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• v.9(1); 2023 Jan

Innovation and international business: A systematic literature review

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Data will be made available on request.

Introduction

Innovation and international business are essential to achieve competitive advantages in currently unforeseen business environments. Today's company seeks innovation in its country of origin and abroad in order to compete globally. Thus, incorporating this concept into international companies' strategies is a main issue nowadays.

The aim of this systematic study is to improve the current knowledge on the relationship between innovation and international business, as well as identifying innovation tendencies for corporations to acknowledge the opportunities and challenges of this area's development in the international business context.

Methodology

Despite the abundance of innovation and international business reviews, joint reviews of both of them cannot be found. This study is the first to combine the scholarly research on both topics with the systematic literature review of academic literature of 28 years, following the PRISMA guidelines and flowchart. A search was carried out in Web of Science database; 847 initial documents were obtained and, after reviewing multiple documents according to the inclusion/exclusion criteria, the results for this research work were reduced to 236 articles.

The results of this research provide an overview of the knowledge structure of innovation and international business. As the main contribution, the results highlight four themes of investigation within a comprehensive and multidimensional framework: Innovative activities of multinational corporations, Global value chains, Innovation in emerging economies, and Cross-border knowledge. With an international perspective, insights from how to face innovation development in the international business context are presented.

Conclusions

There is a strong relationship between innovation and international business. These four research trends highlight the strategic importance of innovation in the international business field. Finally, the most interesting paths for future research are identified, targeting opportunities for improvement in both areas. This systematic literature review is expected to make significant contributions to both theory and practice in the field of innovation and international business.

1. Introduction

Innovation, knowledge and technology are relevant concepts in the international business field [ 1 ] and both areas are essential to achieve competitive advantages in current business environments [ 2 ]. Cantwell [ 3 ] adds that innovation and internationalization processes have been increasingly interlinked as key drivers of development since the first industrial revolution, all the way to today's information age.

Innovation is the cornerstone of growth and sustains organizations to counter marketplace fluctuations and prepares them for long-term growth [ 4 ]. Business model innovation, although it is very difficult to achieve [ 5 ], can itself be a pathway to competitive advantage if the model is sufficiently differentiated and hard to replicate for incumbents and new entrants alike [ 6 ]. New models of innovation have encouraged many innovative firms to change the way they search for new ideas, adopting open search strategies that involve the use of a wide range of external actors and sources to help them achieve innovation [ 7 ].

The field of international business studies came to prominence in the 1980s and early 1990s with the growth of multinational corporations [ 8 ]. In this framework, two theoretical models are extremely relevant; on the one hand, gradual internationalization or Uppsala model, according to which internationalization is seen as an incremental process that begins in foreign markets, being in closer proximity to the domestic market in terms of physical distance [ 9 , 10 ] and, on the other hand, born global firms, that is to say, companies that internationalise at or near their founding, on an average period of three years of founding, generating at least twenty five percent of their total sales from foreign countries [ 11 ]. There is an extensive literature about this issue [ [12] , [13] , [14] ].

The systematic literature review on the topic of innovation has been a frequent research method over the last ten years. Different topics have been raised and discussed: organizational innovation [ 15 ], innovation capability in SMEs [ 16 ], or digital innovation in knowledge management systems [ 17 ] among others. In the same way, systematic literature review about international business is copious, holding various topics of investigation: knowledge flows in multinational corporations [ 18 ], business systems theory [ 19 ], social network [ 20 ], or culture [ 21 , 22 ].

Despite the abundance of innovation and international business reviews, joint reviews of both of them cannot be found, such review being needed since the emerging phenomena that are changing international business' frontiers require a change, as well, in the threshold of international business’ innovation [ 23 ]. From an economic point of view, Melitz [ 24 ] shows how high exposure to trade will induce only the most productive companies to enter the international markets; in addition, internationalization has a more positive effect on innovation in high productivity companies [ 25 ]. Likewise, the number of international relations increases the capacity to innovate [ 26 ] and exposure to foreign competition is associated with greater firm innovation [ 27 ]. Companies thus grow either through innovation or through internationalization (also through a mixed strategy), with a combination of internationalization and innovation being the most advisable option when domestic markets are limited [ 28 ].

International innovativeness is a significant dimension of international business competence [ 29 ], as a nuanced understanding of innovation and international business necessitates a multidisciplinary approach to reveal their multifaceted aspects [ 30 ]. Having this in mind, the aim of this study is to improve the current knowledge on the relationship between innovation and international business, that is to say, to identify trends for companies to know better the opportunities and challenges of innovation development in the international business context. Thus, the main innovative contribution of this systematic approach is the proposal of four themes of investigation within a comprehensive and multidimensional framework: Innovative activities of multinational corporations, Global value chains, Innovation in emerging economies, and Cross-border knowledge. This systematic review is motivated by the knowledge gap found in this issue since future research could fill that knowledge gap in the international business field through the development of new theoretical frameworks that draw on various disciplines [ 31 ]. On this wise, international business literature tends to develop a plurality of approaches that makes difficult to find single recurring or dominant forms [ 32 ].

Considering the ideas presented above and creating an intersection between both the literature of innovation and that of international business, this research provides several contributions to both areas. This is done with a methodologically systematic review of academic literature on both topics. A systematic review has been increasingly adopted in the management literature and is guided by a review question that defines the topics used for the database [ 33 ]. Following a previous theoretical study, two research questions were defined.

What themes about innovation and international business have been studied jointly to date?

Which themes about both areas require further research?

The rest of the paper is structured as follows: the section “Research method” presents the methodology and both the data search and selection used for the study; meanwhile, the section “Research results” presents the main results derived from that research, being categorized in those four themes of investigation posed earlier; the section “Discussion” also presents “Limitations” and “Recommendations for future research”, as further studies are needed to provide greater insight about this new approach; finally, the section “Conclusions” has also been included.

2. Research method

This paper presents the results of a systematic review of innovation in international business. Knowledge production within the field of business research is accelerating while at the same time remaining fragmented and interdisciplinary. This makes difficult to assess the global evidence in a specific area of business research, being the reason why literature review as a research method is more important than ever [ 34 ]. An advantage of the systematic review methodology is the generalizability of the results by allowing the accumulated knowledge in the field to be systematically synthesized and analysed [ 35 ]. A systematic review should have a list of specific steps to assure that important studies regarding the topic are acquired without any bias. Overall, following Tranfield et al. [ 36 ], (1) Identification for the need for a review, (2) Selecting a sample of potentially relevant works and the pertinent literature, (3) Data synthesis, (4) Reporting the results and recommendations. The cited steps are all followed in this study. Specifically, the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis, commonly called PRISMA [ 37 ], were followed in this study.

In this analysis, a systematic search was carried out in Web of Science of Clarivate Analytics, including documents published from January 01, 1993 to December 31, 2020. Birkle et al. [ 38 ] claim that Web of Science is the world's oldest, most used and reliable database of research publications (around 34000 journals today). The query used in this systematic literature review is as it follows: TS = (“Innovation” AND “International Business”). Consequently, TS = Topic; and the search terms “innovation” and “international business” were combined with the Boolean Operator “AND”. Therefore, literature search was based on two simultaneous topics, “innovation” and “international business” (as stated in the title of the publication, the abstract, the author keywords and/or the keywords plus). Each document has been published between 1993 and 2020, since the first contribution was published in 1993. A total of 847 related documents were found. Thus, it can be affirmed that the importance and size of the literature on innovation and international business is more relevant.

Different criteria for inclusion and exclusion are considered in this study. The process is described through the PRISMA flowchart ( Fig. 1 ). Excluding meetings, books, review articles, editorial materials, and others, the reviewing process generated 630 articles. Only articles published in Business Economics have been considered due to its prominent research area regarding the topics of this paper; bearing this in mind, the number of the articles was reduced to 291. Each article is written in English language following Tenzer et al. [ 39 ], stating that 75% of articles in the social sciences are written in this language; therefore, the number of articles was delimited to 264. At last, each article was read in its entirety and various articles were excluded based on full-text or abstract due to their irrelevant nature to the research; thereby, the final sample has been finally reduced to 236 articles. Other criteria, as open access or funding agencies, have not been considered in this research work.

PRISMA flowchart of the systematic literature review.

One by one, data of each article were extracted, transferred, and sorted into Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for further analysis. Therefore, a wide Excel database was created with specific information for each article: journal, title, authors' keywords, keywords plus, year of publication, and author information (number, name, affiliation, and country). Specifically, the author keywords and the keywords plus have been studied. In total, 3064 keywords (authors’ keywords and keywords plus) were counted, analysed and categorized; this analysis has allowed to obtain four themes of investigation. Subsequently, in Web of Science, these research trends have been confirmed with the latest studies published from January 01, 2021 to November 03, 2022.

3. Research results

3.1. general results.

Fig. 2 shows the number of articles on innovation and international business published each year over time. 236 articles were published during the study period 1993–2020, with no consistent trend of the number of articles published, that is to say, with some ups and downs. 80% of the total articles reviewed (189) were published during the last ten years (2011–2020). The largest number of articles was published during 2020 (43 articles), followed by 2018 (31 articles), 2015 and 2019 (both with 21 articles), and finally 2017 (15 articles). There was a lack of publications during the following years: 1994, 1995, 1998, and 2001. Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods are included in these articles (for instance, case study, literature review, bibliometric study, or regression analysis, among others).

Number of articles published each year.

The first article was published in the Strategic Management Journal by Hagedoorn [ 40 ]; this article presents interfirm strategic alliances in the international business area and their relationship with innovative efforts. The second article was published in the Journal of International Business Studies by Buckley and Casson [ 41 ], regarding international joint ventures in terms of the accelerating pace of technological innovation.

Number of authors per article is presented in Table 1 . The number of authors ranged from 1 to 9, with a predominance of two (35.59%) and three (30.93%) authors per article, that is to say, over 65% of the articles published. Besides, the mean of authors per article is considered to be 2.44.

Number of authors per article.

Following the previously mentioned line of thought, Table 2 shows the most relevant journals for research topic. The major journals included in this study are Journal of International Business Studies (48 articles; 20.34%), International Business Review (32 articles; 13.56%), International Marketing Review (14 articles; 5.93%), Management International Review (12 articles; 5.08%), Journal of International Management (8 articles; 3.39%), and Multinational Business Review (8 articles; 3.39%). These are believed to be the top six academic journals and represent more than a half (52%) of the total scientific production.

Main authors.

Principal journals.

Eight journals have published at least three articles (Thunderbird International Business Review, Journal of World Business, Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, Organization Studies, Industry and Innovation, Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal, Journal of Business Research, and Management and Organization Review). Eleven journals have published two articles, and finally fifty-seven journals have published only one article. Table 2 also indicates that this study is related to other topics (for instance, strategy, human resources, or entrepreneurship, among others). 1

Fig. 3 represents the most productive universities. It is important to mention that in this study the first university of each author has been selected, rejecting other additional institutions according to the author's institutional information. Thus, the first institution is the University of Reading with a total of eight articles published, followed by the University of Manchester, University of Leeds, and Uppsala University (each one with six articles); after them, the Duke University, the Rutgers University, and the Temple University (each one with five articles). Twenty-nine universities are included in 113 articles.

Most productive universities.

Finally, Fig. 4 shows the distribution of the research topic according to the countries of origin of the authors. Overall, the United States of America (frequency in articles = 80; 33.90%), England (52; 22.03%), China (24; 10.17%), Australia (21; 8.90%), Canada (13; 5.51%), and Italy (12; 5.08%) are the most prominent countries. Twenty-three countries were included in the sample. A country is considered part of this figure if it appears in at least three articles.

Most prominent countries.

3.2. Thematic analysis

The current state of the literature is characterized by its complexity and fragmentation. As previously reported, 3064 keywords (authors’ keywords and keywords plus) were counted, analysed and categorized. Some of the most prominent keywords, with minimum occurrences of ten, are showed in Table 4 ; the semantic difference between singular and plural forms is not considered. Obviously, “innovation” and “international business” are the most relevant concepts among the ones displayed. These two keywords together, along with the other five keywords, influence four categories. Subsequently, “multinational corporation” and “knowledge” are the most common keywords in this research work.

Themes of investigation identified.

Thus, this section synthesizes the results of this study. Four themes of investigation about the relationship between innovation and international business are suggested: Innovative activities of multinational corporations, Global value chains, Innovation in emerging economies, and Cross-border knowledge. This thematic analysis allows to answer the RQ1 posed earlier, that is to say: “What themes about innovation and international business have been studied jointly to date?” Consequently, it provides the occasion to have a more complete understanding of the research topic within a comprehensive and multidimensional framework.

3.2.1. Innovative activities of multinational corporations

A classic topic in international business research is the multinational corporation. The widest theme of investigation studies the relationship between innovation and the multinational corporation because, as Venaik et al. [ 42 ] assert, the international business literature has placed ever-greater emphasis on the role that learning and innovation play in determining multinational corporation performance.

It is common to conceive multinational corporations as a set of geographically disseminated subsidiaries that are combinations of heterogeneous technology competencies and product market responsibilities [ 43 ] or, in previous years, as firms that control and manage production establishments located in at least two countries [ 44 ]. Competitive success hinges on a multinational corporation's ability to use effectively available knowledge, and to combine it with knowledge from other locations [ 45 ]. Therefore, by interacting with locations multinational corporations have the possibility to organize their activities for balancing the exploitation of their current knowledge base and that of the new knowledge bases [ 46 ].

Knowledge that is complex to measure [ 47 ] has been recognized as critical for subsidiaries' power [ 48 ] and its transfer is driven by subunits’ motivation: subunits whose activities are mostly complementary have a natural motivation to collaborate and to ensure that the transferred knowledge is adopted, while subunits with surrogate activity relationships are less motivated [ 49 ]; consequently Miller et al. [ 50 ] assert that the use of distant knowledge contributes to innovation.

The location choice for R&D subsidiaries has been a topic of interest for researchers [ 51 ] since national subsidiaries carry out different tasks in the distinct processes of creation and innovation in multinational corporations [ 52 , 53 ]. Moreover, according to Frost et al. [ 54 ], the formation of centres of excellence in foreign subsidiaries of multinational corporations is shaped by the conditions of the subsidiary's local environment, the fundamental role played by parent firm investment as well as the role of internal and external organizations in the development of subsidiary capabilities. As Castellani et al. [ 55 ] argue, multinational corporations have organizational and technical competencies that enable them to transfer knowledge within their internal networks at a relatively low cost, so that geographic distance has a relatively low impact on international R&D investments. Nevertheless, the within-country cultural distance between subsidiaries influences headquarters to transfer projects between those same subsidiaries [ 56 ].

Therefore, the degree to which the business model links to local idiosyncrasies, local knowledge, or local innovation, impacts on the business model-related specific advantages [ 57 ]. In this context, Cantwell [ 58 ] claims that changes in the environment for international business activities have facilitated more open networked formations. Such cooperation will often take place within the field of the multinational corporation orchestrated innovation network which may include open innovation activity [ 59 ]. Prashantham and Birkinshaw [ 60 ] add that multinational corporations can cooperate with small and medium sized-enterprises as a specific type of host country business stakeholder, although the extent to that cooperation being relatively weak or not is a result of the compatibility between the intents of these disparate sets of firms.

3.2.2. Global value chains

In recent years, firms have been increasingly implementing strategies to take advantage of the comparative advantages of locations. This results in a wider geographic dispersion of firms' activities, with direct implications for creative industries’ global value [ 61 ]. Buckley [ 62 ] proposes the concept of global factory as a structure through which multinational corporations integrate their global strategies through a combination of innovation, distribution and production of goods and services. The increasing international fragmentation of economic activity gives rise to the global value chain research stream, a conceptual approach that deals with managing disaggregated and geographically dispersed value chains of multinational corporations (see, for instance, Refs. [ [63] , [64] , [65] , [66] ]).

The global value chain concept recognizes that such value-creating chains were not restricted solely to commodities but could also be extended across manufacturing and indeed to services [ 67 ]. Large multinational corporations operate in global innovation systems that are highly complex and so interdependent that the sources of new knowledge creation are hard to pinpoint [ 68 ].

Traditionally, the cluster approach emphasizes horizontal links between firms and local organizations [ 69 ] and from a network perspective, the cluster is a mechanism for the share of knowledge and learning [ 70 ] and also to innovate [ 71 ]. Nevertheless, the global value chain is strongly related with the analysis of clusters in the globalization era [ [72] , [73] , [74] , [75] ] because the need to integrate the global industry and local cluster levels is a basic one [ 64 ]. As Carloni [ 76 ] develops, clusters are supporters and accelerators of internationalization processes. Moreover, the existence of strong local innovation systems tends to be a prerequisite to guarantee sustained learning through global value chain participation [ 77 ].

Overall, participation in the global value chain is positively related to the innovation result of a country, which suggests that the international fragmentation of production may be a channel that allows international technology transfer from developed to developing countries [ 78 ]. Integration in the global value chain is perceived as a fundamental way for companies in developing countries to access knowledge to innovate [ 79 ] and to access larger markets and new technologies too [ 80 ].

3.2.3. Innovation in emerging economies

Emerging economies are low-income, rapid-growth countries using economic liberalization as their primary engine of growth [ 81 ]. Since the end of the 20th century, emerging economies, or what is the same, emerging markets, constitute the major growth opportunity in the world economic order and their potential has created a shift in multinational corporations [ 82 ] seeking to do business in emerging economies with manifold stakeholders benefited [ 83 ], although characteristics of internationalization of emerging market multinational enterprises investment simultaneously have positive and negative development consequences in their home countries [ 84 ]. In any case, multinational corporation subsidiaries and local institutions can help emerging market stakeholders, as suppliers [ 85 ].

Innovation is an important driver of economic growth in emerging economies [ 86 ]. In this context, for instance, innovation has helped develop solutions for consumers at the bottom of the pyramid [ 87 ] and middle-class consumers [ 88 ]. Emerging economies have certain characteristics, such as immature capital markets, lack of resources for innovation, and poor legal framework to protect property rights [ 89 ], that make the innovation process different from developed countries, despite having recently begun to innovate at a rapid rate, regarding the challenges they face [ 90 ]. Moreover, developing country difficulties can foster innovation capabilities and international competition [ 91 ] since in emerging markets a company gains advantage by learning to improvise with scarce resources and, in the process, to become more innovative than its competition [ 92 ]. Summing up, as Anand et al. [ 93 ] claim, innovation to and from emerging economies is a systemic outcome of an entire innovation milieu and both firms and countries are heterogeneous, following each one an idiosyncratic path in its evolution.

3.2.4. Cross-border knowledge

International business and cross-border flows of trade and investment significantly impact on the economic growth, employment and innovation potential of countries [ 64 ]. In addition, the rapid reshaping of the global economic order requires fundamental changes in international business; as a result, innovation networks will require novel reconfigurations [ 94 , 95 ]. Thus, Cantwell [ 3 ] remembers that there has been an increasing awareness of the importance of absorptive capacity on the part of firms [ 96 ]. In this same line, Contreras et al. [ 97 ] show that companies should have an organizational climate that allows them to acquire and transform knowledge in order to increase their innovativeness and be more competitive in a globalized world. Having this in mind, firms and locations co-evolve with one another, and it is possible to appreciate the rise of knowledge connectivity in innovation systems, that is a new underlying reality of the international business field [ 98 ]. The dynamics of place, space and organization continually generate new domains within which knowledge is leveraged in unique ways [ 99 ]. Knowledge circulates through two types of networks; on the one hand, organization-based linkages, or in other words, pipelines [ 100 ] and, on the other, personal relationships [ 73 ]. Accordingly, digital platforms and ecosystems are a major venue for innovation and have considerable implications for international business [ 101 , 102 ].

Multinational enterprises and subnational governments have increased their level of cooperative activity and create the basis for sustainable economic growth [ 103 ]. Discontinuities between nation-states and spatial heterogeneity within national boundaries are a relevant part of international business with different reasons, such as the historical role of national borders, the magnitude of national governments in international trade, the importance of national institutions in the formulation of business strategy and the decision making and the availability of data [ 104 ]. Hence, it is necessary to refer to the concept of global cities, or in other words, the centres of political power, corporate decision-making, knowledge generation and the exchange and movements of human capital and ideas [ 105 ]. Goerzen et al. [ 106 ] argue that distinctive characteristics of global cities (global interconnectedness, cosmopolitanism, and abundance of advanced production services) help multinational corporations to overcome the costs of doing business abroad. Nevertheless, global cities are not always necessarily the key locations for future multinational investments since knowledge and technology as well as the connection with the capabilities and company goals are crucial [ 107 ]. In any case, as Van Burg et al. [ 108 ] remember, organizational actors’ decisions about interorganizational knowledge transfer might change over time because unforeseen events can prompt actors to quite radically reframe future developments as opportunities or threats.

4. Discussion

This paper performs a systematic literature review of the relationship between innovation and international business. Particularly, using a qualitative/interpretative methodology, evolutionary trends have been recognized and are described in detail. 236 articles were published during the depicted study period 1993–2020. The largest number of articles was published during 2020, highlighting the topicality of the subject. Moreover, to enrich this section, the most recent works are included. The results of this research provide an overview of the knowledge structure of innovation and international business. The results highlight four themes of investigation within a comprehensive and multidimensional framework: Innovative activities of multinational corporations, Global value chains, Innovation in emerging economies, and Cross-border knowledge.

About the first theme, this systematic literature review shows that the multinational corporation is the most important kind of firm for innovation development in the international scenery. Thus, the location choice for its subsidiaries and its local environment is basic for the innovations' development [ 51 , 52 ] and also for the geographies of innovation [ 109 ]. This agrees with a very current line of research, which shows that the growing tendency of local technological innovation of multinational corporations, together with the increasing relevance of subsidiaries, are promoting subsidiaries' engagement in conducting innovation activities [ 110 ]. In the same way, managers’ characteristics, such as prior multinational corporations work experience and industry experience, affect subsidiary innovation [ 111 ].

As previously reported, in the field of international business two models are basic; however, although the Uppsala model keeps capturing the interest of scholars and is still one of the most cited frameworks in this area [ 112 ], it is confirmed that the born global firms’ phenomenon is very present in current literature. As Hennart et al. [ 113 ] remember, born global firms make large foreign sales at birth or shortly afterwards since they own valuable resources (for instance, advanced technologies and a high international orientation), and specific internationalization strategies (such as networks). Given the nature of this study, it should be specified that innovation plays a relevant role in the creation of born global firms [ 114 , 115 ]; moreover, born global firms contend with environmental dynamism in global markets, compelling these companies to enhance their innovation capabilities [ 116 ].

The second theme reveals a new conceptual approach, the global value chains as referred in the relationship between multinational corporations and global innovation systems [ 64 ] in view of the fact that nowadays international lead firms integrate their geographically dispersed partners, specialized suppliers, and customers in these global value chains or global production networks [ 117 ]. This new conceptual approach is confirmed due to the necessity of the adoption of a more holistic view of global value chains since this action will provide a clearer picture of how the organization and outcomes of innovative activities have evolved in this specific context [ 118 ].

About the third theme, this study supports the forecasts that indicate that emerging economies will have more economic power in the upcoming years. Therefore, this stated theme emphasizes, in the context of innovation, the opportunities for multinational corporations, local institutions, and stakeholders [ 85 ]. In any case, legal systems in emerging countries must be strengthened by harder competition laws that encourage the kind of competition that is based on innovation [ 119 ]; moreover, emerging market multinational enterprises have consolidated their global presence recently, challenging international business’ theories [ 120 ]; consequently, strengths and weaknesses are more pronounced when firms face competitors from emerging markets [ 121 ].

Finally, the fourth theme is Cross-border knowledge, which, in the internationalization context, impacts on the potential innovation of the countries [ 64 ], requiring relevant changes in their innovation networks [ 95 ]. In this sense, interaction and communication among their different intra-organizational networks facilitate multinational corporation knowledge transfer [ 122 ], whereas born global firms exploit different types of knowledge and networks to develop international opportunities [ 123 ]. Consequently, Freixanet and Churakova [ 124 ] point out to a reduction in the transaction costs as companies gain internationalization knowledge. Hence, internationalized companies devote substantial efforts to deploying and maintaining digital platforms, which plays an increasingly important role in today's digitally connected world [ 125 ].

4.1. Limitations

This study is supported by official data from 236 articles located in the Web of Science database and it has followed a rigorous research methodology. However, the scope of this kind of study always tends to involve some limitations. Firstly, other databases (Scopus or Google Scholar, for instance) have been excluded from the search. Secondly, while keywords (as innovation and international business) have been selected to cover the chosen areas as completely as possible, it could still be possible that important contributions were missed. Furthermore, certain sources of information have been not targeted (meetings, review articles, books, and editorial materials, among others). It must also be taken into consideration that the only considered area of research has been the Business Economics area (other ones, such as Computer Science or Engineering were not considered relevant enough due to the topic of the current study). In order to finish, only English language publications have been included in this analysis (thus, other languages like Spanish, Korean, or Russian were eliminated). Overall, as Greenhalgh et al. [ 126 ] defend, the literature is complex and the approach is somewhat unconventional, leading to other researchers to inevitably identify a different set of primary sources; being this an inherent characteristic of any systematic review.

4.2. Recommendations for future research

This study has strong implications for researchers. Bearing in mind the results of this investigation, it is recommended to expand the scope of this specific study to related innovation and international business topics targeting opportunities for improvement in both areas. There are multiple themes that require further research. Thus, future studies should deepen into the relationship between those specific topics, although this subject could not be an easy one. As previously stated, to enrich this section, the most recent works have been included. The implications of this study allow to answer the RQ2 question posed earlier, that is to say: “Which themes about both areas require further research?”

For instance, the global value chain requires to be fully studied in order to address the participation of multinational corporations in an understandable way holding a comparative environment between countries [ 127 ] since, as Buciuni and Pisano [ 128 ] confirm, there are a plurality of global value chain structures and a variety of innovation models within the global value chain. Similarly, the international business literature has given little attention to the comparison between the performance of advanced economy multinational corporations and the emerging market multinational corporations acting in international markets [ 129 ]. In the same way, in recent years open innovation has become a basic paradigm regarding the specific literature about innovation. However, throughout this research only one article [ 130 ] discusses the relationship between this topic and multinational corporations. In addition, a lack of specificity has been observed in the current literature regarding the role of social innovation in multinational corporation since only one recent article of this study [ 131 ] suggests to ask why and how this companies engage in social innovations. Likewise, although corporate social responsibility is a relevant factor in multinational corporation's competitiveness, only one depicted article [ 132 ] studies the development of corporate social responsibility in international business.

Furthermore, the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on international business has barely been discussed; leading to only one article in this study addressing this question [ 133 ]. The Covid-19 pandemic is an external shock that has disrupted the foundations of our everyday life [ 134 ], not only by changing the structure of the world economy, but also by leading to lasting impacts on the international business strategies of multinational corporations [ 135 ]. This pandemic encourages multinational firms to diversify their supply chains in order to retain innovation opportunities [ 136 ] due to the uncertainty of some innovations during that time [ 137 ]. Hence, it is necessary to shed light on the long-term impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on international business, although the true effects on multinational corporations and global value chains can only be judged over time [ 138 ]. In any case, analysing the impact of this virus in the new context of the internationalized companies becomes a necessity.

Future studies could offer more evidence about different topics in the internationalization area (for instance, innovation network adaptation, economic performance, social media, stakeholders, and corruption). Also, the importance of human resource management in the international business context should be reviewed in the near future [ 139 ]. In the same way, the majority of the studies have examined outward firm internationalization; however the phenomenon of inbound internationalization is limited and, as Bianchi and Stoian [ 140 ] add, innovation drives that inbound internationalization.

On this basis, international business scholars may contribute to addressing these knowledge gaps through research and lecturing. Therefore, this study identifies a set of analysis challenges that can be used as a research agenda for the international business research community. To conclude the present section, final remarks for practitioners are advised since the results of this work could also be useful to CEOs and managers of multinational corporations, and overall, international entrepreneurs; particularly those working in the innovation field (management, processes, or networks, among others). From a managerial viewpoint, these practitioners have encountered difficulties to align their different strategies many times. Thus, these results provide guidance to practitioners that adjust their innovation strategies along with their international business strategies in a complex competitive environment. Likewise, this paper allows a better comprehension of the dynamic reality and identifies challenges that can be used and employed by decision-makers when dealing with the unforeseen internationalization process.

5. Conclusions

Nowadays, companies seek innovation in their countries of origin and abroad in order to compete globally. Therefore, innovation is a key factor for entering into international markets. This systematic literature review shows that there is indeed a strong relationship between innovation and international business; four themes of investigation within a comprehensive and multidimensional framework are found: Innovative activities of multinational corporations, Global value chains, Innovation in emerging economies, and Cross-border knowledge. These four research trends highlight the strategic importance of innovation in international business. Nevertheless, even when the number of articles addressing such topics is growing, this research work underlines that there is still a great opportunity for studying the relationship between those concepts. Thus, incorporating innovation into internationalized companies’ strategies is a main issue in current times, even more considering the changing and challenging world that we live in.

Author contribution statement

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, private, or not-for-profit sectors. The Open access publishing of the article was funded by University of Malaga.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interest’s statement.

The authors declare no competing interests.

1 The 236 articles were written by 575 authors. Table 3 shows the most relevant authors to the research topic. Authors such as Knight, Gary A.; Buckley, Peter J.; Cantwell, John; Coviello, Nicole; Kim, Daekwan; Kolk, Ans; Lewin, Arie Y.; Luo, Yadong; Massini, Silvia; Mudambi, Ram; Peeters, Carine; and Tippmann, Esther, have each one three or more publications during the 1993–2020 period. Furthermore, thirty-nine authors contributed to at least two articles each one.

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How Chinese Companies are Dominating Electric Vehicle Market Worldwide

Image Credit | Michael Fousert

Introduction

An EV car is a vehicle powered by an electric motor, using energy stored in rechargeable batteries. It offers a cleaner alternative to gasoline or diesel engines, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and dependency on fossil fuels. EVs are known for their efficiency, low operating costs, and quiet operation. October 2011, in a live interview with Bloomberg, Elon Musk chuckled when questioned about his rival BYD, remarking, “ Have you seen their car? … I don’t believe they offer a superior product .” Musk expressed his lack of worry regarding BYD posing a significant challenge in the electric vehicle (EV) sector. When January 2023, he was asked to name the toughest competitor, his reply was “ some company out of China ,” In a decade of time span, Chinese EV car companies specially BYD have started threatening and dethroning western EV companies. BYD has surpassed Tesla in the last Quarter 2024 as top-selling electric car seller. This article how Chinese companies are dominating electric vehicle market worldwide

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Current state of the EV industry

The EV industry is experiencing a period of significant growth and transformation as of 2024. Despite a slowdown in consumer sentiment towards EVs, the push for emissions reductions remains strong, with regulations and milestones for electric vehicles firmly in place. The industry is at a crucial juncture, with many original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) heavily invested in the shift to EVs, focusing on delivering affordable, mass-market EVs with extended real-world range and reliable charging ecosystems​​.

Global sales of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are projected to reach 13.3 million units in 2024, accounting for an estimated 16.2% of global passenger vehicle sales. This represents a significant increase from 9.6 million BEVs in 2023, marking a 12% market share. Major markets are expected to drive most of this volume, with smaller markets also experiencing growth​​. The supply chain for EVs is evolving, with OEMs moving towards in-house development of electrified propulsion components and forming partnerships to mitigate the dominance of specific regions, such as mainland China, in the electric motor market. This shift is partly due to efforts to diversify away from permanent magnet usage in electric motors​​.

Innovation in thermal efficiency, particularly by Tesla and Chinese OEMs, is leading to more efficient BEVs. Efforts to integrate thermal components and consolidate cooling circuits are becoming a focus for suppliers, potentially leading to shifts in system voltages and the components used​​. Furthermore, the electric car market is booming, with sales expected to grow by 35% in 2024 after a record-breaking year in 2022. Electric cars’ share of the overall car market has risen dramatically, from around 4% in 2020 to 14% in 2022, with projections indicating a further increase to 18% in 2024. This growth is concentrated mainly in China, Europe, and the United States, with China leading the way with 60% of global electric car sales. Ambitious policy programs in these regions are expected to further boost the electric vehicle market share in the coming years​​. The industry’s expansion is also having positive effects on battery production and supply chains, with announced battery manufacturing projects expected to meet the demand for electric vehicles up to 2030. However, the manufacturing landscape remains highly concentrated, with China playing a dominant role in the battery and component trade. Other economies are enacting policies to foster domestic industries and improve competitiveness in the EV market​​.

Competition in EV market

Key players: The electric vehicle (EV) industry features several key players that are shaping its landscape. Tesla, Inc. stands out for its pioneering role and continued leadership in electric car innovation and production. BYD Company, a Chinese firm, has made significant strides in both passenger and commercial electric vehicles, becoming a global leader in EV sales. Volkswagen AG, with its ambitious electrification strategy, aims to become a major player in the electric market through its ID series. General Motors and Ford Motor Company are accelerating their EV production, with notable models like the Chevrolet Bolt and Ford Mustang Mach-E. These companies are complemented by startups like Rivian and Lucid Motors, which are introducing innovative EVs and pushing the boundaries of EV technology. Additionally, NIO and XPeng, other Chinese manufacturers, are rapidly expanding their presence in the electric luxury vehicle market. Each of these companies contributes to the competitive and dynamic nature of the EV industry, driving advancements in technology, infrastructure, and consumer adoption.

Market share: The EV market is diverse and competitive, with several companies vying for leadership. As of recent data, Tesla holds a significant portion of the EV market share in the United States, with approximately 50.9% of the EV market as of the last quarter of 2023. Ford and General Motors (GM) are also key players, with Ford having a market share of around 8.2% and GM around 6.1%. Hyundai-Kia-Genesis, Volkswagen Group, and Nissan-Infiniti are other notable competitors with varying shares. Hyundai-Kia-Genesis, for instance, has seen a substantial increase in their market share, indicating strong performance in the market​​. Globally, companies like NIO, Hyundai, BMW, and Stellantis are making significant strides. NIO Inc. has a global market share of 1.6%, while Hyundai Motor Company holds 2.54%, BMW has 2.8%, and Stellantis N.V. boasts a 3.76% market share. These figures highlight the competitive and fragmented nature of the global EV market, with Chinese manufacturers like Hozon Auto and Chery Automobile also making notable contributions​​. The EV market is rapidly evolving, with sales and market shares fluctuating as new models are introduced and consumer preferences shift. Tesla’s dominance, particularly in the U.S., is challenged by traditional automakers and newcomers alike, all aiming to increase their footprint in the burgeoning EV market. The industry’s dynamics are influenced by factors such as technological advancements, government policies, and consumer attitudes toward electric mobility​​.

Access to raw materials : The access to raw materials is a critical factor in the EV industry, as these materials are essential for the production of batteries and other components. The main raw materials include lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and graphite, which are used in lithium-ion batteries, the most common type of battery used in EVs. Many of these raw materials are concentrated in specific parts of the world. For example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is the largest producer of cobalt, a key component for battery energy density and longevity. Lithium reserves are mainly found in Australia, Chile, Argentina, and China. This geographical concentration can lead to supply chain vulnerabilities and political risks. The rapid growth of the EV market has led to increased demand for these critical raw materials, potentially leading to supply shortages and price volatility. As EV adoption accelerates, ensuring a stable supply of these materials is a significant concern for manufacturers. To mitigate supply risks and reduce environmental impact, the EV industry is investing in recycling technologies to recover materials from used batteries. Additionally, research is ongoing to find alternative materials that could reduce or eliminate the need for scarce resources. For example, efforts are underway to develop batteries with higher nickel content to decrease cobalt reliance or to use sodium-ion batteries as a more abundant alternative to lithium-ion. Automakers and battery manufacturers are forming strategic partnerships with mining companies and investing in mining projects to secure their supply chains. Some are also exploring direct investment in mining operations or long-term supply agreements to ensure access to critical materials.

Regulatory issues

Regulatory issues related to EVs vary across the world, reflecting differences in environmental policies, market readiness, infrastructure development, and technological advancement. These regulations are crucial for shaping the adoption rate and development trajectory of EVs globally. Here’s an overview of some key regulatory issues and considerations:

Emissions Standards and Targets: Many countries have set stringent emissions standards and targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which directly impact the automotive industry. The European Union, for example, has implemented strict CO2 emissions targets for new vehicles, pushing automakers to increase their EV offerings. Similarly, China has introduced New Energy Vehicle (NEV) mandates, requiring manufacturers to produce a certain percentage of low-emission vehicles.

Incentives and Subsidies : To encourage the adoption of EVs, governments worldwide have introduced various incentives, including tax rebates, grants, and subsidies for EV purchases, reduced registration fees, and exemptions from congestion charges. However, the availability and scale of these incentives can vary significantly, influencing market dynamics. For instance, the U.S. offers federal tax credits for EV buyers, while Norway exempts electric cars from most taxes, leading to one of the highest EV adoption rates in the world.

Charging Infrastructure Regulations : Adequate charging infrastructure is essential for EV adoption. Regulations concerning the deployment, standardization, and interoperability of charging stations are critical. The European Union has directives in place to ensure the build-out of a comprehensive charging network, while countries like China have invested heavily in charging infrastructure to support their rapidly growing EV market.

Battery Recycling and Disposal : With the increase in EVs, battery waste management becomes a significant concern. Regulations regarding the recycling and disposal of EV batteries are still developing. The European Union, for example, is working on regulations to improve the sustainability of batteries, including measures for recycling and the use of recycled materials.

Safety Standards : EVs must meet specific safety standards, which can vary by region. These standards cover aspects such as crashworthiness, battery safety (including thermal runaway prevention), and electrical safety. As EV technology evolves, regulatory bodies continue to update safety standards to address new challenges.

Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration : V2G technology allows EVs to return electricity to the grid, offering potential benefits for grid stability and renewable energy integration. However, regulatory frameworks for V2G are in the early stages, with issues around grid connectivity, electricity pricing, and consumer participation yet to be fully addressed.

International Harmonization: The lack of harmonization in EV regulations across different markets can pose challenges for global automakers. Efforts by international bodies like the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) aim to standardize regulations, facilitating vehicle design and compliance for multiple markets

Key Competitive edge for the Chinese EV company BYD

The competitive edge of Chinese EV companies is the result of a multifaceted strategy that combines governmental support, market scale, rapid innovation, and strategic global positioning. As the global EV market continues to evolve, these strengths position Chinese companies well for continued growth and international competition. Chinese EV companies have been making significant strides in the global automotive market, carving out a competitive edge through a combination of strategic initiatives, government support, and innovation. BYD is at forefront as Chinese EV company. Here are several key factors contributing to their competitive advantage:

Government Support and Policies : The Chinese government has implemented a comprehensive range of supportive policies and subsidies to promote the development and adoption of EVs. These include financial incentives for both manufacturers and consumers, stringent emissions regulations that favor electric over internal combustion engine vehicles, and ambitious targets for EV production and sales. Such strong government backing has created a favorable environment for the growth of EV companies.

Large Domestic Market : China is the world’s largest automotive market, providing a vast consumer base for EV companies. The high demand for vehicles, combined with growing environmental awareness and the government’s push for greener transportation, has offered Chinese EV manufacturers a significant initial market to scale up their operations and reduce costs through economies of scale.

Rapid Innovation and Product Development : Chinese EV companies are known for their agility and speed in product development and innovation. They have been quick to adopt new technologies, such as advanced battery technologies, autonomous driving features, and connected car services, often bringing new models and features to market faster than their international competitors.

Vertical Integration and Supply Chain Control : Many Chinese EV manufacturers have pursued a strategy of vertical integration, controlling key components of the supply chain, such as battery production and supply. Companies like BYD not only manufacture EVs but also produce their batteries, which helps in reducing costs and ensuring supply chain security. This control over the supply chain gives them a competitive edge in terms of cost, quality, and supply reliability. 

Advanced Battery Technology : China is a global leader in battery technology and production, home to some of the world’s largest battery manufacturers like CATL and BYD. BYD is the only companies with in house batteries. The focus on advancing battery technology has led to improvements in energy density, charging speed, and battery life, enhancing the performance and appeal of Chinese-made EVs.

Strategic Global Partnerships and Expansions : Chinese EV companies are actively seeking to expand their global footprint through strategic partnerships, mergers, acquisitions, and the establishment of overseas production facilities. These efforts are aimed at accessing new markets, acquiring advanced technologies, and building global brands.

Cost Competitiveness : Leveraging large-scale production, domestic supply chains, and governmental support, Chinese EV manufacturers can often offer competitive pricing without significantly compromising on quality or features. This cost advantage makes Chinese EVs attractive in both domestic and international markets.

Focused on Innovation in EV-specific Technologies: Unlike traditional automakers transitioning from internal combustion engines, many Chinese companies have been EV-focused from the start, allowing them to innovate and optimize their vehicles specifically for electric propulsion without legacy constraints.

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Official Amazon HR document reveals a spike in employees put on PIPs during a time of record layoffs

• A document shows the number of Amazon staff put on PIPs spiked from spring 2022 through early 2023.
• Some employees saw this as a "quiet firing" tactic to minimize severance costs and market noise.
• Amazon PIPs have been a source of frustration for some employees for several years.

Amazon put many more employees on performance-improvement plans at a time when the company was also conducting the largest layoffs in its history, according to an official human-resources document from last year obtained by Business Insider.

In April 2022, Amazon put just under 2,000 staff into the Focus program, the initial stage of Amazon's PIP process. By the end of that year, more than 3,300 were going into Focus each month. In January 2023, those numbers spiked even higher, the document shows.

Pivot , the second phase of Amazon's PIP system, saw the number of new monthly entries more than double during the same period, according to the monthly business-review document prepared in early 2023 by the company's "PXT" group. That stands for People Experience and Technology, the name of Amazon's HR department.

Layoffs vs. terminations

The spike in PIPs coincided with 27,000 layoffs that Amazon announced between November 2022 and March 2023.

Layoffs happen when companies no longer need certain roles because of mostly financial reasons such as downsizing. In contrast, PIPs are related to situations in which employees may be terminated for cause. They're used when workers aren't performing well enough, and managers want these staff to either improve or leave, depending on the outcome of the programs.

The fact that Amazon was using PIPs more heavily while also doing major layoffs suggests the company was raising the bar for employee performance in early 2023 to increase efficiency as it went on a massive cost-cutting campaign .

"In order to maintain a high and rising performance bar, we plan to refresh part of the employee population each year," Amazon's PXT team wrote in early 2023, according to the document obtained by BI. "Managers, however, do not engage in performance management work eagerly. Therefore we cannot rely on good intentions and need to create accountability."

Amazon changed data-reporting mechanisms

In comments emailed to BI, an Amazon spokesperson, Margaret Callahan, didn't question the authenticity of the official HR document or the accuracy of the data at the time the document was created in early 2023.

But Amazon said it had changed mechanisms for reporting this data, so the numbers in the document were now no longer "reflective of accurate internal data." Amazon also noted that it constantly refined its internal data-reporting mechanisms.

Callahan added that any past reductions in the workforce were "in no way connected" to its PIP process.

"There's no question we keep our performance bar high, and that's one of the reasons why Amazon is one of the most sought-after places to work in the world. Like most companies, we have a performance management process that helps our managers identify who in their teams are performing well and who needs more support," she wrote in the email. "The vast majority of our colleagues regularly meet or exceed expectations, but for the small number of employees who don't, we provide coaching and opportunities to help them improve. If they're unable to do that, then we may have to discuss them leaving the company."

"To suggest we use our performance management process to drive any other outcome, such as reducing our employee base, is wrong," Callahan added in a statement.

It's possible the document obtained by BI included data on the PIPs that represented a snapshot in time. The document noted that the data was "as of 01/31/2023" and was updated on February 9, 2023. As time progressed in 2023 and beyond, Amazon may have collected more data about how many employees went on its Focus and Pivot programs in particular months.

"We continue to share actual results and forecasts of Focus additions, Focus resolutions, and Pivot additions for visibility," the document stated.

'Quiet firing' concerns

The document and its data add weight to concerns among some employees about what they call " quiet firing ." This is the idea that Amazon is discreetly eliminating jobs to minimize severance costs and reduce the public noise associated with large-scale job cuts. Speculation over such moves has been swirling inside the company for months, as BI previously reported.

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"The number of performance-improvement plans goes up because you draw the performance-requirement line higher than you did when you weren't doing a reduction in force," Erik Gordon, a business professor at the University of Michigan, said while discussing PIPs in general. "You hope that many of the people put on a performance-review plan get the message and find a job at another company, reducing your severance costs and the size of the layoff number you report."

Focus and Pivot

Employees previously told BI that Amazon's PIP system was opaque and often unrealistic.

The multistep coaching process starts with the Focus program , which requires employees on PIPs to finish certain tasks set up by their managers. Focus typically takes about 60 days to complete, according to a person directly involved in the program.

Those who fail Focus are given the choice between leaving Amazon with a severance package or being put on the second stage of the PIP, named Pivot . A typical Pivot program takes about 30 days to complete, this person said. They asked not to be identified discussing sensitive topics.

An employee who fails Pivot gets to choose between leaving Amazon with a smaller severance package or appealing the outcome in front of an internal jury. This appeal process can result in an even slimmer severance payment if they're unsuccessful.

'Unregretted attrition'

On top of that, Amazon managers have a target that's based on the percentage of employees they must eliminate each year. This is internally called " unregretted attrition ," or URA, as BI previously reported. That can create a system in which employees are effectively evaluated on a curve, causing some employees to feel they were given unfairly low performance ratings.

The PXT document from early 2023 mentioned unregretted attrition and URA several times. It charted monthly URA cumulatively, starting in April 2022, showing a steadily rising percentage toward a 6% annual goal.

"When performance management falls below planned rates, management should manage the inputs shown on this slide by adding underperforming employees to Focus, resolving Focus entries in a timely manner, and moving employees to Pivot if they are unable to meet the performance bar," the PXT document said.

PIPs and quiet firing

Some Amazon employees previously told BI that the company had put more people on PIPs as part of what they perceived as the quiet-firing push. They said the idea was to create conditions that caused employees to quit through tougher performance reviews, a stricter return-to-office policy , or just assigning less work.

Peter Cappelli, a management professor at the University of Pennsylvania who's the director of Wharton's Center for Human Resources, said quiet firing was "not an uncommon practice" at many companies. For example, it could help save costs for a company with a policy of paying severance for layoffs but not for performance-related dismissals, he said.

Another added benefit is employee motivation. Cappelli said that by putting employees through a higher performance bar during layoffs, those who passed the process would know what it takes to stay employed.

"The plus side is that the survivors know why they survived," Cappelli said.

According to Amazon's PXT document from early 2023, the number of employees put into Focus was below 2,000 from April to June 2022.

For the next six months, it hovered around 3,300 new entries a month.

In January 2023, however, this shot up to 4,527 new Focus placements. Amazon forecast these numbers to exceed 5,000 in February and March 2023. The actual recorded numbers for those two months couldn't be learned.

For Pivot, the actual numbers were lower, but the rate of increase was notable. In April 2022, Amazon had 467 new Pivot entries. That number surpassed 1,000 in November 2022, as layoffs were announced, and reached 1,284 in January 2023.

Amazon had roughly 400,000 total corporate employees in that period, according to another internal document obtained by BI. Based on those figures, Amazon put a little more than 1% of its total corporate workforce on Focus every month during the layoffs.

Do you work at Amazon? Got a tip?

Contact the reporter, Eugene Kim, via the encrypted-messaging apps Signal or Telegram ( +1-650-942-3061 ) or email ( [email protected] ). Reach out using a nonwork device. Check out Business Insider's source guide for other tips on sharing information securely.

Correction: March 20, 2024 — An earlier version of this story misspelled the surname of the management professor at the University of Pennsylvania. His name is Peter Cappelli, not Peter Capelli.

Watch: Meet the Amazon warehouse workers paying the price for fast, free shipping

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Research Roundup: How the Pandemic Changed Management

• Mark C. Bolino,
• Jacob M. Whitney,
• Sarah E. Henry

Lessons from 69 articles published in top management and applied psychology journals.

Researchers recently reviewed 69 articles focused on the management implications of the Covid-19 pandemic that were published between March 2020 and July 2023 in top journals in management and applied psychology. The review highlights the numerous ways in which employees, teams, leaders, organizations, and societies were impacted and offers lessons for managing through future pandemics or other events of mass disruption.

The recent pandemic disrupted life as we know it, including for employees and organizations around the world. To understand such changes, we recently reviewed 69 articles focused on the management implications of the Covid-19 pandemic. These papers were published between March 2020 and July 2023 in top journals in management and applied psychology.

• Mark C. Bolino is the David L. Boren Professor and the Michael F. Price Chair in International Business at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business. His research focuses on understanding how an organization can inspire its employees to go the extra mile without compromising their personal well-being.
• JW Jacob M. Whitney is a doctoral candidate in management at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business and an incoming assistant professor at Kennesaw State University. His research interests include leadership, teams, and organizational citizenship behavior.
• SH Sarah E. Henry is a doctoral candidate in management at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business and an incoming assistant professor at the University of South Florida. Her research interests include organizational citizenship behaviors, workplace interpersonal dynamics, and international management.

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