motivation in research study

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The Importance of Students’ Motivation for Their Academic Achievement – Replicating and Extending Previous Findings

Ricarda steinmayr.

1 Department of Psychology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany

Anne F. Weidinger

Malte schwinger.

2 Department of Psychology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany

Birgit Spinath

3 Department of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany

Associated Data

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Achievement motivation is not a single construct but rather subsumes a variety of different constructs like ability self-concepts, task values, goals, and achievement motives. The few existing studies that investigated diverse motivational constructs as predictors of school students’ academic achievement above and beyond students’ cognitive abilities and prior achievement showed that most motivational constructs predicted academic achievement beyond intelligence and that students’ ability self-concepts and task values are more powerful in predicting their achievement than goals and achievement motives. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the reported previous findings can be replicated when ability self-concepts, task values, goals, and achievement motives are all assessed at the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria (e.g., hope for success in math and math grades). The sample comprised 345 11th and 12th grade students ( M = 17.48 years old, SD = 1.06) from the highest academic track (Gymnasium) in Germany. Students self-reported their ability self-concepts, task values, goal orientations, and achievement motives in math, German, and school in general. Additionally, we assessed their intelligence and their current and prior Grade point average and grades in math and German. Relative weight analyses revealed that domain-specific ability self-concept, motives, task values and learning goals but not performance goals explained a significant amount of variance in grades above all other predictors of which ability self-concept was the strongest predictor. Results are discussed with respect to their implications for investigating motivational constructs with different theoretical foundation.

Introduction

Achievement motivation energizes and directs behavior toward achievement and therefore is known to be an important determinant of academic success (e.g., Robbins et al., 2004 ; Hattie, 2009 ; Plante et al., 2013 ; Wigfield et al., 2016 ). Achievement motivation is not a single construct but rather subsumes a variety of different constructs like motivational beliefs, task values, goals, and achievement motives (see Murphy and Alexander, 2000 ; Wigfield and Cambria, 2010 ; Wigfield et al., 2016 ). Nevertheless, there is still a limited number of studies, that investigated (1) diverse motivational constructs in relation to students’ academic achievement in one sample and (2) additionally considered students’ cognitive abilities and their prior achievement ( Steinmayr and Spinath, 2009 ; Kriegbaum et al., 2015 ). Because students’ cognitive abilities and their prior achievement are among the best single predictors of academic success (e.g., Kuncel et al., 2004 ; Hailikari et al., 2007 ), it is necessary to include them in the analyses when evaluating the importance of motivational factors for students’ achievement. Steinmayr and Spinath (2009) did so and revealed that students’ domain-specific ability self-concepts followed by domain-specific task values were the best predictors of students’ math and German grades compared to students’ goals and achievement motives. However, a flaw of their study is that they did not assess all motivational constructs at the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria. For example, achievement motives were measured on a domain-general level (e.g., “Difficult problems appeal to me”), whereas students’ achievement as well as motivational beliefs and task values were assessed domain-specifically (e.g., math grades, math self-concept, math task values). The importance of students’ achievement motives for math and German grades might have been underestimated because the specificity levels of predictor and criterion variables did not match (e.g., Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977 ; Baranik et al., 2010 ). The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the seminal findings by Steinmayr and Spinath (2009) will hold when motivational beliefs, task values, goals, and achievement motives are all assessed at the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria. This is an important question with respect to motivation theory and future research in this field. Moreover, based on the findings it might be possible to better judge which kind of motivation should especially be fostered in school to improve achievement. This is important information for interventions aiming at enhancing students’ motivation in school.

Theoretical Relations Between Achievement Motivation and Academic Achievement

We take a social-cognitive approach to motivation (see also Pintrich et al., 1993 ; Elliot and Church, 1997 ; Wigfield and Cambria, 2010 ). This approach emphasizes the important role of students’ beliefs and their interpretations of actual events, as well as the role of the achievement context for motivational dynamics (see Weiner, 1992 ; Pintrich et al., 1993 ; Wigfield and Cambria, 2010 ). Social cognitive models of achievement motivation (e.g., expectancy-value theory by Eccles and Wigfield, 2002 ; hierarchical model of achievement motivation by Elliot and Church, 1997 ) comprise a variety of motivation constructs that can be organized in two broad categories (see Pintrich et al., 1993 , p. 176): students’ “beliefs about their capability to perform a task,” also called expectancy components (e.g., ability self-concepts, self-efficacy), and their “motivational beliefs about their reasons for choosing to do a task,” also called value components (e.g., task values, goals). The literature on motivation constructs from these categories is extensive (see Wigfield and Cambria, 2010 ). In this article, we focus on selected constructs, namely students’ ability self-concepts (from the category “expectancy components of motivation”), and their task values and goal orientations (from the category “value components of motivation”).

According to the social cognitive perspective, students’ motivation is relatively situation or context specific (see Pintrich et al., 1993 ). To gain a comprehensive picture of the relation between students’ motivation and their academic achievement, we additionally take into account a traditional personality model of motivation, the theory of the achievement motive ( McClelland et al., 1953 ), according to which students’ motivation is conceptualized as a relatively stable trait. Thus, we consider the achievement motives hope for success and fear of failure besides students’ ability self-concepts, their task values, and goal orientations in this article. In the following, we describe the motivation constructs in more detail.

Students’ ability self-concepts are defined as cognitive representations of their ability level ( Marsh, 1990 ; Wigfield et al., 2016 ). Ability self-concepts have been shown to be domain-specific from the early school years on (e.g., Wigfield et al., 1997 ). Consequently, they are frequently assessed with regard to a certain domain (e.g., with regard to school in general vs. with regard to math).

In the present article, task values are defined in the sense of the expectancy-value model by Eccles et al. (1983) and Eccles and Wigfield (2002) . According to the expectancy-value model there are three task values that should be positively associated with achievement, namely intrinsic values, utility value, and personal importance ( Eccles and Wigfield, 1995 ). Because task values are domain-specific from the early school years on (e.g., Eccles et al., 1993 ; Eccles and Wigfield, 1995 ), they are also assessed with reference to specific subjects (e.g., “How much do you like math?”) or on a more general level with regard to school in general (e.g., “How much do you like going to school?”).

Students’ goal orientations are broader cognitive orientations that students have toward their learning and they reflect the reasons for doing a task (see Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). Therefore, they fall in the broad category of “value components of motivation.” Initially, researchers distinguished between learning and performance goals when describing goal orientations ( Nicholls, 1984 ; Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). Learning goals (“task involvement” or “mastery goals”) describe people’s willingness to improve their skills, learn new things, and develop their competence, whereas performance goals (“ego involvement”) focus on demonstrating one’s higher competence and hiding one’s incompetence relative to others (e.g., Elliot and McGregor, 2001 ). Performance goals were later further subdivided into performance-approach (striving to demonstrate competence) and performance-avoidance goals (striving to avoid looking incompetent, e.g., Elliot and Church, 1997 ; Middleton and Midgley, 1997 ). Some researchers have included work avoidance as another component of achievement goals (e.g., Nicholls, 1984 ; Harackiewicz et al., 1997 ). Work avoidance refers to the goal of investing as little effort as possible ( Kumar and Jagacinski, 2011 ). Goal orientations can be assessed in reference to specific subjects (e.g., math) or on a more general level (e.g., in reference to school in general).

McClelland et al. (1953) distinguish the achievement motives hope for success (i.e., positive emotions and the belief that one can succeed) and fear of failure (i.e., negative emotions and the fear that the achievement situation is out of one’s depth). According to McClelland’s definition, need for achievement is measured by describing affective experiences or associations such as fear or joy in achievement situations. Achievement motives are conceptualized as being relatively stable over time. Consequently, need for achievement is theorized to be domain-general and, thus, usually assessed without referring to a certain domain or situation (e.g., Steinmayr and Spinath, 2009 ). However, Sparfeldt and Rost (2011) demonstrated that operationalizing achievement motives subject-specifically is psychometrically useful and results in better criterion validities compared with a domain-general operationalization.

Empirical Evidence on the Relative Importance of Achievement Motivation Constructs for Academic Achievement

A myriad of single studies (e.g., Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2018 ; Muenks et al., 2018 ; Steinmayr et al., 2018 ) and several meta-analyses (e.g., Robbins et al., 2004 ; Möller et al., 2009 ; Hulleman et al., 2010 ; Huang, 2011 ) support the hypothesis of social cognitive motivation models that students’ motivational beliefs are significantly related to their academic achievement. However, to judge the relative importance of motivation constructs for academic achievement, studies need (1) to investigate diverse motivational constructs in one sample and (2) to consider students’ cognitive abilities and their prior achievement, too, because the latter are among the best single predictors of academic success (e.g., Kuncel et al., 2004 ; Hailikari et al., 2007 ). For effective educational policy and school reform, it is crucial to obtain robust empirical evidence for whether various motivational constructs can explain variance in school performance over and above intelligence and prior achievement. Without including the latter constructs, we might overestimate the importance of motivation for achievement. Providing evidence that students’ achievement motivation is incrementally valid in predicting their academic achievement beyond their intelligence or prior achievement would emphasize the necessity of designing appropriate interventions for improving students’ school-related motivation.

There are several studies that included expectancy and value components of motivation as predictors of students’ academic achievement (grades or test scores) and additionally considered students’ prior achievement ( Marsh et al., 2005 ; Steinmayr et al., 2018 , Study 1) or their intelligence ( Spinath et al., 2006 ; Lotz et al., 2018 ; Schneider et al., 2018 ; Steinmayr et al., 2018 , Study 2, Weber et al., 2013 ). However, only few studies considered intelligence and prior achievement together with more than two motivational constructs as predictors of school students’ achievement ( Steinmayr and Spinath, 2009 ; Kriegbaum et al., 2015 ). Kriegbaum et al. (2015) examined two expectancy components (i.e., ability self-concept and self-efficacy) and eight value components (i.e., interest, enjoyment, usefulness, learning goals, performance-approach, performance-avoidance goals, and work avoidance) in the domain of math. Steinmayr and Spinath (2009) investigated the role of an expectancy component (i.e., ability self-concept), five value components (i.e., task values, learning goals, performance-approach, performance-avoidance goals, and work avoidance), and students’ achievement motives (i.e., hope for success, fear of failure, and need for achievement) for students’ grades in math and German and their GPA. Both studies used relative weights analyses to compare the predictive power of all variables simultaneously while taking into account multicollinearity of the predictors ( Johnson and LeBreton, 2004 ; Tonidandel and LeBreton, 2011 ). Findings showed that – after controlling for differences in students‘ intelligence and their prior achievement – expectancy components (ability self-concept, self-efficacy) were the best motivational predictors of achievement followed by task values (i.e., intrinsic/enjoyment, attainment, and utility), need for achievement and learning goals ( Steinmayr and Spinath, 2009 ; Kriegbaum et al., 2015 ). However, Steinmayr and Spinath (2009) who investigated the relations in three different domains did not assess all motivational constructs on the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria. More precisely, students’ achievement as well as motivational beliefs and task values were assessed domain-specifically (e.g., math grades, math self-concept, math task values), whereas students’ goals were only measured for school in general (e.g., “In school it is important for me to learn as much as possible”) and students’ achievement motives were only measured on a domain-general level (e.g., “Difficult problems appeal to me”). Thus, the importance of goals and achievement motives for math and German grades might have been underestimated because the specificity levels of predictor and criterion variables did not match (e.g., Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977 ; Baranik et al., 2010 ). Assessing students’ goals and their achievement motives with reference to a specific subject might result in higher associations with domain-specific achievement criteria (see Sparfeldt and Rost, 2011 ).

Taken together, although previous work underlines the important roles of expectancy and value components of motivation for school students’ academic achievement, hitherto, we know little about the relative importance of expectancy components, task values, goals, and achievement motives in different domains when all of them are assessed at the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria (e.g., achievement motives in math → math grades; ability self-concept for school → GPA).

The Present Research

The goal of the present study was to examine the relative importance of several of the most important achievement motivation constructs in predicting school students’ achievement. We substantially extend previous work in this field by considering (1) diverse motivational constructs, (2) students’ intelligence and their prior achievement as achievement predictors in one sample, and (3) by assessing all predictors on the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria. Moreover, we investigated the relations in three different domains: school in general, math, and German. Because there is no study that assessed students’ goal orientations and achievement motives besides their ability self-concept and task values on the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria, we could not derive any specific hypotheses on the relative importance of these constructs, but instead investigated the following research question (RQ):

RQ. What is the relative importance of students’ domain-specific ability self-concepts, task values, goal orientations, and achievement motives for their grades in the respective domain when including all of them, students’ intelligence and prior achievement simultaneously in the analytic models?

Materials and Methods

Participants and procedure.

A sample of 345 students was recruited from two German schools attending the highest academic track (Gymnasium). Only 11th graders participated at one school, whereas 11th and 12th graders participated at the other. Students of the different grades and schools did not differ significantly on any of the assessed measures. Students represented the typical population of this type of school in Germany; that is, the majority was Caucasian and came from medium to high socioeconomic status homes. At the time of testing, students were on average 17.48 years old ( SD = 1.06). As is typical for this kind of school, the sample comprised more girls ( n = 200) than boys ( n = 145). We verify that the study is in accordance with established ethical guidelines. Approval by an ethics committee was not required as per the institution’s guidelines and applicable regulations in the federal state where the study was conducted. Participation was voluntarily and no deception took place. Before testing, we received written informed consent forms from the students and from the parents of the students who were under the age of 18 on the day of the testing. If students did not want to participate, they could spend the testing time in their teacher’s room with an extra assignment. All students agreed to participate. Testing took place during regular classes in schools in 2013. Tests were administered by trained research assistants and lasted about 2.5 h. Students filled in the achievement motivation questionnaires first, and the intelligence test was administered afterward. Before the intelligence test, there was a short break.

Ability Self-Concept

Students’ ability self-concepts were assessed with four items per domain ( Schöne et al., 2002 ). Students indicated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree) how good they thought they were at different activities in school in general, math, and German (“I am good at school in general/math/German,” “It is easy to for me to learn in school in general/math/German,” “In school in general/math/German, I know a lot,” and “Most assignments in school/math/German are easy for me”). Internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) of the ability self-concept scale was high in school in general, in math, and in German (0.82 ≤ α ≤ 0.95; see Table 1 ).

Means ( M ), Standard Deviations ( SD ), and Reliabilities (α) for all measures.

Task Values

Students’ task values were assessed with an established German scale (SESSW; Subjective scholastic value scale; Steinmayr and Spinath, 2010 ). The measure is an adaptation of items used by Eccles and Wigfield (1995) in different studies. It assesses intrinsic values, utility, and personal importance with three items each. Students indicated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree) how much they valued school in general, math, and German (Intrinsic values: “I like school/math/German,” “I enjoy doing things in school/math/German,” and “I find school in general/math/German interesting”; Utility: “How useful is what you learn in school/math/German in general?,” “School/math/German will be useful in my future,” “The things I learn in school/math/German will be of use in my future life”; Personal importance: “Being good at school/math/German is important to me,” “To be good at school/math/German means a lot to me,” “Attainment in school/math/German is important to me”). Internal consistency of the values scale was high in all domains (0.90 ≤ α ≤ 0.93; see Table 1 ).

Goal Orientations

Students’ goal orientations were assessed with an established German self-report measure (SELLMO; Scales for measuring learning and achievement motivation; Spinath et al., 2002 ). In accordance with Sparfeldt et al. (2007) , we assessed goal orientations with regard to different domains: school in general, math, and German. In each domain, we used the SELLMO to assess students’ learning goals, performance-avoidance goals, and work avoidance with eight items each and their performance-approach goals with seven items. Students’ answered the items on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree). All items except for the work avoidance items are printed in Spinath and Steinmayr (2012) , p. 1148). A sample item to assess work avoidance is: “In school/math/German, it is important to me to do as little work as possible.” Internal consistency of the learning goals scale was high in all domains (0.83 ≤ α ≤ 0.88). The same was true for performance-approach goals (0.85 ≤ α ≤ 0.88), performance-avoidance goals (α = 0.89), and work avoidance (0.91 ≤ α ≤ 0.92; see Table 1 ).

Achievement Motives

Achievement motives were assessed with the Achievement Motives Scale (AMS; Gjesme and Nygard, 1970 ; Göttert and Kuhl, 1980 ). In the present study, we used a short form measuring “hope for success” and “fear of failure” with the seven items per subscale that showed the highest factor loadings. Both subscales were assessed in three domains: school in general, math, and German. Students’ answered all items on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (does not apply at all) to 4 (fully applies). An example hope for success item is “In school/math/German, difficult problems appeal to me,” and an example fear of failure item is “In school/math/German, matters that are slightly difficult disconcert me.” Internal consistencies of hope for success and fear of failure scales were high in all domains (hope for success: 0.88 ≤ α ≤ 0.92; fear of failure: 0.90 ≤ α ≤ 0.91; see Table 1 ).

Intelligence

Intelligence was measured with the basic module of the Intelligence Structure Test 2000 R, a well-established German multifactor intelligence measure (I-S-T 2000 R; Amthauer et al., 2001 ). The basic module of the test offers assessments of domain-specific intelligence for verbal, numeric, and figural abilities as well as an overall intelligence score (a composite of the three facets). The overall intelligence score is thought to measure reasoning as a higher order factor of intelligence and can be interpreted as a measure of general intelligence, g . Its construct validity has been demonstrated in several studies ( Amthauer et al., 2001 ; Steinmayr and Amelang, 2006 ). In the present study, we used the scores that were closest to the domains we investigated: overall intelligence, numerical intelligence, and verbal intelligence (see also Steinmayr and Spinath, 2009 ). Raw values could range from 0 to 60 for verbal and numerical intelligence, and from 0 to 180 for overall intelligence. Internal consistencies of all intelligence scales were high (0.71 ≤ α ≤ 0.90; see Table 1 ).

Academic Achievement

For all students, the school delivered the report cards that the students received 3 months before testing (t0) and 4 months after testing (t2), at the end of the term in which testing took place. We assessed students’ grades in German and math as well as their overall grade point average (GPA) as criteria for school performance. GPA was computed as the mean of all available grades, not including grades in the nonacademic domains Sports and Music/Art as they did not correlate with the other grades. Grades ranged from 1 to 6, and were recoded so that higher numbers represented better performance.

Statistical Analyses

We conducted relative weight analyses to predict students’ academic achievement separately in math, German, and school in general. The relative weight analysis is a statistical procedure that enables to determine the relative importance of each predictor in a multiple regression analysis (“relative weight”) and to take adequately into account the multicollinearity of the different motivational constructs (for details, see Johnson and LeBreton, 2004 ; Tonidandel and LeBreton, 2011 ). Basically, it uses a variable transformation approach to create a new set of predictors that are orthogonal to one another (i.e., uncorrelated). Then, the criterion is regressed on these new orthogonal predictors, and the resulting standardized regression coefficients can be used because they no longer suffer from the deleterious effects of multicollinearity. These standardized regression weights are then transformed back into the metric of the original predictors. The rescaled relative weight of a predictor can easily be transformed into the percentage of variance that is uniquely explained by this predictor when dividing the relative weight of the specific predictor by the total variance explained by all predictors in the regression model ( R 2 ). We performed the relative weight analyses in three steps. In Model 1, we included the different achievement motivation variables assessed in the respective domain in the analyses. In Model 2, we entered intelligence into the analyses in addition to the achievement motivation variables. In Model 3, we included prior school performance indicated by grades measured before testing in addition to all of the motivation variables and intelligence. For all three steps, we tested for whether all relative weight factors differed significantly from each other (see Johnson, 2004 ) to determine which motivational construct was most important in predicting academic achievement (RQ).

Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations

Table 1 shows means, standard deviations, and reliabilities. Tables 2 –4 show the correlations between all scales in school in general, in math, and in German. Of particular relevance here, are the correlations between the motivational constructs and students’ school grades. In all three domains (i.e., school in general/math/German), out of all motivational predictor variables, students’ ability self-concepts showed the strongest associations with subsequent grades ( r = 0.53/0.61/0.46; see Tables 2 –4 ). Except for students’ performance-avoidance goals (−0.04 ≤ r ≤ 0.07, p > 0.05), the other motivational constructs were also significantly related to school grades. Most of the respective correlations were evenly dispersed around a moderate effect size of | r | = 0.30.

Intercorrelations between all variables in school in general.

Intercorrelations between all variables in German.

Intercorrelations between all variables in math.

Relative Weight Analyses

Table 5 presents the results of the relative weight analyses. In Model 1 (only motivational variables) and Model 2 (motivation and intelligence), respectively, the overall explained variance was highest for math grades ( R 2 = 0.42 and R 2 = 0.42, respectively) followed by GPA ( R 2 = 0.30 and R 2 = 0.34, respectively) and grades in German ( R 2 = 0.26 and R 2 = 0.28, respectively). When prior school grades were additionally considered (Model 3) the largest amount of variance was explained in students’ GPA ( R 2 = 0.73), followed by grades in German ( R 2 = 0.59) and math ( R 2 = 0.57). In the following, we will describe the results of Model 3 for each domain in more detail.

Relative weights and percentages of explained criterion variance (%) for all motivational constructs (Model 1) plus intelligence (Model 2) plus prior school achievement (Model 3).

Beginning with the prediction of students’ GPA: In Model 3, students’ prior GPA explained more variance in subsequent GPA than all other predictor variables (68%). Students’ ability self-concept explained significantly less variance than prior GPA but still more than all other predictors that we considered (14%). The relative weights of students’ intelligence (5%), task values (2%), hope for success (4%), and fear of failure (3%) did not differ significantly from each other but were still significantly different from zero ( p < 0.05). The relative weights of students’ goal orientations were not significant in Model 3.

Turning to math grades: The findings of the relative weight analyses for the prediction of math grades differed slightly from the prediction of GPA. In Model 3, the relative weights of numerical intelligence (2%) and performance-approach goals (2%) in math were no longer different from zero ( p > 0.05); in Model 2 they were. Prior math grades explained the largest share of the unique variance in subsequent math grades (45%), followed by math self-concept (19%). The relative weights of students’ math task values (9%), learning goals (5%), work avoidance (7%), and hope for success (6%) did not differ significantly from each other. Students’ fear of failure in math explained the smallest amount of unique variance in their math grades (4%) but the relative weight of students’ fear of failure did not differ significantly from that of students’ hope for success, work avoidance, and learning goals. The relative weights of students’ performance-avoidance goals were not significant in Model 3.

Turning to German grades: In Model 3, students’ prior grade in German was the strongest predictor (64%), followed by German self-concept (10%). Students’ fear of failure in German (6%), their verbal intelligence (4%), task values (4%), learning goals (4%), and hope for success (4%) explained less variance in German grades and did not differ significantly from each other but were significantly different from zero ( p < 0.05). The relative weights of students’ performance goals and work avoidance were not significant in Model 3.

In the present studies, we aimed to investigate the relative importance of several achievement motivation constructs in predicting students’ academic achievement. We sought to overcome the limitations of previous research in this field by (1) considering several theoretically and empirically distinct motivational constructs, (2) students’ intelligence, and their prior achievement, and (3) by assessing all predictors at the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria. We applied sophisticated statistical procedures to investigate the relations in three different domains, namely school in general, math, and German.

Relative Importance of Achievement Motivation Constructs for Academic Achievement

Out of the motivational predictor variables, students’ ability self-concepts explained the largest amount of variance in their academic achievement across all sets of analyses and across all investigated domains. Even when intelligence and prior grades were controlled for, students’ ability self-concepts accounted for at least 10% of the variance in the criterion. The relative superiority of ability self-perceptions is in line with the available literature on this topic (e.g., Steinmayr and Spinath, 2009 ; Kriegbaum et al., 2015 ; Steinmayr et al., 2018 ) and with numerous studies that have investigated the relations between students’ self-concept and their achievement (e.g., Möller et al., 2009 ; Huang, 2011 ). Ability self-concepts showed even higher relative weights than the corresponding intelligence scores. Whereas some previous studies have suggested that self-concepts and intelligence are at least equally important when predicting students’ grades (e.g., Steinmayr and Spinath, 2009 ; Weber et al., 2013 ; Schneider et al., 2018 ), our findings indicate that it might be even more important to believe in own school-related abilities than to possess outstanding cognitive capacities to achieve good grades (see also Lotz et al., 2018 ). Such a conclusion was supported by the fact that we examined the relative importance of all predictor variables across three domains and at the same levels of specificity, thus maximizing criterion-related validity (see Baranik et al., 2010 ). This procedure represents a particular strength of our study and sets it apart from previous studies in the field (e.g., Steinmayr and Spinath, 2009 ). Alternatively, our findings could be attributed to the sample we investigated at least to some degree. The students examined in the present study were selected for the academic track in Germany, and this makes them rather homogeneous in their cognitive abilities. It is therefore plausible to assume that the restricted variance in intelligence scores decreased the respective criterion validities.

When all variables were assessed at the same level of specificity, the achievement motives hope for success and fear of failure were the second and third best motivational predictors of academic achievement and more important than in the study by Steinmayr and Spinath (2009) . This result underlines the original conceptualization of achievement motives as broad personal tendencies that energize approach or avoidance behavior across different contexts and situations ( Elliot, 2006 ). However, the explanatory power of achievement motives was higher in the more specific domains of math and German, thereby also supporting the suggestion made by Sparfeldt and Rost (2011) to conceptualize achievement motives more domain-specifically. Conceptually, achievement motives and ability self-concepts are closely related. Individuals who believe in their ability to succeed often show greater hope for success than fear of failure and vice versa ( Brunstein and Heckhausen, 2008 ). It is thus not surprising that the two constructs showed similar stability in their relative effects on academic achievement across the three investigated domains. Concerning the specific mechanisms through which students’ achievement motives and ability self-concepts affect their achievement, it seems that they elicit positive or negative valences in students, and these valences in turn serve as simple but meaningful triggers of (un)successful school-related behavior. The large and consistent effects for students’ ability self-concept and their hope for success in our study support recommendations from positive psychology that individuals think positively about the future and regularly provide affirmation to themselves by reminding themselves of their positive attributes ( Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ). Future studies could investigate mediation processes. Theoretically, it would make sense that achievement motives defined as broad personal tendencies affect academic achievement via expectancy beliefs like ability self-concepts (e.g., expectancy-value theory by Eccles and Wigfield, 2002 ; see also, Atkinson, 1957 ).

Although task values and learning goals did not contribute much toward explaining the variance in GPA, these two constructs became even more important for explaining variance in math and German grades. As Elliot (2006) pointed out in his hierarchical model of approach-avoidance motivation, achievement motives serve as basic motivational principles that energize behavior. However, they do not guide the precise direction of the energized behavior. Instead, goals and task values are commonly recruited to strategically guide this basic motivation toward concrete aims that address the underlying desire or concern. Our results are consistent with Elliot’s (2006) suggestions. Whereas basic achievement motives are equally important at abstract and specific achievement levels, task values and learning goals release their full explanatory power with increasing context-specificity as they affect students’ concrete actions in a given school subject. At this level of abstraction, task values and learning goals compete with more extrinsic forms of motivation, such as performance goals. Contrary to several studies in achievement-goal research, we did not demonstrate the importance of either performance-approach or performance-avoidance goals for academic achievement.

Whereas students’ ability self-concept showed a high relative importance above and beyond intelligence, with few exceptions, each of the remaining motivation constructs explained less than 5% of the variance in students’ academic achievement in the full model including intelligence measures. One might argue that the high relative importance of students’ ability self-concept is not surprising because students’ ability self-concepts more strongly depend on prior grades than the other motivation constructs. Prior grades represent performance feedback and enable achievement comparisons that are seen as the main determinants of students’ ability self-concepts (see Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2002 ). However, we included students’ prior grades in the analyses and students’ ability self-concepts still were the most powerful predictors of academic achievement out of the achievement motivation constructs that were considered. It is thus reasonable to conclude that the high relative importance of students’ subjective beliefs about their abilities is not only due to the overlap of this believes with prior achievement.

Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research

Our study confirms and extends the extant work on the power of students’ ability self-concept net of other important motivation variables even when important methodological aspects are considered. Strength of the study is the simultaneous investigation of different achievement motivation constructs in different academic domains. Nevertheless, we restricted the range of motivation constructs to ability self-concepts, task values, goal orientations, and achievement motives. It might be interesting to replicate the findings with other motivation constructs such as academic self-efficacy ( Pajares, 2003 ), individual interest ( Renninger and Hidi, 2011 ), or autonomous versus controlled forms of motivation ( Ryan and Deci, 2000 ). However, these constructs are conceptually and/or empirically very closely related to the motivation constructs we considered (e.g., Eccles and Wigfield, 1995 ; Marsh et al., 2018 ). Thus, it might well be the case that we would find very similar results for self-efficacy instead of ability self-concept as one example.

A second limitation is that we only focused on linear relations between motivation and achievement using a variable-centered approach. Studies that considered different motivation constructs and used person-centered approaches revealed that motivation factors interact with each other and that there are different profiles of motivation that are differently related to students’ achievement (e.g., Conley, 2012 ; Schwinger et al., 2016 ). An important avenue for future studies on students’ motivation is to further investigate these interactions in different academic domains.

Another limitation that might suggest a potential avenue for future research is the fact that we used only grades as an indicator of academic achievement. Although, grades are of high practical relevance for the students, they do not necessarily indicate how much students have learned, how much they know and how creative they are in the respective domain (e.g., Walton and Spencer, 2009 ). Moreover, there is empirical evidence that the prediction of academic achievement differs according to the particular criterion that is chosen (e.g., Lotz et al., 2018 ). Using standardized test performance instead of grades might lead to different results.

Our study is also limited to 11th and 12th graders attending the highest academic track in Germany. More balanced samples are needed to generalize the findings. A recent study ( Ben-Eliyahu, 2019 ) that investigated the relations between different motivational constructs (i.e., goal orientations, expectancies, and task values) and self-regulated learning in university students revealed higher relations for gifted students than for typical students. This finding indicates that relations between different aspects of motivation might differ between academically selected samples and unselected samples.

Finally, despite the advantages of relative weight analyses, this procedure also has some shortcomings. Most important, it is based on manifest variables. Thus, differences in criterion validity might be due in part to differences in measurement error. However, we are not aware of a latent procedure that is comparable to relative weight analyses. It might be one goal for methodological research to overcome this shortcoming.

We conducted the present research to identify how different aspects of students’ motivation uniquely contribute to differences in students’ achievement. Our study demonstrated the relative importance of students’ ability self-concepts, their task values, learning goals, and achievement motives for students’ grades in different academic subjects above and beyond intelligence and prior achievement. Findings thus broaden our knowledge on the role of students’ motivation for academic achievement. Students’ ability self-concept turned out to be the most important motivational predictor of students’ grades above and beyond differences in their intelligence and prior grades, even when all predictors were assessed domain-specifically. Out of two students with similar intelligence scores, same prior achievement, and similar task values, goals and achievement motives in a domain, the student with a higher domain-specific ability self-concept will receive better school grades in the respective domain. Therefore, there is strong evidence that believing in own competencies is advantageous with respect to academic achievement. This finding shows once again that it is a promising approach to implement validated interventions aiming at enhancing students’ domain-specific ability-beliefs in school (see also Muenks et al., 2017 ; Steinmayr et al., 2018 ).

Data Availability

Ethics statement.

In Germany, institutional approval was not required by default at the time the study was conducted. That is, why we cannot provide a formal approval by the institutional ethics committee. We verify that the study is in accordance with established ethical guidelines. Participation was voluntarily and no deception took place. Before testing, we received informed consent forms from the parents of the students who were under the age of 18 on the day of the testing. If students did not want to participate, they could spend the testing time in their teacher’s room with an extra assignment. All students agreed to participate. We included this information also in the manuscript.

Author Contributions

RS conceived and supervised the study, curated the data, performed the formal analysis, investigated the results, developed the methodology, administered the project, and wrote, reviewed, and edited the manuscript. AW wrote, reviewed, and edited the manuscript. MS performed the formal analysis, and wrote, reviewed, and edited the manuscript. BS conceived the study, and wrote, reviewed, and edited the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding. We acknowledge financial support by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and Technische Universität Dortmund/TU Dortmund University within the funding programme Open Access Publishing.

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Research Motivation – Motivational factors for opting research

In this article, let us understand the research motivation or what are the key motivational factors for students who opt for research.

Research Motivation Reasons

The research motivation may be either due to one or more of the following reasons:

• The desire to get a research degree along with its significance.
• The desire to face challenges in solving the unsolved problems. For example, concern over practical problem initiates research.
• The desire to get the intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
• The desire to be finding solutions which service to society.
• The aspiration to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of research motivation factors for people to undertake research studies.

Many more factors such as government directives, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, social thinking and awakening may as well motivate people to perform research operations.

Objectives of Research

The purpose of the research is to know the answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures.

The main aim is to find out the truth or to know the answer which has not be known yet.

Every research study has its own purpose, and research objectives can be classified into following broad groupings.

• To get familiar with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (study with this object is termed as exploratory or formulative.
• To put accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (study with this object is known as descriptive research study).
• To determine the occurrence of which something happens or association with something else (study with this object is known as diagnostic research study).
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (the study is known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Significance of Research

In the context of Hudson Maxim. Progress is possible with increased amounts of research.

Research instructs scientific and inductive thinking, and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization.

The increasingly sophisticated nature of business and government has focused their attention on the use of research in solving operational problems.

Nowadays, our economic system highly relies on the research to formulate the government policies.

For example, the budget of any country requires the analysis of people’s needs with expected expenditure required to meet those needs. In such conditions, research is heavily required to equate the cost of probable revenues to cover the cost of meeting people’s needs.

Research Process – Importance of knowing the process

Research methodology gives a student the necessary training in gathering material and arranging that information.

It also helps a student for participation in the field work whenever required.

It also trains in techniques for the collection of data which is appropriate to particular problems,

The research process also helps in the course of using statistics, questionnaires, controlled experimentation, recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it.

Importance of knowing the research methodology or how research is carried stems from the following considerations:

• The knowledge of methodology provides proper training especially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research.
• The methodology also helps the researcher to develop disciplined thinking or to observe the field objectively.
• Knowledge of how to do research will instruct the ability to estimate and use research results with reasonable confidence.
• Research methodology knowledge enables the consumers of research results to evaluate them and make rational decisions.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

The impacts of learning motivation, emotional engagement and psychological capital on academic performance in a blended learning university course.

• 1 Hunan First Normal University, Changsha, Hunan, China
• 2 Department of Agricultural Education & Communications, College of Agricultural Sciences & Natural Resources, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, United States
• 3 Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China

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This study aims to explore the relationships among psychological capital, learning motivation, emotional engagement, and academic performance for college students in a blended learning environment.The research consists of two studies: Study 1 primarily focuses on validating, developing, revising, and analyzing the psychometric properties of the scale using factor analysis, while Study 2 employs structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the hypotheses of relationships of included variables and draw conclusions based on 745 data collected in a university in China.Results: Findings revealed that intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, emotional engagement, and psychological capital all impact academic performance. Extrinsic learning motivation has significant positive direct effects on intrinsic learning motivation, emotional engagement, and psychological capital. Intrinsic motivation mediates the relationship between extrinsic motivation and academic performance.Discussion: In future blended learning practices, it is essential to cultivate students' intrinsic learning motivation while maintaining a certain level of external learning motivation. It is also crucial to stimulate and maintain students' emotional engagement, enhance their sense of identity and belonging, and recognize the role of psychological capital in learning to boost students' confidence, resilience, and positive emotions.

Keywords: Psychological Capital, Learning motivation, emotional engagement, academic performance, Blended Learning

Received: 19 Dec 2023; Accepted: 25 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Liu, Ma and CHEN. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Yan Liu, Hunan First Normal University, Changsha, Hunan, China Shuai Ma, Department of Agricultural Education & Communications, College of Agricultural Sciences & Natural Resources, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, 79409, Texas, United States YUE CHEN, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Changes in Undergraduate Students’ Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectancy in an Introductory Statistics Course

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The exploration of psychological variables that potentially impact college student performance in challenging academic courses can be useful for understanding success in introductory statistics. Although previous research has examined specific beliefs that students hold about their abilities and future outcomes, the current study is novel in its examination of changes in both self-efficacy (SE) and outcome expectancy (OE) in relation to performance over the course of an undergraduate introductory psychology statistics course. These psychological variables—relating to one’s belief about one’s ability to accomplish a task and the anticipated outcomes—may impact student motivation and performance. Students’ SE, OE, and other variables related to statistics performance were measured through a survey administered at the beginning and end of the course. Multivariate logistic regression and McNemar tests were conducted to examine factors that affected changes in SE and OE as the semester progressed. Students with lower scores on the final exam demonstrated a decrease in both high SE and positive OE. However, higher scores on exams earlier in the course were associated with increased odds for high SE but not for positive OE, suggesting that SE is less resilient to course performance. Based on these findings, the authors recommend that statistics instructors identify students at risk for decreasing SE. Instructors can help foster high SE in students struggling academically by connecting the course content to their everyday lives and suggesting strategies to enhance their confidence in their content knowledge and increase their comfort in navigating such a challenging course.

Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License .

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• Published: 24 April 2024

Breast cancer screening motivation and behaviours of women aged over 75 years: a scoping review

• Virginia Dickson-Swift 1 ,
• Joanne Adams 1 ,
• Evelien Spelten 1 ,
• Irene Blackberry 2 ,
• Carlene Wilson 3 , 4 , 5 &
• Eva Yuen 3 , 6 , 7 , 8  

BMC Women's Health volume  24 , Article number:  256 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This scoping review aimed to identify and present the evidence describing key motivations for breast cancer screening among women aged ≥ 75 years. Few of the internationally available guidelines recommend continued biennial screening for this age group. Some suggest ongoing screening is unnecessary or should be determined on individual health status and life expectancy. Recent research has shown that despite recommendations regarding screening, older women continue to hold positive attitudes to breast screening and participate when the opportunity is available.

All original research articles that address motivation, intention and/or participation in screening for breast cancer among women aged ≥ 75 years were considered for inclusion. These included articles reporting on women who use public and private breast cancer screening services and those who do not use screening services (i.e., non-screeners).

The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology for scoping reviews was used to guide this review. A comprehensive search strategy was developed with the assistance of a specialist librarian to access selected databases including: the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Medline, Web of Science and PsychInfo. The review was restricted to original research studies published since 2009, available in English and focusing on high-income countries (as defined by the World Bank). Title and abstract screening, followed by an assessment of full-text studies against the inclusion criteria was completed by at least two reviewers. Data relating to key motivations, screening intention and behaviour were extracted, and a thematic analysis of study findings undertaken.

A total of fourteen (14) studies were included in the review. Thematic analysis resulted in identification of three themes from included studies highlighting that decisions about screening were influenced by: knowledge of the benefits and harms of screening and their relationship to age; underlying attitudes to the importance of cancer screening in women's lives; and use of decision aids to improve knowledge and guide decision-making.

The results of this review provide a comprehensive overview of current knowledge regarding the motivations and screening behaviour of older women about breast cancer screening which may inform policy development.

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Introduction

Breast cancer is now the most commonly diagnosed cancer in the world overtaking lung cancer in 2021 [ 1 ]. Across the globe, breast cancer contributed to 25.8% of the total number of new cases of cancer diagnosed in 2020 [ 2 ] and accounts for a high disease burden for women [ 3 ]. Screening for breast cancer is an effective means of detecting early-stage cancer and has been shown to significantly improve survival rates [ 4 ]. A recent systematic review of international screening guidelines found that most countries recommend that women have biennial mammograms between the ages of 40–70 years [ 5 ] with some recommending that there should be no upper age limit [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ] and others suggesting that benefits of continued screening for women over 75 are not clear [ 13 , 14 , 15 ].

Some guidelines suggest that the decision to end screening should be determined based on the individual health status of the woman, their life expectancy and current health issues [ 5 , 16 , 17 ]. This is because the benefits of mammography screening may be limited after 7 years due to existing comorbidities and limited life expectancy [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ], with some jurisdictions recommending breast cancer screening for women ≥ 75 years only when life expectancy is estimated as at least 7–10 years [ 22 ]. Others have argued that decisions about continuing with screening mammography should depend on individual patient risk and health management preferences [ 23 ]. This decision is likely facilitated by a discussion between a health care provider and patient about the harms and benefits of screening outside the recommended ages [ 24 , 25 ]. While mammography may enable early detection of breast cancer, it is clear that false-positive results and overdiagnosis Footnote 1 may occur. Studies have estimated that up to 25% of breast cancer cases in the general population may be over diagnosed [ 26 , 27 , 28 ].

The risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer increases with age and approximately 80% of new cases of breast cancer in high-income countries are in women over the age of 50 [ 29 ]. The average age of first diagnosis of breast cancer in high income countries is comparable to that of Australian women which is now 61 years [ 2 , 4 , 29 ]. Studies show that women aged ≥ 75 years generally have positive attitudes to mammography screening and report high levels of perceived benefits including early detection of breast cancer and a desire to stay healthy as they age [ 21 , 30 , 31 , 32 ]. Some women aged over 74 participate, or plan to participate, in screening despite recommendations from health professionals and government guidelines advising against it [ 33 ]. Results of a recent review found that knowledge of the recommended guidelines and the potential harms of screening are limited and many older women believed that the benefits of continued screening outweighed the risks [ 30 ].

Very few studies have been undertaken to understand the motivations of women to screen or to establish screening participation rates among women aged ≥ 75 and older. This is surprising given that increasing age is recognised as a key risk factor for the development of breast cancer, and that screening is offered in many locations around the world every two years up until 74 years. The importance of this topic is high given the ambiguity around best practice for participation beyond 74 years. A preliminary search of Open Science Framework, PROSPERO, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and JBI Evidence Synthesis in May 2022 did not locate any reviews on this topic.

This scoping review has allowed for the mapping of a broad range of research to explore the breadth and depth of the literature, summarize the evidence and identify knowledge gaps [ 34 , 35 ]. This information has supported the development of a comprehensive overview of current knowledge of motivations of women to screen and screening participation rates among women outside the targeted age of many international screening programs.

Materials and methods

Research question.

The research question for this scoping review was developed by applying the Population—Concept—Context (PCC) framework [ 36 ]. The current review addresses the research question “What research has been undertaken in high-income countries (context) exploring the key motivations to screen for breast cancer and screening participation (concepts) among women ≥ 75 years of age (population)?

Eligibility criteria

Participants.

Women aged ≥ 75 years were the key population. Specifically, motivations to screen and screening intention and behaviour and the variables that discriminate those who screen from those who do not (non-screeners) were utilised as the key predictors and outcomes respectively.

From a conceptual perspective it was considered that motivation led to behaviour, therefore articles that described motivation and corresponding behaviour were considered. These included articles reporting on women who use public (government funded) and private (fee for service) breast cancer screening services and those who do not use screening services (i.e., non-screeners).

The scope included high-income countries using the World Bank definition [ 37 ]. These countries have broadly similar health systems and opportunities for breast cancer screening in both public and private settings.

Types of sources

All studies reporting original research in peer-reviewed journals from January 2009 were eligible for inclusion, regardless of design. This date was selected due to an evaluation undertaken for BreastScreen Australia recommending expansion of the age group to include 70–74-year-old women [ 38 ]. This date was also indicative of international debate regarding breast cancer screening effectiveness at this time [ 39 , 40 ]. Reviews were also included, regardless of type—scoping, systematic, or narrative. Only sources published in English and available through the University’s extensive research holdings were eligible for inclusion. Ineligible materials were conference abstracts, letters to the editor, editorials, opinion pieces, commentaries, newspaper articles, dissertations and theses.

This scoping review was registered with the Open Science Framework database ( https://osf.io/fd3eh ) and followed Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology for scoping reviews [ 35 , 36 ]. Although ethics approval is not required for scoping reviews the broader study was approved by the University Ethics Committee (approval number HEC 21249).

Search strategy

A pilot search strategy was developed in consultation with an expert health librarian and tested in MEDLINE (OVID) and conducted on 3 June 2022. Articles from this pilot search were compared with seminal articles previously identified by the members of the team and used to refine the search terms. The search terms were then searched as both keywords and subject headings (e.g., MeSH) in the titles and abstracts and Boolean operators employed. A full MEDLINE search was then carried out by the librarian (see Table  1 ). This search strategy was adapted for use in each of the following databases: Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online (MEDLINE), Web of Science and PsychInfo databases. The references of included studies have been hand-searched to identify any additional evidence sources.

Study/source of evidence selection

Following the search, all identified citations were collated and uploaded into EndNote v.X20 (Clarivate Analytics, PA, USA) and duplicates removed. The resulting articles were then imported into Covidence – Cochrane’s systematic review management software [ 41 ]. Duplicates were removed once importation was complete, and title and abstract screening was undertaken against the eligibility criteria. A sample of 25 articles were assessed by all reviewers to ensure reliability in the application of the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Team discussion was used to ensure consistent application. The Covidence software supports blind reviewing with two reviewers required at each screening phase. Potentially relevant sources were retrieved in full text and were assessed against the inclusion criteria by two independent reviewers. Conflicts were flagged within the software which allows the team to discuss those that have disagreements until a consensus was reached. Reasons for exclusion of studies at full text were recorded and reported in the scoping review. The Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist was used to guide the reporting of the review [ 42 ] and all stages were documented using the PRISMA-ScR flow chart [ 42 ].

Data extraction

A data extraction form was created in Covidence and used to extract study characteristics and to confirm the study’s relevance. This included specific details such as article author/s, title, year of publication, country, aim, population, setting, data collection methods and key findings relevant to the review question. The draft extraction form was modified as needed during the data extraction process.

Data analysis and presentation

Extracted data were summarised in tabular format (see Table  2 ). Consistent with the guidelines for the effective reporting of scoping reviews [ 43 ] and the JBI framework [ 35 ] the final stage of the review included thematic analysis of the key findings of the included studies. Study findings were imported into QSR NVivo with coding of each line of text. Descriptive codes reflected key aspects of the included studies related to the motivations and behaviours of women > 75 years about breast cancer screening.

In line with the reporting requirements for scoping reviews the search results for this review are presented in Fig.  1 [ 44 ].

PRISMA Flowchart. From: Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021;372:n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

A total of fourteen [ 14 ] studies were included in the review with studies from the following countries, US n  = 12 [ 33 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 ], UK n  = 1 [ 23 ] and France n  = 1 [ 56 ]. Sample sizes varied, with most containing fewer than 50 women ( n  = 8) [ 33 , 45 , 46 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 55 ]. Two had larger samples including a French study with 136 women (a sub-set of a larger sample) [ 56 ], and one mixed method study in the UK with a sample of 26 women undertaking interviews and 479 women completing surveys [ 23 ]. One study did not report exact numbers [ 50 ]. Three studies [ 47 , 53 , 54 ] were undertaken by a group of researchers based in the US utilising the same sample of women, however each of the papers focused on different primary outcomes. The samples in the included studies were recruited from a range of locations including primary medical care clinics, specialist medical clinics, University affiliated medical clinics, community-based health centres and community outreach clinics [ 47 , 53 , 54 ].

Data collection methods varied and included: quantitative ( n  = 8), qualitative ( n  = 5) and mixed methods ( n  = 1). A range of data collection tools and research designs were utilised; pre/post, pilot and cross-sectional surveys, interviews, and secondary analysis of existing data sets. Seven studies focused on the use of a Decision Aids (DAs), either in original or modified form, developed by Schonberg et al. [ 55 ] as a tool to increase knowledge about the harms and benefits of screening for older women [ 45 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 52 , 54 , 55 ]. Three studies focused on intention to screen [ 33 , 53 , 56 ], two on knowledge of, and attitudes to, screening [ 23 , 46 ], one on information needs relating to risks and benefits of screening discontinuation [ 51 ], and one on perceptions about discontinuation of screening and impact of social interactions on screening [ 50 ].

The three themes developed from the analysis of the included studies highlighted that decisions about screening were primarily influenced by: (1) knowledge of the benefits and harms of screening and their relationship to age; (2) underlying attitudes to the importance of cancer screening in women's lives; and (3) exposure to decision aids designed to facilitate informed decision-making. Each of these themes will be presented below drawing on the key findings of the appropriate studies. The full dataset of extracted data can be found in Table  2 .

Knowledge of the benefits and harms of screening ≥ 75 years

The decision to participate in routine mammography is influenced by individual differences in cognition and affect, interpersonal relationships, provider characteristics, and healthcare system variables. Women typically perceive mammograms as a positive, beneficial and routine component of care [ 46 ] and an important aspect of taking care of themselves [ 23 , 46 , 49 ]. One qualitative study undertaken in the US showed that few women had discussed mammography cessation or the potential harms of screening with their health care providers and some women reported they would insist on receiving mammography even without a provider recommendation to continue screening [ 46 ].

Studies suggested that ageing itself, and even poor health, were not seen as reasonable reasons for screening cessation. For many women, guidance from a health care provider was deemed the most important influence on decision-making [ 46 ]. Preferences for communication about risk and benefits were varied with one study reporting women would like to learn more about harms and risks and recommended that this information be communicated via physicians or other healthcare providers, included in brochures/pamphlets, and presented outside of clinical settings (e.g., in community-based seniors groups) [ 51 ]. Others reported that women were sometimes sceptical of expert and government recommendations [ 33 ] although some were happy to participate in discussions with health educators or care providers about breast cancer screening harms and benefits and potential cessation [ 52 ].

Underlying attitudes to the importance of cancer screening at and beyond 75 years

Included studies varied in describing the importance of screening, with some attitudes based on past attendance and some based on future intentions to screen. Three studies reported findings indicating that some women intended to continue screening after 75 years of age [ 23 , 45 , 46 ], with one study in the UK reporting that women supported an extension of the automatic recall indefinitely, regardless of age or health status. In this study, failure to invite older women to screen was interpreted as age discrimination [ 23 ]. The desire to continue screening beyond 75 was also highlighted in a study from France that found that 60% of the women ( n  = 136 aged ≥ 75) intended to pursue screening in the future, and 27 women aged ≥ 75, who had never undergone mammography previously (36%), intended to do so in the future [ 56 ]. In this same study, intentions to screen varied significantly [ 56 ]. There were no sociodemographic differences observed between screened and unscreened women with regard to level of education, income, health risk behaviour (smoking, alcohol consumption), knowledge about the importance and the process of screening, or psychological features (fear of the test, fear of the results, fear of the disease, trust in screening impact) [ 56 ]. Further analysis showed that three items were statistically correlated with a higher rate of attendance at screening: (1) screening was initiated by a physician; (2) the women had a consultation with a gynaecologist during the past 12 months; and (3) the women had already undergone at least five screening mammograms. Analysis highlighted that although average income, level of education, psychological features or other types of health risk behaviours did not impact screening intention, having a mammogram previously impacted likelihood of ongoing screening. There was no information provided that explained why women who had not previously undergone screening might do so in the future.

A mixed methods study in the UK reported similar findings [ 23 ]. Utilising interviews ( n  = 26) and questionnaires ( n  = 479) with women ≥ 70 years (median age 75 years) the overwhelming result (90.1%) was that breast screening should be offered to all women indefinitely regardless of age, health status or fitness [ 23 ], and that many older women were keen to continue screening. Both the interview and survey data confirmed women were uncertain about eligibility for breast screening. The survey data showed that just over half the women (52.9%) were unaware that they could request mammography or knew how to access it. Key reasons for screening discontinuation were not being invited for screening (52.1%) and not knowing about self-referral (35.1%).

Women reported that not being invited to continue screening sent messages that screening was no longer important or required for this age group [ 23 ]. Almost two thirds of the women completing the survey (61.6%) said they would forget to attend screening without an invitation. Other reasons for screening discontinuation included transport difficulties (25%) and not wishing to burden family members (24.7%). By contrast, other studies have reported that women do not endorse discontinuation of screening mammography due to advancing age or poor health, but some may be receptive to reducing screening frequency on recommendation from their health care provider [ 46 , 51 ].

Use of Decision Aids (DAs) to improve knowledge and guide screening decision-making

Many women reported poor knowledge about the harms and benefits of screening with studies identifying an important role for DAs. These aids have been shown to be effective in improving knowledge of the harms and benefits of screening [ 45 , 54 , 55 ] including for women with low educational attainment; as compared to women with high educational attainment [ 47 ]. DAs can increase knowledge about screening [ 47 , 49 ] and may decrease the intention to continue screening after the recommended age [ 45 , 52 , 54 ]. They can be used by primary care providers to support a conversation about breast screening intention and reasons for discontinuing screening. In one pilot study undertaken in the US using a DA, 5 of the 8 women (62.5%) indicated they intended to continue to receive mammography; however, 3 participants planned to get them less often [ 45 ]. When asked whether they thought their physician would want them to get a mammogram, 80% said “yes” on pre-test; this figure decreased to 62.5% after exposure to the DA. This pilot study suggests that the use of a decision-aid may result in fewer women ≥ 75 years old continuing to screen for breast cancer [ 45 ].

Similar findings were evident in two studies drawing on the same data undertaken in the US [ 48 , 53 ]. Using a larger sample ( n  = 283), women’s intentions to screen prior to a visit with their primary care provider and then again after exposure to the DA were compared. Results showed that 21.7% of women reduced their intention to be screened, 7.9% increased their intentions to be screened, and 70.4% did not change. Compared to those who had no change or increased their screening intentions, women who had a decrease in screening intention were significantly less likely to receive screening after 18 months. Generally, studies have shown that women aged 75 and older find DAs acceptable and helpful [ 47 , 48 , 49 , 55 ] and using them had the potential to impact on a women’s intention to screen [ 55 ].

Cadet and colleagues [ 49 ] explored the impact of educational attainment on the use of DAs. Results highlight that education moderates the utility of these aids; women with lower educational attainment were less likely to understand all the DA’s content (46.3% vs 67.5%; P < 0.001); had less knowledge of the benefits and harms of mammography (adjusted mean ± standard error knowledge score, 7.1 ± 0.3 vs 8.1 ± 0.3; p < 0.001); and were less likely to have their screening intentions impacted (adjusted percentage, 11.4% vs 19.4%; p  = 0.01).

This scoping review summarises current knowledge regarding motivations and screening behaviours of women over 75 years. The findings suggest that awareness of the importance of breast cancer screening among women aged ≥ 75 years is high [ 23 , 46 , 49 ] and that many women wish to continue screening regardless of perceived health status or age. This highlights the importance of focusing on motivation and screening behaviours and the multiple factors that influence ongoing participation in breast screening programs.

The generally high regard attributed to screening among women aged ≥ 75 years presents a complex challenge for health professionals who are focused on potential harm (from available national and international guidelines) in ongoing screening for women beyond age 75 [ 18 , 20 , 57 ]. Included studies highlight that many women relied on the advice of health care providers regarding the benefits and harms when making the decision to continue breast screening [ 46 , 51 , 52 ], however there were some that did not [ 33 ]. Having a previous pattern of screening was noted as being more significant to ongoing intention than any other identified socio-demographic feature [ 56 ]. This is perhaps because women will not readily forgo health care practices that they have always considered important and that retain ongoing importance for the broader population.

For those women who had discontinued screening after the age of 74 it was apparent that the rationale for doing so was not often based on choice or receipt of information, but rather on factors that impact decision-making in relation to screening. These included no longer receiving an invitation to attend, transport difficulties and not wanting to be a burden on relatives or friends [ 23 , 46 , 51 ]. Ongoing receipt of invitations to screen was an important aspect of maintaining a capacity to choose [ 23 ]. This was particularly important for those women who had been regular screeners.

Women over 75 require more information to make decisions regarding screening [ 23 , 52 , 54 , 55 ], however health care providers must also be aware that the element of choice is important for older women. Having a capacity to choose avoids any notion of discrimination based on age, health status, gender or sociodemographic difference and acknowledges the importance of women retaining control over their health [ 23 ]. It was apparent that some women would choose to continue screening at a reduced frequency if this option was available and that women should have access to information facilitating self-referral [ 23 , 45 , 46 , 51 , 56 ].

Decision-making regarding ongoing breast cancer screening has been facilitated via the use of Decision Aids (DAs) within clinical settings [ 54 , 55 ]. While some studies suggest that women will make a decision regardless of health status, the use of DAs has impacted women’s decision to screen. While this may have limited benefit for those of lower educational attainment [ 48 ] they have been effective in improving knowledge relating to harms and benefits of screening particularly where they have been used to support a conversation with women about the value of screening [ 54 , 55 , 56 ].

Women have identified challenges in engaging in conversations with health care providers regarding ongoing screening, because providers frequently draw on projections of life expectancy and over-diagnosis [ 17 , 51 ]. As a result, these conversations about screening after age 75 years often do not occur [ 46 ]. It is likely that health providers may need more support and guidance in leading these conversations. This may be through the use of DAs or standardised checklists. It may be possible to incorporate these within existing health preventive measures for this age group. The potential for advice regarding ongoing breast cancer screening to be available outside of clinical settings may provide important pathways for conversations with women regarding health choices. Provision of information and advice in settings such as community based seniors groups [ 51 ] offers a potential platform to broaden conversations and align sources of information, not only with health professionals but amongst women themselves. This may help to address any misconception regarding eligibility and access to services [ 23 ]. It may also be aligned with other health promotion and lifestyle messages provided to this age group.

Limitations of the review

The searches that formed the basis of this review were carried in June 2022. Although the search was comprehensive, we have only captured those studies that were published in the included databases from 2009. There may have been other studies published outside of these periods. We also limited the search to studies published in English with full-text availability.

The emphasis of a scoping review is on comprehensive coverage and synthesis of the key findings, rather than on a particular standard of evidence and, consequently a quality assessment of the included studies was not undertaken. This has resulted in the inclusion of a wide range of study designs and data collection methods. It is important to note that three studies included in the review drew on the same sample of women (283 over > 75)[ 49 , 53 , 54 ]. The results of this review provide valuable insights into motivations and behaviours for breast cancer screening for older women, however they should be interpreted with caution given the specific methodological and geographical limitations.

Conclusion and recommendations

This scoping review highlighted a range of key motivations and behaviours in relation to breast cancer screening for women ≥ 75 years of age. The results provide some insight into how decisions about screening continuation after 74 are made and how informed decision-making can be supported. Specifically, this review supports the following suggestions for further research and policy direction:

Further research regarding breast cancer screening motivations and behaviours for women over 75 would provide valuable insight for health providers delivering services to women in this age group.

Health providers may benefit from the broader use of decision aids or structured checklists to guide conversations with women over 75 regarding ongoing health promotion/preventive measures.

Providing health-based information in non-clinical settings frequented by women in this age group may provide a broader reach of information and facilitate choices. This may help to reduce any perception of discrimination based on age, health status or socio-demographic factors.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study is included in this published article (see Table  2 above).

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Ange Hayden-Johns (expert librarian) who assisted with the development of the search criteria and undertook the relevant searches and Tejashree Kangutkar who assisted with some of the Covidence work.

This work was supported by funding from the Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care (ID: Health/20–21/E21-10463).

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Dickson-Swift, V., Adams, J., Spelten, E. et al. Breast cancer screening motivation and behaviours of women aged over 75 years: a scoping review. BMC Women's Health 24 , 256 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-024-03094-z

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Impact of motivation and participative leadership style on employee performance: Mediating the role of job satisfaction

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African higher educational institutions are characterized by limited resources hindering progress.  Employees in such institutions are inclined to maintain dedication to their roles, address challenges and pursue excellence in their tasks. Motivation and leadership style play a crucial role in overcoming these challenges. Therefore, this study focuses on the relationship between motivation, participative leadership style, job satisfaction and employee performance at public universities in Ghana. It explored the impact of motivation and participative leadership style on employee performance as well as how job satisfaction plays a moderating role in achieving a goal. This study determined how work satisfaction mediated motivation, participatory leadership style and employee performance in six Ghanaian public universities. A quantitative approach was adopted and a structured questionnaire was administered to 306 university employees who were selected by using both cluster and simple random sampling techniques. The acquired data were analyzed quantitatively by using the Structural Equation Model (SEM) in response to the given hypothesis. The findings revealed that motivation and a participatory leadership style had a considerable positive impact on staff performance. Furthermore, the study revealed that job satisfaction served as a mediator in the relationship between motivation, a participative leadership style and employee performance. Based on the findings, it is recommended that employers at public universities enhance employee motivation and engagement. This can be done by fostering a work environment characterized by supportive leadership, opportunities for growth and development and cultivating a culture that emphasizes appreciation and acknowledgment of performance.

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Training nurses in an international emergency medical team using a serious role-playing game: a retrospective comparative analysis

• Hai Hu 1 , 2 , 3   na1 ,
• Xiaoqin Lai 2 , 4 , 5   na1 &
• Longping Yan 6 , 7 , 8  

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Although game-based applications have been used in disaster medicine education, no serious computer games have been designed specifically for training these nurses in an IEMT setting. To address this need, we developed a serious computer game called the IEMTtraining game. In this game, players assume the roles of IEMT nurses, assess patient injuries in a virtual environment, and provide suitable treatment options.

The design of this study is a retrospective comparative analysis. The research was conducted with 209 nurses in a hospital. The data collection process of this study was conducted at the 2019-2020 academic year. A retrospective comparative analysis was conducted on the pre-, post-, and final test scores of nurses in the IEMT. Additionally, a survey questionnaire was distributed to trainees to gather insights into teaching methods that were subsequently analyzed.

There was a significant difference in the overall test scores between the two groups, with the game group demonstrating superior performance compared to the control group (odds ratio = 1.363, p value = 0.010). The survey results indicated that the game group exhibited higher learning motivation scores and lower cognitive load compared with the lecture group.

Conclusions

The IEMT training game developed by the instructor team is a promising and effective method for training nurses in disaster rescue within IEMTs. The game equips the trainees with the necessary skills and knowledge to respond effectively to emergencies. It is easily comprehended, enhances knowledge retention and motivation to learn, and reduces cognitive load.

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Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the deployment of international emergency medical teams in disaster-stricken regions has increased world wide [ 1 ]. To enhance the efficiency of these teams, the World Health Organization (WHO) has introduced the International Emergency Medical Team (IEMT) initiative to guarantee their competence. Adequate education and training play a vital role in achieving this objective [ 2 ].

Nurses play a vital role as IEMTs by providing essential medical care and support to populations affected by disasters and emergencies. Training newly joined nurses is an integral part of IEMT training.

Typical training methods include lectures, field-simulation exercises, and tabletop exercises [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. However, lectures, despite requiring fewer teaching resources, are often perceived as boring and abstract. This may not be the most ideal method for training newly joined nurses in the complexities of international medical responses. However, simulation field exercises can be effective in mastering the knowledge and skills of disaster medicine responsiveness. However, they come with significant costs and requirements, such as extended instructional periods, additional teachers or instructors, and thorough preparation. These high costs make it challenging to organize simulation exercises repeatedly, making them less ideal for training newly joined nurses [ 6 ].

Moreover, classic tabletop exercises that use simple props, such as cards in a classroom setting, have limitations. The rules of these exercises are typically simple, which makes it challenging to simulate complex disaster scenarios. In addition, these exercises cannot replicate real-life situations, making them too abstract for newly joined nurses to fully grasp [ 7 , 8 ].

Recently, game-based learning has gained increasing attention as an interactive teaching method [ 9 , 10 ]. Previous studies have validated the efficacy of game-based mobile applications [ 11 , 12 ]. Serious games that align with curricular objectives have shown potential to facilitate more effective learner-centered educational experiences for trainees [ 13 , 14 ]. Although game-based applications have been used in disaster medicine education, no serious computer games have been designed specifically for training newly joined nurses in an international IEMT setting.

Our team is an internationally certified IEMT organization verified by the WHO, underscoring the importance of providing training for newly joined nurses in international medical responses. To address this need, we organized training courses for them. As part of the training, we incorporated a serious computer game called the IEMTtraining game. In this game, players assume the roles of IEMT nurses, assess patient injuries in a virtual environment, and provide suitable treatment options. This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of the IEMTtraining game. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first serious game specifically designed to train newly joined nurses in an IEMT setting.

The IEMTtraining game was subsequently applied to the training course for newly joined nurses, and this study aimed to investigate its effectiveness. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first serious game specifically designedto train newly joined nurses in an IEMT setting.

Study design

This study was conducted using data from the training records database of participants who had completed the training. The database includes comprehensive demographic information, exam scores, and detailed information from post-training questionnaires for all trainees. We reviewed the training scores and questionnaires of participants who took part in the training from Autumn 2019 to Spring 2020.

The local Institutional Review Committee approved the study and waived the requirement for informed consent due to the study design. The study complied with the international ethical guidelines for human research, such as the Declaration of Helsinki. The accessed data were anonymized.

Participants

A total of 209 newly joined nurses needed to participate in the training. Due to limitations in the size of the training venue, the trainees had to be divided into two groups for the training. All trainees were required to choose a group and register online. The training team provided the schedule and training topic for the two training sessions to all trainees before the training commenced. Each trainee had the opportunity to sign up based on their individual circumstances. Furthermore, the training team set a maximum limit of 110 trainees for each group, considering the dimensions of the training venue. Trainees were assigned on a first-come-first-served basis. In the event that a group reached its capacity, any unregistered trainees would be automatically assigned to another group.

In the fall of 2019, 103 newly joined nurses opted for the lecture training course (lecture group). In this group, instructors solely used the traditional teaching methods of lectures and demonstrations. The remaining 106 newly joined nurses underwent game-based training (game group). In addition to the traditional lectures and demonstrations, the instructor incorporated an IEMTtraining game to enhance the training experience in the game group.

The IEMTTraining game

The IEMTtraining game, a role-playing game, was implemented using the RPG Maker MV Version1.6.1 (Kadokawa Corporation, Tokyo, Tokyo Metropolis, Japan). Players assumed the roles of rescuers in a fictional setting of an earthquake (Part1 of Supplemental Digital Content ).

The storyline revolves around an earthquake scenario, with the main character being an IEMT nurse. Within the game simulation, there were 1000 patients in the scenario. The objective for each player was to treat as many patients as possible to earn higher experience points compared to other players. In addition, within the game scene, multiple nonplayer characters played the role of injured patients. The players navigate the movements of the main character using a computer mouse. Upon encountering injured persons, the player can view their injury information by clicking on them and selecting the triage tags. The player can then select the necessary medical supplies from the kit to provide treatment. Additionally, the player is required to act according to the minimum standards for IEMTs, such as registration in the IEMT coordination cell and reporting of injury information following the minimum data set (MDS) designed by the WHO [ 15 , 16 ]. This portion of the training content imposes uniform requirements for all IEMT members, hence it is necessary for IEMT nurses to learn it. All correct choices result in the accumulation of experience points. Game duration can be set by the instructor and the player with the highest experience points at the end of the game.

Measurement

We have collected the test scores of the trainees in our training database to explore their knowledge mastery. Additionally, we have collected post-training questionnaire data from the trainees to investigate their learning motivation, cognitive load, and technology acceptance.

Pre-test, post-test, and final test

All trainees were tested on three separate occasions: (1) a “pre-test”before the educational intervention, (2) a “post-test”following the intervention, and (3) a “final test”at the end of the term (sixweeks after the intervention). Each test comprised 20 multiple-choice questions (0.5 points per item) assessing the trainees’ mastery of crucial points in their knowledge and decision-making. The higher the score, the better the grade will be.

Questionnaires

The questionnaires used in this study can be found in Part 2 of the Supplemental Digital Content .

The learning motivation questionnaire used in this study was based on the measure developed by Hwang and Chang [ 17 ]. It comprises seven items rated on a six-point scale. The reliability of the questionnaire, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.79.

The cognitive load questionnaire was adapted from the questionnaire developed by Hwang et al [ 18 ]. It consisted of five items for assessing “mental load” and three items for evaluating “mental effort.” The items were rated using a six-point Likert scale. The Cronbach’s alpha values for the two parts of the questionnaire were 0.86 and 0.85, respectively.

The technology acceptance questionnaire, which was only administered to the game group, as it specifically focused on novel teaching techniques and lacked relevance tothe lecture group, was derived from the measurement instrument developed by Chu et al [ 19 ]. It comprised seven items for measuring “perceived ease of use” and six items for assessing “perceived usefulness.” The items were rated on a six-point Likert scale. The Cronbach’s alpha values for the two parts of the questionnaire were 0.94 and 0.95, respectively.

The lecture group received 4 hours of traditional lectures. Additionally, 1 week before the lecture, the trainees were provided with a series of references related to the topic and were required to preview the content before the class. A pre-test was conducted before the lecture to assess the trainees’ prior knowledge, followed by a post-test immediately after the lecture, and a final test 6 weeks after training.

In the game group, the delivery and requirements for references were the same as those in the lecture group. However, the training format differed. The game group received a half-hour lecture introducinggeneral principles, followed by 3 hours of gameplay. The last halfhour was dedicated to summarizing the course and addressing questions or concerns. Similar to the lecture group, the trainees in this group also completed pre-, post-, and final tests. Additionally, a brief survey ofthe teaching methods was conducted at the end of the final test (see Fig.  1 ).

General overview of the teaching procedure. Figure Legend: The diagram shows the teaching and testing processes for the two groups of trainees. Q&A: questions and answers

Data analysis

All data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 20.0;IBM Inc., Armonk, NY, USA). Only the trainees who participated in all three tests were included in the analysis. In total, there were 209 trainees, but 11 individuals (6 from the lecture group and 5 from the game group) were excluded due to incomplete data. Therefore, the data of 198 trainees were ultimately included in the analysis.

In addition, measurement data with a normal distribution were described as mean (standard deviation, SD). In contrast, measurement data with non-normal distributions were expressed as median [first quartile, third quartile]. Furthermore, enumeration data were constructed using composition ratios.

Moreover, a generalized estimating equation (GEE) was employed to compare the groups’ pre-, post-, and final test scores. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare the questionnaire scores between the two groups. The statistical significance was set at a level of 0.05.

Among the data included in the analysis, 97 (48.99%) participants were in the lecture group, and 101 (51.01%)were in the game group.

The number of male trainees in the lecture and game groups was 30 (30.93%) and 33 (32.67%), respectively. The mean age of participants in the lecture group was 27.44 ± 4.31 years, whereas that of the game group was 28.05 ± 4.29 years. There were no significant differences in sex or age (Table  1 ). Regarding the test scores, no significant differences were found between the two groups in the pre- and post-tests. However, a significant difference was observed in the final test scores conducted 6 weeks later (Table 1 ).

According to the GEE analysis, the overall scores for the post-test and final test were higher compared to the pre-test scores. Additionally, there was a significant difference in the overall test scores between the two groups, with the game group demonstrating superior performance compared to the control group (odds ratio = 1.363, p value = 0.010). Further details of the GEE results can be found in Part 3 of the supplementary materials .

Table  2 presents the results of the questionnaire ratings for the two groups. The median [first quartile, third quartile] of the learning motivation questionnaire ratings were 4 [3, 4] for the lecture group and 5 [4, 5] for the game group. There were significant differences between the questionnaire ratings of the two groups ( p  < 0.001), indicating that the game group had higher learning motivation for the learning activity.

The median [first quartile, third quartile] of the overall cognitive load ratings were 3 [3, 4] and 4 [4, 5] for the game and lecture groups, respectively. There was a significant difference between the cognitive load ratings of the two groups ( p  < 0.001).

This study further compared two aspects of cognitive load: mental load and mental effort. The median [first quartile, third quartile] for the mental effort dimension were 3 [2, 3] and 4 [4, 5] for the game and lecture groups, respectively (p < 0.001). For mental load, the median [first quartile, third quartile] were 4 [3, 4] and 4 [3, 4] for the game and lecture groups, respectively. There was no significant difference in the mental load ratings between the two groups ( p  = 0.539).

To better understand the trainees’ perceptions of the use of the serious game, this study collected the feedback of the trainees in the game group regarding “perceived usefulness” and “perceived ease of use,” as shown in Table 2 . Most trainees provided positive feedback on the two dimensions of the serious game.

To the best of our knowledge, this IEMT training game is the first serious game intended for newly joined nurses of IEMTs. Therefore, this study presents an initial investigation into the applicability of serious games.

Both lectures and serious games improved post-class test scores to the same level, consistent with previous studies. Krishnan et al. found that an educational game on hepatitis significantly improved knowledge scores [ 20 ]. Additionally, our study showed higher knowledge retention in the game group after 6 weeks, in line with previous studies on serious games. In a study on sexually transmitted diseases, game-based instruction was found to improve knowledge retention for resident physicians compared to traditional teaching methods [ 21 ]. The IEMTtraining game, designed as a role-playing game, is more likely to enhance knowledge retention in newly joined nurses in the long term. Therefore, serious games should be included in the teaching of IEMT training.

This study demonstrated improved learning motivation in the game group, consistent with previous research indicating that game-based learning enhances motivation due to the enjoyable and challenging nature of the games [ 22 , 23 ]. A systematic review by Allan et al. further supports the positive impact of game-based learning tools on the motivation, attitudes, and engagement of healthcare trainees [ 24 ].

As serious games are a novel learning experience for trainees, it is worth investigating the cognitive load they experience. Our study found that serious games effectively reduce trainees’ overall cognitive load, particularly in terms of lower mental effort. Mental effort refers to the cognitive capacity used to handle task demands, reflecting the cognitive load associated with organizing and presenting learning content, as well as guiding student learning strategies [ 25 , 26 ]. This reduction in cognitive load is a significant advantage of serious gaming, as it helps learners better understand and organize their knowledge. However, our study did not find a significant difference in mental load between the two groups. Mental load considers the interaction between task and subject characteristics, based on students’ understanding of tasks and subject characteristics [ 18 ]. This finding is intriguing as it aligns with similar observations in game-based education for elementary and secondary school students [ 27 ], but is the first mention of game-based education in academic papers related to nursing training.

In our survey of the game group participants, we found that their feedback regarding the perceived ease of use and usefulness of the game was overwhelmingly positive. This indicates that the designed game was helpful to learners during the learning process. Moreover, the game’s mechanics were easily understood by the trainees without requiring them to investsignificant time and effort to understand the game rules and controls.

This study had some limitations. First, this retrospective observational study may have been susceptible to sampling bias due to the non-random grouping of trainees. It only reviewed existing data from the training database, and future research should be conducted to validate our findings through prospective studies. Therefore, randomized controlled trials are required. Second, the serious game is currently available only in China. We are currently developing an English version to better align with the training requirements of international IEMT nurses. Third, the development of such serious gamescan be time-consuming. To address this problem, we propose a meta-model to help researchers and instructors select appropriate game development models to implement effective serious games.

An IEMT training game for newly joined nurses is a highly promising training method. Its potential lies in its ability to offer engaging and interactive learning experiences, thereby effectively enhancing the training process. Furthermore, the game improved knowledge retention, increased motivation to learn, and reduced cognitive load. In addition, the game’s mechanics are easily understood by trainees, which further enhances its effectiveness as a training instrument.

Availability of data and materials

Availability of data and materials can be ensured through direct contact with the author. If you require access to specific data or materials mentioned in a study or research article, reaching out to the author is the best way to obtain them. By contacting the author directly, you can inquire about the availability of the desired data and materials, as well as any necessary procedures or restrictions for accessing them.

Authors are willing to provide data and materials to interested parties. They understand the importance of transparency and the positive impact of data sharing on scientific progress. Whether it is raw data, experimental protocols, or unique materials used in the study, authors can provide valuable insights and resources to support further investigations or replications.

To contact the author, one can refer to the email address provided in the article.

Abbreviations

World Health Organization

International Emergency Medical Team

Minimum Data Set

Generalized estimating eq.

Standard deviation

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the staffs who contribute to the database. We would like to thank Editage ( www.editage.cn ) for English language editing. We also would like to thank Dr. Yong Yang for statistics help. We would like to thank The 10th Sichuan University Higher Education Teaching Reform Research Project (No. SCU10170) and West China School of Medicine (2023-2024) Teaching Reform Research Project (No. HXBK-B2023016) for the support.

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Emergency Management Office of West China Hospital, Sichuan University, The street address: No. 37. Guoxue Road, Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, China

China International Emergency Medical Team (Sichuan), Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, China

Hai Hu & Xiaoqin Lai

Emergency Medical Rescue Base, Sichuan University, Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, China

Day Surgery Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, China

Xiaoqin Lai

Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China Tianfu Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, China

West China School of Nursing, Sichuan University, Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, China

Longping Yan

West China School of Public Health, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China

West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China

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HH conceived the study, designed the trial, and obtained research funding. XL supervised the conduct of the data collection from the database, and managed the data, including quality control. HH and LY provided statistical advice on study design and analyzed the data. All the authors drafted the manuscript, and contributed substantially to its revision. HH takes responsibility for the paper as a whole.

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Hu, H., Lai, X. & Yan, L. Training nurses in an international emergency medical team using a serious role-playing game: a retrospective comparative analysis. BMC Med Educ 24 , 432 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05442-x

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Career Motivation and Job Satisfaction in Türkiye: Mediating Role of Teacher İnnovativeness and İnstructional Practice

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Scholarly research on teachers’ job satisfaction has recently attracted the attention of researchers. However, only few studies have focused on the factors that address teachers’ job satisfaction, as to reveal whether and to what extent teachers’ career motivations, especially social utility motivation, affect job satisfaction. Existing literature suggests that social utility motivation is likely to affect the factors such as teachers’ commitment, teaching practices, self-efficacy, and professionalism, which can be considered necessary for job satisfaction. In this context, this study aims to reveal the effect of teachers’ social utility motivation on job satisfaction and the mediating effect performed by instructional practice and teacher innovation, using data from the TALIS 2018 dataset. Based on our research questions, we used data teacher questionnaires gathered in Türkiye. After accounting for missing values, the structural equation modeling analysis 2539 teachers from Türkiye. In the study, the researchers applied a mediation analysis of structural equation modeling to test the proposed model. The results of the analysis confirm that instructional practice and teacher innovation mediate between social utility motivation and job satisfaction. This research is expected to contribute to the studies that focus on the effects of social utility motivation on job satisfaction.

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Introduction

Educational administration and research have increasingly focused on teachers’ job satisfaction in recent years. One of the critical factors driving this trend is the recognition that teachers’ job satisfaction plays a vital role in determining the effectiveness and development of schools (Lopes & Oliveira, 2020 ). Teacher Job Satisfaction (JS) is essential to ensure successful education as it affects the quality of teaching, the effectiveness of school management, and the overall school environment (Dreer, 2021 ; Pepe et al., 2017 ).

Subsequently, teachers’ job satisfaction is prominently on the agenda of policymakers worldwide (Chen et al., 2023 ; OECD, 2019 ; Pepe et al., 2017 ). In recent years, educational researchers have discovered that social utilization motivation (SOCUT) is a variable that can influence teachers’ job satisfaction (JS) (Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014 ). In a study, Pepe et al. ( 2017 ) found that the variable that best predicts teachers’ job satisfaction is their relationships and bonds with students. However, research examining the impact of Social benefit motivation (SOCUT) on teachers’ job satisfaction (JS) has yet to reach a comprehensive level (Turner et al., 2011 ). Moreover, a recent study by Chang and Sung ( 2024 ) examined the impact of SOCUT on teachers’ JS using a sample from Taiwan. Consequently, further research is needed to elucidate the complex dynamics between SOCUT and teachers’ JS.

Previous research indicates that SOCUT is linked to both student and teacher output, with a particular emphasis on its association with student output (Kılınç et al., 2012 ; Lopes &Oliveira, 2020 ; Richardson &Watt, 2014 ; Turner et al., 2011 ). Educational administration researchers have examined that teachers with high SOCUT levels have positive attitudes towards their profession. (Kılınç et al., 2012 ). Despite growing attention to SOCUT and its effects on various teacher attitudes, it is surprising that less empirical research has been done on its relevance to JS (Kılınç et al., 2012 ; Liu et al., 2023 ). Reports suggest that the relationships between SOCUT and teacher attitudes are influenced by a number of individual and organizational variables acting as mediators (McLean et al., 2019 ), such as teaching adaptations of teachers (Klassen et al., 2009 ) and team innovation (TEAMIN) (Blömeke et al., 2021 ) mediate teacher attitudes.

However, studies focusing on the role of mediating variables in this relationship are limited, even though there is accumulated knowledge on the direct and indirect mechanisms linking SOCUT and teachers’ job satisfaction (Liu et al., 2023 ). However, there is also a gap in the literature on whether instructional practice (IP) and TEAMIN mediate the relationship between SOCUT and teachers’ JS. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the relationship between teachers’ SOCUT and teachers’ JS, focusing on the mediating role of teachers’ IP and TEAMIN in the Turkish school context. In this sense, the research questions guiding this study are as follows:

What is the extent of the relationship between SOCUT and JS?

Do TEAMIN and IP mediate the relationship between SOCUT and JS?

The unique contribution of this research is to explore the extent to which the mediating factors of teachers’ IP and TEAMIN influence the relationship between teachers’ SOCUT and JS. In addition to contributing to the body of knowledge on teacher JS, the findings of this study are expected to provide valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners.

Literature Review and Conceptual Framework

Social utility motivation.

OECD ( 2018 ) categorizes teachers’ motivation to teach into personal benefit motivation, social utility motivation, and perceptions of value and policy impact. In this study, we focused on social utility motivation (SOCUT). This construct refers to an individual’s motivation to make a positive social impact and contribute to shaping the younger generation’s future. Thomson and Palermo ( 2018 ) assert that SOCUT comprises social benefit values that underpin the decision to teach, such as the aspiration to contribute to society and improve the lives of children. One factor that drives individuals to pursue a career in teaching is their perception of its usefulness for themselves or others. Manuel and Hughes’ ( 2006 ) study identified the desire to positively impact children’s lives as one of the reasons why prospective teachers choose the teaching profession. These findings underscore the importance of intrinsic motivation in the teaching profession. Individuals driven by purpose and passion may be well-suited for this work. McKenzie and Santiago ( 2005 ) reported that individuals commonly choose the teaching profession as the desire to contribute to society. Torsney et al. ( 2019 ) highlight that SOCUT encompasses various aspects that teachers may appreciate concerning the teaching profession, including its impact on the immediate environment and society.

SOCUT has organizational behavior implications for teachers. For instance, according to Torsney et al. ( 2019 ), SOCUT is a reliable and positive predictor of professional commitment and job satisfaction. Conversely, McLean et al. ( 2019 ) discovered that low personal and social benefit values are linked to teacher burnout, which can harm teacher JS. Additionally, Liu et al. ( 2023 ) found that SOCUT significantly predicts teacher job satisfaction. In addition, SOCUT is significantly related to teachers’ self-efficacy in each position (An et al., 2021 ). In their study on preservice teachers in Singapore, Lam et al. ( 1995 ) provide evidence that the higher the preservice teachers’ SOCUT, the lower their intention to leave. Therefore, the relationship of SOCUT with teachers’ organizational outcomes is essential, and its relationship with organizational behaviors needs to be investigated further. However, few studies explain the relationship between career motivation and job satisfaction. Precisely for this reason, this study tries to examine the relationship between SOCUT and teachers’ JS, TEAMIN, and IP.

Instructional Practice

Recent years have seen an increase in research that Instructional Practice (IP) is among the key determinants of student learning outcomes (Darling-Hammond, 2000 ; Rincón-Gallardo & Fleisch, 2016 ; Schleicher, 2016 ; Zumwalt & Craig, 2005 ). In a Brophy ( 1986 ) study, specific teacher behaviors were consistently linked to student achievement. Effective teaching encompasses-specific behaviors such as defining well-defined academic objectives to establish learning outcomes, utilizing efficient classroom management techniques, and customizing teaching approaches to cater to the unique needs of both students and subject matter. Specific behaviors such as defining well-defined academic objectives to establish learning outcomes, utilizing efficient classroom management techniques, and customizing teaching approaches to cater to the unique needs of both students and subject matter. TALIS’s multidimensional framework defines effective teaching practices based on years of research. According to a study by Ainley and Carstens ( 2018 ) and the OECD ( 2018 ), effective teaching is characterized by four dimensions: clarity of instruction, cognitive activation, classroom management, and enhanced activities.

Rincón-Gallardo and Fleisch ( 2016 ) have discovered evidence that various IP strategies that achieve successful improvements, transformations, and student rediscovery across multiple schools positively support student learning. Van de Grift ( 2007 ) highlights the importance of clear teaching objectives, well-structured lessons, mobilizing students, and, if necessary, direct teaching about practical IP. Effective teaching practices include specific actions such as structuring information, providing redundant information, delivering clear presentations, demonstrating enthusiasm, and maintaining an appropriate pace and cool-down during information processing. Teachers must also offer instructional tips and appropriate feedback, as Weinert et al. ( 1989 ) noted. Ainley and Carstens ( 2018 ) assert that Instructional Practice (IP) comprises several elements that foster student motivation and achievement. First, teachers’ IP refers to what happens in the classroom. In the classroom, IP focuses teachers’ attention on students’ learning goals, provides students with a variety of learning models, and at the same time incorporates contemporary practices that motivate them to think (Rosenshine, 1995 ).

Collective Teacher Innovation

The success of the organizations in a competitive environment and in the changing world conditions depends on their correct perception and implementation of innovation (Mumford & Licuanan, 2004 ). Innovation refers to introducing and implementing a new product, idea, method, or anything new (Utterback, 1971 ). The process consists of three steps: coming up with an idea, getting the idea ready for implementation, and creating changes by implementing the innovation (Serdyukov, 2017 ). Educational organizations, like all organizations, are affected by environmental changes and innovations.

Unlike other organizations, educational organizations are also responsible for initiating change and innovation, that’s why education is essential to support students’ creative and innovative thinking (Andiliou & Murphy, 2010 ). Another important aspect of education is the importance given to innovative teaching practices (OECD, 2009 ). Educational research emphasizes the importance of innovation in organizational competition and taking advantage, the continuation and survival of the organization (Thurlings et al., 2015 ).

Not only individual, but also collective innovation is necessary for implementing the innovation (Buske, 2018 ). With a growing focus on creating collaborative communities of practice and professional learning in education organizations to enhance outcomes, innovation is recognized as a social process that benefits from social interaction and feedback for continual improvement (Andiliou & Murphy, 2010 ; Greany, 2018 ).

In the light of the constantly evolving nature of the education system, the growing need for innovation, and the demanded growth of individual schools, the collaborative endeavors of the teaching staff within each school gain great importance (Buske, 2018 ). In this study, collective teacher innovation , as defined by OECD ( 2019 ), is used as a specific concept that encompasses the collaborative efforts of teachers to generate new teaching and learning ideas, embrace change, pursue innovative problem-solving approaches, and support each other in implementing original concepts.

Job Satisfaction

JS is defined as an individual’s emotional response to work experiences. Job satisfaction is related to whether the job reminds pleasant and positive feelings in employees (Mercer, 1997 ). Weiqi ( 2007 ) suggests that teacher job satisfaction can increase enthusiasm and improve students’ interpersonal communication. There are a number of studies examining the factors that affect job satisfaction, which can be divided as internal and external factors (Bektaş, 2017 ). Internal factors include recognition, achievement, work, advancement, and responsibility while external factors consists of monthly salary, company policies, technical competence, interpersonal relations, and working conditions (Wernimont, 1966 ). TALIS 2018 defines teacher job satisfaction as the feeling of accomplishment and contentment experienced by teachers in their profession. It is divided into two dimensions: job satisfaction from the working environment and job satisfaction from the profession (OECD, 2019 ). Earlier studies revealed that various factors affect teachers’ job satisfaction, including factors at the level of school, teacher, and student. In JS research conducted on teachers, external factors include working conditions such as collaboration between colleagues (Shah, 2012 ). Among internal factors, work motivation (Arifin, 2015 ; Hutabarat, 2015 ), self-efficacy beliefs (Caprara et al., 2006 ; Zheng et al., 2019 ), teaching competencies (Arifin, 2015 ) and meeting basic workplace needs are included (Dreer, 2021 ). Consequently, it is possible to say that teacher job satisfaction has a multidimensional structure and it changes according to school conditions (Liu et al., 2021 ). Teachers’ job satisfaction should be taken seriously by every participant in the education system. Since the most important human resource of the education system is the teacher, the most important task in improving and developing education in terms of quality and quantity belongs to the teacher. To increase the quality and quantity of education, it is vital to solve teachers’ problems and create suitable conditions for teachers’ job satisfaction. Ensuring teachers continue to work efficiently requires conditions that lead to teachers’ satisfying performance (Sadeghi et al., 2013 ). Teachers’ perception of the status of the teaching profession and society’s perceived support of the profession are necessary for job satisfaction (Poppleton & Riseborough, 1988 ).

Developing Models

Previous studies have indicated that SOCUT is linked to various teacher outcomes, as revealed in the research conducted (An et al., 2021 ; McLean et al., 2019 ; Torsney et al, 2019 ). Among these outcomes, teachers’ JS has been identified as particularly significant, as highlighted in the work of Turner et al. ( 2011 ). In addition, it has been discovered that teachers with high SOCUT have positive attitudes towards school and profession (Kılınç et al., 2012 ). In this context, a relationship between SOCUT and JS has been found out in variety of studies (Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014 ) which indicate that teachers with high SOCUT level have also high JS (Liu et al., 2023 ). We performed this study to provide unique insights that IP and TEAMIN are important in the relationship between SOCUT and JS in teachers’ job satisfaction. In the available literature JS, which refers to an individual’s overall contentment and fulfillment with their job, is a significant determinant that impacts employees’ willingness and ability to engage in innovative activities (Sena, 2020 ). Studies show that job satisfaction and innovative behaviors are positively related (Yu et al., 2007 ). In addition to being crucial for an organization’s smooth working, innovations expand members’ advantages. These include aligning job demands effectively, providing essential resources, improving communication, and fostering job satisfaction (Messmann & Mulder, 2011 ). Moreover, there is empirical evidence that instructional practices were positively related to job satisfaction (Von der Embse et al., 2016 ). Based on the available literature, we developed the model in Fig.  1 to examine whether TEAMIN and IP mediate the relationship between SOCUT and teacher JS.

Conceptual model

Rationale and Contextual Background

There are two main objectives of this research one of which is to explore direct and indirect relationships between SOCUT and JS through hidden variables called TEAMIN and IP as mediators. Watt and Richardson ( 2008 ) identify seven dimensions that contribute to individuals’ motives for pursuing a career in teaching. According to Lin et al. ( 2012 ) among these dimensions, SOCUT is a predominant factor that influences career choice. In addition to this, as noted by Liu et al. ( 2021 ) a positive correlation has been observed between teacher motivation and JS In this context, this research, which focuses on teachers’ JS, will offer a new and fresh perspective to the literature on social benefit motivations related to the careers of teachers that are job satisfaction-oriented. Secondly, this study concerns about the mediator role of TEAMIN and IP in the relationship between teachers’ SOCUT and JS in educational processes where a highly centralized organizational structure is dominant.

In recent years, Ministry of National Education in Türkiye (MoNE) has maintained the central management system in its usual way, but at the same time it has initialized a good deal of studies on innovative thinking in schools (İlhan, 2020 ). Principals and teachers are encouraged to think innovatively and take more responsibility in their teaching processes, that’s why conditions for team innovativeness have begun to emerge in schools. In addition, Turkish culture is characterized by high tendency of uncertainty avoidance and collectivism (Hofstede et al., 2005 ). In Türkiye, collective thinking is acquired by children at an early age, and the fundamental idea is that collective ideas about individuals and the interests of society are prioritized. Therefore, contributing to society enable teachers to realize their social value.

Consequently, teachers often experience a sense of fulfillment by influencing the society positively through their teaching. In this respect, teachers are expected to develop innovative skills in their students by collaborative works. On the other hand, there is a need to explore SOCUT related to TEAMIN, IP, and JS in Turkish schools. The results of this study may have significant consequences for the countries with similar cultural characteristics with Türkiye. Liu et al. ( 2021 ) reveals that most of the studies on SOCUT and JS were conducted in the Western societies, and the number of studies are still insufficient in Asian countries although it tends to show an increase.

We propose the following hypotheses based on the theoretical foundation and literature review mentioned above.

SOCUT has an impact on teachers’ JS.

There is a positive relationship between IP and JS.

There is a positive relationship between TEAMIN and JS.

IP and TEAMIN have a mediating role in the relationship between SOCUT and JS.

Data Source and Sample

In this study, a dataset of TALIS 2018 is used, which was collected by the OECD September 2017 and July 2018 (OECD, 2019 ). The TALIS is one of the large-scale studies that enable cross-cultural data on teaching and teachers’ work that can inform about developments in policy and practice. This study utilised data of TALIS 2018, which involved primary, middle and high schools from 48 participating countries with a focus on teachers. TALIS required all participating countries to conduct a “core” survey at the lower secondary level of education (OECD, 2019 ). In this study, we used these “core” data. Based on our research questions, we used data teacher questionnaires at ISCED-2 level gathered in Türkiye. Data collected in Türkiye included 3952 teachers. After accounting for missing values, the structural equation modeling analysis 2539 teachers from Türkiye. The sample group comprises 52.2% women (1325) and 47.8% men (1214). A small majority of teachers (5%) have education levels below ISCED level 3, while the majority (79%) hold education at ISCED level 3. The remaining 20% have education at ISCED level 4. The years of experience of the teachers, categorized by their age ranges, are depicted in Fig.  2 .

Years continuing being a teacher by teacher age groups

As anticipated, the teaching experience of teachers aged below 25 years is low. However, it is noteworthy that teachers aged 50–59 and those aged 60 and over possess the least amount of teaching experience in the sample. Within the sample, the proportion of teachers between the ages of 30–39 is higher than that of other age groups, comprising 39.3%. This is followed by the proportion of teachers aged 40–49, which stands at 33.5%. The age group with the lowest proportion consists of teachers aged 25 and under (0.9%).

Dependent variable

The research evaluates job satisfaction with the profession (JSPRO) as the dependent variable, with a reliability coefficient of ( ω  = 0.863). TALIS 2018 defines teachers’ willingness to adopt innovative practices and their perceptions of incentives for innovation adoption. (OECD, 2019 ). In the TALIS 2018 cycle, innovation was acknowledged as a “cross-cutting” factor for the learning environment in schools, and it was included in the theme for the first time (OECD, 2019 ). The latent variable T3JSPRO comprises of four items (refer to Supplementary Appendix A). It is evaluated using a four-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (4) to assess the teachers’ feedback. The factors that drive individuals to become teachers are closely linked to how satisfied they feel in their job later on. However, it’s worth noting that the overall satisfaction can be influenced by the atmosphere and environment of the school they work in (Ainley & Carstens, 2018 ).Whether teachers are classified as “highly engaged persisters”, “highly engaged switchers”, or “lower engaged desisters” can indicate how long they are likely to stay in the teaching profession, their perceptions of the profession, and which types of motivators—either intrinsic or extrinsic—will be most effective in fostering their growth and development (Watt & Richardson, 2008 ). In the light of these informations, in TALIS 2018, indicators of job satisfaction and teacher perceptions of the value of the teaching profession were redesigned and measured with T3JSPRO. T3JSPRO demonstrated a perfect fit for the Türkiye sample at ISCED-2 level (RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.001, SRMR = 0.002) (OECD, 2019 ).

Independent Variable

In this study, the variable under investigation is the social utility motivation for teaching (T3SOCUT) is an independent variable. T3SOCUT is a latent variable consisting of three items (refer to Supplementary Appendix A) with a reliability coefficient of ( ω  = 0.812). The items were measured using a four-point Likert-type scale, where the response categories ranged from “Not important at all” (1) to “Of high importance” (4). Liu et al. ( 2023 ) demonstrated that social utility motivation affects job satisfaction among middle school teachers in China using data from TALIS 2018. Similarly, Chang and Sung ( 2024 ) recently illustrated in their study that social utility motivation influences teachers’ job satisfaction in a sample from Taiwan. T3SOCUT demonstrated a perfect fit for the Türkiye sample at ISCED-2 level (RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.000, SRMR = 0.000) (OECD, 2019 ).

Mediating Variables

The mediating variables of this study were T3TEAM ( ω  = 0.956) and T3TPRA (α = 0.899). T3TEAM is a latent variable consisting of four items measured on a four-point Likert scale, with response categories ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (4), and it represents team innovativeness. T3TEAM demonstrated a perfect fit (RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.995, TLI = 0.986, SRMR = 0.006) for the Türkiye sample at ISCED-2 level (OECD, 2019 ). In TALIS 2018, psychological and a sociological perspective integrated on teacher innovativeness. T3TEAM scale has organisational component beside an individual (cognitive) component to reflect teacher group’s perception on innovation (Ainley & Carstens, 2018 ).

TALIS 2018 defined T3TPRA as a composite variable consisting of three subscales: T3CLAIN, T3COGAC, and T3CLASM, which measure the clarity of instruction, cognitive activation, and classroom management, respectively. Each subscale has four items measured on a four-point Likert scale, with response categories ranging from “never or almost never” (1) to “always” (4). The composite variable IP was created using the whole scale scores of 12 items (refer to Supplementary Appendix A), and it is also a latent variable according to TALIS 2018. TALIS 2018 focus on instructional practices in general rather than subject-specific instructional practices. Teachers’ background and perceptions of their instructional practices, teaching practices and general teaching practices (i.e., classroom management, cognitive activation, and clarity of instruction) were some of indicators of T3TPRA (Ainley & Carstens, 2018 ). Classroom management is seen as a positive disciplinary environment in the classroom in the TALIS 2018. Cognitive activation involves educational tasks that prompt students to assess, blend and utilize knowledge within the context of problem solving. Support from teachers is crucial aspect of teaching that impacts students’ academic success. This includes various practices such as offering additional assistance when necessary, valuing and addressing students’ ideas and inquiries, showing care and encouragement, and providing emotional support. In the TALIS 2018 assessment, teacher support is evaluated through the clarity of instruction scale (Ainley & Carstens, 2018 ). T3CLAIN (RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.003, TLI = 1.001, SRMR = 0.002), T3COGAC (RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.001, SRMR = 0.002) and T3CLASM (RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.996, TLI = 0.975, SRMR = 0.006) demonstrated a perfect fit for the Türkiye sample at ISCED-2 level (OECD, 2019 ).

Control Variable

The years of teaching experience (TT3G11B, metric) is also added as a control variable in this study to avoid potential bias and control for potential effects on the outcome variable. Teaching experience has been found to impact job satisfaction, and as certain studies (Klassen & Chiu, 2010 ) suggest, teachers tend to become less satisfied with their jobs as they gain more experience. By including teaching experience as a control variable for the dependent variable (JSPRO), unbiased estimations of the dependent variables can be obtained.

Descriptive Statistics and Preliminary Results

Before the mediator analysis was done through structural equation modeling (SEM), necessary assumptions were checked. For this purpose, firstly, univariate and multivariate outliers were examined. Then, cases outside the range of ± 3.0 were deleted from the data (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2008 ). Also, the Mahalanobis distances were calculated to determine the multivariate outliers and values other than the critical value ( p  < 0.001) were deleted. Lastly, the skewness and kurtosis values of the scales were examined for 2549 participants. The skewness and kurtosis values were found to be between − 1.5 and + 1.5; in this way, the data were assumed to be normally distributed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013 ).

To create a mediation model, all variables (independent, dependent, and mediator) must have a significant relationship with one another. However, these relationships should be also moderate as they may lead to multicollinearity. When the relationships between variables exceed 0.80, it indicates multicollinearity issues (Iacobucci et al., 2007 ). As shown in Table  1 , the correlations between the variables are positive and statistically significant at varying levels of 0.01.

Following the preliminary analyses, the base model (without mediator variables) and a model with one mediator variable were tested as the initial step of the conceptual SEM model. The model-fit was then evaluated using Mplus 8.5 generated indices, which included the root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI), and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI). A value of RMSEA and SRMR less than 0.08 and CFI and TLI greater than 0.90 were considered acceptable fits (Browne & Cudeck, 1993 ; Hu & Bentler, 1999 ; Marsh et al., 2004 ). RMSEA should report with a 90% confidence interval (Kline, 2005 ). The lower limit of the confidence interval for RMSEA smaller than 0.05 is an indication of model fit. Besides, the upper confidence interval limit for RMSEA greater than 0.10 indicates poor model fit. We also reported the χ 2 values were also reported; however, χ 2 is affected by sample sizes and tends to be significant with large sample sizes (Hu & Bentler, 1999 ).

Two models were tested, which are Model 1 (base model-no mediation) and Model 2 (with mediation), to reveal the kind of mediation (partial or complete). Full mediation is revealed when the independent variable predicts the dependent variable significantly, and with the mediator presented, this direct relation becomes insignificant, while the indirect effect is significant (Hayes, 2009 ; Shrout & Bolger, 2002 ). In partial mediation, the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is still statistically significant if the mediator is removed from a model. The structural model was analyzed, which examines the effect of social utility motivation on job satisfaction with the profession, presented in Fig.  3 .

Base model (Model 1) results. Standardized regression coefficients are given with standard errors in parenthesis. *** p  < 0.001

The base model demonstrated a good fit for the data ( χ 2  = 132.765 [df = 19], p  < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.929, TLI = 0.896, SRMR = 0.033) except chi-square, presented in Table  1 . Social utility motivation for teaching is a statistically significant predictor of job satisfaction. Besides, paths and standardized coefficients among the base model were also examined, and path coefficients were interpreted according to Kline’s ( 2005 ) guideline, which uses reference values of ≥ 0.10 as small, ≥ 0.30 as medium, and ≥ 0.50 as highly significant effects. It was observed that SOCUT has a moderate and significant relationship with JSPRO ( β  = 0.363, SE = 0.030, p  < 0.001).

A mediation model was constructed to analyze the proposed direct and indirect effects of SOCUT on JSPRO. In this model, SOCUT was determined as the independent variable, TEAMIN and IP as mediating variables, and JSPRO as the dependent variable. First, the baseline model (Model 1) was tested in order to examine the effect of SOCUT on JSPRO without mediation. Next, meadiation models with single mediator were conducted to see the mediating role of TEAMIN (Model 2) and IP (Model 3), and to determine the impact of the mediator variable, 10,000 bootstraps were performed. Finally structural models were conducted to see the mediating role of both mediator variables, TEAMIN and IP. According to Preacher and Hayes’s ( 2008 ) upper and lower limit rule was used with the aim of evaluating the significance of the indirect effect. This rule suggests that if the indirect impact is significant, then the interval of the indirect effect should not include zero (0). Model fit indices for Model 1, Model 2, Model 3 and Model 4 are given in Table  2 .

Table 2 displays model-fit values of conceptual models without a mediator variable (Model 1), with single meaditor variable (Model 2 and Model 3) and with two mediator variables (Model 4). The four conceptual models showed a good fit for the data when the model fit values were examined in detail. Model 1 and Model 3 showed a better fit in terms of RMSEA and SRMR values whereas according to CFI and TLI values, Model 1 showed a better fit relatively. The direct and indirect paths and standardized coefficients among the models were also examined.

As demonstrated in Table  3 , for Model 2, SOCUT has a moderate and significant relationship with JSPRO ( β  = 0.353, SE = 0.029, p  < 0.000). As reported in the analysis, this indicates that teachers’ social motivation influences their job satisfaction. The results also reveal that SOCUT is a weak yet significant predictor of TEAMIN ( β  = 0.133, SE = 0.025, p  < 0.000). TEAMIN is a weak but significant predictor of JSPRO ( β  = 0.128, SE = 0.026, p  < 0.000), indicating that teachers with higher TEAMIN tend to experience more job satisfaction. Subsequently, the standardized indirect effects in the structural model (refer to Fig.  4 ) were analyzed, and SOCUT was found to affect positively JSPRO through TEAMIN ( β  = 0.017, SE = 0.004, p  < 0.001). Although the mediation effect of TEAMIN is low, the results of the current study indicate that teachers who tend to have high social utility motivation also have a higher job satisfaction thanks to their interest in teamwork. Given that TALIS 2018 assesses educators’ perceptions of innovation within both individual and collaborative contexts, the impact of their innovation perception on job satisfaction, facilitated by motivation, can be explained by Model 2. Put differently, teachers who perceive themselves as innovative are likely to experience elevated levels of job satisfaction. Furthermore, higher motivation among teachers is associated with increased job satisfaction, particularly when coupled with a positive perception of innovation. TEAMIN, the mediating variable of the Model 2, explains approximately 2% of the total variation in job satisfaction with the profession.

Single mediation model (Model 2) results. Standardized regression coefficients are given with standard errors in parenthesis. *** p  < 0.001

Likewise Model 2, SOCUT is positively related with IP at a weak but significant ( β  = 0.154, SE = 0.025, p  < 0.000) in Model 3. IP among teachers is a moderate predictor of JSPRO ( β  = 0.293, SE = 0.025, p  < 0.001), suggesting that instructional practice influences their perceptions of job satisfaction. IP is a weak but significant mediator in the relationship between SOCUT and JSPRO ( β  = 0.044, SE = 0.008, p  < 0.000). Analysis of indirect paths reveals that social utility motivation for teaching instructional practice positively affects teachers’ JS, which can increase their perceptions of job satisfaction. TALIS 2018 addresses classroom management, cognitive activation, and clarity of instruction in the context of instructional practices. Teachers with high level of motivation typically cultivate a positive disciplinary atmosphere in their classrooms, integrate and apply knowledge in the context of problem solving, demonstrate substantial support for their students, and experience higher levels of satisfaction in their professional roles, can be explained by Model 3. IP, the mediating variable of the Model 3, explains approximately 4% of the total variation in job satisfaction with the profession (refer to Fig. 5 ).

Single mediation model (Model 3) results. Standardized regression coefficients are given with standard errors in parenthesis. *** p  < 0.001

Lastly, for Model 4, both mediator variables have significant effect on JSPPRO. SOCUT has a moderate and significant relationship with JSPRO ( β  = 0.319, SE = 0.029, p  < 0.000) likewise both Model 2 and Model 3. The results also reveal that SOCUT is a weak yet significant predictor of TEAMIN ( β  = 0.133, SE = 0.026, p  < 0.000), showing that social utility motivations of teachers influence their team innovation attempts. Likewise, SOCUT is positively related with IP at a weak but significant ( β  = 0.154, SE = 0.025, p  < 0.000), indicating that SOCUT affects teachers’ instructional practices such as clarity of instruction, cognitive activation, and classroom management in the classroom. IP among teachers is a moderate predictor of JSPRO ( β  = 0.290, SE = 0.024, p  < 0.001), suggesting that instructional practice influences their perceptions of job satisfaction. TEAMIN is a weak but significant predictor of JSPRO ( β  = 0.130, SE = 0.024, p  < 0.000), indicating that teachers with higher TEAMIN tend to experience more job satisfaction. Subsequently, the standardized indirect effects in the structural model (refer to Fig.  6 ) were analyzed, and SOCUT was found to affect positively JSPRO through TEAMIN ( β  = 0.017, SE = 0.004, p  < 0.001). Although the mediation effect of team innovation is low, the results of the current study indicate that teachers who tend to have high social utility motivation also have a higher job satisfaction thanks to their interest in teamwork. Similarly, IP is a weak but significant mediator in the relationship between SOCUT and JSPRO ( β  = 0.045, SE = 0.008, p  < 0.000). Analysis of indirect paths reveals that social utility motivation for teaching instructional practice positively affects teachers’ JS, which can increase their perceptions of job satisfaction. TEAMIN and IP, the mediating variables of the study, explain 6% of the total variation in job satisfaction with the profession. The variance explained by both mediator variables remained consistent in models where they were considered both separately and together. It can be concluded that neither mediator variable exert suppressive effect on the other.

Multiple mediation model (Model 4) results. Standardized regression coefficients are given with standard errors in parenthesis. *** p  < 0.001

Comparing Model 2, Model 3, and Model 4, we see that TEAMIN, one of the mediators, has a higher impact on the total effect than IP. In Model 2, where TEAM is the mediator, the total effect is 0.370. In Model 3, where IP is the mediator, the total effect is 0.370. In Model 4, the calculated total effect is 0.381. It can be seen that both mediator variables are effective in explaining the total effect. The increase in the total effect in Model 4 indicates that the contribution of both variables to the model is significant. However, the contribution of IP in the explanation of the mediation effect is higher than that of TEAM. Based on this, it can be said that IP (having a positive disciplinary atmosphere in their classrooms, integrating and applying knowledge in the context of problem solving, demonstrating substantial support for their students) is relatively more effective than TEAMIN in increasing the job satisfaction of highly motivated teachers.

Thereafter, the control variable in the structural model was analyzed, and the outcomes reveal that the total years of teaching experience have a significant negative association with job satisfaction ( β  =  − 0.061, SE = 0.023, p  < 0.001). This implies that as teachers acquire more experience, they are likely to view their work environment as less innovative.

In conclusion, the SEM analysis demonstrates that social utility motivation for teaching has a moderate and statistically significant total effect on job satisfaction with the profession ( β  = 0.381, SE = 0.029, p  < 0.001). Furthermore, the partial mediation model used in the study explains 40% of the overall variance in job satisfaction among teachers and offers further evidence for the link between team innovation and teaching practices in schools as perceived by teachers.

This research aims to investigate the effects of SOCUT’s teacher outcomes on several organizational variables. The study examines whether TEAMIN and IP mediate the relationship between SOCUT and teacher JS. The research was carried out by the responses of 2539 teachers participating throughout Türkiye.

Analysis results show that SOCUT increases teachers’ JS, which supports the literature showing that SOCUT contributes to all components of the school, especially students and teachers (Kılınç et al., 2012 ; Richardson & Watt, 2014 ; Turner et al., 2011 ). In other words, our research is in line with the studies revealing that SOCUT increases teachers’ JS. Similarly, the available research reveals that JS is positively associated with SOCUT (Kılınç et al., 2012 ). Given the available evidence, the results of the study provide substantial information on that SOCUT increases JS. Based on the findings derived from the study, when teachers believe that the work they do impacts the development of children positively and benefits the society with SOCUT, their job satisfaction is positively affected due to their strong social responsibilities no matter what difficulties they encounter (An et al., 2021 ; Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014 ; McLean et al., 2019 ; Pepe et al., 2017 ; Torsney et al., 2019 ). Job satisfaction is closely intertwined with the enduring presence of teachers. However, it also engenders a profound impact on the welfare of teachers and their students, fostering a comprehensive combination within educational institutions and fortifying the esteemed standing of the teaching career (Toropova et al., 2021 ).

The current study presents findings that there is relationship between teachers’ perceptions of instructional practices and job satisfaction. According to Caprara et al. ( 2006 ), teachers report that they become more motivated when they evaluate their practices as meaningful. Furthermore, Opdenakker and Van-Damme’s ( 2006 ) study establishes a connection between high job satisfaction among teachers and their emphasis on implementing innovative practices in the classroom. This finding is consistent with other studies in the literature that support the relationship between job satisfaction and innovative practices. In the studies mentioned above, it has been discovered that teachers have relatively higher JS when their SOCUT is high in general. The research findings are also consistent with the previous literature, which shows that IP contributes to positive multifaceted results in school organization (Darling-Hammond, 2000 ; Rincón-Gallardo & Fleisch, 2016 ; Schleicher, 2016 ). Therefore, current research findings also contribute relatively to the literature focusing on the consequences of teachers’ IP at school, which increases teacher JS (Klassen et al., 2009 ).

It is discovered in the study that there is an essential relationship between teachers’ perceptions of team innovation practices (TEAMIN) and their perceptions of job satisfaction (JS). The research of Buyukgoze et al, ( 2022 ) supports our findings regarding the relationship between TEAMIN and JS. Wang et al. ( 2020 ) provide evidence that JS increases when teachers are involved in collaborative practices at school. Reynolds et al. ( 2014 ) also emphasizes that school innovation is one of the necessary conditions for educational effectiveness. Due to the relatively fewer number of studies conducted directly between TEAMIN and JS, further investigation on these two subjects is needed. Therefore, it seems that this study will guide new researchers and shed light on this gap in the literature.

This study presents notable information on that IP and TEAMIN have essential roles in teachers’ job satisfaction in the relationship between SOCUT and JS. In this study, it is found that the direct effect of SOCUT on job satisfaction is high due to teachers’ belief that they contribute to society and children, and their social responsibility. Based on this finding, it is evident that SOCUT plays a positive role in increasing the perceptions of JS. Hence, the studies in which the relationship between SOCUT and JS was discovered (Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014 ; Liu et al., 2023 ; Turner et al., 2011 ) are consistent with the current study findings which indicate that innovative practices (IP) and collaborative teaming (TEAMIN) serve as intermediary relationships to social utility motivation for teaching (SOCUT) and job satisfaction (JS). The study suggests that when teachers believe that their work positively impacts children’s development and benefits society, they are more likely to experience job satisfaction. This sense of social responsibility is attributed to coordinated teaching and pedagogical work through effective teamwork.

Current study adds to the collaborative research by expanding on the existing literature that validates the connections between the theoretical constructs and the independent and dependent variables. The findings of the study reinforce these connections and highlight the importance of further collaborative research in the field. It was hypothesized that IP and TEAMIN have a partially mediating effect in the relation between SOCUT and JS. Teachers’ social responsibility to contribute to society through teaching can lead to a positive perception of job satisfaction. However, more than job satisfaction is needed to ensure higher IP and TEAMIN. In other words, while IP and TEAMIN are definitely linked to SOCUT and JS, higher IP and TEAMIN may not necessarily guarantee job satisfaction. Therefore, it is suggested that future research should focus on exploring the impact of various organizational and individual characteristics on this relationship to better comprehend the factors that influence the constructs examined in this study.

The research reveals fundamentally that SOCUT affects teachers’ JS both directly and indirectly. Based on this preliminary result, one of the ways to increase teachers’ JS is to take measures in order to strengthen SOCUT in schools. In this process attempt to increase teachers’ IP levels, TEAMIN’s efforts to develop new ideas in teaching and learning will also contribute to teachers’ increasing JS.

Limitations and Future Research

This study has certain limitations in terms of measuring its findings. Specifically, the research utilized data from the 2018 TALIS application conducted by the OECD. First of all, it should be noted that the measures of social utility motivation for teaching, instructional practice, collective team innovation, and the assessment of job satisfaction in this study rely on the participating teachers’ self-evaluations, subjective thoughts, and perceptions. In this study, first of all, direct, indirect and mediated relationships between variables were examined using a cross-sectional design. Therefore, a cause-and-effect relationship cannot be established between the research variables. In the future, researchers could also examine changes in the relationships between variables over time using a longitudinal research design. Moreover, given our focus on the impact of SOCUT on JS, the interactive effects of other motivational factors and sources were not tested in this study. As other sources of motivation, for example, social utility motivation will affect job satisfaction, future research should emphasize this aspect to get a more comprehensive picture (Chang & Sung, 2024 ). In order to contribute to our findings to produce more robust and powerful inferences, researchers need more replication with studies focused on school and teacher development. By conducting further research using mixed methods and experimental designs in future studies, scholars can obtain more comprehensive insights into the impact of social utility motivation on teaching, instructional practice, collective team innovation, and job satisfaction. Finally, we only investigated the mediating effect of TEAMIN and IP. Therefore, we suggest that researchers should examine the effects of other organizational behavior variables in future studies. It is important to note that the study relied only on teacher questionnaire data from the Turkish Island region and has certain limitations. Besides, the partial intermediary model that will be established in future studies can be compared according to the countries participating in TALIS.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this study established a model detailing the relationships between SOCUT and JS mediated by IP and TEAMIN. Teachers’ social responsibility to contribute to society through teaching can lead to a positive perception of job satisfaction. Given the role of a teacher’s social responsibility, this study may provide a method for enhancing teachers’ job satisfaction. We would also like to highlight two crucial findings and related recommendations here. First, our results confirm that social good motivation is a significant factor in job satisfaction. The research basically reveals that SOCUT affects teachers’ JS both directly and indirectly. Based on this preliminary result, one of the ways to increase teachers’ JS is to take measures to strengthen SOCUT in schools. While more research is needed to investigate how teachers’ SOCUT is reflected in their teachers’ JS, it is easy to assume that such a situation increases teachers’ JS. Such an issue, therefore, needs to be considered in the context of current efforts to increase teachers’ SOCUT. More support from education offices and policymakers in increasing teachers’ JS should be considered. Secondly, in increasing teachers’ IP, TEAMIN’s efforts to develop new ideas in teaching and learning would also contribute to increasing teachers’ JS. This raises the issue of the nature of these IPs and the development of TEAMIN in schools. Therefore, we recommend further qualitative studies in many aspects, particularly on teachers’ job satisfaction. More than job satisfaction is needed to ensure higher IP and TEAMIN. In other words, while IP and TEAMIN are indeed linked to SOCUT and JS, higher IP and TEAMIN may not guarantee job satisfaction. Therefore, it is suggested that future research should focus on exploring the impact of various organizational and individual characteristics on this relationship to understand better the factors influencing the constructs examined in this study. However, school administrators and policymakers should be aware that building innovative communities in schools and IP can benefit teachers’ job satisfaction and other positive outcomes already highlighted in the literature.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the authors.

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Behiye Dağdeviren Ertaş

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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by [Assistant Prof. Behiye Dağdeviren ERTAŞ] and [Assistant Prof. Fulya Barış Pekmezci], the first draft of the manuscript was written by [Assistant Prof. Behiye Dağdeviren ERTAŞ and all authors commented on previous versions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Ertaş, B.D., Pekmezci, F.B. Career Motivation and Job Satisfaction in Türkiye: Mediating Role of Teacher İnnovativeness and İnstructional Practice. Asia-Pacific Edu Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-024-00846-1

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Accepted : 15 March 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-024-00846-1

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