programme in Abu Dhabi during the 1990s. Housing development during this period is defined by major mega projects, which were often planned as cities-within-cities. While most developments have been initiated along coastal areas, urban sprawl has continued in the form of expanding suburban residential districts made of both large gated compounds for expatriate professionals as well as segregated neighbourhoods for the local population. A new phenomenon in recent years has been the initiation of projects within downtown areas in order to attract the younger generation of locals to relocate from suburban to inner-city districts. One prominent example in this regard is the Msheireb development in Doha (Wiedmann and Salama 2013 ).

The preceding analysis of the four historic eras suggests that the foundation periods of the selected Gulf cities share the same historical background, which generated comparable schemes in urban, economic and political developments. While this goes along earlier analyses on the topic (Qutub 1985 ; Khalaf 2006 ; Fox et al. 2006 ), the analysis in the context of the preceding discussion insinuates that economic, social and political factors have played a key role in shaping housing developments and emerging typological patterns. Yet, since the discovery of oil in the region, a massive urban transformation program was initiated and different strategies were introduced in order to establish new spatial patterns accommodating both local and international lifestyles. In the four Gulf cities international standards for urban planning, infrastructure and zoning were adopted in order to establish functioning regional and global hubs. Figure 2 outlines the key events within urban governance chronologically including the establishment of new government bodies, local authorities, master plans and guidance policies.

Mapping housing typologies to the four historical periods in four cities

The analysis of the housing evolution within the four Gulf cities conveys that not only the social values that have defined the housing typology or the spatial organization of the house, but also the economic development and political legitimacy. The initial post-nomadic model is rooted in erecting fences around tents in order to define individual plots for each family. Simple cubic buildings made of basic local materials such as palm-fronds, mud, and coral stones gradually replaced first huts and tents. Each plot consisted of a walled enclosure open spaces filled with one story room or several rooms positioned along the plot’s perimeter (Jaidah and Bourennane 2010 ). This basic shelter encompasses only main spaces that were essential for families, including private living areas, guest reception, cooking, storage and utility. Spaces were arranged within one plot surrounded by a wall to provide a family privacy and a clear territorial boundary and ownership (Fig. 3 ). The reception space was located within the plot ground and was directly accessible from the public domain in order to preserve the family privacy and to make a clear separation between the men’s gathering and family’s daily life. With the absence of the official governmental regulations, this model was strongly associated with socio-economic aspects, where residences reflect the general social status in terms of size, type and nature of spaces, as well as the quality of details.

The internal relationships of spaces within the post-nomadic housing typology in the four cases.

The traditional model can be considered as an advancement of the post-nomadic model. The emerging pearl trade during the nineteenth century generated new new housing standards. The concomitant growth of the family or the accommodation of extended family members led to erecting more covered spaces within the same dwelling plot, and therefore, a central open space or a courtyard was shaped in similitude to other settlement throughout the Middle East. Most traditional houses were arranged around a central private courtyard where family activities took place. As the central primary open space, the courtyard became the heart of the traditional dwelling, where all the functions such as majlis (family or visitors sitting area) , living spaces, bathroom and iwans were connected. Traditionally, the courtyard contained a fountain and a small garden or fruitful trees in order to provide shaded areas and help with the cooling (Hawker 2008 ). The majlis was often located near the entrance and used to receive men’s visitors or conduct a business; it was often kept separated from the rest of the house. Occasionally, an intermediate yard may lead to an adjacent house, accommodating additional wives or an extended family (Fig. 4 ). The main concept behind designing the courtyard house was to generate an inward-looking plan with plain external walls, which were designed to discourage strangers from looking inside the house as well as to protect the house from the harsh climate of the region (Regette 2003 ; Edwards et al. 2006 ; Salama 2006 ).

The spatial organisation of the traditional housing typology in the four cities.

In the context of discussing the traditional Gulf house it is important to refer to its most unique features. The wind tower was introduced to help soften the impact of the desert scorching heat while creating pleasant, better ventilated interior spaces. In addition, the roof terrace is an open space located in the house’s upper floor and is accessible by staircase, which is flexible to be used for both family and guests. This upper level space was fully occupied in the evenings of the summer time. During the daytime it was a place for drying vegetables. In the late night time, the space is turned into a sleeping area as it was exposed to the pleasant breeze. It is important to note that the traditional houses in the Gulf region were not identical but they shared many features that included courtyard, majlis (men’s reception), private area (bedrooms and maid suite), servicing area (kitchen, stores, staircase and wind tower) and roof terrace. The traditional house represents a spontaneous model that refers to a humble experience of local skills and the limitation of the available local construction materials. Nevertheless, it is widely acknowledged as a distinctive example of a housing development that perfectly confronts the harsh desert climate and responds adequately to the basic needs of its users.

The modern model followed a new strategy, reflecting the new prosperity that has resulted in an influx of foreign engineers and architects as well as in the use of new construction techniques and materials. Two types of residential units were introduced as modern models, a villa and an apartment with the aim of improving the standards of Bedouin life that was dominant in the entire Gulf region. The villa was introduced first by the government as standard housing typology for locals and followed the traditional expectation of individual land ownership. In contrast to the traditional typology of courtyard houses, the internal spaces of a modern villa are oriented outward towards the surrounding yards or outdoor spaces. Most of the villa models are one or two storey high and are placed in the centre of the plot surrounded by open spaces, car parks and gardens (Fig. 5 ). A tall wall was added to protect the family privacy and to define the private space. The arrangement of interior spaces preserved the traditional spatial organisation to some extent. The majlis rooms were still located in close proximity to entrance spaces in order to enable a separation between private family life and visitors.

The spatial organisation of the modern housing typology in the four cities.

Stairways and living areas were used as central spaces connecting all rooms replacing the function of courtyards. The living room is signified as the archetype of privacy and intimacy and became a symbolic space for family gathering. This space is mostly open and visible from the surrounding daily family activities and was commonly supplied by flexible furniture. The modern interior layout combines basic spaces that respond to family needs, creating minimum space for circulation. In many cases two functions were accommodated by one singular space such as: living and dining, or kitchen and dining, or guest reception and guest dining. In the ground floor a guest bedroom was part of the spatial organization, whereas the main sleeping rooms are located in the upper floor. In the case of one storey, the central living space at the ground floor level is attached with all other spaces. Conversely, in the case of two storeys or more, this living space is linked horizontally with all daily life spaces and vertically with the most private spaces such as bedrooms by the stairway (Fig. 5 ). The modern flat was almost a small compact model of the modern villa. It had a clear separation between the guest reception space and the family living areas.

The contemporary models have evolved out of the modem model. However, all contemporary models including villas, apartments and townhouses, have mainly followed international trends, wherein the traditional socio-cultural context as well as the desert climate have taken a back seat as design imperatives. The recent construction boom has mainly been guided by speculation-driven mechanisms leading to imported and hardly adjusted housing typologies, such as residential high-rises, apartment blocks and townhouses within large compounds. In order to reduce costs and enhance the number of housing units, open plan living areas were introduced as multi-functional spaces integrating reception, family living, dining and cooking. The high demand for privacy was only accommodated in the form of large bedrooms, which however led to proportionally limited spaces for shared use. Today, it can be argued that the recent surge in construction activities has created two new realities for the local population: Firstly, the high land prices and construction costs leading to a shrinking number of locals, who can embark on an effort to build their modern villas in accessible locations. Secondly, large supplies of new housing units in form of mega projects (large-scale compounds, or gated communities) manifest a clear break from previous lifestyles and traditions. However, the general interior layout of contemporary villa is considered to be an advanced model of the modern villa that mixes between traditional features and international standards and styles. Most of the contemporary villas maintain the guest reception slightly separated from the rest of the living spaces, but still easily accessible visually and spatially. On the other hand, a hierarchy between the bedrooms and family living space is achieved, which keeps the most private spaces integrated with the living spaces while preserving their privacy simultaneously (Fig. 6 ).

The spatial organisation of the contemporary housing typology in the four cities.

The design of the contemporary apartment on the other hand, focuses essentially on how to accommodate different users who have multi-ethnic backgrounds, using cutting-edge technology. This model is a built manifesto that is based on a new language and architectural style, which reveals the immense possibilities of transformation and with complete denial of the harsh environmental conditions. The result is a new contemporary typology where freedom of movement inside the housing unit took place without sufficient consideration privacy requirements. This entails that the original features with respect to the separation between the interior private spaces and the guest reception area are conflicting. The contemporary model brings up the family to a multifunctional use of the spaces, without conventional limits. For this reason the residential unit is provided with a large living room space for multiple functions.

In essence, housing evolution in the Gulf cities can be categorised, following Alexander ( 2012 ) classification, into two observable systems. The first system occurred during the pre-oil period followed by the creation and production of housing rooted in an organic process, governed by human needs, wants and judgments, which originated from the essential wholeness of situations, conditions and surroundings. The second system took place during the period of modern urbanisation, which reflected the housing production as a mechanical process and is based on governmental regulations, procedures, categories and efficiency. All machinery of housing strategies and implementation in this period was designed to make societies run smoothly. However, the post-oil housing production process has rarely been context-sensitive while following market logic. Thus, traditional values and lifestyles were accommodated in the form of added walls and separate doors rather than as driving forces defining the inner configuration and the spatial organization of houses.

The evaluated post-nomadic and traditional models in all four Gulf cities exhibited a high level of synergies between socio-cultural practices and spatial configuration. Thus, the first two phases of the housing evolution represent a collective development reflecting both the cultural needs as well as the various environmental constraints. The study furthermore unveils that the modern and contemporary phases reflect international housing standards in which the spatial configuration of housing typologies have been following global economic forces. Due to imported policies, construction materials and techniques the originality of housing in the Gulf region has been disoriented. While detached dwellings could be still tailored to certain cultural needs, such as gender separation and the needs for privacy, the recent surge in housing production has created new built realities for young generations of locals to adjust to new housing typologies with limited sizes and spatial configurations based on international lifestyle models.

The contemporary urban condition with respect to housing production reveals rising tensions between the general housing expectations of local populations and the new realities rooted in liberalized housing markets and continuously increasing land prices. Various efforts are currently carried out to introduce new housing standards for local populations by integrating cultural needs in the case of comparatively small residential units. In the Kingdom of Bahrain, a townhouse project has been launched as part of the Diyar Al Muharraq project integrating separate majlis rooms and small courtyards. The supply of daylight via small courtyards adds to a more introverted layout and thus private living spaces, while the majlis is located at the entrance separating male guests from family spaces. In the case of the Msheireb project in Doha the aim is to bring the local community from the city’s peripheries to the urban core. Attracting the local population to the urban core is achieved by utilizing traditional design elements in an exclusive housing district while at the same time creating a spatial distance from migrant communities and their lifestyles.

In all contemporary examples of re-establishing housing as a reflection of local tradition and culture, the courtyard, private family space and the separate majlis in proximity to main entrances play the most important roles. These design elements however demand larger plot sizes in order to function and are rooted in a rarely discussed reality. As presented in this paper the housing evolution in the Gulf region began with simple huts, which were transformed into cubic buildings on small plots. The built density was generally high in order to enable shaded walls and a short walking distance to few water sources. The pearl trade and the emerging wealth of certain families enabled larger residential complexes and the formation of many buildings around courtyards. While prominent examples of these courtyard buildings can still be visited in Muharraq and Dubai, the typical cubic buildings, in which most of the population resided before the oil production began, were completely replaced and never restored (Fig. 7 ). The oil wealth and social welfare mechanisms led to the generic approach of rulers to support a high living standard and thus the size of modern dwellings is conceived to be comparable to the size of large courtyard houses. This instant and extensive upgrade from little cubic buildings made of mud and palm fronds to modern villas during the 1960s and 1970s has enabled all locals to embrace a lifestyle on plot sizes, which were previously limited to rulers and wealthy merchants.

A demonstration of housing transformation in the Gulf.

Today, urban governance has to mediate between the general housing expectations and the new reality of housing as main investment opportunity leading to rising land prices in all cities. In order to reduce urban sprawl locals will need to adapt to the limited sizes of their future residences. The desired move of locals from far-distant suburban districts on cities peripheries can however only succeed, when residential projects integrate key important qualities: A generally introverted layout based on a central core from where all rooms can be accessed, various layers of family privacy and a certain distance to migrant communities. The major potential in this regard can be found in exclusive residential projects along the coast, including high-rises, which however face two main obstacles (Fig. 7 ). The first is the general security concerns regarding fire and the second is the lack of conviction to invest in apartments as long-term residences. Among socio-cultural factors the general hesitation to move to apartments is rooted in doubts regarding the construction standards, future maintenance costs and unpredictable changes within the immediate surroundings. If these hindering factors can be removed, the current trend of young local families relocating to recent projects can mark another step within the housing evolution in Gulf cities; From densely built vernacular settlements to sprawling suburban realms and finally to dense clusters of residential towers and blocks along waterfronts (Fig. 7 ).

The transformation of housing typologies from very limited spaces to excessive spaces and back to reduced spaces in modern urban environments is furthermore a clear reflection of how oil revenues were first invested in supplying local populations with high living standards, while today oil revenues are used to promote the development of new service economies. These new service economies however rely on fast urban growth mechanisms, which have led to the rapid end of extensive public housing supply in most Gulf cities as in previous decades.

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Authors’ contributions

AR carried out the review of house types, conducted the typological analysis and contributed to the mapping of housing typologies to various historical periods. AS conceived of the study, participated in developing the methodology, and in drafting, reviewing, and editing the manuscript. FW developed the historical background and participated in the development of the descriptive analyses of house types and linking them to urban dynamics as portrayed in the conclusion. HI participated in the development of the methodology, in the identification of historical events, and to gathering information about house types. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

This paper is developed as part of a comprehensive funded research project of the National Priorities Research Program, QNRF-Qatar National Research Fund (NPRP 7-960-5-135), entitled: Investigating Housing Typologies in Multicultural Societies of the Gulf Region, a collaboration between University of Strathclyde, Glasgow and Qatar University, Doha. The authors acknowledge the resources offered through the leadership fund of the Department of Architecture at the University of Strathclyde toward developing this work.

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Remali, A.M., Salama, A.M., Wiedmann, F. et al. A chronological exploration of the evolution of housing typologies in Gulf cities. City Territ Archit 3 , 14 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-016-0043-z

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Received : 11 August 2016

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Published : 22 September 2016

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-016-0043-z

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Conservation of Bangkok City Pillar and Tabkwan, Thailand
Creative Ageing Cities – Place Design with Older People in Asian Cities
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Forming Unforming
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Unforming Forming

Building Design and Construction Methods Research Paper

Introduction, building collapse, impact of construction failures on building codes.

The building design is meant to provide people with safe dwelling houses that not only shield them from environmental hazards, but also that meet their physical, social and cultural requirements. This means that in addition to providing the housing needs of residents, a well-designed house also needs to keep their belongings safe.

According to Aceh & Islands (2007), there are eight design principles that must be followed. They include principles in laying down the foundation, a coherent structure, wall-to-roof structure, walls-to-building structure, the roof-truss ties, cross-braces between roof and walls, drainage principles and house elevation.

Willison (2006) also identifies the eight principles as the core details that must be observed in building design and the four commonly practiced construction methods which are: wood framing, steel framing, manufactured house and concrete construction.

In building design and construction, the cliché that a house is just as strong as its foundation rings true. According to Willison (2006), the type of soil where construction will be put up, the moisture content, as well as the estimated weight of the construction, must be put into consideration when laying the foundation.

This means that the ground where construction is intended to be put up must be strong enough to bear the weight of the building. If the soil is weak, like would be the case with sandy soil, the designers and construction workers must be ready to strengthen the foundation of their construction before proceeding with any other construction above the ground (Calvert, 2001). Ideally, all foundations need to be continuous under the house. The more stories a house has, the firmer a foundation it ought to have.

According to the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (2001), most foundation walls in the US are made from concrete masonry units. In a 1998 study in Minnesota and Ohio, it was established that in order to comply with building codes in the two respective areas, constructors usually use either engineered design or empirical design during construction.

In areas that registered low winds and seismic activities, the empirical design was most prevalent. The houses constructed using this design also had to be residential dwellings or other houses that measured less than 35 feet vertically. Areas that had stronger winds and more predisposed to seismic activities had the engineered design approach for most houses.

Regardless of the kind of framing (wood, concrete or steel) a house has, Willison (2006) notes that all building designs need to come up with a coherent structure which should be followed to the latter during the actual construction. This means that the structure needs to be regular, needs to integrate a ring beam in its structure especially above the doors and windows.

The ring beam should connect to defined columns. A similar beam should be integrated into the structure on top of all walls in order to connect them to defined columns. More to this the end of triangular gable walls must be supported by the construction structure as initially envisaged and patented by Boehmig (1987).

As identified earlier in this study, most foundations in the US are concrete based. However, most houses (especially residential) are framed using wood. This, therefore, raises the need for proper anchoring of the wood frames on the concrete stubs forming the foundation.

According to Willison (2006), this often requires the use of non-corrodible metal, which is cast deep into the foundation to provide the structural connection needed to support the wooden frame. It is specifically essential that each wooden column is secured to the foundation well enough.

Joining the roof structure to erected walls is also an essential part of any construction method. In concrete-based constructions, column underpins must protrude from existing concrete columns to provide the necessary structural strength to the roof. In wood-framed structures, metal ties are usually used on roof trusses to the existing wall structures.

In areas prone to natural hazards such as strong winds or earthquakes, tying the roof structure correctly to the house structure is done to retain the integrity of the house if and when a natural disaster occurs. Without the proper connections being made between the roof structure and the building, then strong winds and other natural disasters can easily sweep the roof structure away (Aceh & Islands, 2009).

The fourth design principle that must be considered in every construction according to Willison (2006) is tying walls appropriately to the established structure. This ensures that should any nature forces hit the walls, they remain contact without moving separately as would happen in walls that are not tied to the structure. For the ties to last, they must be hooked to the wall formation. More to this, staircases inside the building should have adequate support.

Proper roofing is the fifth design principle under consideration. According to Aceh & Islands (2009), roof trusses should be firm enough during construction to provide the necessary roofing strength. For this to happen, constructors need to bolt roof trusses together using metal straps. The trusses should be flexible, but must also be strong enough to withstand strong forces from nature. Wooden blocks also need to be used to hold a different section of the truss together as nails would not provide the necessary support.

Proper cross-bracing is identified as the sixth principle in design and construction that should be upheld. Just like the main structure, the roof needs to be held together during construction. This cannot be achieved by linking the roof structure to the main building structure alone. It is at this point that bracing the different parts of the roof using cross-braces becomes essential. The braces ensure that the different parts of the roof are joined together thus making the roof stronger and more likely to withstand the adverse forces of nature.

The seven design principle regard drainage. Common sense dictates that houses constructed in high rainfall areas should have a better drainage system to prevent flooding and destroying the construction material. According to Henderson & Ginger (2008), proper drainage also prevents water logging that may become breeding grounds for insects. Lastly, the floor of the house should be elevated in such a way to avoid ground level water flowing into the house.

According to Calvart (2001), buildings could collapse for several reasons. This includes bad design, extra-ordinary loads, foundation failure, faulty construction or a combination of any of these causes. Regarding bad design, the designer fails to consider the weight load that the construction may have to bear.

Also, he may rely on misleading theories or data and may even be ignorant of the impulsive or repeated stresses that the building may be exposed to. Calvart (2001), however, notes that most structural collapses are caused by faulty construction. Here, the engineer takes the blame since he is in charge of ensuring that only quality, up-to-standard materials are used in the construction.

As stated earlier in this study, the foundation is essential to good construction. This means that however good a constructed structure is, it cannot stand for long on a bad foundation. The earth beneath a structure may just give way, therefore resulting in sinking constructions or they may lean sideways especially where the load of the building is not fairly distributed.

It is an inherently human characteristic to learn from past experiences and failures. In areas where past nature occurrences have caused damage to residential property, it is common for area building codes to be stricter than areas that had relevantly lower incidences of building collapses.

In some parts of Australia, for example, Henderson & Ginger (2008) notes that local inspectorate has tougher building codes in areas where there are stronger winds and water ingresses. In such areas, the building collapses require constructors to consider the strengths of wind or the water levels on the construction site before embarking on the design. It is only after the approval of a proposed design by the local building authorities that the construction can go ahead as scheduled.

Regardless of the building design or construction methods used, the most essential detail in a building is that it should provide people using it in their day to day activities a safe and comfortable indoor environment. For this to happen, and as observed herein, every detail of the construction process must be held with the utmost keenness. Any neglect on the designer or the building engineer’s part may lead to consequences that may cost people’s lives.

Aceh, I. & Islands, A. (2007). Handbook on good building design and construction . Web.

Boehmig, R. (1987). Building construction : United States Patent [19]. Web.

Calvert, J. B. (2001). The collapse of Buildings . Web.

Henderson, D & Ginger, J. (2008). Role of building codes and construction standards in Windstorm disaster mitigation. Australian Journal of Emergency Management 23(2), 40-47.

The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (2001). Building Concrete Masonry Homes: Design and Construction Issues . Web.

Willison, R. D. (2006). Handbook on building design and construction: central Jawa . Web.

Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 23). Building Design and Construction Methods. https://ivypanda.com/essays/building-design-and-construction-methods/

"Building Design and Construction Methods." IvyPanda , 23 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/building-design-and-construction-methods/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Building Design and Construction Methods'. 23 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Building Design and Construction Methods." February 23, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/building-design-and-construction-methods/.

1. IvyPanda . "Building Design and Construction Methods." February 23, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/building-design-and-construction-methods/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Building Design and Construction Methods." February 23, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/building-design-and-construction-methods/.

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Micro housing: Affordable Aesthetics in Architecture

As the population of the world increases, the available space for accommodation is scarce. The ideal design solution emerged in the form of micro housing, which is designing living spaces in small areas. A majority of the world’s population exists as individual people, residing in foreign cities for employment and education . They don’t need to live in spacious spaces, as they hardly spend much time indoors. Hence, micro-housing proves useful in accommodating different types of people in society. Taking into account the current pandemic situation, micro-housing has similar design ideation as that of socially distant spaces. If the aftereffect of the pandemic continues in the upcoming years, micro-housing might just become the most popular architecture trend.

The concept of micro-housing is based on the design concept of maximum functional spaces in a minimum footprint or area. Here are some examples of micro-housing design:

1. House in Tamatsu by Ido, Kenji Architectural Studio, Japan | Micro housing

This is a three-story dwelling for a family of four people. The total plot area is 465 square feet. The house is located in an urban area and is surrounded by a mixed-use area consisting of small houses, factories, and office buildings. The large openings couldn’t be opened out to the roadside view because of the structural reasons. So the second-floor volume was rotated 14 degrees, for the axis of the building. The spaces between the rotated volume and the outer walls, which are the interstitial spaces, became voids. The design minimizes load-bearing walls and pillars to maximize space and natural light. An overhead skylight ensures that daylight reaches the lowest living spaces on the ground floor. The staircase is designed as a box-shaped cantilevered, which is floating in the void.

House in Tamatsu by Ido, Kenji Architectural Studio, Japan - Sheet1

2. Bamboo micro-housing

The bamboo micro-housing project is a transitional housing design for the 280,000 + residents in the city of Hong Kong. This project was designed for residents who do not have permanent housing. The key concept was for the design to be sustainable, inexpensive, and quick to assemble. The micro-housing is proposed to be installed in the interior of some industrial buildings in cities throughout southeast Asia. The material used for the entire structure is bamboo and the typology is meant to accommodate an individual or a couple. It consists of a kitchenette, a living room , bathroom, fold-out dining area, work area, and sleeping quarters. The main intention behind the concept and design was to show that micro-housing need not always be poor-quality.

3. Blooming bamboo home

This micro-housing project is located in Vietnam . Natural disasters are very severe there, such as floods, storms, and landslides. This project is a part of creating something that reduces the overall structural damage cost. It is a modular type of housing, made out of bamboo. This monolithic structure is strong enough to withstand 1.5 m floods. The space is multi-functional and can accommodate typologies such as educational, medical, and community centers. The users can build this house by themselves within 25 days, and the modules can be mass-produced. This also makes for ecological and economically stable design.

4. Compact Karst house

This micro-housing is designed to be a small-scale residential space for a family. The material concept features a monolithic volume consisting of two wooden houses. These spaces are connected by a shared and open gallery. This is a contemporary take on a traditional style of architecture in Slovenia .

5. Tom’s hut

This minimal micro-housing made out of wood mimics the surroundings as it is located in a forest setting. The roof extends into an angular shape. The space consists of two levels. The prefabricated elements fit perfectly in the confined space. The location and the design of this hut make it perfect for a place of retreat.

6. 1.8m width house | Micro housing

This project is located in Japan and has a site area of about 2.5m width and 11m depth. The concept revolves around vertically creating spaces. The floating floors in long and narrow spaces create a spatial expanse. Light and ventilation are taken in from the front and upper sides of the building. Structure-wise, the columns, and beams were minimized to maximize the internal spaces. The base of the construction framework is steel. The exterior façade was done with a non-scaffolding type of construction system. The house fits in between similar residential structures on its street. Overall, it gives a very minimalistic vibe and shows how space has been cleverly managed.

Micro housing consists of applying the smartest architectural ideas because it is all about spaces and their arrangements. It can be quite tricky to try to fit all the basic or bare minimum requirements of living space into small areas. It is a challenge and an opportunity to exhibit innovative ideas in the field of architecture.

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Housing Essays

by Tam Nguyen

In some countries, most people prefer to rent their homes rather than buying them. What are the advantages and disadvantages of renting a home? Purchasing a house is getting more expensive as it is a part of human needs. While some people prefer to rent their homes rather than owning them, there are some drawbacks to consider. This essay will discuss some advantages and disadvantages of renting a house. One of the best benefits of just renting a property would be, in my view, job requirements in which you occasionally need to move to a whole another city to keep working at a certain position. When it comes to looking for a place to live, renting a house for a reasonable price should definitely be considered as your company may change your department again. Another reason for not buying a house is the high prices which a huge number of individuals are not able to afford. Unless you worked and saved half of your salary for about 15 years, it is nearly impossible to buy a home. However, homeowners are not always predictable. When someone rents a house it will be inevitable to be kicked out of the house, because your homeowner decided to sell the house instead of renting it. Moreover, they might not always be comfortable, when you have some relatives or friends over. For instance, I recently rented a home, and the homeowner warned me that he would not allow me to invite my girlfriend to the house, as he thought it was inappropriate. To sum up, In my opinion, considering advantages outcome disadvantages in terms of renting a home, when left with a choice, it is a better option to not squander one's money on buying a house.

Building Homes in the Countryside Essay

by Yami (Saudi Arabia)

In many places, new homes are needed, but the only space available for building them is in the countryside. Some people believe it is more important to protect the countryside and so new homes should not be built there. What is your opinion about this? these days, with the great expansion of cities and population, many people are considering building houses in places outside cities, like the rural areas. While many people are saying it is a bad idea, I believe it is a great thing for people to do so with many merits that I will elaborate more about. first of all, constructing new houses in the countryside has a crucial benefit in regard to the financial aspects. with this said, the expansion of the population will force many individuals with low economic status to go and live in the rural areas due to the low prices of owning a home there. to give an example for this, if owning a single room in city costs around fifty thousand dollars, with the same price tag you can buy a four bedroom apartment. thus, it is a better option for those who wants to save money. going to my second point, I would like to say that it is better for individuals to build houses there to enjoy the beautiful wonders of mother nature. nowadays, many individuals tend to choose to go out and have a great time while they are enjoying the natural beauty of the countryside. Occasionally, people construct houses there just to live there temporarily during holidays and leisure time. finally, despite many people claiming that constructing new homes may cause damage the countryside environment, with strict laws and spreading awareness , one can easily manage to keep the environment clean. in conclusion, many people at present focus solely on the negative aspects of building a home in the countryside while ignoring many great benefits someone might harvest from such investment like the financial and enjoying a great view there.

Owning or Renting a Home Essay

by Khang Cao (Vietnam)

In some countries, owning a home rather than renting one is very important for people. Why might this be the case? Do you think this is a positive or negative situation? Everyone needs food to eat, water to drink and a shelter to settle in. In the past, owning a home was a symbol of wealth, success and stability. However, as the modern civilisation advancing, the mindset has changed a lot. Nowadays, there are some people thinking that having a house is no longer important as it was in the past. Generally speaking, renting a house is a rising trend these days, but why there are still people assuming that renting a house is nothing compared to having one? In many Asian countries, there has always been an invisible pressure put on men since they were born. Those can be academic achievements, success in career via various ways such as being in the top of a school, having a high-paying job or obviously, owning a private accommodation. Because of the conservative ideology, Asians usually consider a house is an indicator of prosperity and high-tier social status, not only for themselves but also for their families and children. Moreover, people usually want to claim ownership, and this is not new throughout human history. Take colonies, for example, people always desire something that they can have absolute control over it. While a rent house may not satisfy your demand because you have minimal rights to do anything you want with it. As mentioned above, renting a house has some certain disadvantages. Firstly, it is definitely not a long-term investment even though you can avoid mortgage deposit and other taxes, but you will be under the supervision of the landlord all the time. For example, you cannot renovate or redecorate your home at all without the landlord’s permission. Next, if you choose this type of housing, you may take risk of being moved multiple times due to limited vacancies or property sale from the landlord. Last but not least, since the proprietor is in charge, he or she might suddenly raise the rent, and that is a really big issue when you are in the condition of insufficient finance. Bottom line, possessing a house is better than renting one. Although you may have to be responsible for repairs, remodelling or pay land-related additional fees, it is yours and always be. No matter what happens to you, remember there is always a home awaiting you to come back. (380 words)

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IELTS Architecture Vocabulary

We all have topics that we are familiar with in IELTS. But, there are also other topics which we may meet with a blank mind. So, what can you do to fill in your knowledge gaps? In today’s episode Nick and I will look at a difficult topic for us – housing. We will start by covering some fundamental IELTS architecture vocabulary, and then show you how you can utilise Google to find essay ideas.

Plus, this will give us a chance to see indirect vocabulary learning in action. Hopefully, by the end of the lesson, you will understand why this is a much better method than searching for model essays.

Below, you can find a summary of the episode, which includes all of the links to useful materials and the times of each part of the discussion (so you can go directly to the part you want to listen to) 🚀

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IELTS Architecture Essay Topics

In today’s episode we want to look at the topic of housing or architecture. I’m not talking about the well-used topic of city life, with the classic IELTS questions about overcrowding, the move from the countryside, or not knowing your neighbours, but rather the recent trend of essays topics that ask you to discuss the importance of building styles or architecture.

Some people think that new houses should be built in the same style as older houses in an area. Others believe that local councils should allow people to choose different designs for their houses. Discuss both views and give your opinion.

When designing a building, the most important thing for architects to consider is the intended use of the building rather than its outward appearance. To what extent do you agree or disagree?

Some cities create extra housing by building tall buildings. Other cities do this by building on wide areas of land. Which do you think is the best solution to the problem of housing?

This is just a small selection of the essays that appeared in 2021 with this theme (you can find more by looking at our 2021 archive of reported questions), but it is probably enough for you to understand that these questions are tricky for two reasons:

They require a specific set of vocabulary (which many students may not have)
They are an unusual topic, so you may not have any instant ideas that you can use as the basis for your arguments

Let’s start then by looking at some foundational topic-specific vocabulary that you should have in your lexis tool box to tackle speaking or writing on the topic of housing design.

What I realised when creating this chart was that the lexis you will need to successfully describe the houses in your built environment is going to depend very much on where you live in the world. The average British home is very different to one in China, Saudi Arabia, or even the US.

Therefore, this is not an exhaustive list of basic lexis!

Make sure that you have the lexis you need to talk about housing in your area by translating any missing words from your language into English.

How to find ideas for IELTS Architecture Topics

I know that it can be frustrating if you are a doctor and you have to write an essay on architecture, but IELTS is designed to test your understanding and application of English in general, not medical English. 90% of the topics in IELTS require no specialist knowledge ( we all know that sugar makes us fat or the benefits of free education thanks to our common sense) , but there are some topics that you may not have a clear idea about. At least, not enough of an idea to write a coherent 300 word essay in 40 minutes. For those essays, it can be a good idea to spend half an hour or so reading about the topic online. However, let me be clear

I am not talking about searching for model IELTS essays!

I cannot tell you enough how poor 99% of “model essays” are. Almost all that claim to be Band 8.0 are Band 6.0 and very few have genuinely good ideas. No, I am taking about Googling for high-quality articles that will give you a good sense of the generally held views on a given topic. Is this time-consuming? Yes, but remember, the more you can engage with a topic, the more likely that you are going to absorb the information and be able to recall it in an exam.

There are two ways that you can search for information: by general topic, or by specific essay question. Let’s start with the former!

Looking for a school that offers world class lessons from ex-examiners delivered straight to your home? Then find out more about My IELTS Classroom here

Explore a general I ELTS topic

I Googled “why architecture is important” and these are the first 4 articles that appeared in my search results.

HMC Architects – https://hmcarchitects.com/news/how-does-architecture-impact-society-a-high-level-look-2019-10-18/
Study Architecture – https://studyarchitecture.com/blog/architecture-news/why-architecture-is-important/
Designblendz – https://www.designblendz.com/blog/4-reasons-why-good-architecture-is-important
Impoff – https://impoff.com/importance-of-architecture/

Usually those articles that appear at the top will be the most relevant, but not always. I would discount any article that are paid adverts (although you may not have many for IELTS topics!) and results from discussion sites such as Quora or Reddit as it will be hard to monitor the relevance or quality of the information.

Once you have found 3 or 4 articles that look relevant, open them and scan the contents to understand their relevancy and difficulty. A good indication that a site will be the right level is if it contains headings and relatively short paragraphs. In fact, why not open those 4 articles now and decide which is the easiest to read and which is the most difficult (we will tell you in the episode what we think) .

Active Reading

It is important when you read that you do so actively. This means that as you are looking through the articles, you should be thinking if the information is relevant or not relevant, or if it might be of use in an argument in a future essay. Again, go back and read through the articles above and make notes of any main ideas. You can either summarise the text or copy and paste it. You may also want to highlight key phrases or concepts. Let me do the first one to help you:

architecture is a representation of society and of our culture . It shows how we see ourselves, as well as how we see the world.
The style of buildings was originally shaped by the climate of a particular location , what materials were readily available, as well as the values of the society building them.
Architecture not only affects society on a high level, but it can have a profound impact on its occupants. Everything from the layout of the space to the material finishes can contribute towards occupant health, mood, and productivity. It’s been shown that people who work in well-designed spaces take less sick leave, are more focused, and generally contribute more to their company.
Sterile, concrete landscapes and unimaginative buildings cause higher levels of stress.
Future questions: how do we address the growing differentiation between economically diverse communities within cities? How do we combat the continuous increase of the world’s population, and make sure that our cities retain our inherent desire to have a connection to the natural environment?

Find ideas for a specific I ELTS essay question

This is where you are going to have to resist the urge to search for model essays! Trust me – if you can stick to genuine resources it is going to be far more effective. Why? Well, not only can you be 100% sure that your ideas are “correct”, but you can also harvest some fantastic topic specific lexis along the way.

Seriously, the vocabulary you learn in English textbooks (even ones written specifically for IELTS) cannot compare to the topic-specific vocabulary and collocations you find when reading original material. Don’t believe me? Well, see for yourself. In the episode Nick and I research ideas for this essay question:

Some cities create extra housing by building tall buildings. Other cities do this by building on wide areas of land. Which do you think is the best solution to the problem of housing?

Why don’t you do it now by Googling “why are tall buildings better” and spending 10 minutes copying and pasting the advantages and disadvantages of tall buildings. Focus first on ideas (which you can check with us in the episode) and then go back and have at the look words you have copied and pasted. Can you see any words and phrases that could be useful in other essays about the built environment?

Again, here is an example to help you. This is a section of text I copied and pasted for an advantage of tall buildings. Look at all those lovely high-level phrases that you would probably never find in a textbook! Even better, they are being used in context, so you can see how they are used naturally in a sentence.

More room for workers and residents . In line with rising population density , and advancements in engineering, height limits around the world are being revisited and revised to maximise space for commercial and residential growth. They provide the opportunity to control urban sprawl with their relatively small footprin t .

I know that studying for IELTS can be time-consuming, but if you need a very high-score and want to improve your ability to find good ideas and use high-level lexis, then using original material can be a great way to improve your level. After all, even if you know all the theory about finding ideas for essays , you still have to have some general knowledge of the topic to be able to do so!

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Key facts about housing affordability in the U.S.

A “For Rent” sign is posted near a home in Houston in February 2022.

A rising share of Americans say the availability of affordable housing is a major problem in their local community. In October 2021, about half of Americans (49%) said this was a major problem where they live, up 10 percentage points from early 2018. In the same 2021 survey, 70% of Americans said young adults today have a harder time buying a home than their parents’ generation did.

A variety of factors have set the stage for the financial challenges American homeowners and renters have been facing in the housing market, including incomes that haven’t kept pace with housing cost increases and a housing construction slowdown . A surge in homebuying spurred by record low mortgage interest rates during the COVID-19 pandemic has further strained the availability of homes.

Here are some of the key measures of the housing affordability crunch in the United States and the reasons behind it.

This Pew Research Center analysis about housing affordability in America draws from Center surveys designed to understand Americans’ views and preferences for where they live. It also uses outside data from sources including the Federal Reserve Bank and the U.S. Census Bureau.

Everyone who took the Pew Research Center surveys cited is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Rising demand for housing meets limited supply

A line graph showing that home inventory is down, home prices are up

As home sales have boomed, active housing listings have dropped and the median home sale price has surged, according to data from the Federal Reserve. The number of active housing listings in the U.S. was at its lowest in at least five years in January 2022, with 408,922 active listings on the market. That’s a 60% drop from about 1 million listings in February 2020, just before the coronavirus recession hit the U.S. Around the same time, the national median sale price for a single-family home jumped 25% from $327,100 in the fourth quarter of 2019 (the last full quarter unaffected by the COVID-19 recession) to $408,100 in the fourth quarter of 2021, the most recent data available. The greatest increases were in the West, Midwest and Northeast. Housing vacancy rates, meanwhile, have dropped over the last decade. The vacancy rate for rental units fell from about 10% in 2010 to 5.6% at the end of 2021. The rate for homeowner units is down from about 2.6% in 2010 to 0.9% in 2021 (the most recent year with available data).
Housing availability has been squeezed by a near-record increase in the number of American homeowners in 2020, a Pew Research Center analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data found. There were an estimated 2.1 million more homeowners in the fourth quarter of 2020 than there were a year earlier, equal to the previous record increase in homeowners, which occurred during the housing boom between 2003 and 2004. During 2020, the U.S. homeownership rate also increased to 65.8%, up from 65.1% a year earlier – a large year-over-year change, but still below the historical peak of 69.2% in 2004. The homeownership rate in the fourth quarter of 2021 (65.5%) was not statistically different from the rates in the fourth quarter of 2020 (65.8%) and the third quarter of 2021 (65.4%). Homeownership among households headed by White Americans rose an estimated 0.8 points from 2019 to 2020 – the only racial or ethnic group to see a statistically significant increase during that time. (Homeownership rates did not significantly increase for any racial or ethnic group between 2020 and 2021). In the fourth quarter of 2021, 74% of White adults owned a home, compared with 43% of Black Americans and 48% of Hispanic Americans. These disparities in homeownership have persisted over decades.

Renters are feeling the strain

A bar chart showing how much of their incomes American renters spent on housing costs in 2020

In 2020, 46% of American renters spent 30% or more of their income on housing, including 23% who spent at least 50% of their income this way, according to the most recent data available from the U.S. Census Bureau . This meets the Department of Housing and Urban Development’s definition of being “cost burdened.” Although spending 30% of income on housing has long been considered the most a household should spend in order to have money left over for essentials, some researchers have argued this housing affordability measure should be adjusted to reflect changes in the cost of other necessities, types of households and other factors.

A line graph showing that the average U.S. rent has risen 18% over the last five years

Renters across the U.S. have seen the average rent rise 18% over the last five years, outpacing inflation, according to consumer price index data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics . Between 2017 and 2022, the cost of all goods and services increased by 16% due to inflation. During that span, the growth in rent prices exceeded inflation in every region but the Northeast: The average rent rose 21% in the West, 20% in the South and 18% in the Midwest. Rents were up 12% in the Northeast during that time. From February 2020 to February 2022, rents were up 6%, compared with a 10% inflation rate amid loosening coronavirus restrictions.
Renters tend to skew toward the lower ends of the economic scale when it comes to income and wealth , according to data from the Federal Reserve’s 2019 Survey of Consumer Finances . That year, about six-in-ten Americans in the lowest income quartile (61%) rented their homes, as did 88% of people with net worths below the 25th percentile. People with lower incomes or net worths were more likely to be renters: Only 10.5% of people in the top income quartile, for example, were renters. Younger Americans and those who are Black or Hispanic are more likely to be renters, according to an August 2021 Pew Research Center analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data. Roughly a third of U.S. households (35%) were headed by renters in 2021, the last year for which the U.S. Census Bureau has reliable estimates. Households headed by Black or African American adults are more likely than the population overall to rent their homes (57% rent), along with 52% of Hispanic- or Latino-led households. Around a quarter of households led by non-Hispanic White adults (26%) rent. Americans younger than 35 are far more likely to rent than those in older age groups: 62% of this age group lives in rentals compared with 39% of those ages 35 to 44, and 30% of 45- to 54-year-olds.
Looking ahead, Americans anticipate continued rent increases in 2022, according to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York’s Survey of Consumer Expectations . Americans expect that rents will increase by 10% this year – that’s larger than the expected increase in price for any other commodity, including food (9.2%), college education (9.0%) and gas (8.8%).
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Katherine Schaeffer is a research analyst at Pew Research Center

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Different Types of Houses – Essay

Category: Essays and Paragraphs On November 21, 2018 By Mary

Introduction

Housing is an important basic need that every individual has. There are various types of houses that are constructed to help us fulfill this need.

The type of house that someone lives in is dependent on various factors such as finances, region, preferences, size, durability among other things.

Types of houses

One type of house is a duplex. This is a house that has two floors built under the same roof. One person lives on the upper floor while the other lives on the ground floor.
There are also cottages that are usually small in nature. They are usually found in the country side. They have walls made of brick or stone and have thatched roofs.
Condominiums or condos are apartments that are individually owned. This is where an entire apartment is owned by a single person or a group of people. They can then rent them out to other people.
Castles are also types of houses that are mostly used by kings and queens. Their walls are made of thick stone and have very high ceilings.
Bungalows are types of one story houses. They are small in nature and usually have large verandas on the back or front.
Apartment is the type of house that you rent. It is found inside a large building consisting of other several apartments rented by other people.
There are also people who live in caravans/trailers. This is a type of vehicle that is attached to a truck or car that pulls it.
Huts are also houses mostly found among traditional people. It is a one story house made out of mud and thatched roofs.
Some people also live in They are mostly found in extremely cold areas. This type of house is constructed with snow or ice and it is round in shape.
Flats are houses that are similar to apartments. The word flat is mostly used by the British people.
Farmhouses are houses that are built on farms in rural areas. They are usually simple one story houses.
Other people also live in They are types of boats that are made to be houses where people live in. they resemble a floating building.
There are also hotels or lodges. These are the types of houses that you pay money to sleep in for a short period of time.
Another type of house is the This is found in oceans and they have a light that notifies large boats when they are close to the land.
Log cabins are types of houses that are mostly found in forested areas. They are constructed using logs or wood.
A mansion is a type of expensive and huge house. These types of houses are mostly lived in by famous and wealthy people.
A shack is a type of house that resembles a hut. It is made using cheap materials and is usually not well built.
A teepee is a type of house that Native Americans used to live in. This type of house is constructed using animal skins and sticks.
A townhouse is the type of house that is usually found in the city. They are narrow and tall building s with little or no garden.
A tent is a temporary form of housing. It is made from fabric and is usually used when camping.
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Essay on My House in English: Check 300, 500 & 800 Words Essay

Home is where the heart is, and within the sanctuary of our homes lies a special place that holds memories, shelter, and comfort – my house. From the architectural style to the interior design, every aspect of the house speaks volumes about who we are and what we value. But beyond its physical attributes, the house holds a deeper significance in our lives. It’s where we create cherished memories, celebrate milestones, and forge bonds with loved ones. A house is more than just a place to live; it’s a symbol of stability, love, and the countless moments that make life worth living.

In this article, we’ll explore writing an essay on my house, exploring its significance, structure, and the role it plays in shaping our lives.

Table of Content

Important Terms for House

10 lines on my house, 500 word essay on my house, 800 word essay on my house.

Here are some terms that can help you write an essay on my house:

House: A building or structure where people live, providing shelter and accommodation.
Home: Not just a physical structure, but also a place of belonging, comfort, and emotional attachment.
Architecture: The art and science of designing and constructing buildings.
Interior Design: The arrangement and decoration of the interior spaces of a house to create a functional and aesthetically pleasing environment.
Floor Plan: A diagram showing the layout of rooms and spaces within a house, including dimensions and furniture placement.

Here are 10 lines that can help you write an essay on My House:

1. My house is a cozy place where I feel safe and happy.

2. It has a welcoming door and colorful flowers in the garden.

3. Inside, there’s a living room where my family plays games and watches TV together.

4. The kitchen smells delicious with Mom’s cooking, and I love helping her sometimes.

5. Upstairs, my bedroom is my favorite spot, filled with my toys and books.

6. From my window, I can see the trees and birds chirping in the morning.

7. Outside, there’s a swing where I love to play with my friends.

8. Sometimes, we have a barbecue in the backyard, and it’s so much fun!

9. My house is where I make lots of happy memories with my family.

10. I’m grateful for my house because it’s where I feel loved and cozy every day.

My small house may be tiny in size, but it is bursting with charm and coziness that make it a special place for me. Situated in a quiet corner of the neighborhood, my cute little house stands out with its colorful exterior and welcoming front porch that beckons visitors with its friendly vibe.

As I step through the front door, I am greeted by a snug living room that feels like a warm hug. The space may be small, but it is filled with love and laughter, making it the heart of our home. A comfy sofa sits against the wall, inviting me to sink into its soft cushions and relax after a long day at school. The kitchen, though compact, is a bustling hub of activity where delicious meals are cooked with care and shared with family. Every inch of space is cleverly utilized, from the neatly organized cabinets to the cozy dining nook where we gather for meals and conversations. The aroma of freshly baked cookies or simmering soup fills the air, creating a sense of comfort and warmth. Upstairs, my bedroom is a cozy retreat that reflects my personality and interests. The limited space has been transformed into a magical haven where I can dream, play, and unwind. A colorful bedspread adorns my bed, while shelves filled with books and toys add a touch of whimsy to the room.

One of the most delightful features of my small house is its backyard, a tiny oasis of greenery and tranquility where nature’s wonders unfold. A small garden patch blooms with vibrant flowers and fragrant herbs, attracting butterflies and bees that flit about in the sunshine. A swing set beneath a shady tree offers hours of fun and laughter as I soar through the air with glee. Despite its size, my small house is filled with big memories and moments that make it truly special. From family movie nights in the living room to impromptu picnics in the backyard, every corner of my house is alive with joy, love, and togetherness.

In conclusion, my small house may be petite in size, but it is grand in charm, coziness, and character that make it a cherished haven for me. Its compact layout encourages creativity and imagination in design, while its warm ambiance fosters a sense of comfort and belonging. My cute little house may be small on the outside, but it is mighty in love, laughter, and happiness – qualities that truly make it feel like home.

My house in Delhi is not a grand mansion, but a cozy middle-class home that holds a special place in my heart. Situated in a bustling neighborhood, it stands tall with four floors that offer ample space for my family and me to live, play, and create memories together. Despite its modest size, our house is filled with love, laughter, and warmth that make it a cherished haven for us.

As I walk through the front door of our house, I am greeted by a cozy living room on the ground floor that serves as the heart of our home. The walls are adorned with family photos and colorful artwork, creating a cheerful and inviting atmosphere. A comfortable sofa and a small coffee table sit in the center of the room, inviting us to relax and unwind after a long day at school or work.

The kitchen, located on the first floor, is a bustling hub of activity where delicious meals are prepared with love and care. The aroma of spices and cooking fills the air as we gather around the dining table to share stories and laughter. Despite its compact size, the kitchen is well-equipped with all the essentials needed to whip up our favorite dishes and treats.

Each floor of our house has its own unique charm and purpose. The second floor houses our bedrooms – cozy retreats where we rest and recharge after a busy day. My room is filled with my favorite toys, books, and posters that reflect my interests and personality. From my bed by the window, I can watch the world go by and daydream about adventures yet to come.

The third floor is a versatile space that serves as a family room where we come together to watch movies, play games, or simply spend quality time with each other. The walls are lined with shelves filled with board games, books, and family photos that tell the story of our lives. It is a space where memories are made and bonds are strengthened through shared experiences and laughter.

The fourth floor leads to our rooftop terrace – a hidden gem that offers panoramic views of the city skyline. From here, we can watch the sunset paint the sky in hues of orange and pink, listen to the sounds of the city below, or simply bask in the warmth of the sun on lazy afternoons. It is a peaceful retreat where we can escape the hustle and bustle of daily life and enjoy moments of tranquility together.

In conclusion, my house in Delhi may not be extravagant or luxurious, but it is filled with love, laughter, and cherished moments that make it truly special. Its four floors offer ample space for us to live, play, and grow together as a family. From cozy bedrooms to bustling kitchens, from family rooms to rooftop terraces, every corner of our house holds memories and experiences that shape who we are and bring us closer together. Our middle-class home may not be grand in size or stature, but it is rich in love, warmth, and happiness – qualities that truly make it feel like home for me and my family.

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My House Essay- FAQs

What is a house.

A house is a structure designed for human habitation, providing shelter, comfort, and privacy. It typically consists of rooms for living, sleeping, cooking, and other activities.

What are the different types of houses?

There are various types of houses, including single-family homes, apartments, townhouses, condominiums, and mobile homes. Each type has its own layout, size, and ownership structure.

What factors influence the design of a house?

The design of a house is influenced by factors such as location, climate, cultural preferences, budget, and the needs of the occupants. These factors determine aspects like architectural style, materials used, and layout.

How does a house contribute to our well-being?

A well-designed house can contribute to our physical, mental, and emotional well-being. It provides a safe and comfortable environment for rest, relaxation, and social interaction, promoting overall quality of life.

What are some common household maintenance tasks?

Common household maintenance tasks include cleaning, repairs, landscaping, and regular inspections of systems such as plumbing, electrical, and HVAC. These tasks help ensure the safety, functionality, and longevity of the house.

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Structure Types

Architectural styles, factors affecting home costs, frequently asked questions (faqs), the bottom line.

Buying a Home

Exploring Different Types of Homes and What They Costs

If you're shopping for a new dream home, you may have noticed the many styles, eras, and phrases used to describe properties. Understanding the many types of home and home terminology will help you determine what best fits your needs and tastes.

Two main parameters classify a home: the structure type and the architectural style. The structure type refers to the style of building, such as a single-family home or a condo . The architectural style refers to features and designs, such as craftsman or contemporary.

Key Takeaways

When starting your new home search, you'll need to take into account structure type and architectural style.
Home structures come in varying sizes, from apartments and condos to tiny homes and single-family houses.
Determining what you can afford and how much space you need will help you zero in on appropriate options.
When it comes to architectural style, the region in which you're looking to buy will play a big part in the styles that are available.
Housing demand, location, the age of the property and whether it has been updated, and neighborhood amenities will all impact the cost of a home.

An apartment is a group of similar units housed in one building that's owned and operated by a landlord, whether an individual or a corporation. Apartments are often one-story units within a multi-story building. Units can vary from studios (where the living space and kitchen are all one room) to several bedrooms.

Their size makes them manageable to decorate, though there might be restrictions based on the building's rules. There also might be rules dictating whether you can own a pet or what kinds of pets are permitted.

Apartment buildings often have conveniences like an on-site maintenance and repair staff, a shared lobby, laundry and mail rooms, parking facilities, and sometimes a gym or a pool. They tend to have only shared outdoor space, if any.

Apartments and apartment buildings can feel quite social compared to other home structures because of the proximity of neighbors. However, they can also be noisy and lack privacy, as walls can be shared on either side, and there may be units above and below yours.

Apartments are often rented out, though there may be opportunities to purchase a unit, depending on the building. While you will not build equity as a renter, you generally don't have to worry about maintenance or repairs to the apartment.

Though rental costs vary widely depending on an apartment's size and location, the average price in the U.S. was $1,958 per person per month, according to January 2024 data from Zillow. By comparison, a typical monthly mortgage payment–assuming 20% down–is $1,760, according to Zillow.

A condo , is typically thought of as being similar to an apartment, is a unit within a larger building. A condo can also be a townhome, and even a standalone home. Sometimes, condos are larger than apartments and can be multiple stories. If you were to rent a condo, it'd most likely be from an individual owner rather than a property manager. When you buy a condo, you buy a unit in a property and also share ownership of common areas, including outdoor spaces and stairwells.

Instead of having a building manager or landlord oversee your unit, you will be in charge of all the repairs and upkeep if you purchase a condo. Condos are typically subject to the rules of a condo association. The association often also oversees the upkeep of common spaces, which is often funded by monthly fees on top of your mortgage. This can be a plus for landscaping, but it also means you must obey the condo association rules.

Condos, like apartments, can feel very social since they often share walls. However, you are likely to have more space and, depending on the location, more direct street access with a condo. But since they do not lend the same freedom regarding lifestyle and design choices as a standalone home, they are a more affordable option and can make a great first-home purchase.

The median sale price of a condo in the U.S. as of April 2024 was $349,299.

A townhouse or townhome is an individually owned unit that shares at least one wall with another unit but has its own entrance from the street. These structures typically make use of vertical space with multiple stories. Consider them a cross between a condo and a single-family home.

Sometimes, similar to condos, there are shared amenities among a collection of townhouses, including patios and pools. Townhomes can be found in both urban and suburban areas, and are typically more affordable than standalone single-family homes. The median sale price of a townhome in the U.S. as of early 2024 was $371,273.

Single-Family Home

Unlike condos, apartments, or townhomes, a single-family home is a standalone unit. The majority of homes in the U.S. are single-family houses. Most commonly found in suburbs and rural areas, single-family homes are usually more private and offer more space.

Since they are not connected to other units, you usually have more freedom to renovate than other home types. As owner, you have the sole responsibility of maintaining the property. This style of home often comes at a higher purchase price.

Technically speaking, a single-family residence is any home with four or fewer units. According to the Census Bureau, the median square footage for a single-family home in 2022 was 2,299 square feet. The median sale price of single-family homes in the U.S. is $427,636 as of early 2024.

Tiny homes have risen in popularity over the past decade, especially for single adults or couples who want homeownership but with greater financial freedom and less maintenance than other home types. These small units usually range from 60 to 600 square feet. Some are prefabricated, while others are custom builds. If the tiny home isn't mobile—some are—you'll need to rent or own the land on which it rests.

Given their compact nature, tiny homes provide little room for family growth, hosting, or storage, but they are great for supporting solar and other off-grid projects.

When shopping for homes, identifying the time of home you want is only the first step. There is also a broad range of architectural styles to choose from depending on your specific needs and taste. Here are a few of the most popular home styles across the U.S.

Colonial homes have a simple, rectangular, symmetrical structure. Dating back to the 1600s, this home style is popular all over the East Coast. They typically have two or three stories, fireplaces, and brick or wood facades. Some showcase shingle siding and shutters. A classic Colonial house floor plan has the kitchen and family room on the first floor and bedrooms on the second floor. They are generally not open-concept.

The exterior typically has an entrance at the center with symmetrical windows on either side. There are variations within the Colonial style based on the country of origin of colonial settlers, including Dutch Colonial, which features a large, barn-style roof and creative woodwork; French Colonial, which features iron stairs and balconies and elaborate entrances; and Federal Colonial, which typically features a layout around a central hall.

British Colonial is the most common and recognizable style, which features a centered front door and two windows symmetrically positioned on either side.

Contemporary

The trends of contemporary architecture are constantly changing. Many of today's contemporary-style homes have asymmetrical layouts, open floor plans, and lots of natural light. They often feature a mix of contrasting materials and textures, low or flat roofs, and exposed beams. Color schemes are usually neutral and natural, with the goal of minimizing noise and clutter.

Craftsman-style homes were popular between 1900 and 1930 and have since made a comeback. This architectural style arose on the heels of the Victorian home movement as a more affordable and accessible alternative. Craftsman houses were built throughout the U.S., especially in the Midwest and California. Furniture designer Gustav Stickley created craftsman bungalow kits for homeowners to purchase for about $1,000 and sold them in his magazine, The Craftsman —hence the name.

A craftsman home features clean, sleek lines and visible hardware. Known for its woodwork, this style often contains notable built-ins, such as shelving and seating. On the exterior, craftsman houses often have porches, low-pitched roofs with wide overhangs, exposed roof rafters, and decorative beams under gables.

There is an emphasis on natural colors, and the exteriors of these homes often have painted wood siding with accents of stucco and stone. Inside, they often feature a prominent fireplace.

Mid-Century

Mid-Century modern homes get their name from the design style that boomed from 1945 to 1969. These homes feature large windows, flat roofs, and open-concept interiors. They have a very wide, low footprint and emphasize a connection to nature. They were also designed with family time and entertainment in mind and sometimes feature charming fixtures like conversation pits (below-floor-level built-in seating areas), built-in bars, and large fireplaces.

Many mid-century modern homes are split-level, with short staircases connecting spaces throughout the house. A muted and natural color palette is common in these homes to complement the floor-to-ceiling windows. Colors include warm earth tones like orange, brown, or mustard, as well as natural wood and brick. Mid-century style homes and furniture have seen a major resurgence in recent years.

Victorian-style homes boomed during the mid to late 1800s, during Queen Victoria's reign in the U.K. In the U.S., these homes began cropping up about 50 years later, on the heels of the Industrial Revolution.

Around this time, new paint chemical dyes created options for more colorful exteriors that became a noteworthy feature of many early-century Victorians. that made different house colors possible, so bold, bright hues were a noteworthy feature of many Victorians. Later Victorians featured more natural-colored palettes.

These homes often have a steeply pitched roof, bay windows, and a dominant, front-facing gable. They also typically have two to three stories with round towers, turrets, and dormers to add flair and draw attention to the top of the house. The facade is usually asymmetrical with a partial or full-width porch. Homes of this era had romantic, detailed woodworking, much like a toy dollhouse.

Inside, it is common to find high ceilings, irregularly shaped rooms, doorways separating rooms (versus open-concept), and nooks. The Victorian era was known for its opulence, and stained glass, ornate fireplaces, and decorative wooden staircases can add even more character.

Numerous factors can affect the cost of a home. The most obvious, and the one many homebuyers fixate on, is the size. When weighing multiple properties, the price per square foot can feel like the largest deciding factor. But don't lose sight of the others. Location, school ratings, crime statistics, and proximity to other amenities can all impact the cost of a property and the taxes you'll pay on it.

Certain amenities will also increase a home's value. Outdoor space, including driveways, will make a home more expensive. The age of the home will also impact the cost. If a house is brand new, it may have a higher price point. Likewise, a historic property with updated amenities can also have a steep price.

The state of the market plays an inordinate role in determining price since demand will impact the cost of square footage. Simply put, when houses are in high demand (as they are now), prices go up. This can also drag up other costs like subcontractor fees due to the strain on the labor force.

Recent data on construction in North America show that the cost of labor across different types of home renovations, from structural ironworkers to tile setters, increased as high as 2.3% from January to November 2023.

Should I Buy or Rent?

If you're looking to grow your family or build equity, buying can be the smarter move. To determine what mortgage you can afford, use this calculator .

What Is the Most Affordable Type of Home?

A tiny home or prefabricated home is the least expensive type of home one can buy. An analysis by RubyHome found that the average cost of a tiny home in the U.S. is $67,000, which is over 80% cheaper than the average price of a typical single-family home. However, if you do not own land, you may have to cough up some rent money for a place to park the tiny home. A condo or apartment is also an affordable option.

What Is the Best Type of Home for Families With Children?

For families with children, single-family units or townhouses will afford you the most space. You can also look for one with a yard for outdoor play. A single-family home can offer greater privacy and reduced noise, as you will not be sharing any walls with neighbors. It can also be easier to renovate because you would not have to go through an HOA or property manager before proceeding.

What Are the Most Expensive Locations for Buying a Home?

The most expensive home prices are concentrated in coastal cities like New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. A home in Manhattan, New York has an average price tag of over $2.7 million, while a home in Honolulu, Hawaii costs an average of nearly $1.7 million. Several California metros make the list of most expensive homes, including San Jose, Orange County, and San Diego.

When buying a home, many factors will help you determine what works best for you. Whether you're looking to save some money with an apartment or invest in a property, factors including location and size will impact your decision.

Beyond your needs, there are many different architectural housing styles that you can choose from. House-hunting can take a long time considering all these factors, but the sooner you get started on narrowing your choices, the faster you're likely to find a home that's right for you.

Zillow. " Pandemic to Present: The Evolution of Rental Prices and Affordability (January 2024 Rental Market Report) ."

Zillow. " Home Shopping Early May Pay off as Price Cuts Abound (January 2024 Market Report) ."

Redfin. " United States Housing Market ," Select "Condos/Co-ops" from the dropdown.

Redfin. " U.S. Housing Market Overview ," Select "Townhouses" from the dropdown.

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. " FHA Single Family Housing Policy Handbook: Glossary ." Page 37.

U.S. Census Bureau. " Highlights of 2022 Characteristics of New Housing ."

Redfin. " United States Housing Market ," Select "Single Family Homes" from the dropdown.

Phoenix College. " Gustav Stickley ." Page 12.

Jutkins, David. " Murfreesboro's Craftsman Bungalow: The Expression of an Idea ." Border States: Journal of the Kentucky-Tennessee American Studies Association , no. 9, 1993, pp. 1-2.

Smithsonian Libraries and Archives. " Making Color ."

Trulia. " 8 Neighborhood Features That Increase Your Home Value ."

Tax Foundation. " Close to Home: A Short Guide to Property Taxes ."

CoreLogic. " Quarterly Construction Insights ." Page 7.

RubyHome Luxury Real Estate. " Tiny House Statistics: Market & Trends (2024) ."

Kiplinger. " The 15 Most Expensive Housing Markets in the US: Cities With the Highest Average Home Prices ."

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Different Types of Houses – Essay

Introduction

Housing is an important basic need that every individual has. There are various types of houses that are constructed to help us fulfill this need.

The type of house that someone lives in is dependent on various factors such as finances, region, preferences, size, durability among other things.

Types of houses

One type of house is a duplex. This is a house that has two floors built under the same roof. One person lives on the upper floor while the other lives on the ground floor.
There are also cottages that are usually small in nature. They are usually found in the country side. They have walls made of brick or stone and have thatched roofs.
Condominiums or condos are apartments that are individually owned. This is where an entire apartment is owned by a single person or a group of people. They can then rent them out to other people.
Castles are also types of houses that are mostly used by kings and queens. Their walls are made of thick stone and have very high ceilings.
Bungalows are types of one story houses. They are small in nature and usually have large verandas on the back or front.
Apartment is the type of house that you rent. It is found inside a large building consisting of other several apartments rented by other people.
There are also people who live in caravans/trailers. This is a type of vehicle that is attached to a truck or car that pulls it.
Huts are also houses mostly found among traditional people. It is a one story house made out of mud and thatched roofs.
Some people also live in They are mostly found in extremely cold areas. This type of house is constructed with snow or ice and it is round in shape.
Flats are houses that are similar to apartments. The word flat is mostly used by the British people.
Farmhouses are houses that are built on farms in rural areas. They are usually simple one story houses.
Other people also live in They are types of boats that are made to be houses where people live in. they resemble a floating building.
There are also hotels or lodges. These are the types of houses that you pay money to sleep in for a short period of time.
Another type of house is the This is found in oceans and they have a light that notifies large boats when they are close to the land.
Log cabins are types of houses that are mostly found in forested areas. They are constructed using logs or wood.
A mansion is a type of expensive and huge house. These types of houses are mostly lived in by famous and wealthy people.
A shack is a type of house that resembles a hut. It is made using cheap materials and is usually not well built.
A teepee is a type of house that Native Americans used to live in. This type of house is constructed using animal skins and sticks.
A townhouse is the type of house that is usually found in the city. They are narrow and tall building s with little or no garden.
A tent is a temporary form of housing. It is made from fabric and is usually used when camping.

There are numerous types of houses that exist in the world. There have been advancements in housing and some of the traditional houses like huts, igloos and cottages are no longer popular. When deciding on the type of house you want to live in, consider its size, price, location and if it is well constructed.

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Guest Essay

What Sentencing Could Look Like if Trump Is Found Guilty

A black-and-white photo of Donald Trump, standing behind a metal barricade.

By Norman L. Eisen

Mr. Eisen is the author of “Trying Trump: A Guide to His First Election Interference Criminal Trial.”

For all the attention to and debate over the unfolding trial of Donald Trump in Manhattan, there has been surprisingly little of it paid to a key element: its possible outcome and, specifically, the prospect that a former and potentially future president could be sentenced to prison time.

The case — brought by Alvin Bragg, the Manhattan district attorney, against Mr. Trump — represents the first time in our nation’s history that a former president is a defendant in a criminal trial. As such, it has generated lots of debate about the case’s legal strength and integrity, as well as its potential impact on Mr. Trump’s efforts to win back the White House.

A review of thousands of cases in New York that charged the same felony suggests something striking: If Mr. Trump is found guilty, incarceration is an actual possibility. It’s not certain, of course, but it is plausible.

Jury selection has begun, and it’s not too soon to talk about what the possibility of a sentence, including a prison sentence, would look like for Mr. Trump, for the election and for the country — including what would happen if he is re-elected.

The case focuses on alleged interference in the 2016 election, which consisted of a hush-money payment Michael Cohen, the former president’s fixer at the time, made in 2016 to a porn star, Stormy Daniels, who said she had an affair with Mr. Trump. Mr. Bragg is arguing that the cover-up cheated voters of the chance to fully assess Mr. Trump’s candidacy.

This may be the first criminal trial of a former president in American history, but if convicted, Mr. Trump’s fate is likely to be determined by the same core factors that guide the sentencing of every criminal defendant in New York State Court.

Comparable cases. The first factor is the base line against which judges measure all sentences: how other defendants have been treated for similar offenses. My research encompassed almost 10,000 cases of felony falsifying business records that have been prosecuted across the state of New York since 2015. Over a similar period, the Manhattan D.A. has charged over 400 of these cases . In roughly the first year of Mr. Bragg’s tenure, his team alone filed 166 felony counts for falsifying business records against 34 people or companies.

Contrary to claims that there will be no sentence of incarceration for falsifying business records, when a felony conviction involves serious misconduct, defendants can be sentenced to some prison time. My analysis of the most recent data indicates that approximately one in 10 cases in which the most serious charge at arraignment is falsifying business records in the first degree and in which the court ultimately imposes a sentence, results in a term of imprisonment.

To be clear, these cases generally differ from Mr. Trump’s case in one important respect: They typically involve additional charges besides just falsifying records. That clearly complicates what we might expect if Mr. Trump is convicted.

Nevertheless, there are many previous cases involving falsifying business records along with other charges where the conduct was less serious than is alleged against Mr. Trump and prison time was imposed. For instance, Richard Luthmann was accused of attempting to deceive voters — in his case, impersonating New York political figures on social media in an attempt to influence campaigns. He pleaded guilty to three counts of falsifying business records in the first degree (as well as to other charges). He received a sentence of incarceration on the felony falsification counts (although the sentence was not solely attributable to the plea).

A defendant in another case was accused of stealing in excess of $50,000 from her employer and, like in this case, falsifying one or more invoices as part of the scheme. She was indicted on a single grand larceny charge and ultimately pleaded guilty to one felony count of business record falsification for a false invoice of just under $10,000. She received 364 days in prison.

To be sure, for a typical first-time offender charged only with run-of-the-mill business record falsification, a prison sentence would be unlikely. On the other hand, Mr. Trump is being prosecuted for 34 counts of conduct that might have changed the course of American history.

Seriousness of the crime. Mr. Bragg alleges that Mr. Trump concealed critical information from voters (paying hush money to suppress an extramarital relationship) that could have harmed his campaign, particularly if it came to light after the revelation of another scandal — the “Access Hollywood” tape . If proved, that could be seen not just as unfortunate personal judgment but also, as Justice Juan Merchan has described it, an attempt “to unlawfully influence the 2016 presidential election.”

History and character. To date, Mr. Trump has been unrepentant about the events alleged in this case. There is every reason to believe that will not change even if he is convicted, and lack of remorse is a negative at sentencing. Justice Merchan’s evaluation of Mr. Trump’s history and character may also be informed by the other judgments against him, including Justice Arthur Engoron’s ruling that Mr. Trump engaged in repeated and persistent business fraud, a jury finding that he sexually abused and defamed E. Jean Carroll and a related defamation verdict by a second jury.

Justice Merchan may also weigh the fact that Mr. Trump has been repeatedly held in contempt , warned , fined and gagged by state and federal judges. That includes for statements he made that exposed witnesses, individuals in the judicial system and their families to danger. More recently, Mr. Trump made personal attacks on Justice Merchan’s daughter, resulting in an extension of the gag order in the case. He now stands accused of violating it again by commenting on witnesses.

What this all suggests is that a term of imprisonment for Mr. Trump, while far from certain for a former president, is not off the table. If he receives a sentence of incarceration, perhaps the likeliest term is six months, although he could face up to four years, particularly if Mr. Trump chooses to testify, as he said he intends to do , and the judge believes he lied on the stand . Probation is also available, as are more flexible approaches like a sentence of spending every weekend in jail for a year.

We will probably know what the judge will do within 30 to 60 days of the end of the trial, which could run into mid-June. If there is a conviction, that would mean a late summer or early fall sentencing.

Justice Merchan would have to wrestle in the middle of an election year with the potential impact of sentencing a former president and current candidate.

If Mr. Trump is sentenced to a period of incarceration, the reaction of the American public will probably be as polarized as our divided electorate itself. Yet as some polls suggest — with the caveat that we should always be cautious of polls early in the race posing hypothetical questions — many key swing state voters said they would not vote for a felon.

If Mr. Trump is convicted and then loses the presidential election, he will probably be granted bail, pending an appeal, which will take about a year. That means if any appeals are unsuccessful, he will most likely have to serve any sentence starting sometime next year. He will be sequestered with his Secret Service protection; if it is less than a year, probably in Rikers Island. His protective detail will probably be his main company, since Mr. Trump will surely be isolated from other inmates for his safety.

If Mr. Trump wins the presidential election, he can’t pardon himself because it is a state case. He will be likely to order the Justice Department to challenge his sentence, and department opinions have concluded that a sitting president could not be imprisoned, since that would prevent the president from fulfilling the constitutional duties of the office. The courts have never had to address the question, but they could well agree with the Justice Department.

So if Mr. Trump is convicted and sentenced to a period of incarceration, its ultimate significance is probably this: When the American people go to the polls in November, they will be voting on whether Mr. Trump should be held accountable for his original election interference.

What questions do you have about Trump’s Manhattan criminal trial so far?

Please submit them below. Our trial experts will respond to a selection of readers in a future piece.

Norman L. Eisen investigated the 2016 voter deception allegations as counsel for the first impeachment and trial of Donald Trump and is the author of “Trying Trump: A Guide to His First Election Interference Criminal Trial.”

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , WhatsApp , X and Threads .

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