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Sheridan is a writer from Hamilton, Ontario. She has a passion for writing about what she loves and learning new things along the way. Her topics of expertise include skincare and beauty, home decor, and DIYing.

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About Thesis Nootropics

Hands up if you guzzle five coffees a day to stay awake, have tried all the supplements in the book desperate to improve your headspace, and aren’t interested in prescribed medications. Designed to increase focus , Thesis nootropics might be for you. 

Thesis offers a customized blend of ingredients designed to optimize your cognitive function , with personalized details that tackle your specific needs. Nootropics boost brain performance in the same way a stimulant would, without the common negative effects. 

A study published in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease found that nootropics may help improve cognitive function in people with Alzheimer’s disease.

Interested in finding out more about the brand and how it works? Leaf through our Thesis Nootropics review. We’ll be your guide through the company and the process, as well as details on the treatments, highlights from customer reviews, answers to important FAQs, and more, to help you decide if it’s worth the try.

Pros and Cons

• Multiple cognitive benefits: Thesis Nootropics offers a variety of blends that cater to multiple aspects of cognitive function.
• Long-term effects: On top of short term benefits for daily life, Thesis nootropics ingredients are designed to impact the brain in the long-term.
• Personalized recommendations: Thesis Nootropics makes personalized recommendations based on your goals and unique brain chemistry.
• Potential side effects: The most common side effects to watch out for when you start taking Thesis Nootropics include heartburn, headaches, confusion, dizziness, loss of appetite, and digestive issues.
• Need to stop taking if issues arise: If you experience a headache or an upset stomach that won’t go away while taking their nootropics, Thesis recommends that you stop taking them.

What is Thesis Nootropics?

Nootropics are nutrient compounds and substances that are known to improve brain performance , such as caffeine and creatine. They help with issues that affect motivation, creativity, mood, memory, focus, and cognitive processing.

Nootropics are the ideal addition to an already healthy lifestyle that consists of exercise, proper nutrition, and enjoyable activities.  Thesis nootropics are carefully formulated to target specific needs, ranging from energy to creativity. The brand focuses on safety, ensuring that all supplements adhere to FDA guidelines and go through multiple clinical trials. 

How Thesis Nootropics Works

With all that being said, you may be wondering how Thesis provides users with an option that is specific to their needs. Fortunately, the process is simple and hassle free. Here’s how it works:

• Take the Thesis nootropics quiz
• Answer questions about your basic information
• Receive personalized recommendations 
• Get your starter kit for $120 , or $79 monthly when you subscribe 

After that, you’ll select one formula to take each week, taking one day off in between each different option. You’ll also track your results in the daily journal over the month to see how they affect your daily life. 

From there, it operates as a subscription service. Users will be able to optimize their next shipment by telling the brand which formulas worked best.

If you don’t like any of the blends in your box, let the company know and they’ll switch it for something that’s a better fit for your lifestyle, genetics, and goals.

Thesis Nootropics Ingredients

Thesis Nootropics is a brand that offers personalized nootropics designed to enhance cognitive function and overall brain health. Their blends contain a variety of ingredients that are carefully chosen for their cognitive-boosting properties. Here are some of the key ingredients in Thesis Nootropics:

• Cognizin (Citicoline) : Cognizin is a type of choline that is known for its ability to enhance cognitive function, including memory and focus.
• L-Theanine : L-Theanine is an amino acid that is found in green tea, and is known for its ability to promote relaxation and reduce stress and anxiety.
• Lion’s Mane Mushroom : Lion’s Mane Mushroom is a type of medicinal mushroom that is believed to have cognitive-boosting properties, including improved memory and focus.
• Rhodiola Rosea : Rhodiola Rosea is an adaptogenic herb that is known for its ability to reduce stress and fatigue, and improve mental clarity and cognitive function.
• Ashwagandha : Ashwagandha is an adaptogenic herb that is known for its ability to reduce stress and anxiety, and improve memory and cognitive function.
• Phosphatidylserine : Phosphatidylserine is a type of phospholipid that is found in high concentrations in the brain, and is believed to support cognitive function, including memory and focus³
• Alpha-GPC : Alpha-GPC is a type of choline that is known for its ability to enhance cognitive function, including memory and focus.
• TAU (uridine): TAU is a blend of uridine, choline, and DHA, which is believed to support brain health and cognitive function.
• Artichoke extract : Artichoke extract is believed to enhance cognitive function by increasing levels of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that is important for memory and learning.
• Dynamine : Dynamine is a type of alkaloid that is believed to enhance cognitive function by increasing levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is important for mood and motivation.

Overall, the ingredients in Thesis Nootropics are carefully chosen for their cognitive-boosting properties, and are designed to work together to enhance overall brain health and cognitive function.

Thesis Nootropics Health Benefits

Thesis Nootropics is a brand that offers personalized nootropics designed to enhance cognitive function and overall brain health. Their blends contain a variety of ingredients that are carefully chosen for their cognitive-boosting properties, and offer numerous health benefits. Here are some of the health benefits of Thesis Nootropics:

• Increased cognitive energy : One of the key benefits of Thesis Nootropics is increased cognitive energy, which can help improve productivity, mental alertness, and motivation, as it contains cognizin .
• Enhanced mental clarity : Another benefit of Thesis Nootropics is enhanced mental clarity,given from Lion’s Mane Mushroom which can help reduce brain fog and improve focus.
• Improved memory and learning abilities : Thesis Nootropics contains ingredients that are believed to improve memory and learning abilities, like Phosphatidylserine , which can help users retain information more effectively.
• Elevated mood : Thesis Nootropics may help elevate mood and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression, thanks to ingredients like L-Theanine and Ashwagandha .
• Lowered stress levels : The adaptogenic herbs in Thesis Nootropics, such as Rhodiola Rosea and Ashwagandha , are known for their ability to lower stress levels and promote relaxation.
• Boosted focus : Thesis Nootropics contains ingredients like Alpha-GPC and Artichoke extract , which are believed to boost focus and concentration.

While Thesis Nootropics offers numerous health benefits, it’s important to note that the long-term effects of nootropics are not yet fully understood and more research is needed.

3 Thesis Nootropics Bestsellers

Thesis energy review.

If you’re constantly struggling to keep up with the demands of your busy life, it might be time to try a natural energy booster like Thesis Energy. This powerful nootropic blend is specifically designed to increase energy, overcome fatigue, and build mental stamina.

Thesis Energy is caffeine-free, making it a great option for those who are sensitive to caffeine or looking for a natural alternative to traditional energy drinks. The Energy formulation is designed to help improve focus and mental clarity, increase cognitive energy, and reduce fatigue. Whether you’re facing a busy day at work, recovering after a night of poor sleep, or gearing up for an intense workout, Thesis Energy can help you power through.

Each ingredient in Thesis Energy is carefully chosen for its energy-boosting properties. The specific ingredients can vary depending on your needs, but they work together to help increase energy, improve mental clarity, and reduce fatigue.

To get the most out of Thesis Energy, take it every morning on an empty stomach. You can also take it again after lunch if you need an extra boost. It’s designed to help you tackle busy, hectic days, recover from poor sleep, and power through intense workouts.

If you’re tired of relying on coffee and energy drinks to get through the day, it might be time to give Thesis Energy a try. Check availability and start boosting your energy naturally today!

Thesis Creativity

If you’re someone who struggles with creativity or finds yourself feeling stuck in your creative endeavors, Thesis Creativity may be worth considering. This nootropic supplement is designed to help spark inspiration, enhance verbal fluency, and boost confidence in your own great ideas.

So what’s in Thesis Creativity? The ingredients may vary depending on your specific needs, but these ingredients work together to support stress management, memory function, mood regulation, and energy production.

By supporting stress management, memory function, and mood regulation, Thesis Creativity can help free up mental space for more creative thinking. Additionally, the caffeine and L-theanine combo can provide a boost of energy and focus without the jitters and crash that can come with caffeine alone.

To get the most out of Thesis Creativity, it is recommended to take it every morning on an empty stomach and again after lunch if you need an extra boost. This nootropic blend is particularly helpful for brainstorming and creative thinking, writing and creative projects, and public speaking and social situations.

As with any nootropic supplement, it’s important to note that the long-term effects of Thesis Creativity are not yet fully understood and more research is needed. It’s always a good idea to speak with a healthcare professional before adding any new supplements to your routine.

In summary, if you’re looking for a little extra help in the creativity department, Thesis Creativity may be a valuable addition to your nootropic lineup. Its unique blend of ingredients can help support mental clarity, mood regulation, and energy production, making it a valuable tool for any creative individual.

Thesis Logic

If you’ve been having trouble with your memory lately, such as forgetting what you had for lunch yesterday or struggling to recall common words, then Thesis Logic may be just what you need. This formula is designed to help enhance your processing speed, boost your memory, and deepen your thinking.

Thesis Logic is caffeine-free, making it a great option for those who are sensitive to caffeine. The formula is ideal for use during deep, focused work, complex problem-solving, research projects, and completing tedious tasks.

Taking Thesis Logic is easy – simply take it every morning on an empty stomach, and take it again after lunch if you need an extra boost. By incorporating Thesis Logic into your daily routine, you may notice improvements in your cognitive function and overall mental performance.

Who Is Thesis Nootropics For? 

Thesis nootropics are designed for a number of different specific needs, including anyone who wants to focus better, have more energy, and maintain mental clarity. All in all, the products are specifically formulated to improve day to day life and target your specific needs .

Thesis Nootropics Side Effects

While Thesis nootropics are designed to enhance cognitive performance and provide a range of benefits, it’s important to be aware of the potential side effects that can occur. As with any supplement, individual reactions can vary, and some people may experience side effects while others may not.

Some of the potential side effects of Thesis nootropics include:

• Insomnia : Some nootropics contain caffeine or other stimulants that can disrupt sleep patterns and lead to difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
• Blurry vision : Certain nootropics, such as those containing alpha GPC, have been linked to temporary blurry vision.
• High blood pressure : Stimulant-based nootropics can increase blood pressure, which can be dangerous for people with hypertension or other heart conditions.
• Fast heart rate : Similarly, stimulants can also increase heart rate, leading to palpitations or a rapid pulse.
• Circulation problem s: Certain nootropics, such as vinpocetine, can affect blood flow and circulation, leading to issues like dizziness, nausea, or headaches.
• Addiction : Some nootropics, such as those containing racetams, have been associated with the potential for addiction or dependence if used long-term.

It’s important to remember that not all nootropics will produce these side effects, and the severity of any reactions will depend on individual factors such as dosage, duration of use, and underlying health conditions. However, it’s always wise to discuss any potential risks with a healthcare professional before starting any new supplement regimen.

Additionally, it’s important to follow dosage instructions carefully and not to exceed recommended amounts, as this can increase the risk of side effects. By being mindful of potential risks and using nootropics responsibly, users can reap the benefits of these supplements without experiencing adverse effects.

Thesis Nootropics Reviews: What Do Customers Think?

At this point in our Thesis nootropics review, it’s time to turn to what customers are saying. So, we sourced testimonials from the brand’s website, Reddit, and ZenMasterWellness. And spoiler alert, the Thesis nootropics reviews we came across have nothing but good things to say.

On takethesis.com , the brand earns 4.4/5 stars out of 7,956 reviews. One patron describes their particular blend as the perfect alternative to prescription meds :

“ I have been off stimulants for months now and these formulas are far superior. My husband and daughter both noticed the change and said I have been more productive, focused, less anxious, and more “thinking outside the box”. I have tried for years to get off stims and nothing would work .”

On Reddit, many reviewers share similar sentiments about how effective the products are. One buyer shares that they tried tons of different nootropics on the market, and Thesis stands out amongst the crowd . 

On ZenMasterWellness, one reviewer states that their blend provided the exact results they were looking for :

“ They offer notable improvements to how well I’m able to focus, stay on task, and grind when it’s time to grind. In practice, this usually looks like a clearer mind and an improved ability to just… chill. With the Clarity and Creativity blends, in particular, I just feel leveled out .”

Backed by clinical trials and real customer experiences, Thesis stands out in the world of nootropics and supplements. The personalized selections prove effective, while the quality ingredients live up to expectations. 

Is Thesis Nootropics Legit?

If you’re wondering if this brand offers products that are too good to be true, this Thesis nootropics review is here to say that it is the real deal .

The brand is backed by numerous clinical trials, which highlight how 86% of customers reported improvements in a wide range of cognitive challenges, while 89% noticed an improvement in their ability to reduce stress and maintain energy.

Is Thesis Nootropics Worth It?

Thesis is an appealing choice in the world of nootropics because it provides a completely customized selection based on your needs and goals. Plus, the ingredients are potent and ensure the best effects—and you only end up paying for the benefits you actually need.

With that in mind, this Thesis nootropics review deems the brand worth the try.

Alternatives

Here are some alternatives to Thesis Nootropics that you might find interesting:

• Mind Lab Pro – This nootropic supplement is designed to improve cognitive function and mental performance. It contains 11 ingredients that work together to enhance memory, focus, and overall brain health.
• Thorne Supplements : If you’re looking for high-quality, science-based supplements, Thorne is a great choice. Their products are designed with the latest research in mind and are rigorously tested for quality and purity. Some of their popular offerings include multivitamins, protein powders, and omega-3 supplements.
• WeAreFeel Supplements : WeAreFeel is a supplement brand that offers a variety of products designed to support different aspects of your health. Their supplements are vegan-friendly and free from artificial colors, flavors, and preservatives. Some of their popular offerings include multivitamins, probiotics, and omega-3 supplements.
• Neuro Gum : If you’re looking for a quick and easy way to boost your focus and energy levels, Neuro Gum is a great option. This gum is infused with caffeine and other natural ingredients that can help improve mental clarity and alertness. Plus, it’s sugar-free and comes in a variety of delicious flavors.
• Neuriva Plus : Neuriva Plus is a brain supplement that’s designed to improve memory, focus, and cognitive performance. It contains a blend of natural ingredients, including coffee fruit extract and phosphatidylserine, that have been shown to support brain health. If you’re looking for a natural way to boost your cognitive function, Neuriva Plus is worth considering.

Thesis Nootropics Promotions & Discounts 

There aren’t currently any Thesis promos or discounts available. That being said, if you subscribe for recurring shipments of your recommended products, you’ll save $40 monthly .

Where to Buy Thesis Nootropics

At the time of this Thesis nootropics review, the products are exclusively available on the brand’s website, takethesis.com .

Is Thesis Nootropics vegan?  

Thesis nootropics are made with only vegan ingredients . That being said, while the brand has taken precautions to protect against cross contamination, the products are not certified vegan.

Is Thesis Nootropics gluten-free? 

On top of being vegan, Thesis products are made without gluten, eggs, or nuts . Again, while the brand strives to protect users against cross contamination, the products are not certified gluten free. 

What is Thesis Nootropics’ Shipping Policy?

If you’re anxiously awaiting your order from this Thesis nootropics review, you’ll be happy to hear that the company offers speedy shipping, sending orders out within 1 business day. After that, packages should arrive within only 1-3 business days . Costs are calculated at checkout.

At this time, Thesis is not able to offer international shipping. This Thesis nootropics review recommends following the brand on social media and signing up for the newsletter to stay up to date with shipping policies. 

What is Thesis Nootropics’ Return Policy?

If you find that your Thesis formula isn’t working out, the company requests that you contact them to make changes and adjustments to ensure you are able to receive the proper help.

If you would still like to make a return, follow these simple steps for a refund:

• Submit your refund request
• Ship the items back within 30 days of the original delivery
• Send an email with your tracking number to the brand
• Return any remaining product in their original packaging to: 

Thesis Returns 902 Broadway

6th Floor New York, NY 

Once your return has been received, a refund will be processed and email confirmation will be sent. It’s also important to note that the brand can only refund one month’s supply per customer and return shipping is the customer’s responsibility. 

How to Contact Thesis Nootropics

We hope you enjoyed this Thesis nootropics review! If you have any further questions about the brand or its products, you can contact them using the following methods:

• Call 1 (646) 647-3599
• Email [email protected]

902 Broadway Floor 6 New York, NY 10010

If you’re looking for other ways to boost your productivity via supplements, check out these other brands we’ve reviewed:

Thorne Supplements Review

WeAreFeel Supplements Review

Neuro Gum Review

Neuriva Plus Review

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Thesis Nootropics Review

Thesis has a range of targeted nootropics you can combine to optimize your results. our team will help you decide which ones are right for you..

Daniel is a senior editor and writer at Innerbody Research. After receiving his bachelor’s degree in writing, he attended post-graduate studies at George Mason University and pursued a career in nutritional science.

Dr. Segar is a cardiology fellow at the Texas Heart Institute and a member of Innerbody Research's Medical Review Board.

In this Review

Nootropics in general offer the potential to improve cognitive abilities and regulate mood without the need for a prescription. And while more research is necessary, current data suggests that they consist of ingredients that are generally safe and effective for healthy adults. 35 However, Thesis isn’t the only provider of high-quality nootropics, nor do they offer especially low prices. In this review, we'll compare and contrast Thesis’ six formulas and see how they stack up against a growing field of competitors.

Our Findings

Despite the somewhat high price, we recommend Thesis to anyone looking for a nootropic subscription that can be tailored to their specific needs. The formulas from Thesis provide tangible benefits with minimal ingredients, and each formula is available with or without caffeine. Thesis also offers stellar customer service and delivers their product in individually packed doses you can take just about anywhere.

• You can feel most results within an hour
• Products are third-party-tested for purity
• All options available without stimulants
• Outstanding phone support
• Subscriptions include complimentary wellness coaching
• Free shipping on all orders
• Use code INNERBODY for 10% off your first order
• Somewhat more expensive than competitors
• Up to four large pills per dose

GREAT PICKS FROM THESIS

Special Offer: Take 10% OFF with code INNERBODY

Why you should trust us

Over the past two decades, Innerbody Research has helped tens of millions of readers make more informed decisions about staying healthy and living healthier lifestyles. As nootropics have become more important players in the supplements landscape, we’ve taken a serious look at the key players to see which ones are worthwhile.

Thesis exists in a class of nootropics that combines multiple nootropic ingredients to achieve specific goals. We’ve spent hundreds of hours researching and testing various nootropics, including both individual ingredients and combinations like Thesis offers. In researching Thesis and their competitors, our team has read more than 100 clinical studies examining the efficacy and safety of nootropic ingredients, and we’ve combined all of that knowledge with our experiences to create this review.

If you're curious about our team's experience using Thesis nootropics and wondering how the products will arrive at your door, we made this handy, 5-minute video summarizing those details:

Additionally, like all health-related content on this website, this review was thoroughly vetted by one or more members of our Medical Review Board for accuracy.

How we evaluated Thesis

To evaluate Thesis, we examined the extensive research available on each ingredient the company uses and compared them to a growing marketplace of nootropics, many of which our testing team has tried over the past few years. Specifically, we assessed how effectively Thesis' formulas work, as well as their safety, cost, and the convenience of acquiring and taking them.

Ultimately, we found Thesis to be one of the more reliable companies in terms of product quality and customer care, even if they are among the more expensive nootropic brands. For any nootropic, you’re looking to create a noticeable effect in brain performance, and altering anything to do with that sensitive chemistry likely warrants a fair investment. The bargain bin is not typically where you want to shop for mind-enhancing substances.

We’ll get into a more direct comparison between Thesis and their competitors a little later, and you’ll see that the balance between their price and overall value is quite reasonable. For now, let’s look at each criterion in more detail.

Effectiveness

Nootropic companies have a plethora of ingredients at their fingertips when they formulate their products. Some companies take a modern approach, focusing on the latest research into established Western medicines. Others look to the past, where ancient Chinese and Ayurvedic practices employed various botanicals to achieve cognitive effects. The best companies combine these approaches, using potentially beneficial ingredients that science supports.

Thesis takes this combined approach, employing just under three dozen ingredients from amino acids to ancient herbs across their six products. The company scores highly in effectiveness thanks to the ingredients they choose and the doses they offer for each, making it likely that you can notice their combined effects.

Individual results will vary due to everything from sleep patterns to diet, but most people should find benefits in at least one of Thesis' six formulas. Caffeinated formulas generally have more pronounced effects than stimulant-free versions, but the value of Thesis offering every formula with or without stimulants cannot be overstated.

One minor knock against Thesis is that, unlike some of their competitors, Thesis does not have a nootropic blend designed for improved sleep. Better sleep supports cognition and mood, so some companies offer formulas designed specifically for sleep promotion with ingredients like melatonin. That said, some of Thesis’ formulas contain lion’s mane or Zembrin (a branded form of Sceletium tortuosum that’s been shown to reduce anxiety and promote sleep). 2 3 And the amount of Zembrin used in Thesis’ Creativity and Confidence blends is the exact same amount used in these successful studies — 25mg.

Good nootropics are, unfortunately, a bit expensive. You can find less expensive options than Thesis, but their $79 monthly rate is right in the middle of what the market demands. You could also argue that the ingredient quality, customization options, and overall efficacy Thesis offers make it a superior value to many less expensive alternatives. Still, the price remains a sticking point for some.

Let's compare the monthly and per-dose costs with some of Thesis' closest competition. The prices below reflect subscription savings where available.

Three of the seven competitors included in the chart above are more expensive than Thesis, and another three are no more than $15 less expensive, revealing their generally average cost. Focus Factor — consistently our top budget pick among nootropics — costs much less than others in the field and includes many ingredients with associated clinical research. The downside is that increasing the number of ingredients (even when they seem to work) increases the odds of an adverse reaction.

TruBrain is the only company that truly compares to Thesis from a quality and variety standpoint. Other companies offer only one or two formulas, whereas Thesis and TruBrain each offer several more targeted products. TruBrain allows you to spend just $69 on your first jar when you subscribe — $10 less than Thesis — but that price shoots up to $119 every month after that, making Thesis the superior value.

When we consider the safety of any supplement, we look at available research into individual ingredients and compare those dosages with what the supplement offers. Whenever possible, we also test the product ourselves to observe its effects on us. Additionally, we look for safety standards in manufacturing that can provide added peace of mind, like third-party testing and compliance with the FDA’s Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP).

Thesis manufactures their products in GMP-compliant facilities and has third-party testing performed to assess the purity of each ingredient and formula. And the clinical research involving the lion's share of their ingredients reveals minimal risk profiles with few to no adverse effects reported. That said, ashwagandha isn’t safe for pregnant or breastfeeding individuals, and it can stimulate thyroid activity, so anyone with thyroid concerns (hyper- or hypothyroidism) or on medication to regulate thyroid function should be careful. 36 37

Thesis also limits their formulas to a handful of ingredients, which reduces the likelihood that any one of them would cause an adverse reaction. This is pretty typical of nootropics in Thesis’ class, but less expensive nootropics might try to convince you of their value by stuffing a single blend with several dozen components. That might increase the chances you feel some positive effect, but the side effect risk goes up by the same token.

Convenience

Our convenience rating considers various aspects of a user's experience. It usually starts with the quality of a product's website design and whether or not its pages are easy to navigate. We also consider the presence of subscription systems that make reordering easier and money-back guarantees that protect your investment. A company's customer service is another vital aspect of convenience, especially if you need questions answered. The quality of an FAQ section, the availability of representatives via chat or phone call, and the responsiveness to email inquiries all play a part here.

Our convenience rating is also informed by the steps required to actually take the product. Nootropics often consist of large capsules, and doses can contain anywhere from 1-7 capsules, which is awful for anyone with difficulty taking pills. Smaller capsules, fewer capsules per dose, and simple dosing schedules are ideal. Thesis’ capsule count varies per formula, ranging from 2-4 mid-size capsules you can take 30 minutes before you might want or need their effects.

To summarize some important aspects of nootropic company convenience, let's look at which companies have large capsule counts, good money-back guarantees, and subscription systems.

Thesis also provides a service that few other companies offer: free consultations with in-house nootropic coaches. These experts can help you figure out the best time to take specific Thesis formulas and guide your experience so you can tell whether or not they're working for you. Follow-up consultations are also free as long as you subscribe to the product.

What are nootropics?

Nootropic is a term most people use to refer to any non-prescription supplement that can boost brainpower. 4 The technical definition is a little more nuanced — encompassing prescription medications like Ritalin and Adderall — but the supplement industry has largely co-opted it to categorize the new class of non-prescription products. The word loosely translates from its Greek origins to mean mind-changing, and the majority of ingredients in a given nootropic seek to alter the brain’s cognitive abilities, as well as its governance of mood and energy.

Most nootropic supplements contain botanical ingredients, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids that boast at least some clinical research connecting them with improvements in any of the following:

Compared to their prescription cousins, nootropic supplements aren't particularly strong. Still, limited clinical research indicates a tangible benefit to taking them.

What is Thesis?

Thesis is a supplement company with a focus on nootropics. Their founders each had experiences growing up with what would today be considered learning disabilities, and they credit nootropics for changing their lives. They make six distinct nootropic formulas, each with a specific ingredient profile.

Thesis differentiates themselves from their competitors in several critical ways:

• They offer a starter kit containing a personalized combination of four blends.
• You have the option to remove caffeine by request from any formula.
• They provide some of the best phone support we've ever experienced.
• Their targeted formulas conform to changing needs.

By providing you with a mix of formulas, Thesis gives you the ability to enhance the aspects of your cognitive and emotional life that need it the most on any given day. Maybe you know you have low energy levels on Mondays and Wednesdays, so you can take the Energy formula on those days. Maybe you want to devote your weekends to artistic pursuits. You can use the Creativity blend for that. Or you might find that one of their six blends works well for you in any situation. In that case, you can adjust your order to receive only that formula.

Thesis' customer service — particularly over the phone — is outstanding. While many customers might find chat support more convenient, our testers rarely waited more than a minute to speak to someone, and Thesis employs phone operators who are extraordinarily knowledgeable about the product and nootropics in general. Their email support is fine, and their chat support often redirects to an email inquiry. But that phone support is some of the best our testing team has experienced.

Is Thesis safe?

Most of the ingredients that Thesis uses in their nootropics exhibit minimal side effects in clinical research, so there’s a good chance that Thesis' various formulas will be safe for most people. But Thesis has nearly three dozen ingredients in their catalog, and not all of them will be safe for all users, including those who are pregnant or breastfeeding. Of course, the most important thing you can do is talk to your doctor before taking Thesis.

The most common side effects to watch out for when you start taking Thesis nootropics include:

• Loss of appetite
• Digestive issues

Thesis advises discontinuing their nootropics if you experience persistent headaches or an upset stomach.

Some Thesis products may present contraindications with certain prescription medicines. For example, ashwagandha has been shown to normalize thyroid hormone levels in people with hypothyroidism. 5 This has led some to believe that it could conversely cause thyrotoxicity in people with hyperthyroidism, though it’s worth noting that the study in question employed double the highest ashwagandha dose you’ll find in Thesis nootropics — the study used 600mg, and the ashwagandha dose in Thesis’ Creativity is 300mg.

Still, this should make abundantly clear the case for speaking with your doctor prior to taking Thesis. This is especially true considering the lack of research into the specific ingredient combinations you’ll find in Thesis products. There is also very little research looking into the risks of combining nootropic supplements with prescription stimulants such as Ritalin, Adderall, or Vyvanse.

Some side effects, such as jitteriness, can be attributed to the caffeine in Thesis formulas. The fact that you can elect to remove caffeine from any formula expands the company’s reach to anyone with caffeine sensitivities and those who really don’t want to give up their morning cup of coffee. If you want caffeine in your Thesis formula, we recommend trying it without having had any coffee first, so you can see how it affects you.

Insider Tip: If you’re not sure whether to get your formula with or without caffeine, we recommend getting it with caffeine. Thesis isolates the included caffeine in a single capsule separate from other ingredients. Caffeinated formulas cost the same as uncaffeinated ones, and you can always elect not to take the caffeine capsule (the smallest capsule in any formula, containing a white powder).

What are the ingredients in Thesis?

Thesis uses an impressive set of ingredients, many of which have been part of respectable clinical research. Not all of the effects they hope these ingredients provide have been proven with sufficient statistical significance or over multiple studies in different populations, but what we do know strongly suggests efficacy.

Here's a look at several Thesis ingredients that have encouraging research behind them:

Several studies on mice show that dihydrohonokiol-B (DHH-B) has potent anxiolytic effects. 6 That means it may be able to help combat anxiety. However, we can’t say this for sure since there haven’t been any studies conducted on humans yet, so any potential benefits are speculative at this time. 25 Converting the successful dose used in mice (1mg) to the equivalent human amount (4.86 mg) is about half the amount used in Thesis’ Confidence (10mg). 6

In numerous studies, ashwagandha has been shown to reduce stress and anxiety. 32 Thesis uses a branded KSM-66 ashwagandha, which has a high standardized count of withanolides — the component of ashwagandha responsible for its positive effects. 33 This ensures both efficacy and consistency from doses that align with those used in successful studies.

While every formula is different, you'll notice that each contains caffeine and L-theanine. The nootropic properties of caffeine are well established. 19 L-theanine — a non-stimulant derived from green tea — has been shown to smooth out the jittery effects of caffeine. You can easily have caffeine removed from any Thesis formula for no extra cost, which is unique in the nootropic market. The L-theanine will remain, as it has its own set of cognitive benefits in addition to its ability to tame caffeine. 20

Saffron offers multiple benefits, including increased levels of dopamine and glutamate, that are dose-dependent. Human studies have also shown positive effects on depression symptoms. Thesis’ Confidence uses 28mg, which is 2mg less than what was used in many of the studies on saffron’s antidepressant effects. However, one study did find success with as little as 15mg. 7

A review of more than 120 scientific articles looking into the cognitive effects of phosphatidylserine concluded that it “safely slows, halts, or reverses biochemical alterations and structural deterioration in nerve cells.” The study goes on to say that it “supports human cognitive functions, including the formation of short-term memory, the consolidation of long-term memory, the ability to create new memories, the ability to retrieve memories, the ability to learn and recall information, the ability to focus attention and concentrate, the ability to reason and solve problems, language skills, and the ability to communicate.” 34

Derived from a South African plant, Zembrin appears to provide cognitive and anti-anxiety effects as demonstrated in clinical studies on human participants that used the same 25mg dose found in Thesis Creativity and Confidence. 8

Synapsa is a patented form of Bacopa extract, a traditional Ayurvedic memory enhancer. Studies on humans resulted in statistically significant improvements in cognitive tests. The study used 150mg twice daily (300mg total), which is only 20mg less than the 320mg used in Thesis’ Logic. 9

7,8 DHF is a small molecular TrkB agonist that can easily cross the blood-brain barrier. It can increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that improves neuroplasticity, learning, and memory. BDNF deficiencies are connected to numerous cognitive ailments as well. However, no human studies have been conducted. 26 In mice, 7,8 DHF appears to enhance spatial memory. When converting the effective dose for mice to humans, Thesis’ Clarity offers roughly 6mg more (about 24mg compared to Thesis’ 30mg). 27

Choline is a precursor to acetylcholine, a powerful neurotransmitter in the peripheral, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. 10 One study on older adult human participants found that taking 187-399mg per day of choline reduced the risk of low cognitive functioning by nearly 50% compared to an intake under 187mg per day. 28 The CDP choline content in Thesis’ Energy is 300mg.

A 2010 clinical study on 485 older adult (over 55 years old) subjects found that 900mg per day of DHA improved memory and learning in those with age-related cognitive decline. 11 And another study in healthy adults 18-90 years old found that 580mg per day helped improve memory. 29 Unfortunately, the amounts used in many studies to improve cognitive function are quite a bit more than the 200mg (which is DHA and L-lysine combined) found in Thesis’ Logic.

Like choline, Alpha-GPC acts as an effective acetylcholine precursor. Studies also show that supplementation with Alpha-GPC can stave off exercise-induced reductions in choline levels. The effective amount used in the mentioned study is 200mg, which is less than half of what you’ll find in Thesis’ Clarity (500mg). 12

In addition to being an effective treatment for neuropathic pain, agmatine appears to have potent effects as an antidepressant. A five-year safety case report study concluded that there are no long-term side effect risks. Thesis’ Creativity only contains 250mg, which is well below the amount tolerated by study participants (2.67g per day). 13

Research into epicatechin indicates that it can enhance cerebral blood flow, delivering more oxygen to the brain to ensure it operates at its highest efficiency. The most effective dose for cognitive benefits appears to be over 50mg per day, and Thesis’ Clarity contains 278mg. 14

Lion's mane has been shown to increase nerve growth factor and promote neurite outgrowth of specific neural cells. It's a safe and reliable neurotrophic, but studies have debunked claims of neuroprotective properties. 15 A very small study of only 41 participants found that 1.8g of Lion’s mane may reduce stress and improve cognitive performance. 30 Thesis’ Clarity contains 500mg of Lion’s mane.

Hyperphenylalaninemia, a severe deficiency in phenylalanine, results in reduced dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline levels in the brain. 16 It can also alter cerebral myelin and protein synthesis. Supplementing with phenylalanine may provide neuroprotective benefits.

In a 2020 study, phenylalanine was a large component in a mix of seven amino acids that appeared to improve cognitive, psychological, and social functioning in middle-aged and older adults. Effective doses ranged from 0.85g to 1.7g of phenylalanine. A serving of Thesis’ Motivation contains 500mg, a bit under half of the average amount. 31

Examining the six formulas

Thesis has six nootropic formulas in their lineup (even though you can only choose up to four of them per box). Several other nootropic companies like TruBrain and BrainMD boast targeted lineups, as well, but Thesis is the Goldilocks of the bunch. Where BrainMD’s hyper-specific formulas rely on perhaps too few ingredients to make them worthwhile, many of TruBrain’s complex blends lack real specificity. With Thesis, you get targeted effects from numerous ingredients in moderately complex and reasonably priced combinations.

Each Thesis formula has a blend of ingredients that addresses specific needs. Their names give you a pretty big clue as to what the company intends each to do, but a closer look at their ingredients will help you understand how they achieve this.

Their formulas are:

Interestingly, the company thinks of its formulas as working well in pairs. You don't have to utilize them as such, but it's helpful to know how they view their most effective combinations. The following list details their purported combined benefits.

Enhances focus, eliminates brain fog, and lets thoughts flow naturally

Gets you going, keeps you going, and never crashes

Sparks new ideas, inspires extroversion, and revels in openness

You'll usually only take one formula at a time, but these pairs may act synergistically for specific personality types or cognitive needs.

Note that your first shipment of Thesis will contain six individually packed doses for four of these six formulas. Thesis chooses these formulas for you based on the results of an intake questionnaire, but you can make adjustments to that shipment on the customer dashboard before the shipment leaves their warehouse.

Let's take a closer look at each formula as they would appear with caffeine included.

Thesis Clarity

Thesis Clarity relies on 7,8 DHF (dihydroxyflavone), Alpha GPC (glycerylphosphorylcholine), epicatechin, and lion's mane to increase blood flow to the brain and stimulate the production of acetylcholine, a powerful neurotransmitter associated with learning, memory, and attention. It's particularly adept at cutting through brain fog.

Here's a look at Clarity's full ingredients list:

• Alpha GPC: 500mg
• Lion's Mane Mushroom: 500mg
• Camellia sinensis tea leaf: 278mg
• Dihydroxyflavone: 30mg
• Caffeine: 100mg
• L-Theanine: 200mg

One dose of Clarity consists of four capsules for the caffeinated formula and three capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Logic

Thesis Logic contains triacetyluridine (TAU), which caters to the health of the entire central nervous system. It also uses phosphatidylserine to help facilitate communication between and protection of brain cells. 17

This is Logic’s complete ingredients list:

• Ginkgo Biloba: 160mg
• Theobromine: 100mg
• Phosphatidylserine: 400mg
• High DHA Algae: 200mg
• Triacetyluridine: 30mg
• Bacopa Monnieri: 320mg

One dose of Logic consists of four capsules for the caffeinated formula and three capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Energy

Thesis Energy uses cysteine and tyrosine alongside caffeine to deliver a steady energy supply. It also includes TeaCrine, a branded form of theacrine, which partners with caffeine to affect adenosine signaling and prevent fatigue.

Here’s a full list of Energy’s ingredients:

• Citicoline: 300mg
• Mango leaf: 300mg
• Theacrine: 100mg
• N-Acetyl cysteine: 500mg
• Indian trumpet tree: 100mg
• N-Acetyl L-tyrosine: 300mg

One dose of Energy consists of three capsules for the caffeinated formula and two capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Motivation

Blood flow and cellular function are at the core of Thesis Motivation . It employs artichoke extract, forskolin, and B12 to achieve these goals, with a healthy dose of phenylalanine for added focus and motivation.

Here's Motivation's full ingredients list:

• L-Phenylalanine: 500mg
• Methylliberine: 100mg
• Vitamin B12: 1000mcg
• Forskolin: 250mg
• Artichoke: 450mg

One dose of Motivation consists of three capsules for the caffeinated formula and two capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Creativity

Thesis Creativity aims to realign you with your inspiration by removing barriers caused by stress, anxiety, and depression. It contains ingredients with powerful anxiolytic properties and 5-HT reuptake inhibition.

Here's a look at Creativity’s ingredients list:

• Alpha GPC: 150mg
• Agmatine sulfate: 250mg
• Panax ginseng: 200mg
• Ashwagandha root: 300mg
• Sceletium tortuosum : 25mg

One dose of Creativity consists of three capsules for the caffeinated formula and two capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Thesis Confidence

Confidence is designed to work hand-in-hand with Creativity, using saffron and DHH-B from magnolia bark to increase dopamine levels and decrease anxiety. One fascinating ingredient in this formula is sage extract, which one 2021 study showed can help with various memory tasks, including name and face recognition. 18 It’s worth noting, though, that this study employed a 600mg dose compared to Thesis’ 333mg dose.

Here is Confidence's complete ingredients list:

• Saffron: 28mg
• Magnesium bisglycinate: 500mg
• Sage: 333mg
• Magnolia Bark: 10mg
• Ashwagandha leaf & root: 120mg

One dose of Confidence consists of three capsules for the caffeinated formula and two capsules for the stimulant-free formula.

Our Thesis testing results

Our testing team has tried every Thesis formula (with and without caffeine) to determine their short- and long-term efficacy, at least at an anecdotal level. Here’s a quick summary of our experiences:

Clarity provided our testers with a combined sense of focus and mental ease, though we mostly found that it worked best from its second day forward. The very first dose is mildly effective, but it served us better as a loading dose. We had no crash from either caffeinated or uncaffeinated formulas.

Our testers found that Logic provided a similar experience as Clarity, increasing focus and mental acuity, but the caffeinated formula caused a crash in two of our testers. By excluding the caffeine, that crash can be avoided, though that comes at the expense of some efficacy.

We were very curious about how this formula would perform without the caffeine. Our testers had a noticeable increase in energy without jitteriness about one hour after taking Energy. The caffeinated version caused the worst crash of all the formulas, but we were pleased to find that the formula without caffeine still provided noticeable energy increases without a crash.

Our testers are generally a pretty motivated bunch, so we might not have been the best group to evaluate this particular formula. The testers who felt an uptick in a sense of motivation described it more like a feeling of being able to follow through on tasks with less distraction and completion anxiety.

Creativity, like Clarity, seemed to work better for our testers on its second and third days than on its first. Testers generally described a sensation similar to Motivation but without the feeling of being “on rails,” as one tester put it. It seems to allow for more curiosity and exploration, though not necessarily as much follow-through.

This is Thesis’ newest formula, so fewer of our testers have tried it. Among those who have, one tester with a mild case of social anxiety described feeling a bit more relaxed among groups of people. Testers preferred this formula without caffeine.

Thesis pricing, shipping, and returns

Thesis keeps their price structure decidedly simple. This is refreshing, considering the range of nootropics they offer. You don't have to worry about one formula costing you more than another. However, Thesis doesn't make a non-subscription approach economically feasible.

Every Thesis shipment — including the starter pack — consists of four small boxes, each containing six doses of a single formula. That’s 24 doses/month.

Here's how it works:

• Any one-time purchase of a one-month supply, including the starter kit, costs $119.
• When you subscribe, that monthly cost is only $79.
• You can take an extra 10% off your first order with the coupon code INNERBODY

Subscriptions require an account with Thesis, which gives you access to a well-designed customer dashboard. This is where you can easily make formula adjustments, alter your shipping schedule, or cancel your subscription entirely.

Shipping from Thesis is free in the U.S., and the company offers a 30-day money-back guarantee. In our testing experience, we attempted a return on a second shipment into the subscription. While it isn’t the company’s policy to do so, they refunded our money and let us keep the product. This is similar to some other “Keep it” guarantees we’ve seen from competitors, and we appreciated it.

Getting started with Thesis Nootropics

Thesis' website is easy to navigate, but it is inconvenient that you must complete the signup questionnaire before accessing formula-specific pages. There are ways around this — like direct searching or just knowing the formula URLs — but we think reviewing formulas should be a little easier when you first get to the site. And you won’t be able to place an order for anything until you complete the questionnaire.

The user interface for managing your subscription is exceptionally intuitive. You can quickly adjust your formula combinations, specifying whether or not you want specific formulas to contain caffeine.

Setting up a subscription with Thesis is a straightforward process. Here are the basic steps:

• Take the Thesis quiz . This will create a starter kit specific to your results. (You can also build a box from scratch if you know which formulas you want to try.)
• Order your starter kit. We recommend going with the kit Thesis creates after your quiz, but if you change your mind, you can use the customer portal after placing your order to make any changes to the formula combination before it ships.
• Set up a coaching consultation. This is an optional step, but we recommend it and encourage you to have your first consultation before your kit arrives.
• Take your nootropics as needed. Most people can experience some of Thesis nootropics' benefits within a few hours of ingestion. Some ingredients and formulas may take a few days to produce results.
• Refine your order. As you near the end of your first month, you can head over to the Thesis website and customize your next order to include the formula or formulas you like most.
• Set up follow-up consultations as needed. These will help you refine your future orders and maximize your results.

When you subscribe to the starter kit, you will continue receiving that kit every month until you customize your order. Thesis divides their boxes into four six-dose supplies, and you can mix and match those supplies to suit your needs. For example, you could boost energy on the weekdays and creativity on the weekends by getting a one-month supply with 18 servings of Energy in three packages and six servings of Creativity in a single package.

Personalized insights and coaching

When you take the quiz on the Thesis website, you'll get personalized insights comparing your results to other quiz-takers and a data set developed from nearly 500 scientific studies. The parameters in your results cover don’t completely line up with their formulas, but they include:

These results inform the system to make recommendations for your starter kit. After you order, you can set up a consultation with a Thesis coach. These consultations are free, and you can have as many follow-up sessions as you like. Other companies have apps or online resources like blogs or courses to help you on your nootropic journey, but Thesis’ personalized coaching offers a unique approach and execution.

Consultation calls last around 15 minutes, though some of our testers had their sessions go longer as their coaches' schedules allowed. We received best practices information about taking nootropics that covered dose timing, formula application, and more. Some of our testers also received diet and exercise advice that coincided with their formulas.

Alternatives to Thesis

There are generally two tiers of products in the nootropics landscape. The lower tier consists of products that cost between $20 and $40. Many of these nootropics contain proprietary blends that obscure the exact quantities of ingredients, presumably so companies can use more of the least expensive components. Some companies in this tier disclose their ingredient quantities but may not source them from the highest quality suppliers or perform third-party testing of any kind.

Top brands in this tier include:

• Onnit Alpha BRAIN
• Moon Juice Brain Dust
• Focus Factor

The second tier — where you'll find Thesis — consists of more expensive nootropics that spell their contents out clearly, use high-quality ingredients, and often perform third-party testing to ensure safety and potency. Top brands in this tier include:

• Qualia Mind

Hunter Focus

We have a comprehensive breakdown of our top nootropics , but here's a concise breakdown of Thesis' most comparable competition.

TruBrain offers one of the widest varieties of nootropics of any company — one of the few catalogs that rivals the variety Thesis offers. They also have some novel and beneficial delivery methods for their nootropic ingredients. Those include energy bars and liquid shots that are outstanding for anyone with difficulty swallowing pills.

TruBrain offers their nootropics in a targeted fashion, not unlike what you get from Thesis. They formerly offered their targeted blends in shot form only, but now you can get any of these targeted blends in capsule or liquid shot form. The shots come in small 1oz pouches that make them easy to take anywhere.

TruBrain's targeted blends include:

This is TruBrain's original blend. It contains seven nootropics, including Noopept, a branded form of N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester. This blend is caffeine-free.

The Strong blend is identical to the Medium formulation in contents and doses, but it also contains 100mg of caffeine.

The Extra Strong formula builds on the Strong blend by adding 150mg of adrafinil (2-(diphenylmethyl)sulfinyl-N-hydroxyacetamide). 21 This wakefulness-promoting substance may also help with weight loss and athletic performance.

TruBrain's Sleep formula contains just four nootropic ingredients: GABA, melatonin, 5-HTP, and a blend that TruBrain calls "functional oils."

Mellow is identical to the medium strength formula, but it adds the functional oil combination used in Sleep.

This formula contains Lion's mane, a mushroom that may promote neural growth , though human studies are necessary to determine if this is true. 22 Its other nootropic ingredients are rhodiola, guayusa, and rosehips.

A 30-day supply of TruBrain nootropic shots costs $89. That's $10 more than the subscription cost for a one-month supply of Thesis. Some of their shots contain caffeine, and others don't. If it already contains caffeine, there's no way to alter a TruBrain formula to be stimulant-free.

The first month of TruBrain capsules costs a bit less, coming in at $69. After your first month, however, the price goes up to $119. That makes Thesis the better value, but if you want the best possible nootropics for sleep support, it might be worth the extra money to check out TruBrain.

Qualia Mind is a brand under the Neurohacker Collective, a company that offers several products to address things like sleep quality, skin health, and vision. They have three nootropics available:

• Qualia Mind Caffeine-Free
• Qualia Mind Focus

Their original blend is comprehensive, consisting of nearly 30 ingredients in high doses. That means it's liable to provide you with noticeable effects. It also means you might not know which of those effects are coming from which ingredients, and some of the less beneficial components in your body may also have side effects you'd rather avoid.

The caffeine-free version is identical to the original formula but leaves the caffeine out. Qualia Focus is a more streamlined offering with only seven nootropic ingredients, including caffeine, L-theanine, and L-ornithine. 23

Initial shipments from Qualia Mind are significantly discounted, but after the first month, the price makes theirs one of the most expensive nootropics we've tested. For example, the first month of a subscription to Qualia Mind costs just $39. After that, it costs $139/month. And a one-time purchase is $159.

One inconvenient aspect of Qualia Mind is that a single dose consists of seven capsules, which can get tiresome even for people who don't have trouble swallowing pills. On the bright side, Qualia's 100-day money-back guarantee allows you to try it for a little over three months to determine if you can handle that kind of daily dosing.

Hunter Focus is one of three supplements in the Hunter stack alongside the company's Test and Burn supplements. The stack is intended for male use — Test is a testosterone supplement — but Focus and Burn are suitable for men and women.

Like Qualia Mind, Focus has a long list of ingredients in generous doses. In fact, one serving of Hunter Focus is like taking all six of Thesis' formulas at once. That said, the serving itself is difficult to swallow, as it consists of six large pills.

Another knock on Hunter is that they don't offer a subscription system. That means you can't get an extra discount, and you must remember to reorder when you're running low (theoretically, a nootropic like this should boost your memory). There's also no money-back guarantee to speak of, only a return policy with a relatively short window that only applies to unopened products.

One bottle of Hunter Focus costs $90, and shipping is $8.95 unless you buy more than one bottle at a time. The company will throw a fourth in for free if you buy three bottles at once. That's the only way to get any savings through Hunter.

Individual nootropic components

Many companies offer combinations of nootropic ingredients to perform specific brain-related tasks or even provide globally positive cognitive benefits. However, the scientific research behind most of these ingredients almost always includes just one rather than a combination. Some people prefer to try one at a time to minimize the potential for side effects and determine if one particular ingredient works for them. A few companies offer single-ingredient nootropic supplements for this specific purpose.

Our favorite company dealing in individual nootropic components is Nootropics Depot. They offer a wide variety of single-ingredient supplements and a few targeted blends. The prices are generally fair, with an average range running from $16-$70. A 30-day money-back guarantee covers every purchase, and you get free shipping on orders over $50.

Nootropics FAQ

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Specific nootropics affect different parts of the brain in their own ways. Some — like caffeine — reduce fatigue by blocking adenosine receptors, while others act to protect neural connections that are already present while possibly contributing to new neural growth. 24 Some also mitigate depression and anxiety, which frees up the brain to perform at its best.

Are nootropics safe?

The safety of a nootropic depends on the specific ingredients involved. Many are perfectly safe in the doses commonly employed by nootropic companies, but some can cause reactions like increased heart rate, gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, and even tremors. The smartest thing to do is to talk to your doctor before introducing any new supplement to your regimen.

Do nootropics really work?

Many nootropic supplements are noticeably effective — caffeine is a great example. Efficacy varies depending on the specific component or combination. Fortunately, a lot of companies offer money-back guarantees, so you can try their products to see if they work for you without much financial risk.

Will nootropics make me smarter?

Nootropics won't necessarily make you smarter, but many can increase your alertness, improve short-term recall, and promote neural growth and protection. That creates a great environment for learning if you apply yourself while using nootropics, and many ingredients can help you with the motivation it takes to do so.

How do you pronounce nootropics?

The 'noo' in nootropics comes from the Greek nous , which philosophers use to mean mind or intelligence. The 'tropic' in nootropic comes from the Greek tropikos , which relates to turning or changing. So, nootropic roughly translates to mind-changing. You pronounce the 'noo' like 'new' and the 'tropic' with a long O sound, like 'toe pick.'

Innerbody uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Mayo Clinic. (2022). Memory lapses: Normal aging or something more? Mayo Clinic Press.

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Thesis Nootropics Review 2024: Honest Thoughts + Am I Still Buying?

• Last updated: March 19, 2024

About Dr. Steve Kim, MD

Physician Advisor

After using Thesis nootropics for more than a year, for me, the higher price point is definitely worth it for the cognitive benefits I’ve experienced. Specifically, I’ve noticed that I am not feeling overwhelmed as often as I was prior, and I am able to focus and complete tasks with more ease.

Thesis Overview

• Price:  $119 for one-time purchase or $79 with subscription
• Helps With:  Cognitive function, including motivation, memory, focus, and more
• Side Effects:  Headache, stomachache, and more
• Safety: Made with ingredients that are Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the FDA or have passed Phase III clinical trials
• Dietary Information:  Vegan, and made without gluten, eggs, and nuts

Thesis offers a variety of  nootropics, also called “smart drugs,” which are medicinal substances that improve cognitive function, specifically memory, thinking, and learning. While some prescription nootropics are FDA-approved, Thesis is not regulated by the FDA and is available over-the-counter (OTC). However, their ingredients are third-party tested and they only use ingredients that are either Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the FDA or have passed through Phase III clinical trials. 

I’ve been taking Thesis for over a year now, about six times a week, and I’ve noticed some significant improvements in terms of how often I feel overwhelmed, as well as my ability to focus and stay on task. While I know Thesis won’t work well for everyone, these nootropics agree well with me and I’ll continue using them to help boost my productivity, focus, and more. 

In this article, I’ll delve into my experience using Thesis nootropics, as well as discuss their potential benefits, side effects, and more.

• Custom blends
• Personal coaching / support by nootropic experts
• No proprietary blends (AKA no hidden ingredients!)
• Caffeinated or noncaffeinated formulas
• Effective ingredients
• No free trials
• Relatively high monthly cost

My Experience Taking Thesis Nootropics

I’ve been loving Thesis since I started using their products, specifically the Clarity, Creativity, Logic, and Energy blends, over a year ago. While there’s no nootropic that’ll offer you the same potency you’d get from Adderall, or other prescription stimulant medications, I’ve found Thesis to work surprisingly well for my needs.

When using them 6 times a week, they have offered notable improvements in how well I’m able to focus and stay on task. In practice, this usually looks like a clearer mind and an improved ability to maintain a relaxed state of mind while completing various tasks. As someone who feels overwhelmed fairly often, this is a welcomed change of pace.

With their Clarity and Creativity blends, in particular, I just feel leveled out. I’m able to sit down and work, without feeling like I’m just hopped up on too much caffeine, a feeling that really makes me uncomfortable. 

In the world of nootropics, where certain products don’t seem noticeable whatsoever, it cannot be overstated just how awesome my experience with Thesis has been.

Benefits of Thesis

As a customer, you’ll have the opportunity to speak with their coaches at any time. I have reached out on a few occasions, just to talk about the fascinating world of nootropics. In particular, I have had amazing conversations with one of their neurologists, Cindy. It truly is nice to speak with other individuals who are as fascinated with the science behind nootropics as I am.

Another aspect of Thesis that I really respect is that they clearly publish not only which ingredients they include, but also the exact amounts of each ingredient. This matters because it allows consumers to actually cross-check the research behind the ingredients/dosages, an unfortunate rarity in the supplement space.

•  6 custom blends, each with unique effects that may work well for many individuals
• Personal coaching/support from nootropic experts
• No proprietary blends (hidden ingredients)
• Caffeinated or non-caffeinated formulas
• Effective ingredients that are backed by science and are third-party tested
• Available OTC
• Not FDA-approved
• Relatively high monthly price, which may not work for everyone

How Does Thesis Work?

You’ll start by filling out a questionnaire on their website, which should only take a few minutes. Once you’re done with the survey, Thesis’ algorithm will run through its millions of data points to predict which of their blends may work best for you. 

Once you place your order, either as a one-time purchase or as a subscription, you’ll be shipped your blends.

Per the instructions, you’ll begin taking your blends and note how you feel in the included daily journal. This will help your track whether your blends are the right fit for your needs or if they need to be adjusted. You’ll also be able to speak with one of their coaches at any time for additional support. 

Related reading: Stasis Supplement Review – Our Research, Testing, and Impressions

Thesis vs. Alternatives

 We’ve created this comparison table to pit Thesis up against Onnit and Mind Lab Pro , two other popular nootropic brands.

Thesis Nootropics Side Effects

The ingredients in Thesis may lead to side effects in some individuals, including: 

• Stomachache
• Signs of an allergic reaction

If you experience any prolonged discomfort, stop taking Thesis and reach out to your healthcare provider. Seek urgent medical care if you experience serious symptoms of an allergic reaction.

The Verdict: Are Thesis Nootropics Worth It?

Thesis offers a complete toolkit of nootropics that are tailored to your needs, in addition to ongoing expert support. Unlike other nootropics, which may include unnecessary or hidden ingredients, Thesis only offers what you need with their six unique blends that focus on supporting logic, energy, creativity, clarity, motivation, and confidence. Once you find the blend or blends that work for you, you can opt into a subscription and save on costs. 

While the monthly cost may be on the higher side, the ability to select only the blends you need, instead of opting for a nootropic that may include ingredients that are unnecessary for your particular needs, is definitely a major benefit of opting for this provider over others.

Keep in mind that Thesis will not feel as potent as prescription stimulant medication and that certain blends may lead to side effects, like gastrointestinal problems or headaches, in some. It’s always best to speak with your healthcare provider prior to trying Thesis to ensure that it is safe for you to do so.

Thesis will not be as potent as Adderall, a prescription medication. However,  Thesis , a type of nootropic or “smart drug,” may work well for some individuals in boosting cognitive function, focus, and more. 

Some nootropics can be used every day. However, it’s best to follow the specific’s products instructions, as well as speak to your healthcare provider about safe use.

Thesis  may be safe for some individuals to use. According to the company, they only use ingredients that are either classified as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the FDA or that havve passed through Phase III clinical trials. However, it’s always best to speak with your healthcare provider prior to trying Thesis to ensure that it is safe for you to use.

Thesis does not offer free samples, however, they do offer a no-questions-asked refund. 

Thesis offer caffeinated and caffeine-free formulas.

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Home Lifestyle Curious About Brain Optimization? Thesis Nootropics May Be Your In

Curious About Brain Optimization? Thesis Nootropics May Be Your In

• By Will Price & Rebekah Harding
• January 2, 2024

Our product picks are editor-tested, expert-approved. We may earn a commission through links on our site. 

E ver feel like you have the ability but not the willpower or inspiration to excel at your job? Or maybe you’re stuck in a creative rut and are struggling to get yourself out. Thesis , a nootropics company, wants you to stop being so hard on yourself.

Nootropics are the buzzy brain-boosting substances of the moment, and Thesis attempts to match people to different nootropic blends designed for certain needs—creativity, confidence, energy, clarity, logic, and so on. But can you really summon the powers of creativity on demand from a pill? Myself, and fellow Edge writer Rebekah Harding, tried Thesis for three months to find out. Here’s what you need to know. 

Why You Should Trust Us

Hone Health is a team of health-obsessed journalists, editors, fitness junkies, medical reviewers, and product testers. The two authors of this review, Rebekah Harding and Will Price, spent months taking Thesis’ nootropics blends and logging how we felt. We’ve reported on the ingredients Thesis incorporates in its nootropic blends extensively, such as ashwagandha , Alpha-GPC , Lion’s mane , and more.

For this review, we opted to review the product and service independently, as nootropics do not all affect people in the same way. Here’s what we found. 

What Is Thesis?

Thesis’s thesis (sorry, I had to) is that you are capable of more. But as co-founder and CEO Dan Freed says on the back of the box the pills come in, “…people thought I was lazy, stupid, or unmotivated. I knew there was more in me.” Freed and his brand propose that the solution to this conundrum many of us face may be nootropics, which are substances that aim to improve cognitive performance. 

New users are funneled through a quiz that determines the best nootropic blends for them—each named for the feeling they’re meant to evoke, e.g. confidence, clarity, creativity. Boxes come with four blends, each of which should last one week, with auto-renewing deliveries shipping at $79 a month. (Note: you can buy Thesis for just one month, but it will cost $119). 

You’re meant to take notes on how each blend makes you feel and, after you’ve completed your first box, adjust which blends you receive going forward.

What are nootropics?

Nootropics are medicinal substances (some pharmaceutical, some natural) that take aim at improving brain performance—memory, creativity, motivation, mood, as well as anxiety reduction and sleep improvement.

While many have heard of popular pharmaceutical nootropics like Modafinil, Adderall, and Ritalin, most over-the-counter nootropic supplements—like Thesis—are formulated largely with herbs, vitamins, minerals, and other natural compounds that are known to benefit the brain.

Thesis ingredients

Each Thesis blend contains different ingredients, many of which are supported by solid research. Here are a handful. 

Lion’s mane: Mushrooms that contain hericenones and erinacines, which can stimulate nerve growth and may offer potential cognitive benefits ( 1 ). In addition to thinking capacity, these mushrooms may lower the risk of age-related brain diseases, like Alzheimer’s disease ( 2 ).

Alpha-GPC: May increase your levels of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, which facilitates memory and learning, and plays an important role in cognitive function ( 3 ). 

L-Theanine: An amino acid that can positively affect mood. Studies have found L-theanine may be a beneficial nootropic for mood and mental health. It may also help ease anxiety and stress levels ( 4 ).  

Ashwagandha: An ancient herb taken for thousands of years, ashwagandha is an adaptogen that has been found to reduce cortisol —stress—levels in humans, which can have a number of powerful knock-on effects on the brain ( 5 ). 

DHA (Omega-3): This omega-3 fatty acid plays a role in supporting cognitive function and promoting growth and maintenance of brain cells . Research suggests that DHA may improve memory, learning, and overall cognitive performance ( 6 ). 

Synapsa: This patented extract of Water Hyssop boasts nootropic benefits such as enhanced memory and cognitive function ( 7 ). Research shows that taking Synapsa regularly may improve your information processing speed, increase your attention span and enhance your memory ( 8 ).

Ginkgo Biloba: Ginkgo Biloba has antioxidant properties, which are associated with cerebral blood flow and neuroprotection ( 9 ). Studies suggest that this nootropic may boost memory, mental clarity, and overall cognitive function ( 10 ).

Theacrine: This natural plant compound acts as a mild stimulant, without the tolerance build-up and jitters associated with caffeine ( 11 ). Theacrine may boost energy, mental clarity, and focus.

What’s Good About Thesis Nootropics?

Personalized recommendations.

There are a lot of folks interested in nootropics. Google reports something like 100,000 monthly searches for the term each month. The issue many have is simple: nootropics aren’t easy. 

It’s not easy to know what companies are selling legitimate products and which are pushing low-grade stuff. It’s not easy to get a handle on what the many, many different nootropics are meant to do. Sometimes it’s not easy to know if the good week you just had was thanks to a nootropic you just took, or the absence of some stressor you forgot about. Then there’s dosage, doctors, and the way in which these substances play off each other to worry about. 

Getting your foot in the door with nootropics is a challenging task. Thesis’s approach is designed to simplify this, and it largely works.

The personalization is somewhat limited, in that the blends themselves cannot be changed, but the blends you receive can. Interested customers are prompted to complete a simple questionnaire that asks about physical traits as well as your goals in taking nootropics. You’re then given a “Starter Kit” that includes four different blends suited to what you’re after. 

High-quality ingredients

The more you delve into nootropics, the more you realize there are, broadly, two classes of company: the legit class and the not-so-legit class. Thesis, by our account, is the former. The company’s products are products in FDA-approved cGMP facilities, which ensures the manufacturing of the product is sound. More importantly, though, and this will sound humorous if you’ve never shopped for nootropics, Thesis actually tells you what’s in its blends. 

Thesis is not the only company selling nootropic blends as a shortcut for people not interested in doing months of research. There are a great many companies that don’t specify ingredients (“focus blend”) or, more commonly, aren’t clear on dosage of each individual nootropic.

Thesis’s nutrition label is crystal clear on what’s inside each serving of its nootropic blend.

Excellent customer service

When launching oneself into a health category one doesn’t know much about, having a friend can be helpful and reassuring. Thesis’s customer support service—available via email or phone—is the weird science friend you need. 

I pestered them numerous times and each issue was responded to and resolved within 24 hours every time. The first time I called. Is there a way to remove the caffeine from the blends (there’s 100mg, or a cup of coffee’s worth in each pack)? You can request non-caffeinated blends on your next order, but for the time being simply don’t take the white pill in the daily dose packet. My email questions were answered with similar speed as well. 

There’s also Thesis’s coaching feature, which is effectively customer service for questions about your specific blends, how the blends make you feel, and so on. When I called into it I mentioned that some of the blends made me slightly antsy, some made me feel great, and others seemed to have no effect at all. Not only is this common, it’s expected: these substances do not affect us all in the same way, so there is a necessary trial period to get through. 

Having a source of reassurance when trying something new to improve our health makes the process more comfortable. 

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What’s not good about thesis nootropics, not for everybody.

As previously mentioned, not all blends will work for you. Several reviews online suggest there are people for which none of them will work. My fellow reviewer and I each found one or two blends that worked especially well, some blends that didn’t seem to have any effect at all, and others that caused some minor anxiety. 

This is sort of the rub with nootropics. Different people will be hit different by different nootropics ; and even then there is the matter of dosage and duration, as most research suggests there is bedding-in period associated with nootropic effectiveness ( 12 ).

So is this a con for Thesis or for nootropic supplementation more generally? It’s a little of both, but more so a hurdle with the wider world of nootropics.

If you’re already waist deep in nootropics as a hobby or interest area, you can likely build your own nootropic stacks for cheaper than what Thesis offers.

Thesis costs $79 a month, or $3.29 per serving, once you’ve set up your account for automatic renewal. This is, unsurprisingly, on the middle-higher end of the nootropic blend market. 

Budget brands like Focus Factor come in at less than a dollar per serving. Mind Lab Pro , a brand closer to Thesis’s efficacy and quality, goes for about $2.10 per serving. The popular NooCube blend is also about $2.15 per serving. 

It should be said that I’m obviously comparing apples to oranges here. Each of these blends are made of up different stuff. Each of these companies is selling to a different customer. It could be argued that Thesis’s hyper responsive customer service and task-focused personalization model makes the $79 a month bill a fair deal. That said, the price doesn’t pull you in quite like the promise the rest of the product provides. 

What It’s Like to Take Thesis Nootropics

Tester #1 info : Female, 23 years old Reason for taking : diagnosed ADHD, brain fog, difficulty concentrating, anxiety Blends taken : Confidence, Motivation, Energy, Clarity

When I was diagnosed with ADHD in 2016, everything clicked. I’ve struggled with brain fog, task paralysis, and extreme difficulty concentrating for as long as I can remember. But all I have to show for my diagnosis is a raging caffeine addiction, two failed tries at taking prescription stimulant medication, and an ever-changing-never-working supplement stack.

As a neurodivergent person, the idea of nootropics—supplements that may improve cognitive performance—is intriguing to me. The idea of spending hours researching different blends and stand alone supplements, however, is not. That’s where Thesis comes in. 

To order your four-blend starter kit, Thesis kicks things off with a quick 25-question quiz. The questions were quick and multiple choice, and didn’t take more than a couple of minutes. (As a company that markets to ADHD-ers, I have to say they know their audience.) The quiz covers questions like how much sleep you clock in each night, your typical mood, and your procrastination habits—and a memory test at the end that I won’t spoil. At the end, you plug in an email and receive a customized recommendation based on your goals and struggles. 

I’m ultra-productive, but I have extreme anxiety and frequent brain fog depending on the state of my hormones. Thesis recommended four blends—Confidence, Motivation, Energy, and Clarity—to boost my mental health, promote relaxation, and fight off brain fog. 

I took each blend for six days each—as directed—with one day in between to reset.

Week one I opted for Confidence—a blend that includes saffron, ashwagandha, sage, and magnesium—which oddly produced the opposite of its intended effect. Two days in, I ditched the separate, white caffeine pill in the packet, but that only alleviated my anxiety slightly. Week two, I took Motivation—which contains artichoke extract, vitamin B12, methylliberine, and L-theanine. I enjoyed this blend the most, and felt like my mood and concentration got a decent boost. Weeks 3 and 4 I took Energy (mango leaf extract, theacrine, citicoline, and more) and Clarity (Lion’s Mane, L-theanine, and more) respectively. I noticed no changes these weeks.

Overall, I think Thesis is worth a shot for the nootropic-curious. Especially if you don’t have the time or patience to research these trendy supplements. However, I don’t think I’ll be stocking up on any of their blends any time soon.

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Tester #2 info : Male, 30 years old Reason for taking : brain fog, unfocused, spark creativity Blends taken : Clarity, Logic, Creativity, Energy

I’ve not been evaluated for or diagnosed with any neurological or neurodevelopmental matters, but I have struggled to train my mind’s gaze on one thing for long periods of time for as long as I can remember. Call it brain fog or something else, it’s been a persistent issue of mine going back to my high school and college years, where I’d substitute just about any distraction available to me instead of something that would require real attention.

A Thesis ad on Instagram suggested this issue may not be my own failing (a source of great personal anxiety), but perhaps something that could be fixed with nootropics. I’m willing to believe most anything that suggests my failings are not my failings, so I ordered my personalized starter kit. 

My kit came with the Clarity, Logic, Creativity, and Energy blends. I quickly eliminated Clarity and Logic from the rotation, and both seemed to trigger a mix of uncomfortable headaches and anxiety (a quick browse of the internet suggests this isn’t an uncommon reaction to these specific blends). Energy, while effective, wasn’t the most useful to me, someone who doesn’t struggle as much with alertness. 

Creativity was different, though. During the second month of testing, once I’d taken Creativity for a few weeks straight (remember there is a bedding-in period!), things started to click. I started to feel the gears turning a bit more in brainstorm meetings at work, and I could think more deeply about how I could build a workout plan for a friend.

That’s how I would describe the feeling: a noticeable but slight improvement in my ability to untangle a problem of some kind. It wasn’t as though the shackles of my brand were removed and I launched a Fortune 500 company which, thankfully, Thesis does not suggest in any of its marketing materials. 

I’ve taken the Creativity tablets for a few months now and find them to be good value for the money, for me. For those curious about nootropics, I think of Thesis as the ideal first stop. Once you figure out what works for your brain and needs, you might seek out other solutions. 

The Bottom Line

Thesis nootropics are probably the best way to get into nootropics without having to do loads of research. The brand isn’t the cheapest out there, but the product is quality and the customer service is excellent. 

1. Lai, Puei-Lene et al (2013). Neurotrophic properties of the Lion’s mane medicinal mushroom, Hericium erinaceus (Higher Basidiomycetes) from Malaysia. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24266378/

2. skubel tomasz et al (2022). therapeutic potential of lion’s mane (hericium erinaceus) in neurological and cognitive disorders – a review of the literature. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363300485_therapeutic_potential_of_lion, 3. ham, juhee et al (2018). cholinergic modulation of the hippocampal region and memory function. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc5645066/, 4. williams, jackson l. et al (2019). the effects of green tea amino acid l-theanine consumption on the ability to manage stress and anxiety levels: a systematic review. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31758301/, 5. lopresti, adrian l. et al (2019). an investigation into the stress-relieving and pharmacological actions of an ashwagandha (withania somnifera) extract. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc6750292/, 6. yurko-mauro, karin et al (2015). docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4364972/, 7. downey, luke a. et al (2012). an acute, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study of 320 mg and 640 mg doses of a special extract of bacopa monnieri (cdri 08) on sustained cognitive performance. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23281132/, 8. kumar, navneet et al (2016). efficacy of standardized extract of bacopa monnieri (bacognize®) on cognitive functions of medical students: a six-week, randomized placebo-controlled trial. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc5075615/, 9. mashayekhu, ameneh et al (2012). effects of ginkgo biloba on cerebral blood flow assessed by quantitative mr perfusion imaging: a pilot study. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc3163160/, 10. ge, wei et al (2021). ginkgo biloba extract improves cognitive function and increases neurogenesis by reducing aβ pathology in 5×fad mice. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc8014356/, 11. bello, marissa l. et al (2019). the effects of teacrine® and caffeine on endurance and cognitive performance during a simulated match in high-level soccer players. https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-019-0287-6, 12. malik, matej et al (2022). nootropics as cognitive enhancers: types, dosage and side effects of smart drugs. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc9415189/, more hands-on reviews.

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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The impact of psychological theory on the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults: A scoping review

Contributed equally to this work with: Rebecca E. Champ

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Nursing and Midwifery, School of Human and Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom

Roles Supervision

¶ ‡ These authors also contributed equally to this work.

Affiliation School of Health and Life Sciences, Teeside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom

• Rebecca E. Champ, 
• Marios Adamou, 
• Barry Tolchard

• Published: December 21, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261247
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Psychological theory and interpretation of research are key elements influencing clinical treatment development and design in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Research-based treatment recommendations primarily support Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), an extension of the cognitive behavioural theory, which promotes a deficit-focused characterisation of ADHD and prioritises symptom reduction and cognitive control of self-regulation as treatment outcomes. A wide variety of approaches have developed to improve ADHD outcomes in adults, and this review aimed to map the theoretical foundations of treatment design to understand their impact. A scoping review and analysis were performed on 221 documents to compare the theoretical influences in research, treatment approach, and theoretical citations. Results showed that despite variation in the application, current treatments characterise ADHD from a single paradigm of cognitive behavioural theory. A single theoretical perspective is limiting research for effective treatments for ADHD to address ongoing issues such as accommodating context variability and heterogeneity. Research into alternative theoretical characterisations of ADHD is recommended to provide treatment design opportunities to better understand and address symptoms.

Citation: Champ RE, Adamou M, Tolchard B (2021) The impact of psychological theory on the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults: A scoping review. PLoS ONE 16(12): e0261247. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261247

Editor: Gerard Hutchinson, University of the West Indies at Saint Augustine, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Received: May 21, 2021; Accepted: November 25, 2021; Published: December 21, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Champ et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The combination of psychological theory and interpretation of research have been highlighted as critical influencers guiding decision-making for clinical treatment design and development for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) [ 1 , 2 ]. ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder of self-regulation with symptoms negatively affecting daily functioning at work and at home, with long-term impacts in academic, occupational, social and emotional areas of functioning [ 3 – 8 ]. Effective, long-term treatment outcomes benefit both the individual with ADHD and society as a whole as undiagnosed and untreated adults with ADHD may become an economic burden due to increased health care costs and decreased productivity at work [ 9 , 10 ].

Russell Barkley [ 11 ] postulated the first unifying theory of ADHD, which places a core deficit of behavioural inhibition at the source of ADHD behaviours. Several theoretical models attribute additional and alternative cognitive sources for the development of ADHD symptoms [ 12 – 14 ]. While a variety of different interventions are available and the benefit of other forms of support is acknowledged (e.g. psychotherapy or coaching), only Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Mindfulness, Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) and potentially Neurofeedback have the most empirical support [ 15 ]. Results of non-pharmacological intervention studies suggest these interventions have a positive effect on core behavioural symptoms of ADHD (inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity), particularly when compared to inactive control conditions [ 15 , 16 ]. However, recent systematic reviews of non-pharmacological treatment highlight that different classes of intervention design take similar approaches; that heterogeneity in sample size, study design, quality and symptom outcome measurement makes meta-analysis difficult, and there is a high risk of bias [ 15 – 17 ]. Additionally, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) [ 18 ] only recommends interventions that match a similar protocol to medications: Randomised Controlled Trials (RCTs), primarily based in CBT [ 15 ], despite a growing wider evidence base.

It is hypothesised that much of current research for the characterisation of ADHD is based on a cognitive behavioural theoretical paradigm that does not account comprehensively for the broad spectrum of ADHD presentation [ 1 , 19 – 24 ]. This paradigm is deficit-focused with primary treatment outcomes of symptom reduction and control of maladaptive behaviours. Recent research in psychology suggests that this may not be the best approach to improving mental health, and it may be necessary to develop positive psychological factors and emotions that cultivate health and wellbeing [ 25 , 26 ]. This scoping review aims to map the evidence and understand the influence of current psychological theories on design and treatment recommendations in adult ADHD by answering the following questions:

• Are characterisations of ADHD dominated by a cognitive behavioural paradigm?
• Does that paradigm influence treatment design and outcomes?
• Are there any alternative characterisations of ADHD that present a different perspective to the cognitive behavioural paradigm?

A broad approach was considered most effective to identify gaps in the literature, as data regarding supportive psychological theories would likely be identified in publications beyond specific study designs. To our knowledge, this is the first scoping review providing an overview of the theoretical characterisations of ADHD and their impact on available treatments.

Search strategy

The scoping review was carried out over three months: February, March and April 2020. The scoping review protocol was published on the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/ ). Search design and criteria were formulated based on guidance and recommendations by Arksey & O’Malley [ 27 ], Colquhoun et al. [ 28 ], O’Brien et al. [ 29 ] and the Joanna Briggs Institute [ 30 ]. A starting timeframe from the publication of Barkley’s [ 11 ] theory was selected as the foundation for current theoretical characterisations of ADHD. Papers were reviewed from multiple countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Iceland, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Finland, Sweden, Israel, Iran, China, Hong Kong, India and Australia, and multiple languages including English, Dutch, German, French, and Spanish.

Research evidence was identified by conducting searches across web-based databases with pre-determined search terms. Table 1 outlines the search terms and syntax used in primary and secondary searches.

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• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261247.t001

Additional searches were in generic search engines Google and Google Scholar, and checks of references from guidance documents and systematic reviews for additional material. Once identified, these references were collected through additional database searches or a direct search in the specific journal or publication.

Inclusion criteria

Titles and abstracts of materials were reviewed for eligibility. Materials were considered appropriate if they met the following criteria:

• Studies involving research on a pilot, efficacy, or applicability of a treatment intervention for adults with ADHD (19–65+, male and female)
• Systematic reviews of treatment literature or specific approaches to treatment for adults with ADHD
• Thesis, conference papers, or reports reviewing, presenting, or recommending treatment approaches for adults with ADHD
• Documents, articles, books, or consensus statements presenting guidance or recommendations for treatment for adults with ADHD

Exclusion criteria

In addition to meeting the inclusion criteria, materials were excluded if they met one of the following exclusion criteria:

• Treatment approaches designed for a specific subset of participants (couples, military, substance abuse)
• Treatment approaches designed to treat specific comorbidities (Autism, Bi-polar, Learning Disabilities, Tourette’s, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Personality Disorder, Traumatic Brain Injury)
• Treatment approaches designed for the inclusion of younger age groups (children, adolescents) or their parents
• Materials summarising and updating recent developments in the field of treatment for adult ADHD (general practice journals, nursing practice journals, medical student journals)
• Characterisations of adult ADHD that were not empirically researched

A large body of literature has been published over the years which present different characterisations of adult ADHD and subsequent recommendations for treatment. Predominantly based in the US, these biopsychosocial models range from origin theories of genetic strengths [ 31 ], diversity [ 32 ] and developmental impairment of the prefrontal cortex due to issues with attachment and trauma [ 33 ], to identifying multiple presentations of ADHD diagnosed individually with SPECT imaging [ 34 ]. While these models do present alternative characterisations of ADHD, they are not empirically researched and therefore will be excluded from this review.

The following PRISMA flowchart ( Fig 1 ) presents the search process details, including the number of articles located, those eliminated and those included in the final analysis.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261247.g001

Results and analysis

The 221 articles were subdivided into the following categories according to their primary content: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (122), Coaching (36), Psychotherapy (16), and Other (47). All articles were assessed for quality against the relevant Critical Appraisals Skills Programme (CASP) checklists. Results summary of the ADHD characterisation cited for each intervention category is displayed in a mosaic plot ( Fig 2 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261247.g002

An overview of interventions published by year is displayed in a column chart ( Fig 3 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261247.g003

Due to the number and variety of materials, a narrative analysis was performed to review the publications’ composition. Systematic reviews were also analysed separately to see if any review of the characterisation of ADHD had been completed previously.

Systematic reviews

Over the years, several systematic reviews of treatments for adult ADHD have been published. Searches were undertaken through Joanna Briggs Institute Evidence Synthesis, The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and the Campbell Library show some of these reviews are specific to the efficacy of a particular intervention approach, such as psychodynamic therapy [ 35 ], homoeopathy [ 36 ], Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) [ 37 – 41 ], Mindfulness [ 42 , 43 ], and Meditation [ 44 , 45 ]. Others have been focused on efficacy [ 2 , 15 , 16 , 46 – 48 ], long term outcomes [ 10 , 49 ], or guidance [ 50 ]. Only one systematic review investigated the characterisation of adult ADHD but failed to find evidence of neurocognitive disfunction as a predictor of persistence [ 51 ]. Interestingly, one systematic review investigated how adults with ADHD experience and manage their symptoms [ 52 ]. Therefore, it seems that no recent attempt has reviewed the psychological theories for the characterisation of adult ADHD.

Data extraction

Articles were reviewed, and data extracted into categorised excel spreadsheets for comparison. Each document was examined for the following criteria:

• Research Purpose/Outcome
• Treatment Approach
• ADHD Characterisation
• ADHD Theory

Intervention analysis

Research studies and guidance documents present treatment approaches in various environments, contexts and skill levels of delivery. The following interventions present a wide range of delivery in clinical and non-clinical environments; therapeutic, academic, and social contexts; and professionals including psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, nurses, occupational therapists, psychotherapists, as well as counsellors, coaches, and mentors.

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT).

Due to the involvement of cognitive behavioural theory in establishing the characterisation of ADHD, the bulk of research in the field has used this intervention model. While recommended as the primary treatment modality, treatment goals and methodologies have changed over time. Due to this shift in focus, some early research references non-empirical anecdotal work. This analysis will use the delineation of “waves” as seen in the current theoretical literature to demonstrate these changes [ 53 ] ( S1 Appendix ).

First wave : Behaviourism . Before 1990, ADHD was still considered a disorder of childhood. Although considerable research exists regarding “first wave” treatments in children, the few approaches developed for adults apply pure behavioural theory and techniques. A case study of three subjects focused on improving attentional behaviour in psychiatric patients [ 54 ], and the design utilises operant theory and models used for brain injury [ 55 ]. Guidance documents for teachers, parents and counsellors [ 56 ] and psychotherapists [ 57 ] highlight the importance of behavioural skill development. The conceptualisation of ADHD in these treatment models is a disorder of attention [ 54 ] and a neurobiological disorder of self-regulation, executive function deficits and disinhibition [ 56 , 57 ]. Burgess et al. [ 54 ] exemplify the transition of the conceptualisation of attentional deficits in ADHD from mental illness to mental disorder.

The therapist’s role in these models is to assist the client in learning and practising practical behavioural strategies for task attention, organisation, listening and scheduling, and planning and organising daily activities. Treatment designs are varied, with only one specifying weekly sessions from 6–10 weeks [ 54 ]. Characterisation of ADHD aetiology highlight issues with inability to maintain vigilance (attention deficit) and distractibility [ 54 ], self-regulation, impaired inhibition, developmental delay, and deficits in executive function, referencing Barkley [ 56 , 57 ].

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) . A single case study for ADHD specifically used REBT [ 58 ]. REBT approaches ADHD as a combination of neurobiological deficits [ 59 ] and developed secondary psychological personality disorders. Failure to develop cognitive structures leads to a lack of connection between thoughts, emotions and feelings, leading to deeply held distorted convictions and beliefs. The therapist’s role in this model is to assist the individual to dispute evaluative cognitions (“musts”) to develop a more rational philosophical orientation to the world. The approach incorporates independent “experiments” by clients outside of therapy, problem-solving methodology, and gentle introduction of rational self-statements for clients who lack the cognitive sophistication to engage in disputing of irrational beliefs [58, p. 95]. Treatment design has a developmental and longitudinal focus, in this case eight years. Characterisation of ADHD is described as DSM-IV core symptoms of attentional difficulties, impulsivity and hyperactivity [ 60 ] and references both Douglas’s [ 61 ] cognitive processing deficit model and Barkley’s [ 59 ] model of response inhibition and executive function deficits contributing to deficient self-regulation, impaired cross-temporal organisation of behaviour, and diminished social effectiveness and adaptation.

Second wave : Cognitive and cognitive behavioural therapy model . Cognitive and Cognitive Behavioural approaches are the primary and recommended treatment for working with ADHD and therefore make up the bulk of studies reviewed for this analysis. Considered “second wave” cognitive behavioural therapies, they consist of systematic reviews [ 2 , 37 , 38 , 41 ], randomised controlled trials (RCT) [ 62 – 80 ], group interventions [ 81 – 87 ], individual interventions [ 88 – 90 ], quantitative analysis [ 91 ], qualitative analysis [ 92 ], a cohort study [ 93 ], case-control studies [ 69 , 94 – 98 ], single case studies [ 99 – 102 ], multiple case studies [ 103 – 106 ], and psychotherapeutic treatment guidance [ 8 , 106 – 138 ]. Many of these studies deliver CBT as a standalone intervention, however multimodal treatment is recommended, and several treatment models include individual coaching or mentoring support alongside or in between CBT sessions [ 57 , 72 , 77 , 86 , 103 , 112 , 127 , 131 , 137 , 139 ]. One intervention also includes hypnosis and CBT [ 140 ].

Second wave interventions for ADHD recognise the neurobiological deficits as specific to the disorder and not brain injury. While they stress there is no “cure” for ADHD and the literature is clear that ADHD does not arise from distorted cognitions, cognitive treatment models focus primarily on improving, strengthening, or retraining cognitive abilities to increase awareness of behaviour and behavioural control. Early research identified cognitive distortions and maladaptive strategies and beliefs as interfering with skills acquisition and therefore needed support [ 104 , 136 ]. Further research shifted this view slightly to perceive the development of a negative self-concept as the core issue for maladaptive schema or “secondary symptoms” of stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic perceived failure attributed to a history of unachieved potential and negative feedback resulting from a lack of recognition of the disorder. [ 122 , 141 , 142 ]. Aims of treatment reduce deficit-based symptoms, develop environmental restructuring and accommodations, improve self-esteem and negative self-concept through disorder psychoeducation, and increase confidence in capabilities through supported skills practice and repetition. Approaches vary widely, including cognitive rehabilitation, cognitive and metacognitive remediation, and cognitive restructuring. However, most treatment approaches in this area are defined as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) ( S1 Appendix ).

The therapists’ role in these models is more a “partner”, “expert teacher-motivator” [ 122 ] and collaborator than the traditional medical expert role [ 117 , 121 , 129 ]. Originally defined by Hallowell & Ratey [ 143 ] as “coaching”, therapists are encouraged to be active and directive in providing structure and redirection to goals or session topics [ 83 , 87 , 101 , 108 , 129 , 135 , 137 , 144 ]. Failure to initiate behavioural changes or maintain new habits and strategies, or “procrastivity”, is attributed to motivational problems due to the nature of the disorder [ 8 , 108 , 121 , 145 ]. CBT for ADHD identifies the ADHD client’s difficulty with delayed gratification and generation of positive emotions as the reason for lack of engagement or “Coping Drift”, where individuals stop implementing the skills taught in treatment [ 121 , 145 ]. Professionals are cautioned that repetition is key, and strategies must be reinforced, or relapse is likely. Therefore relapse prevention is included in practice as well as model design [ 8 , 70 , 71 , 74 , 83 , 86 , 93 , 94 , 108 , 121 , 126 , 136 , 145 , 146 ]. Recommendations for resistance or avoidance of aversive emotional states is to provide therapist support to develop tolerance [ 107 , 122 , 135 ], reframe past experiences [ 112 , 128 , 147 ], and build resilience when encountering setbacks [ 8 , 111 , 118 , 137 , 138 , 146 ]. Treatment designs are limited in length, either by the number of sessions (3 to 16) or by relevance (academic year) except for single case studies [ 99 – 102 , 104 ]. Intervention delivery methods vary from individual or group therapy and didactic teaching with therapeutic support to a computerised program and self-help manuals ( S1 Appendix ).

Characterisation of ADHD and aetiology highlight issues with attentional and behavioural control (hyperactivity, impulsivity, disorganisation) initially, but broadens to give a higher priority to executive dysfunction deficits, motivation and sustained attention, issues with emotional control and self-regulation. Guidance documents definitions of ADHD are often cited: of the 84 papers in this Second Wave analysis, 29 reference DSM-IV [ 60 ], seven reference DSM-IV-TR [ 148 ], and eight reference DSM-V [ 149 ]. Several studies reference alternative characterisations of ADHD, such as similarity to brain injury [ 117 ] and Brown’s Executive Function model [ 83 , 94 ]. However, Barkley is cited in 70 documents.

Third Wave : Mindfulness and acceptance . Third Wave cognitive behavioural interventions take a different treatment approach to traditional CBT. While they are similar in the practical application of behavioural techniques, they differ in their theoretical approach and the focus on cognitive change. Third-wave approaches explore context: the relationship between a person’s thoughts and emotions rather than content alone. This relationship includes a more holistic perspective of health beyond the reduction of disorders [ 53 ]. Therefore, this analysis will review them separately. These approaches include Metacognitive Therapy (MCT), Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT), and Mindfulness Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (MCBT).

Metacognitive Therapy (MC) . Four documents used a metacognitive approach (MC), divided into group metacognitive therapy [ 5 , 76 , 150 ] and metacognitive remedial psychotherapeutic guidance [ 151 ]. Metacognitive interventions conceptualise ADHD as neurobiological dysfunction in the corticostriatal pathways, displayed as deficits in executive functions [ 151 ]. MC highlights the importance of awareness of cognitions or thinking about thinking to strengthen executive functions to enhance functioning and improve self-control. Borrowing from the psychoanalytic frame [ 152 ], treatment of this hybrid model aims to develop an “observing ego” or self-awareness, increasing the ability to be conscious of maladaptive thoughts and behaviours and confront them via self-analysis. The therapist’s role is to focus on cognitive and behavioural aspects of treatment and only address motivational or unconscious elements if they remain unexplained by neurobehavioural origins. Individual treatment plans are designed on a case-by-case basis to capture the individual’s unique problems and strengths. Analysis of authentic and emotionally charged experiences facilitates self-awareness using metaphoric problem identification, followed by strategy design and modification [ 151 ]. In group therapy, the therapist acts as an educator and facilitator, assisting with goal identification, the leading theme focused or problem assessment discussion, and offering support and encouragement [ 76 ]. Characterisation of ADHD focuses primarily on executive function deficits, followed by inattention and memory. This focus is reflected practically in treatment design as hyperactivity/impulsivity is considered less prevalent in adults [ 76 ]. Barkley is a primary citation in all four documents.

Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) . Ten studies identified an adapted model of Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) for ADHD. These consist of randomised controlled trials [ 21 , 153 – 155 ], a pragmatic open study [ 156 ], and group interventions [ 157 – 161 ]. This treatment model recognises ADHD neurobiological deficits but is grounded in a phenomenological conceptualisation, perceiving the nature of ADHD as a personality disorder. This conceptualisation is supported by similarities in symptoms and the positive response to the treatment of ADHD with comorbid Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) [ 158 ]. Linehan [ 162 ] characterises BPD as a disorder of self-regulation from biological irregularities combined with dysfunctional environments, including their interaction and transaction. Experiences of invalidating environments impair childhood ability to learn to label experiences and emotions, modulate emotional arousal, tolerate distress, or form realistic goals and expectations, resulting in a child who invalidates their own experiences, generating a lack of self-trust. The adapted model is presented in group format of 13 weeks of 2-hour sessions. The design prioritises ADHD symptom-oriented modules, highlights non-empirically researched resources of ADHD [ 163 ], and includes DBT “mindfulness” training explicitly. The therapist’s role in the DBT adapted model for ADHD supports treatment aims of learning to “control ADHD—instead of being controlled by ADHD” through psychoeducation and provision of session structure and flexibility for individuals. A key therapist practice adopted from DBT is the dialectical balance between validating symptoms, aiming for a stabilising effect and encouragement of motivation, and skills training for behavioural change [ 158 ]. These models characterise ADHD as a deficit of attention and emotional control with hyperactive and impulsive behaviour, but later papers highlight issues with executive function and self-regulation [ 157 ]. Four studies cite Wender [ 164 ] as diagnostic criteria [ 153 , 158 – 160 ], two studies cite DSM-IV [ 154 , 155 ], and four studies cite Barkley specifically [ 21 , 156 , 157 , 161 ].

Mindfulness . Twenty-two documents included mindfulness in treatment options for ADHD. These included systematic reviews [ 42 , 165 – 167 ], randomised controlled trials [ 168 – 174 ], a pragmatic open study [ 156 ], group interventions [ 98 , 175 , 176 ], a case-control study [ 177 ], a multiple case study [ 178 ], and psychotherapeutic guidance [ 8 , 179 – 182 ]. Only two studies presented mindfulness treatment alone [ 98 , 156 ]. In Edel et al. [ 156 ], mindfulness was used as a comparator to DBT.

Mindfulness-based approaches conceptualise ADHD as a neurobiological disorder of self-regulation with deficits in executive function. Issues with sustained and selective attention are addressed by mindfulness meditation, which is presented as a self-regulatory practice recognised as mental training to strengthen and improve regulation of attention, emotions and brain function [ 167 , 175 , 177 , 181 ]. The therapist’s role is primarily to introduce and support developing the new skill set of “mindful awareness” or cognitive defusion to facilitate the ability to decrease emotional responses while continuing to act [ 8 ]. Interestingly, Zylowska’s [ 175 , 176 ] Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy treatment model includes within its psychoeducation a characterisation of ADHD as a “neurobiological difference” with both evolutionary non-adaptive and potentially adaptive aspects [ 183 – 185 ]. However, within the treatment approach, the ADHD characterisation remains based on cognitive behavioural theory.

Treatment is in a group format, and length varies from 8 to 12 weeks of 2 to 3-hour sessions. The characterisation is reasonably consistent across this group, focusing primarily on poor sustained attention, inhibition and emotional dysregulation attributed to executive dysfunction, with one study highlighting impairments in performance monitoring [ 173 ]. Two papers cite DSM IV [ 42 , 168 ], two cite DSM V [ 167 , 170 ], and sixteen cite Barkley specifically [ 8 , 98 , 156 , 165 , 166 , 169 , 171 – 173 , 175 , 176 – 180 , 182 ].

Thirty-six documents presented coaching as a beneficial intervention for ADHD. These include a systematic review [ 186 ], a randomised controlled trial [ 187 ], individual interventions [ 188 – 199 ], qualitative studies [ 200 – 204 ], quantitative studies [ 205 – 207 ], and psychotherapeutic guidance [ 118 , 143 , 208 – 218 ]. It is important to note that nineteen studies were conducted at university for students, and therefore have academic goal achievement as a focus [ 187 – 195 , 197 – 199 , 201 , 204 , 206 , 208 , 212 ].

The term “coaching therapy” was coined by Hallowell and Ratey [ 143 ] to highlight the need for a therapist to take a more “active, encouraging role” with ADHD patients. The role of the “therapist-coach” was to provide a structuring force, maintaining focus and reminding patients of goals and objectives through directive interaction, as opposed to open-ended psychoanalysis. ADHD Coaching has since developed into an independent modality, which can be delivered alone or as part of a multi-modal approach. The ADHD Coaches Organisation (ACO) defines ADHD Coaching as a blending of three elements: Life Coaching, Skills Coaching, and Education [ 218 ]. Life coaching separates ADHD Coaching from therapy by highlighting the therapist-client relationship’s collaborative nature, where the coach supports client self-awareness and achievement of self-identified goals, providing structure and accountability as needed. The client is viewed as a creative and resourceful expert with individual strengths which are leveraged in skills coaching to design systems and strategies to strengthen clients’ ability to manage daily life. Education is provided through relevant ADHD research and tools, as requested by the client or as needed.

Conceptualisations of ADHD within coaching models focus almost exclusively on working with neurobiological deficits in executive function, with the primary treatment aim to set and achieve goals and develop skill sets to support practical day to day management. Some models even define themselves specifically as “Executive Function Coaching” [ 191 , 195 , 198 , 204 , 206 , 208 ]. However, some models highlight ADHD Coaching as based on or similar to CBT [ 186 , 196 , 199 , 208 ]. The role of the coach is to support clients to improve self-regulation, defined as the ability to persist in goal-directed behaviour through time [ 204 , 209 ], by modelling cognitive strategies, practising non-judgement, offering pragmatic support and guidance, and holding clients accountable by reflection in session or monitoring progress via between session check-ins. Negative emotions are addressed as barriers to goal achievement and confidence, but models are specific that ADHD coaching is practical [ 186 ], dealing with “what, when and how–never why” [ 213 ].

Six documents mention self-determination models as part of a wider ADHD Coaching treatment model [ 190 , 191 , 194 , 195 , 204 , 206 ]. These are functional theory models designed to assist students, particularly those with learning disabilities, to develop internal or dispositional characteristics of self-determined behaviour and goal acquisition [ 219 – 221 ]. Field & Hoffman’s model [ 221 ] defines self-determination as the ability to define and achieve goals grounded in knowing and valuing oneself, which can be supported or thwarted by internal variables and environmental factors. The model specifically focuses on internal controllable variables to assist individuals to adapt to environments with unpredictable support. The core theory is that to be self-determined, one must develop internal awareness and the skills and strength to act on this internal foundation. The model has five major components:

• “Know Yourself”: Increase awareness of one’s preferences, strengths, weaknesses and needs by “dreaming” or overcoming barriers in socialised expectations for individuals with disabilities that limit options and perceptions of self-efficacy, building on a foundation for self-determined decision making.
• “Value Yourself”: Develop affective variables of self-esteem, including identifying strengths in areas commonly perceived as weakness, supporting the self-acceptance of disability and motivation for self-advocacy, increasing the ability to be self-determined.
• Plan: Learn planning skills and visual rehearsal of creative and effective actions for short-range steps leading to long term goals.
• Act: Awareness of how to assertively communicate goals, desires and intentions to others and access relevant resources. Understanding persistence, negotiation, and conflict resolution around risk-taking and barriers that may result from taking action.
• Experience Outcomes and Learn: Learn skills in evaluation of progress based on experience of change and comparison to expected outcomes. Recognition and celebration of successes crystallises the self-determination process.

Wehmeyer et al.’s model [ 219 , 222 ] is a teaching model to help students become causal agents. Based on cognitive behavioural theory [ 223 , 224 ], social cognitive theory [ 225 ] and research in self-management and self-control [ 226 ], this model defines self-determination as the abilities necessary to act as one’s primary causal agent and make choices and decisions about the quality of life free from external influence and interference [ 227 ]. Developed from a model designed to teach students decision making, independent performance, self-evaluation, and adjustment skills, the updated model includes defining those who are self-determined to persistently regulate problem-solving to meet self-directed personal goals using student-directed learning strategies [ 219 ]. This ability is developed through a learned problem-solving sequence of thoughts and actions to reduce the discrepancy between what students want or need and what they have or know. The sequence requires the students to 1) identify the problem; 2) identify potential solutions; 3) identify barriers to solving the problem; and 4) identify consequences to each solution, thereby enabling the student to regulate problem-solving by setting goals to meet needs, constructing plans to meet goals, and adjusting actions to complete plans [ 219 ]. A comprehensive combined curriculum of these frameworks was later developed [ 220 ]. While they provide support for client autonomy and causal agency within the design of these ADHD Coaching models, these models prioritise goal setting and identification as regulators for human behaviour and recommend student-directed learning strategies based on operant psychology, applied behavioural analysis and positive reinforcement techniques. Thus, treatment approaches for ADHD remain based on cognitive behavioural theory.

Treatment approaches in ADHD Coaching models are primarily cognitive behavioural, including reframing negative self-talk [ 228 ], continuous reinforcement [ 189 , 209 ], implementing rewards and consequences [ 188 , 189 , 192 , 196 , 212 ], and between-session assignments [ 192 , 196 , 209 , 217 ]. These models focus on the characterisation of ADHD as deficits in executive function relating to goal-directed behaviour, disorganisation and planning, motivation, and ultimately self-regulation. Citations for characterisation in ADHD Coaching models include one referencing DSM IV [ 211 ], three reference DSM-IV-TR [ 191 , 202 , 214 ], one reference to Brown’s Executive Function Model [ 195 ], and twenty-eight reference Barkley specifically [ 118 , 128 , 143 , 186 , 188 , 189 , 191 – 194 , 196 – 201 , 203 – 207 , 209 , 212 , 214 – 218 ].

Other interventions.

Fourty-seven documents describe non-pharmacological interventions not based on psychotherapy. These include Neurofeedback, Transcranial Stimulation, Hypnotherapy, Light Therapy, Computer-Based, Mentoring, Self-Monitoring, Binaural Beat Auditory Stimulation, and Movement-related interventions.

Neurofeedback . Twelve documents explored Neurofeedback as an intervention for ADHD. These include randomised controlled trials [ 229 – 231 ], individual interventions [ 232 , 233 ], case-control studies [ 234 , 235 ], a single case study [ 236 ], and treatment guidance [ 118 , 237 – 239 ]. Neurofeedback (NF) treatment models focus heavily on neurocognitive deficits as being the origin of ADHD behaviours. The research uses Electroencephalography (EEG) measures to study the correspondences between intracranial electrical currents and responding voltages on the scalp. These measures indicate aspects of brain electrical function and processing, such as the electrical activity of various brain regions and their response to stimuli during cognitive tasks. EEG activity is quantified by computation of amplitude and power values for specific frequency bands of activity, source localization, and brain electrical activity mapping. Frequency refers to the number of oscillations, or waveforms, within a given time period. Analysis of waveforms, or a mixture of frequency bands, is a relational and complex process of examining frequency bands associated with both regions of the brain and cognitive or behavioural characteristics.

Characterisations of ADHD are presented as disturbances in cortical arousal, executive function, and self-regulation. Theta/beta and theta/alpha waveform ratios (TBR) are considered a measure of differences in excess, slow-wave activity and epileptiform spike and wave activity [ 240 ], interpreted as abnormal brain processes indicating cortical under arousal, insufficient inhibitory control, and maturational delay in ADHD [ 241 ]; however recent studies have challenged TBR as a marker for ADHD diagnosis [ 235 ]. Sensory-motor rhythm (SMR) or low beta waveform ratios are thought to indicate cortical hypo-arousal, interpreted as deficiencies in the early stages of information processing [ 230 ]. Decreased contingent negative variation (CNV), a steady, slow, negative-going waveform associated with cognitive energy in anticipation of task performance, is considered indicative of dysfunctional regulation of energetical resources in ADHD [ 234 ].

Based on research in children, two treatment approaches reflect changes in the conceptualisation of ADHD and, therefore, treatment aims. Traditionally, the focus of treatment has been based on a “conditioning and repair model” [ 242 ]. Treatment aims to address dysfunctions and see behavioural improvement and remediation of symptoms following NF application [ 243 ]. Skill acquisition and learning are implicit, automatic, and unconscious. Changes in activity indicate positive results: the ability to decrease slow-wave activity (theta) and/or increase fast wave EEG activity (beta) should correlate with symptom improvement; or modulation of slow cortical potentials (SCP), changes of cortical electrical activity, indicate improved cortical regulatory processes [ 244 ]. The role of the therapist is to act as a model for affect regulation [ 236 ] as well as use behavioural principles such as operant conditioning (i.e., positive reinforcement) in the training process resulting in normalisation and stable change in resting EEG, or “EEG trait” [ 245 ], and behaviour [ 231 , 233 , 234 ].

More recently, the NF treatment focus has developed into a “skills acquisition model” [ 242 ]. Rather than simply improving neuropsychological deficits, it is thought that NF may be used as a tool for enhancing or optimising specific cognitive or attentional states [ 246 , 247 ]. This model recognises the bio-psycho-social model of neurodevelopmental disorders, characterising ADHD as impairments in attention, executive functions and self-regulation [ 229 , 230 ]. In this model, self-regulation, or neuro-regulation, is defined as explicit learning of controlled cognitive processes of cortical regulation evidenced by normalised shifts in EEG amplitudes [ 242 , 248 , 249 ]. Performance optimisation is evidenced by improved skill in changing the “EEG state” via self-initiated effort during task performance [ 243 , 250 ]. The therapist’s role is to use cognitive behavioural therapy elements such as positive feedback and coaching and operant procedures as active support within treatment sessions to enhance self-efficacy and self-confidence to support neuro-regulation [ 244 , 251 ]. Citations for characterisation of ADHD in NF models include two citations for DSM-IV-TR [ 231 , 238 ], two for DSM -V [ 232 , 233 ], one for Sonuga-Barke’s Delay Aversion Model [ 237 ], three for Sergeant’s Cognitive-Energic Model [ 230 , 234 , 237 ], and four citations for Barkley [ 118 , 229 , 237 , 239 ].

Transcranial stimulation . Four documents present Transcranial Stimulation as a treatment approach for ADHD. These include a systematic review [ 252 ], two randomised controlled trials of Transcranial Direct Stimulation (tDCS) [ 253 , 254 ], and a randomised controlled trial of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) [ 255 ]. Both forms of transcranial stimulation conceptualise ADHD as a neurobiological disorder with deficits in executive functions, including attention, working memory, impulsivity, and inhibitory control. The treatment aims to increase cortical excitability in the area of stimulation, leading to improved neuropsychological and cognitive functions.

Treatment approaches are non-invasive but differ in their application. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation uses a coil placed on the subjects head to deliver brief, intense pulses of current (up to 50 Hz) to generate a sizeable electromagnetic induction field initiating neurotransmitter release in the cortex and subcortical white matter of the brain [ 255 , 256 ]. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation uses conductive sponge electrodes applied to the scalp in specific locations to deliver a weak electrical current (1–2 mA or milliamps) for up to 20 minutes. It is hypothesised that the electrical current changes the polarisation of the neurons, affecting their average level of discharge [ 253 , 254 , 256 ]. Multiple treatments are administered daily for 3–4 weeks. Protocols suggest two applications of stimulation: “online”, or while a patient is completing a task, or “offline” where the treatment is applied before or without specific targeted tasks. Citations for characterisation of ADHD in these models include DSM-IV [ 252 ], DSM-IV-TR [ 254 ], DSM V [ 255 ] and Barkley [ 253 ].

Hypnotherapy . Two RCTs examined hypnotherapy as a treatment approach for ADHD [ 74 , 257 ]. These studies conceptualise ADHD as a developmental neurobiological disability with deficits in attention, issues with hyperactivity/impulsivity and problems in executive function, including processing speed, regulating alertness, modulating emotions, and utilizing memory. Treatment aims to improve symptoms, mood, quality of life and cognitive performance. Treatment design is based on symptoms outlined in the DSM-IV and Brown’s Executive Dysfunction Model [ 258 ]. The therapist’s role was to follow a semi-structured manual to review the previous session, present the theme for the current session, perform induction and guided hypnotherapy with a post-hypnotic suggestion, and lead discussion. Treatment length was ten weekly sessions of 40 to 60 minutes. Citations for characterisation of ADHD were the DSM-IV [ 257 ] and Brown’s Executive Dysfunction Model [ 74 ].

Light therapy . Five documents present light therapy as a treatment approach for ADHD: a systematic review [ 259 ], an individual intervention [ 260 ], a quantitative study [ 261 ], a literature review [ 262 ], and treatment guidance [ 263 ]. These documents conceptualise ADHD as a neuropsychiatric disorder with primary symptoms of impulsivity, inattention, and hyperactivity impacted by mood regulation difficulties, maintaining arousal and sleep disturbances that contribute to pathophysiology. This conceptualisation is supported by links between ADHD, seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and circadian rhythms and highlighted by similarities in symptoms between sleep deprivation and ADHD [ 261 , 263 ]. Research indicates abnormalities in circadian related physiological measures such as heart rate increase relevant to autonomic function, dysregulation in melatonin rhythm leading to delays in melatonin onset, which may affect the modulation of the sleep/wake cycle [ 263 , 264 ], as well as some evidence of low cortisol impacting wakening times [ 259 ]. Also, a later diurnal preference, or evening chronotype, is highly prevalent in the ADHD population. Its association with shorter night sleep periods is believed to generate sleep debt, delay the sleep phase, and exacerbate symptoms or potentially play a causal role in ADHD symptoms [ 262 , 263 ].

Light Therapy (LT) treatment aims to assist with phase-shifting abnormal circadian rhythms through light exposure to achieve sleep onset to improve alignment with work, academic, or social norms. Treatment outcomes are improved sleep and improved ability to maintain effort, arousal and attention [ 260 , 262 ]. The treatment has been trialled as a three-week self-administered daily dose of 10,000 lux at a distance of 24 inches using a full-spectrum fluorescent lightbox [ 260 ]. Citations for the characterisation of ADHD in these documents include DSM-IV [ 260 ], DSM-V [ 259 ], Douglas [ 262 ], Brown’s Executive Dysfunction Theory [ 261 ], and Barkley [ 261 ].

Computer-based interventions . Eight documents presented computer-based interventions as a treatment approach for ADHD. These include randomised controlled trials [ 265 – 268 ], individual interventions [ 269 , 270 ], and case-control studies [ 271 , 272 ]. These approaches characterise ADHD as a neurobiological disorder with executive function deficits, including difficulties in sustained attention, response inhibition, goal persistence, and working memory. Computer-based interventions take two approaches: supportive or training. Supportive interventions aim to target specific symptoms and facilitate functioning via supportive software. Individuals are given access to tools used independently following training for a set timeframe. In Hecker et al. [ 271 ], a software tool designed to reduce internal and external distractions aimed to reduce effort and improve engagement, resulting in increased time reading and comprehension. In Irvine [ 269 ], a smartphone app for time management aimed to reduce the discrepancy between the perception of time and actual time spent by providing immediate real-time feedback on the current status and time use, leading to adjustments of future tasks according to behavioural therapeutic principles.

Training interventions aim to strengthen cognitive skills and/or remediate deficiencies via cognitive behavioural learning strategies of repetition and positive reinforcement. Working Memory Training [ 265 , 266 , 268 ] aimed to enhance auditory-verbal and visual-space working memory through intensive training with increasing task difficulty leading to improved cognitive and academic performance and attentional self-regulation. Cognitive ability training [ 272 ] aimed to improve cognitive skills of decision making, attention, organisation and time management through simulated activities in a gaming environment, providing immediate real-time rewards. Cognitive training for executive function [ 267 , 270 ] aimed to remediate cognitive processes deficiencies by repeated and graded exposure to neutral and universal stimuli and feedback. Training is self-administered, hierarchical and adjusted to individual performance with outcomes for improvements in daily executive functioning, occupational performance, and quality of life. Treatment length varied in frequency and intensity, from 20-minute sessions 3–5 times a week for 12 weeks to 45-minute sessions five days a week for five weeks and included weekly check-ins or supportive coaching. Citations for characterisation of ADHD in these approaches include DSM-IV [ 265 , 266 , 268 , 270 ], DSM V [ 271 ], Brown’s Executive Dysfunction Model [ 267 , 270 ], Nigg’s Integrative Theory [ 267 ], and Barkley [ 266 , 267 , 269 , 270 ].

Mentoring . One study presented mentoring as an individual intervention for ADHD [ 273 ]. Based in a university environment, ADHD is characterised as deficits in basic cognitive skills, such as attention, concentration, and memory and higher-level cognitive skills or “executive functioning”, such as planning, organization, judgment, problem-solving, and cognitive flexibility. These can negatively affect the university experience, as more independent self-management and a complex skill set are required for success, particularly time management and organization, academic skills, and social skills.

The mentoring program pairs second-year master’s level occupational therapy (MSOT) students (mentors) with undergraduate college students (mentees) for one-to-one support twice weekly for 2-hour sessions in the fall and spring semesters. This mentoring is a credit-bearing course that addresses skill development in time management and organization, academic skills, and social skills for college success. Mentees are graded on attendance, professional behaviours, compliance on a weekly to-do list, a presentation on academic resources, and a 4-part written paper on an academic skill. Mentors are participating as part of a professional Occupational Therapy training programme with an overall goal to facilitate student success in college, and if factors overwhelmingly interfere with this goal, to identify an alternate, suitable plan. As part of the training, mentors meet in discussion groups to brainstorm ways to overcome the mentoring process’s challenges. The citation for the characterisation of ADHD in this intervention is primarily the DSM V [ 273 ].

Self-monitoring . One study presented individual self-monitoring as an intervention for ADHD [ 274 ]. Based in a university environment, ADHD is characterised as a neurobehavioral disorder with symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, which increases the risk of academic failure or underachievement.

A checklist tool is co-designed and supported with integrity checks and email reminders every 2–4 days, with face-to-face check-in sessions every two weeks. The self-monitoring intervention aims to teach participants to observe and record behaviours to change the behaviour in the future. Outcomes are to obtain higher grades, endorse fewer ADHD symptoms, engage in more positive study skills, further attain goals, and improve medication adherence. Citations for characterisation of ADHD is DSM IV [ 274 ].

Binaural beat auditory stimulation . Two documents present binaural beat auditory stimulation as a treatment for ADHD. These include an individual intervention [ 275 ] and a literature review [ 276 ]. These approaches characterise ADHD as a disorder with core deficits in behavioural inhibition and sustained attention, highlighting a decrease in beta wave states interfering with maintenance of attention as a contributing factor.

Binaural beat auditory stimulation generates tones of two frequencies presented separately in each ear which are synthesised by the medulla into a single low-frequency tone. The pulse frequency from this binaural beat is the difference between the two tones and generates electrical activity that EEG can record. Treatment aims to match the difference between the tones to a particular brain-wave state, such as the beta range, which will correspondingly be maintained by overall brain activity and affect cognition levels [ 277 ]. Treatment involves exposure to auditory stimulus via headphones during an active task. Citations for characterisation of ADHD only directly reference Barkley [ 275 ].

Movement-related interventions . Twelve documents present movement-related interventions as a treatment for ADHD, including a systematic review [ 278 ], a pilot study [ 279 ], case-control studies [ 280 – 285 ], and treatment guidance [ 286 – 289 ]. In these approaches, ADHD is a disorder with core issues in special working memory, attention control, response inhibition, motor control, delay aversion, emotional self-regulation, and executive dysfunction. Movement-related interventions approach treatment in two ways: passive and active.

One document presented a passive intervention. Whole Body Vibration (WBV) devices deliver sinusoidal or oscillating wave vibrations at low frequencies to enhance mechanical muscular performance [ 290 ], improve balance and proprioception [ 291 ], and increase vigilance [ 292 ], potentially by inducing muscle contractions and increasing tension through the stretch reflex. Treatment is passive, delivered while sitting still, and aims to improve attention, inhibitory control, and cognitive performance in ADHD [ 280 ].

Active movement-related interventions aim to improve neurobiological factors such as increased cerebral blood flow, enhance neuroplasticity [ 288 , 289 ], assist the development of cortical and subcortical brain regions through activity [ 287 ], reduce the impact of comorbid anxiety, depression, stress and negative affect [ 279 , 288 ], and improve cognitive function and performance [ 282 – 286 ]. There is a specific focus on hypodopominergic functioning in ADHD and the upregulation of a brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein in several studies. [ 281 , 283 , 286 , 288 , 289 ]. Research shows that BDNF is linked to differentiation and survival of dopaminergic neurons, and decreased levels of BDNF have been suggested as being involved in ADHD pathology [ 293 ]. As well as improved cognition, one of the benefits of acute exercise is elevated levels of BDNF, which these models argue makes exercise an important intervention for ADHD. Treatment varies both in approach and length, from vigorous physical activity for 30 minutes, such as cycling, to fine motor movement stimulation using an anti-stress ball during a task. Citations for the characterisation of ADHD in these approaches include DSM IV [ 287 ], DSM V [ 285 ], Nigg [ 281 , 286 ], Sergeant [ 282 ], Sonuga-Barke [ 282 , 286 ], and Barkley [ 278 – 280 , 283 , 284 , 286 , 288 , 289 ].

Alternative models.

Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic . There are very few studies in Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic approaches for adult ADHD. A group intervention [ 294 ], single [ 295 , 296 ] or double case studies [ 297 – 299 ] were reviewed, as well as an evaluation study [ 300 ]. Much of the literature consists of literature reviews [ 35 , 301 – 304 ] and guidance pieces [ 152 , 305 , 306 ], which demonstrate considerable debate in the characterisation and aetiology of ADHD. Early papers reflect issues in clinical approaches by highlighting the importance of considering ADHD diagnosis as defined by DSM-IV in light of epidemiological evidence [ 301 , 307 ]. Both Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic approaches present alternative models to Barkley, with distinct variation in characterisation.

Historically, Psychoanalysis does not recognise neurobiological deficits. Behaviours associated with ADHD are conceptualized as disturbances in the ego, identified as the organising force responsible for synthesis and integration of internal and external stimuli, internalisation of object relations and structure and development of the superego, and integral to facilitating the capacity for self-observation and self-reflection. Early presentations of these disturbances in childhood lead to attachment issues and interfere with sibling relationship development [ 301 ]. Behaviours are perceived as defence mechanisms, identified as an internal struggle for control [ 296 , 300 ]. Psychodynamic perspectives differ in that behaviours are conceptualized as a reaction to neurobiological deficits [ 152 , 302 , 306 ], facilitating engagement with Barkley’s model. Executive functioning deficits are presented as synonymous with self-regulation deficits, interfering with the development of personality structure and an internal representation of self about others. Self-regulation deficits disrupt the ability to empathise, which distorts the capacity to mentalise and develop a coherent sense of self [ 304 ].

The therapist’s role in these models is to act as the organising force for the client, assisting them to develop ego capacities via therapeutic relationship and transference. This enables the client to experience empathy, recognise mental states, and identify self in relation to others [ 35 , 301 , 304 ]. With the exception of the group intervention [ 294 ], treatment designs are intensive, up to four times a week [ 301 , 304 ] and long term, between 2 and 12 years [ 295 , 296 , 298 , 301 , 304 ]. Despite the alternative model to characterise ADHD, four studies reference international guidance [ 297 , 301 , 302 , 307 ], seven studies mention executive function or cognitive control [ 35 , 152 , 295 , 297 , 299 , 304 , 306 ], and seven reference Barkley specifically [ 35 , 294 , 295 , 297 – 299 , 304 ].

A review of 221 documents confirmed that treatment approaches for ADHD are based on a dominant cognitive behavioural paradigm for conceptualising ADHD, which attributes symptoms solely to neurobiological and developmental deficits leading to challenges with cognitive function, behavioural control, and management of self-regulation. This is reflected in descriptions of treatment aims, approaches and outcomes ( S1 Appendix ).

While this scoping review aimed for as broad a scope as possible, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. First, while translation services were used as much as possible, the material identified in the results were primarily published in English. Further, the majority of the documents presented were published in the US, Canada and European countries. This may be due to documents being presented or published by journals not listed by the major search engines, and therefore not identified in the search strategies. Alternatively, there may not be a large existent body of published research in other countries, as the official diagnosis criteria for adults with ADHD was only recognised in 2013 [ 149 ]. Secondly, this scoping review was an enormous undertaking, and results are only up to date as of April 2020. However, searches did not reveal any other recent reviews of the theoretical charactarisation of ADHD, therefore it is believed this is the most current comprehensive scoping review on the topic.

This review reflects current research understanding that ADHD is complex and multidimensional in its presentation and impact. Clearly, it shows a broad, cross-disciplinary interest in developing treatment approaches to support individuals with ADHD to reduce symptoms, improve functioning and achieve a better quality of life. Critically, it highlights that a single theoretical perspective limits research into effective treatments for ADHD. Existing aetiological theories of ADHD have been challenged for their refutability [ 308 ], and other issues such as accounting for context variability, or inability to fully link or account for the full aspects of the symptomology [ 19 – 21 ], and heterogeneity [ 1 , 22 – 24 ] including specific links between domains and outcome [ 22 ] and cognition and motivation to select actions for a given context [ 309 ]. Recent recommendations for resolving challenges with heterogeneity in ADHD emphasise the importance of theoretical guidance in decision-making and recognise the critical role of beliefs, assumptions, and goals in preventing misapplication of conclusions to clinical circumstances or populations [ 1 ]. It is proposed that treatments based on approaches from a singular perspective on processes of self-regulation and a deficit-based origin of impairments in ADHD may be limited in scope and capacity to identify and support positive psychological factors for well-being and growth. Hence, the findings in this scoping review identify a gap in research and practice for alternative theoretical perspectives of ADHD.

This review concludes that further research into additional theoretical models of self-regulation would provide opportunities to develop alternative treatment approaches and benefit research and understanding of the symptomology of ADHD.

Supporting information

S1 appendix. analysis of treatment approaches..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261247.s001

S1 File. PRISMA scoping review checklist.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261247.s002

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May 4, 2023

Written by James Dixon – fact checked by Jason M & the editorial team

James Dixon is one of the key players in the SOMA Analytics’ team. He is a personal trainer and is educated to Masters level in Philosophy. He is a published author and is a keen advocate of high quality nootropic supplements.

This article complies with the SOMA Analytics editorial policy. Full details of which can be found here

SOMA Analytics is supported by our readers. We may earn a commission when you purchase through links on this page. Our content is checked for factual accuracy by our editorial team and is written by expert nutritionalists.

Nootropic supplements – so called ‘smart drugs’ – are all the rage. They represent a rapidly expanding corner of the supplement market and have had genuinely life altering effects on many, many users – myself included.

They’re not actually ‘drugs’ as you would think of them. This isn’t medication we’re talking about, here. Rather, these supplements are compounds of natural ingredients designed to work together to boost your cognitive health and brain function.

A good nootropic should help you feel smarter… which is a bold claim. There is something to it, however. They should aid your focus, learning skills, memory, and creativity. They should reduce brain fog, anxiety, and lethargy, replacing them with clarity, calm, and plenty of low-key energy.

If you struggle with any of these symptoms, there is a good chance that you could do with a good nootropic, which is exactly what we’re looking at today. Though perhaps not the best of the best, Thesis Nootropics offer a range of products that are all intelligently crafted and, to a degree, fairly personalized.

And when I say they aren’t the best of the best, this doesn’t mean much. The nootropic market is crowded. There are a couple of standout items out there – NooCube springs to mind, here. Playing second fiddle to these is still a large accomplishment. Let’s dive in and take a full look as I dig in to this Thesis Nootropics review.

Quick Verdict: Thesis Nootropics

Can’t wait to read the whole article? Thesis Nootropics have a great range of different nootropics aimed at different needs. They also have an excellent nutritional coaching system to support you.

However, the reality is that most people won’t really gain from this additional 5% and products such as NooCube offer greater value for money with similar nootropic benefits.

Introducing Thesis Nootropics

As above, Thesis Nootropics are smart drugs. They offer high quality nootropics that are designed to help with various aspects of your cognitive health and function. Their products all contain top shelf ingredients all proven to help your brain to work optimally.

They also do something a bit different. Where most nootropics – and most other supplements, for that matter – offer you the same over the counter pills as they would offer anyone else, Thesis bring personalized supplements to bear. Through their online store, you can fully personalize your nootropic options to make the most of your own specific needs and circumstances.

It’s really quite clever.

They started out as FindMyFormula.com before rebranding a few years back. So, although ‘Thesis Nootropics’ may seem like a newcomer to the market, they have actually been around for a long time. They bring this pedigree to the fore with this product.

With a customer base of over half a million users, they have proven themselves and then some. The data they hold from their research into nootropics is peerless – I can’t think of anyone with better. And they use it well, crafting and re-crafting their formulae with proper, diligent science and data in mind.

The personalization process is actually quite straightforward too – at least, it is for the customer, which is always nice.

You start off by going to their website and taking their questionnaire. Don’t worry, it’s not all that comprehensive, asking for only basic information. There is no need to take any lab tests or divulge your medical history. However, it’s enough for them to make a match for the nootropic blends that will best suit your needs.

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There are two ways to read this, of course. Either, it’s a non-invasive way to tailor your supplements, or it’s not a deep enough dive, so how well tailored can they really be? I felt a little let down, here. When I came in being promised ‘personalized supplements’ I had higher hopes. Instead, it’s just sort of asking what you want and pointing you in the right direction.

It’s nice, it’s just not quite as revolutionary as the literature and branding suggest.

The next phase is good, though. They’ll send your shipment out to arrive with 1-3 business days. However, they ask you to treat this as a sample; they invite you to try out a few different blends of theirs before picking it. This data is fed back to their algorithm, further enhancing their future prescriptive capabilities.

Again, you can read this cynically or not. Either it’s a great way to search out what works best for you, or it’s doing their job for you and getting you to buy plenty of their products in the process… if their original diagnostics are that good, why do you then need to cycle through their catalogue?

Except that they allow you to try up to four before committing to a longer term formula. Pair this with that original questionnaire and, cynicism on hold, you have an excellent and innovative product. It helps you to refine your own choices without having to do the legwork, which can often take months, a lot of money, and a fair amount of trial and error.

The final part is my favorite part. This dispels much of my lingering cynicism. As a Thesis customer, you are assigned a nootropics expert, a sort of coach and pharmacist in one. You can consult with them virtually at any time. They can help you to further refine your nootropics regime, optimizing what can be optimized, tracking your progress and wellbeing, and generally educate you by ably answering any questions you might have.

I love this. It takes Thesis to the next level – it’s less a supplement and more a course focussed on wellbeing.

It’s not cheap, I’ll warn you now. A starter kit will go over a hundred dollars. A prescription will run to a monthly bill of around eighty. This is roughly twice what you would pay for something like NooCube or Mind Lab Pro , supplements I consider to be the best of the best. It’s around four times what you could pay for a lower end, yet workable, nootropic.

You’re presented with a choice, then: pay extra for the support and tailoring, or pay a far more reasonable amount for something that will still do the job incredibly well.

Why Choose Thesis Nootropics?

The benefits of Thesis Nootropics are fairly straightforward.

Firstly, Thesis shares the same benefits as any other good quality nootropic supplement. They offer several blends (more on this below), which between them can improve your cognitive function from pretty much every angle. You can boost your cognitive energy, improve your clarity, improve your memory and learning abilities, clear brain fog, improve your mood, reduce your stress levels, and boost your ability to focus, among other things.

This is all good. It’s what you’re looking for in a nootropic in the first place.

But, of course, the benefits go beyond this. The two main things you get from Thesis, that set it apart and above most of its competition, are really very special.

Firstly, of course, you get the personalization mentioned above. This can be fantastic. Or it can be a little superfluous. If you try something like NooCube, you will probably find it working for you. It may not be 100% scientifically optimal, but it will be 95% there for most of us.

However, if others haven’t worked for you, personalization may be a very good idea. You can really zero in on the aspects of your own cognitive health and function that you feel need improving. Also, if you want to get that final 5% (figures not accurate, of course) and don’t mind parting with a little extra cash, Thesis can be well worth it. You will be as cognitively optimal as modern nootropic research can make you, which is no small thing.

Then there is the access to their experts. Again, this can be superfluous. How much do most of us really need to know about nootropics above and beyond what you can read in any good review or rundown? Just learn the basics, throw back a couple of NooCube capsules, and get on with your life.

But, again, it can be wonderful. This is where the extra price begins to seem really quite minimal.

Our Preferred Alternative To Thesis

Although we found Thesis Nootropics to include high quality ingredients, the personalization for most people is not required and adds a lot of expense to an already pricey supplement.

We prefer NooCube, the nootropic taken by our tester and writer – thanks to its high quality formula, high impact results and value for money cost.

Thesis Nootropic Ingredients

Thesis Nootropics offer several different blends, relatively personalized towards the individual, focussed entirely on aiding different facets of cognition and brain health. Given these differences, it’s no surprise that each blend contains a different list of ingredients – though there are of course some commonalities between them.

The energy blend is one of their most popular. The formula is made to boost your energy levels whilst fighting fatigue and improving your mental stamina. It makes use of choline, which is known for aiding memory and learning. It also uses bot NAC and NALT, which aid detoxification and nerve cell communication, respectively.

It also includes some of their own ingredients, notably Sabroxy®, for increased dopamine output and a memory boost, TeaCrine®, for improved energy levels alongside motivation and cognitive function, and Zynamite®, purely for physical and mental energy.

It also includes some more standard energy inducing nootropic ingredients, notably caffeine, for energy, and l-theanine, to improve your stress response.

Next up, we have Thesis’ Clarity, which goes off book on the ingredients list. However, it still contains plenty of the ingredients I would expect to see in any good nootropic. You get 7,8-DHF and Alpha GPC, which both aid neural communication, neurogenesis, and neuro-protection. Epicatechin and Lion’s Mane also both provide neuro-protection, whilst also improving mood, memory, blood flow to the brain, and memory consolidation.

It also contains caffeine and l-theanine, making it good for stress response and energy levels.

Motivation is a bit of a funny one, as motivation is inherently a hard metric to either properly define or measure. However, in this context, motivation means a boost to willpower and productivity, and help in warding off procrastination.

It manages this with a good ingredients list. Artichoke extract kicks things off, improving circulation and helping with stress response (and management). Then there is Dynamine®, for a mood boost and plenty of long-lasting energy, without the kind of crash associated with caffeine.

Forskolin and l-phenylalanine work together to improve cognition function, mood, and attention. All of this should inspire greater motivation. It gives you a good dose of vitamin B12, too, for improved energy and to look after your nerve. It rounds out with caffeine and theanine.

Again, the Creativity formula is an odd one – can one scientifically boost creativity? Well, Thesis give it a good shot. It’s designed to improve verbal fluency and confidence, which should result in greater inspiration and the will to follow through with it.

The Creativity formula contains agmatine, ashwagandha and l-theanine, all of which help with managing stress levels and anxiety. It also contains Alpha GPC, which is great for memory, neuro-protection, and neurogenesis, and Zembrin®, which improves mood regulation and increase the flow of blood to the brain.

You also get a good caffeine hit with Thesis’ Creativity blend.

Finally, we have Thesis’ latest blend, Confidence. As you may well imagine, this leads to a boost in confidence!

Confidence’s ingredients all target stress, especially stress responses to insecurities, whilst promoting a feeling of self-assurance. These include magnesium, ashwagandha, saffron, sage, and DHH-B, all of which combine hopefully make you feel more confident in your own skin.

How to Use Thesis Nootropics

Nootropics are amongst the easier supplements to live with. There are no special timings or anything like that to hit, and the portions are all very manageable. Thesis Nootropics fit this pattern nicely. For all of their different lines, simply take them in the morning, ideally when you first get up, on an empty stomach with a decent glass of water.

If you need a bit of an extra boost during the day (particularly if you’re going for the energy blend), feel free to take a second dose at lunchtime to see you through until the evening. This will ensure clarity and energy all day long.

Using Thesis Nootropics

I was quite sceptical of nootropics when I first heard about them in the early 2010s. They sounded too good to be true – over the counter supplements made from all-natural ingredients that can boost your brain health and cognitive function? No way.

Many are too good to be true. Plenty of nootropics out there don’t do anything above and beyond giving you a brief energy kick, and this is usually down to their caffeine content. You’d be better off having a cup of coffee or cheap caffeine supplement.

Thesis Nootropics are not too good to be true. They are good – very good, in fact – and highly workable. I’m not entirely sold on them. I find them to be a bit gimmicky. They shouldn’t be gimmicky, of course – tailoring to your users and offering coaching is no gimmick. However, it’s just a little shallow to be truly tailored – they are simply giving you a selection of stacks, which many supplement stores offer (CrazyBulk, for instance).

And the coaching is perhaps a little superfluous for most people.

But the supplements themselves are good. They are well developed, well made, high quality, and will absolutely elicit the effects they claim in many, many people.

I got on well with them. I took their Energy blend first, which is always my priority (I’m always juggling seven or eight different projects at any time, so an energy boost will always be welcome!) It did what it said it would. I found my focus improving and my energy lasting me through the day. I usually drink a lot of coffee, which tends to give me spikes and crashes. The spike wasn’t as high with the Energy blend, but nor was there any kind of crash.

I also tried Clarity, as I take a couple of prescription medications that can lead to a touch of brain fog. It cut through my brain fog well, lending me a great deal of clear sighted cognitive energy. There was no coming round in the morning, no chugging espressos just to form a coherent sentence. Or, at least, I came round quicker and reduced my espresso intake.

I also wanted to know a bit about Thesis’ coaches, or whatever they call themselves. I got in touch and was chatting to a woman with a highly relevant, impressive array of academic credentials just a few days later. She explained how the components in the blends I was trying worked and interplayed, and pointed me in the direction of a couple more that I might to try.

The advice was kind of handy, though it wasn’t anything I would struggle to find out just from perusing their website. The information was interesting to a health and supplements nerd, but that was it. I can’t imagine it being in any way helpful. I can’t even imagine it being interesting to most people.

It’s not a good use of money (and you will be spending a lot of money on Thesis). The supplement is strong – the blends I tried were strong. But none of them gave me the kinds of results I have experienced whilst taking cheaper, better nootropics, namely NooCube – this is what I personally tend to take on an ongoing basis.

There is no harm in trying Thesis. They offer a one-month money-back guarantee, so you can get that hefty price tag (generally around $119) back again if you’re not satisfied. But I think you will be satisfied. Thesis is a satisfying product. It’s just not the best, and the best happens to be an awful lot cheaper.

Do also bear in mind that nootropics can cause side effects – Thesis’ blends are no exception. They can lead to blurred vision, high blood pressure, an accelerated pulse, circulation problems, and insomnia, though severe or long lasting cases are rare.

Pros and Cons

Thesis nootropics pros.

• Personalized for optimal benefits
• Comes with access to their experts
• High quality ingredients
• Highly reputable company
• Different blends for different uses/needs
• Ability to try out different blends before committing
• Easy to take

Thesis Nootropics Cons

• The personalization is a little shallow
• It’s very pricey (about twice as costly as other leading nootropics)

Our Thesis Video Review

Are Thesis Nootropics’ products vegan? 

All of Thesis Nootropics’ products are indeed suitable for vegans. All ingredients are free from animal products. However, they do note the possibility of cross contamination, so the product is not certified vegan.

Are Thesis Nootropics’ products gluten free?

Thesis Nootropics’ blends are all free from gluten, eggs, and nuts, as well as being dairy free. However, once more, they note the possibility of cross contamination. Their lines haven’t therefore been certified gluten free.

What is Thesis Nootropics’ shipping policy?

Thesis Nootropics have a fairly fast delivery service. They promise to dispatch all orders within one business day, with the packages being delivered between 1-3 business days after that. They do not offer international shipping, however, and they calculate costs at checkout, so do beware price hikes.

Thesis Nootropics are good. In fact, they are very good. The personalized aspect, whilst admittedly a little shallow, is still very welcome. I like it a lot. As a bit of a supplements nerd, I also love the idea of being able to chat to an expert at any time – this really is a nice touch.

However, I can’t help but feel that it’s all a little superfluous. Most people know their own needs. A quick Google search will show you what nootropics will be best for you. If in doubt, go for a cover-all nootropic. I keep mentioning NooCube with good reason – it should do pretty much everything that all of Thesis’ blends do.

Then there is the price. You’re paying a lot for a good product with plenty of customer care involved. However, as above, the customer care is largely excessive. If you really want it – and I can see plenty of people wanting it, with good reason – then by all means fork out extra. However, it’s just a little much for most people.

For a month’s supply (at non-subscription prices), you can buy around three months’ worth of NooCube. For this, you’ll be getting just about the best nootropic on the market with no extra legwork – just simply take it each morning, save some money, and get on with your life with your cognitive health in near perfect shape.

Verdict: Thesis Nootropics

Thesis Nootropics have a great range of different nootropics aimed at different needs. They also have an excellent nutritional coaching system to support you.

The reality is that most people won’t really gain from this additional 5% and alternative products such as NooCube offer far greater value for money with similar (if not better) nootropic benefits.

This article was written by: James Dixon – SOMA Analytics PT, Nutritionalist & Published Author

James Dixon is one of the key players in the SOMA Analytics’ team. He is a personal trainer and is educated to Masters level. He is a published author and is a keen advocate of high quality nootropic supplements. James enjoys helping others to reach their peak both physically and mentally and believes that expressing his knowledge through his writing is an effective way to positively impact the wellbeing of others on a larger scale.

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Thesis Nootropics vs Adderall: How They Work, Side Effects & Choosing if One is Right for You

When it comes to addressing common symptoms of ADHD, from inattention to hyperactivity , one of the most popular forms of treatments is the stimulant medication Adderall® . Like other stimulants, Adderall works by targeting brain chemicals like dopamine and norepinephrine to reduce symptoms of ADHD. It is available by prescription only. 

A newer type of stimulant that is available without a prescription is Thesis nootropics , which contains ingredients like functional mushrooms, choline, vitamins, and adaptogens to enhance cognitive function. Though they are not recommended to treat any health condition, including ADHD, many people do use them to manage symptoms like inattention and hyperactivity to avoid the side effects associated with prescription stimulants like Adderall.

But do they work? This is what we’ll explore in the following article: which product is better for ADHD, the side effects of each, and alternative medications to consider.

ADHD Medication Overview

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects a person’s ability to focus, control impulses, and regulate their emotions. Medications are often a key component of ADHD treatment and there are several different types. They include:

• Stimulant Medications : Stimulant medications work by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain to improve attention and impulsive control. Examples include Adderall, Ritalin® , Concerta®, and Vvvanse® . These are the most commonly prescribed ADHD medications and are sometimes taken as needed.
• Non-Stimulant Medications : Though stimulants are the most common drugs for ADHD, in some cases, a doctor will prescribe non-stimulant ADHD meds if a patient doesn’t respond to stimulants or if side effects are too intense. Non-stimulant meds also target brain chemicals to control symptoms of ADHD, but these drugs tend to work slower than stimulants and are typically dosed for daily use. Examples include Strattera®, Intuniv®, and Kapvay®. 
• Other Medications : In some cases, doctors may prescribe antidepressants, such as Wellbutrin®, tricyclic antidepressants, or serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) like Effexor® if the patient doesn’t respond to stimulants or non-stimulants. Alternatively, some individuals consider taking non-prescription homeopathic medications like Brillia to avoid the side effects associated with prescription drugs or to avoid having to increase the dosage of current prescription drugs. Brillia is designed to reduce symptoms associated with ADHD and anxiety without harsh, synthetic chemicals or harmful side effects, making it a suitable choice for those with co-occuring conditions.  

Thesis Nootropics vs Adderall: Which is Better for ADHD?

Though nootropics like Thesis are sometimes referred to as “smart drugs” because of their ability to boost focus and cognitive function, they may not be as potent as prescription stimulant drugs like Adderall in reducing symptoms of ADHD. There are some distinct differences between their mechanisms of action, their safety profiles, and the research surrounding each.

The active ingredients in Thesis nootropics, which include functional mushrooms, vitamins, and herbal extracts are generally safe and gentle on the body, which could be appealing to those who have not responded well to prescription drugs like Adderall, which contains the chemical amphetamine. However, nutritional supplements like Thesis are not regulated by the FDA in the same way as prescription drugs, so questions remain surrounding their safety and efficacy. 

How Thesis Nootropics Work to Boost Cognitive Function

According to the manufacturers of Thesis , the ingredients in their formulas work across “multiple brain pathways,” to support brain energy, optimize neurotransmitter status, improve cerebral circulation, and enhance neuroprotection. 1 Like many other supplements, Thesis is not intended to target the source of symptoms; rather the nutrients in their different blends can help the general function of the brain and improve overall well-being. This is different from medications, which target specific chemical imbalances in the brain to stop the instigation of symptoms altogether. Some of the research-backed nutrients include:

• Lion’s mane mushroom : May increase levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to improve clarity and focus 2
• Vitamin B12 : May improve attention and mood 3
• Bacopa monnieri : May improve memory 4
• Tyrosine : May increase dopamine synthesis 5  
• L-Phenylalanine : May reduce depressive symptoms 6
• Panax ginseng : May improve executive function (when combined with omega-3s) 7

What to Know About Adderall

First approved in 1996 , Adderall is a prescription drug consisting of  amphetamine and dextroamphetamine, which are central nervous system stimulants that bind to dopamine and norepinephrine receptors in the brain. 8 This binding effect increases the levels of these neurotransmitters, which is thought to improve concentration and alertness while reducing hyperactivity and impulsivity.

Though Adderall and other stimulant medications are highly effective for many and typically a first-line treatment, this medication is associated with a number of side effects, including headache, upset stomach, and decreased appetite — which is one of the reasons many try to avoid using them to see if more gentle options can give the level of support that is adequate. Adderall is also notorious for being misused and abused by high school and college students due its reputation as a study aid and euphoria inducer. 

Side Effects of Both

Though the side effects of Thesis nootropics are generally milder than those associated with Adderall, they should still be considered. Explore the side effects of both products below.

Thesis Nootropics Side Effects

Numerous Thesis reviewers have expressed satisfaction with the product, reporting no adverse effects. While some blends include caffeine, which can cause jitteriness or interfere with sleep, users have the option to exclude it. On the flip side, some reviewers have mentioned experiencing side effects such as nausea and insomnia 9 .

Thesis is also not suitable for children. 

Adderall Side Effects 

Adderall, like other stimulants, is known to cause a number of side effects in users. These side effects may go away on their own or you can work with your doctor to adjust your dosage or switch to another medication. 

Side effects of Adderall include:

• Upset stomach
• Loss of appetite
• Weight loss
• Mood changes
• Nervousness
• Fast heart rate

Which Product is More Effective?

When it comes to Thesis vs Adderall for ADHD, reviews are mixed. Adderall seems to outshine Thesis in terms of efficacy, but it does come with a higher risk of more serious side effects. 

Here is a sampling of the reviews of Thesis on TikTok and Reddit:

• Worked for a few hours, then downhill : TikTok user mikerapadas said: “Motivation [blend] provided me a real feeling of drive. I could feel myself being pulled towards my task and I felt little hints of extra optimism. But…it lasted only a few hours. After that came the negatives: mainly, I just felt less well overall; my temper was slightly more sensitive, and I could feel myself getting annoyed a lot more easily.” 10
• More focused, but poor sleep : Reddit user jamie_choo wrote: “Not sure if it's just a placebo effect but I do feel more focused throughout the day. However, I've been losing sleep in the last couple of days since my mind is way more active at night than usual.” 11

Reviews on Adderall are also mixed, but lean toward the positive when it comes to efficacy alone. Adderall has an average rating of 7.2 out of 10 from a total of 372 reviews On Drugs.com. Sixty-four percent of reviewers reported a positive experience, while 20 percent reported a negative experience . 12   Negative reviews of Adderall have more to do with the side effects than efficacy, with remarks that the medication caused rapid heart rate, stomach pains, anxiety , insomnia, hallucinations, and suicidal ideation . 13  

Alternative ADHD Medications

If you’re looking for something safe and impactful to reduce ADHD symptoms, there are other options beyond nootropic supplements and prescription ADHD medication .

Brillia is one alternative option to consider. Free from harsh, synthetic chemicals and harmful side effects, Brillia is a clinically-proven non-prescription homeopathic medication that contains targeted antibodies to the S100B protein, a crucial regulator of various brain processes, both intracellular and extracellular. By modulating the activity of this protein, Brillia can effectively manage symptoms of ADHD and anxiety without causing side effects like drowsiness, nausea, decreased appetite, dependency, nor does it mask the personality in any way. 

It's worth noting that Brillia does not disrupt blood chemistry, a common feature of stimulant medications like Adderall. In balancing the S100B protein Brillia also helps to normalize the levels of monoamines, including dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, in different brain regions, mirroring the neurotransmitter targets of drugs like Adderall.

In contrast to dietary supplements like Thesis, Brillia adheres to rigorous FDA standards and regulations, encompassing quality, claims, and labeling. The product's active and inactive ingredients must undergo thorough review, and supporting evidence for its claims is required for sale in the United States. Backed by clinical evidence supporting its safety and efficacy, Brillia can be safely used by children as young as five and adults , without the need for an official diagnosis or medical supervision.

Brillia is also incredibly versatile. You can use the medication as an alternative to prescription medication or in conjunction with prescription medication to address lingering symptoms like anxiety (a common side effect of Adderall and other stimulant medications). Some users take Brillia with their prescription medication to avoid having to increase the dosage of their current meds, which also increases the likelihood of side effects. 

If you choose to transition to Brillia from a prescription medication, we ask that you do so under the guidance of your doctor to ensure this path is right for you. 

How to Choose Which One is Right for You

There is no single way to treat ADHD and what may work for you may not work as well for another person. Weighing the pros and cons of each option available is the best way to make an informed decision regarding your own care. At Brillia, we recommend starting with healthy lifestyle changes , including following a nutritious diet , getting enough sleep , controlling your screen time , and practicing mindfulness techniques regularly. These are all powerful factors that can make an impactful improvement in your symptoms and potentially help you avoid medications and supplements altogether.

If you need more support and choose to try Brillia , we ask that you find the dose that best meets your needs and remain consistent with your dosage while the product builds up in your system. Brillia is a gentle and cumulative product, and your body relies on a steady trickle of the active ingredient to get the best results. Most users see a result in 3-4 weeks, but it may take longer. If you need help finding the right dose, our Customer Care team is always available to offer guidance to ensure you experience the best results with Brillia. You’ll also have access to a wide community of Brillia users who can share tips and resources on how to make the most of your Brillia journey. 

To explore other options on managing symptoms of ADHD with or without prescription medication, visit the Brillia(nce) Resource Center and learn how a holistic approach can help you develop the tools you need to control your symptoms long-term.

References: 1 https://takethesis.com/pages/science, 2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31118969/, 3 https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/14/7/1494, 4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20590480/, 5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30853567/, 6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/380577/, 7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32847461/, 8 https://www.psycom.net/adderall-amphetamine, 9 https://www.reddit.com/r/Nootropics/comments/ru37qm/thesis_nootropics_review/, 10 https://www.tiktok.com/@mikerapadas/video/7251691048630603050, 11 https://www.reddit.com/r/Nootropics/comments/ru37qm/thesis_nootropics_review/, 12 https://www.drugs.com/comments/amphetamine-dextroamphetamine/adderall-for-attention-deficit-disorder.html, 13 https://www.drugs.com/comments/amphetamine-dextroamphetamine/adderall-xr-for-attention-deficit-disorder.html

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Thesis Review: Are Personalized Nootropics Legit?

Calloway Cook Calloway Cook is the President of Illuminate Labs and has reviewed over 1,000 clinical trials. See full bio . , Author | Taylor Graber MD Taylor Graber is a Medical Doctor (MD) and a practicing anaesthesiologist. He's also an entrepreneur who runs a health and wellness startup. See full bio . , Medical Reviewer Last updated: Nov 05, 2023

Calloway Cook Calloway Cook is the President of Illuminate Labs and has reviewed over 1,000 clinical trials. See full bio . , Author

Taylor Graber MD Taylor Graber is a Medical Doctor (MD) and a practicing anaesthesiologist. He's also an entrepreneur who runs a health and wellness startup. See full bio . , Medical Reviewer Last updated: Nov 05, 2023

We review published medical research in respected scientific journals to arrive at our conclusions about a product or health topic. This ensures the highest standard of scientific accuracy.

Illuminate Labs has a team of medical experts including doctors and Registered Dietitians who are assigned to review the accuracy of health claims and medical research summaries based on the relevancy of their expertise to the article topic.

The focus of our articles is to share our opinion on the potential efficacy and safety of health trends and products.

T hesis is a wellness brand that sells personalized nootropics. The brand sells supplements with unique names like “Creativity” and “Motivation,” and claims that their individualized products are “based on your unique brain chemistry.”

But is there legitimate research backing personalized nootropics or is this just a marketing spin? Why does the brand ask for so much personal data? Are their supplements well-formulated? And how do real users rate and describe the effects of Thesis?

In this article we’ll answer all of these questions and more as we share our concerns about the marketing practices and health claims of Thesis.

We’ll also analyze the ingredients in one of their formulations based on medical research to give our take on whether or not it's likely to be effective. We’ll share real, unsponsored user reviews of Thesis nootropics including some from individuals with ADHD.

Is the “Personalized” Approach Fake?

The branding around Thesis is of “personalized nootropic formulas,” however this may be entirely untrue.

We submitted test answers into the health intake form of their site, along with a fake email, and after submitting all of this information we were brought to their “Starter Kit” landing page which is accessible at this link .

If you access the above link in a new window, the products suggested are the exact same, which suggests that Thesis is really collecting sensitive customer health data based on the guise of “personalized” supplements, while providing no additional value, which is a highly questionable marketing approach in our opinion.

The concept of “personalized nootropics” doesn’t even make sense, because the manufacturer would have to literally formulate and package them when a customer placed an order, unique to each customer’s order which is highly unlikely. It would make no business sense for a company to formulate millions of unique products and would be logistically impossible.

It appears that Thesis simply recommends some of their supplements to consumers based on their needs, which is not a “personalized nootropic formula,” it’s a personalized recommendation which literally any brand could offer.

This leads us to our second concern about this brand.

Rather than simply selling supplements, they require users to complete a questionnaire which asks a number of sensitive health questions. 

As shown above, the brand requires users to answer questions about their gender identity and their alcoholic intake in their health quiz. What does this have anything to do with nootropics, and why would any user share this data with a random supplement startup?

We would recommend avoiding this brand based on these marketing and data collection practices alone, but in the next section we’ll analyze the formulation of one of their products.

Ingredient Analysis

Thesis’ “Motivation Formula” contains five active ingredients: l-phenylalanine, Dynamine, vitamin B12, forskolin and artichoke extract.

L-phenylalanine is an amino acid that Thesis describes as supporting mood, attention and motivation, however these claims are uncited and we can’t find any medical evidence supporting them. 

Most of the clinical research we found on this ingredient involves obesity, with this clinical trial finding that l-phenylalanine may increase the sense of fullness and decrease calories consumed in overweight individuals, but only at a dose 20x that in Thesis’ supplement.

Dynamine is a trademarked form of methylliberine, which is a chemical compound that can be isolated from coffee beans and tea. Thesis claims that this compound “supports alertness” but this claim is uncited and we can’t find any medical evidence supporting it.

The manufacturer of this ingredient is a company called Compound Solutions, and the company even states on their website that this ingredient is “typically used in combination with caffeine and TeaCrine,” because all three of the clinical trials that the manufacturer cites on their website use Dynamine in combination with either caffeine or TeaCrine.

However, there is no caffeine or TeaCrine in Thesis Motivation.

Vitamin B12 is often included in nootropic formulations, but we’re unsure why. As we referenced in our review of another nootropic supplement called Noocube which also contains this ingredient, we can’t identify any medical evidence that vitamin B12 improves cognitive function in healthy adults without a vitamin B12 deficiency.

Forskolin was shown in an animal study to reduce memory loss, but the lowest dose used was equivalent to over 200% of the human-equivalent dose in Thesis. We can’t identify any clinical trials with human trial participants proving this compound to be an effective nootropic.

Artichoke extract is the final active ingredient, and Thesis claims that this ingredient “supports blood flow and promotes stress management.” These claims are uncited and we’re unclear on why this ingredient would be included in a nootropic formula, as even the stated health claims do not reference an explicit improvement in cognitive function.

Thesis fails to publish inactive ingredients for Motivation, which is an important consumer safety concern.

Overall we do not consider Thesis Motivation likely to be effective for improving cognitive function or productivity as we are unable to identify a single active ingredient that we would consider effective at the given dose, based on a review of clinical studies.

We do not recommend this supplement or brand, and consider this product to be one of the worst nootropic formulations that we’ve reviewed on Illuminate Health. Most nootropic supplements we review at least contain one effectively-dosed active ingredient.

We Tried Thesis Ourselves

One of our product testers named Matt Donnelly tested Thesis. Here's his experience:

I spent the month trying out the starter pack, which included CLARITY, MOTIVATION, LOGIC, and MOTIVATION.

Of the four, the only one that seemed to have any positive effect was LOGIC. It's good for “Research projects” and “Complex problem-solving” according to the packaging.

I was hoping for good results because I had been sidetracked from creative projects. It seemed like this one may have contributed to more focus overall and focused attention.

On some days I got very tired a few hours after taking the capsules, and needed to lie down in the afternoon.

There are three or four pills in each packet. It seemed to me like a lot to consume on a daily basis, and the pills are large so they could be challenging to swallow.

Overall, I would rate Thesis 3/10 and I wouldn't purchase this product again.

Real, Unsponsored User Review of Thesis

A YouTube creator named “LUKAS YAN” reviewed Thesis nootropics and shared his thoughts on whether or not the supplements improved his physical and mental energy:

Will Thesis Nootropics Cause Side Effects?

Thesis Nootropics do not appear to have been studied in any clinical trials, so it’s impossible to say for certain whether or not they’re likely to cause side effects. However, we can make an educated guess based on their formulations.

Most of the active ingredients in Thesis supplements appear to be safe and well-studied. We don’t have access to the full set of the brand’s supplements because instead of transparently posting all product pages they rely on the “individualized” marketing.

Our concern in regard to side effects is that the brand fails to clearly publish inactive ingredient information, and some inactive ingredients can cause side effects.

We hope that in the future Thesis publishes inactive ingredients in the same section where active ingredients are published for each supplement they sell. This is important for consumer safety.

Our Clean Nootropic Picks

There are compounds which have been shown in medical studies to be effective for cognitive enhancement and memory support.

MCT oil  is a food supplement derived from coconut oil that  improved memory recall by 20% in adults   in a 2022   meta-study .

Bulletproof MCT Oil   is our top MCT oil pick, because its only ingredient is MCT oil derived from coconuts and it has zero additives. It currently retails for   under $16 .

Ginkgo biloba extract  is arguably the most well-studied nootropic supplement apart from caffeine.

A  medical review  published in the  Psychopharmacology  journal  found that ginkgo biloba supplementation improved attention and cognitive performance in healthy, young adults.

Illuminate Labs Ginkgo Biloba Extract   is our supplement which is third-party tested to ensure purity and label accuracy, and retails for   only $15   at a subscription price.

Panax ginseng extract  is another well-studied nootropic supplement. A 2013  clinical trial  found that  ginseng extract caused " overwhelmingly positive effects on neurocognitive function across different cognitive domains."

Illuminate Labs Panax Ginseng Extract   is our supplement which is third-party tested to ensure purity and label accuracy, and retails for   only $15   at a subscription price.

Is Thesis Effective for ADHD?

We don’t recommend using Thesis supplements to treat any specific health condition. There are several TikTok reviews from users with ADHD who tried Thesis supplements.

A TikTok user named “BrigidMarie TV” reviewed the brand here:

@brigid_marietv ADHD med challenge with thesis nootropics has ended. #nootropics #adhd #executivedysfuntion ♬ How`s Your Day - aAp Vision

A TikTok user named “BadKitty” had a less favorable review:

@badkitty7777 #thesisreview #thesis #adhd #anxiety #mentalhealth #scathingreview #trash ♬ original sound - BadKitty

We disagree with the way Thesis markets their products, and we recommend that consumers avoid giving sensitive health data to dietary supplement startups unnecessarily.

The one Thesis supplement that we analyzed based on its active ingredients, called Motivation, was underwhelming. We were unable to identify any effectively-dosed ingredients based on a review of medical research, and the brand fails to clearly publish inactive ingredient information or cite the health claims made about their ingredients.

We do not recommend Thesis supplements although we don’t consider it likely that the supplements will cause side effects.

Some TikTok users with ADHD who tried Thesis supplements had relatively negative feedback.

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ADHD: Reviewing the Causes and Evaluating Solutions

Luis núñez-jaramillo.

1 División de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Quintana Roo, Chetumal 77039, Quintana Roo, Mexico; xm.ude.oorqu@zenunl

Andrea Herrera-Solís

2 Laboratorio Efectos Terapéuticos de los Canabinoides, Subdirección de Investigación Biomédica, Hospital General Dr. Manuel Gea González, Calz. de Tlalpan 4800, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan 14080, Ciudad de México, Mexico; moc.liamg@shaerdnaard

Wendy Verónica Herrera-Morales

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which patients present inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The etiology of this condition is diverse, including environmental factors and the presence of variants of some genes. However, a great diversity exists among patients regarding the presence of these ADHD-associated factors. Moreover, there are variations in the reported neurophysiological correlates of ADHD. ADHD is often treated pharmacologically, producing an improvement in symptomatology, albeit there are patients who are refractory to the main pharmacological treatments or present side effects to these drugs, highlighting the importance of developing other therapeutic options. Different non-pharmacological treatments are in this review addressed, finding diverse results regarding efficacy. Altogether, ADHD is associated with different etiologies, all of them producing changes in brain development, leading to the characteristic symptomatology of this condition. Given the heterogeneous etiology of ADHD, discussion is presented about the convenience of personalizing ADHD treatment, whether pharmacological or non-pharmacological, to reach an optimum effect in the majority of patients. Approaches to personalizing both pharmacological therapy and neurofeedback are presented.

1. Introduction

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD) presenting with inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. It can be classified in three subtypes, depending on the intensity of the symptoms: predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive–impulsive, and combined [ 1 , 2 ]. ADHD has a global prevalence of 5.9% to 7.1% in children and 1.2% to 7.3% in adults [ 3 ].

While most studies address ADHD in children from 7 to 17 years old, it is important to outline that this condition is also present in adults. It has been proposed that the number of adults with ADHD has increased over the last 20 years. A part of this increase is due to the permanence of ADHD symptoms in the adult age in 76% of diagnosed patients. ADHD implies important challenges for academic, personal, and job performance [ 4 ].

As for any other condition affecting brain function, in order to find an adequate treatment for ADHD, it is important to first understand its physiological basis. As with other NDDs, the causes of ADHD are aberrant neural development, affecting neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, myelination, and neuronal and glial proliferation and migration. Even though symptoms begin to appear in childhood, neuronal development is affected from early embryogenesis [ 5 ].

The etiology of ADHD is diverse—gestational, perinatal, and genetic factors have been associated with ADHD incidence. However, each patient presents only a few of them.

2. Environmental Factors Associated with ADHD

The incidence of ADHD is associated with a number of environmental factors during different stages of central nervous system (CNS) development, such as gestational and perinatal periods. In this section, we will address some of the environmental factors that have been associated with ADHD.

2.1. Preconceptional, Gestational, and Perinatal Conditions

Premature birth is an important risk factor for ADHD, since it has been reported that it occurs 2.6 to 4 times more frequently in babies born with low weight or very low weight. Premature birth is associated with alterations in neurogenesis and cell death [ 6 ], and these are in turn associated with reduced cortical expansion, as reported in ADHD patients [ 7 ]. One possible reason for increased risk of developing ADHD in preterm children is inflammation; an increase in inflammation-related molecules is associated with increased risk of developing ADHD symptoms [ 8 ].

Perinatal hypoxia is an environmental factor that increases the risk of developing AHDH, probably due to its effects on dopaminergic transmission and neurotropic signaling [ 9 ].

The intake of nutrients during gestation is very important for proper brain development. An important element during neural development is the polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), promoting proliferation and neural differentiation of neural progenitor cells. Decreased levels of DHA during brain development have been associated with ADHD and other neurodevelopmental disorders [ 10 ], and decreased levels of serum DHA levels have been reported in adult ADHD patients [ 11 ]. Additionally, malnutrition or immune activation in the pregnant mother is a risk factor for ADHD and other neurodevelopmental disorders [ 12 ]. High sucrose consumption during pregnancy is possibly related with ADHD incidence. A study performed on rats reported that high sucrose intake in pregnant rats led to the appearance of ADHD-like symptoms in the offspring, who showed increased locomotor activity, decreased attention, and increased impulsivity. Furthermore, the offspring also presented increased dopamine transporter (DAT) and a decrease in dopamine receptors and mRNA expression in the striatum [ 13 ].

Interestingly, there is evidence in a rat model of the influence of preconceptional conditions on ADHD incidence. Offspring of Female rats administered with ethanol for 8 weeks before mating presented ADHD-like symptoms such as hyperlocomotive activity, impulsivity, and attention deficit. These rats also presented low levels of striatal DAT and increased presence of norepinephrine transporter (NET) in the frontal cortex [ 14 ]. A later work by this group revealed that paternal preconceptional alcohol exposure also produced ADHD-like symptoms in the offspring, presenting decreased expression of DAT mRNA and DAT protein in the cortex and striatum. Furthermore, authors report epigenetic changes in both the sperm of these alcohol-exposed male rats and in the frontal cortex and striatum of the offspring, presenting increased methylation in a CpG region of DAT gene promoter, which is in agreement with the reduced expression of DAT in the offspring [ 15 ].

Another environmental factor associated with ADHD is pesticide exposure during development. A study addressing the issue, both at experimental and epidemiological levels, reported that exposure to the pesticide deltamethrin during gestation and lactation in rats led to ADHD-like symptoms, such as working memory and attention deficits, hyperactivity, and impulsive-like behavior. It also produced increased presence of DAT and D1 receptor in the striatum, as well as increased dopamine release and increased presence of D1 dopamine receptor in the nucleus accumbens. Interestingly, the authors also performed an epidemiological study in humans, revealing that children (6 to 15 years old) with detectable levels of pyrethroid metabolites in urine had more than twice the probability of being diagnosed with ADHD [ 16 ].

2.2. Heavy Metal Exposure

One of the most reported environmental factors associated with ADHD is exposure to neurotoxic heavy metals. A study performed on school children revealed that children (6–7 years old) with ADHD presented higher levels of salivary mercury. However, when including all age groups studied (12–13 years and 15–16 years), no significant correlation was found between increased salivary mercury and ADHD, although a mild tendency was observed [ 17 ].

In the case of manganese, both too high and too low blood levels are associated with cognitive deficits. High concentration of manganese in blood is associated with deficits in thinking, reading, and calculations, as well as with lower learning quotient (indicative of learning disability) and more errors in the continuous performance test (measuring attention and response inhibition). Conversely, low blood level of manganese is associated with a poorer performance in the Stroop test, which is used to assess cognitive inhibition [ 18 ]. Similarly, a study addressing the relationship between manganese in drinking water and ADHD found a higher risk of developing this condition (inattentive but not combined subtype) as exposure to manganese in drinking water increased [ 19 ]. However, a study on manganese in children’s deciduous teeth failed to find an association between this metal and cognitive deficits [ 20 ].

The presence of lead in children’s deciduous teeth is positively associated with hyperactivity or impulsivity, as well as inattention and oppositional or defiant disorder [ 20 ]. A study on children from a lead-contaminated region reported that blood levels of cadmium, lead, and manganese correlated with conduct problems and antisocial behavior [ 21 ]. Another work found a higher concentration of blood lead in ADHD children, which was correlated with hyperactivity–impulsivity symptoms but not with inattention [ 22 , 23 ]. Both genetic [ 24 ] and epigenetic [ 25 ] factors have been reported to contribute to lead-related pathogenesis of ADHD. Moreover, a study carried out in Argentina found that children with high blood concentrations of lead are more likely to develop ADHD [ 26 ].

A review on the effects of prenatal and childhood metal exposure on cognition found suggestive evidence of a relation between cadmium exposure and impaired cognitive ability in children. They did not find evidence of a relationship between cadmium exposure and ADHD [ 27 ]. A more recent study addressing cadmium exposure during pregnancy revealed that a higher blood cadmium concentration during pregnancy is associated with higher scores in ADHD diagnostic tests in female children at 6 years of age, but not in the case of male children [ 28 ].

A recently published work reported that ADHD children present higher urine concentrations of chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, molybdenum, tin, barium, and lead [ 29 ]. A recent study analyzing serum concentrations of different metals in ADHD children reported low levels of chromium, manganese, and zinc, as well as increased copper/zinc ratios in these children [ 30 ]. A meta-analysis on the relation between blood and hair zinc and ADHD found no statistical difference between ADHD and control children [ 31 ].

Thus, there are a number of environmental factors associated with ADHD incidence. While environmental factors are not found in all ADHD cases, the data reviewed herein highlight the importance of environment in different developmental stages—and even before conception—in regard to the risk of developing ADHD.

3. Sleep Disorders and ADHD

Sleep deprivation, either acute or chronic, produces decreased cognitive functioning (one of the main traits of ADHD). Interestingly, it also produces the externalizing symptoms observed in ADHD patients. For example, a very tired child might become hyperactive, while in a sleepy adult in a condition where it is not possible to sleep (for example, while driving), the externalizing behavior will help them to remain awake. Thus, both of the core ADHD symptoms can be produced by sleep deprivation. Conversely, hyperactivity in children or high internal activity in adults in the evening might lead to sleep disruption [ 32 ].

Among the sleep disorders found in ADHD patients are delayed sleep phase disorders, insomnia, sleep-disordered breathing, increased motor activity during the night, sleep anxiety, clenching teeth, periodic limb movement, restless legs, increased sleep onset latency and shorter sleep time, night awakenings, narcolepsy, and parasomnias [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Among them, delayed sleep phase disorder is one of the most frequently found, being present in 73–78% of both ADHD children and adults. This condition consists of a delay between the sleep propensity cycle and the circadian cycle, leading to increased daytime sleepiness and decreased cognitive functioning [ 32 ].

Sleep disturbance have an impact on daytime vigilance, producing excessive sleepiness [ 32 , 37 , 39 ], and can exacerbate inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity as means to remain awake [ 32 , 37 ]. Additionally, stimulant medication might also cause sleep disturbances, although OROS methylphenidate produces less adverse effects on sleep [ 34 , 36 ]. LDX, a stimulant prodrug that undergoes hydrolysis in the bloodstream releasing d-amphetamine, and atomoxetine, a non-stimulant pharmacological treatment for ADHD, do not produce adverse effects on sleep [ 36 ].

Sleep disturbances in ADHD patients can produce significant impairments in attention, mood, and behavior [ 32 , 35 ]. Physiologically, there is evidence supporting an overlap between brain centers regulating sleep and those regulating attention and arousal, so it is possible that affectation of one of these systems also affects the other. Similarly, affectation of noradrenergic and dopaminergic pathways is found in both ADHD and sleep disturbances [ 40 ].

Conversely, during wake time, sleep disturbances produces symptoms resembling those observed in ADHD patients [ 35 , 41 , 42 ]. It is, thus, recommended to assess sleep disorders in patients with ADHD symptoms in order to avoid misdiagnosis [ 41 , 42 ].

The relationship between sleep disorders and ADHD is complex. While ADHD might produce sleep disorders, they could also be coincident conditions [ 36 ]. Moreover, sleep disorders have been proposed to be not only one of the intrinsic features of ADHD, but also might be one of its causes [ 32 , 36 ]. Another possible explanation for this interaction would be an underlying common neurological disease leading to both sleep disorders ad ADHD [ 36 ]. A recent review on the subject proposed that chronic sleep disorders are some of the main causes of ADHD symptoms [ 32 ]. The authors suggested that patients presenting ADHD symptoms should undergo quantification of sleep and sleep problems in order to rule them out as the sole cause of ADHD symptoms. Thus, ADHD treatment should address both the symptoms (with classic ADHD treatment) and the sleep problem [ 32 , 34 , 35 , 36 ], although the effect of this combined treatment still requires further research [ 32 ].

4. Genetic Factors Associated with ADHD

Different studies have revealed an important genetic influence in the etiology of ADHD [ 43 ]. It is a polygenic condition with an important number of genes involved, as confirmed by a genome-wide association study on ADHD reporting 12 significant loci associated with this condition [ 44 ]. Many of the genes reported to be associated with ADHD participate in processes such as neurotransmission, neuritogenesis, synaptogenesis, or receptor location in synapses [ 45 ]. In this review, we will focus on two genes, a neurotrophin (brain-derived neurotrophic factor –BDNF-) and a molecule involved in dopaminergic signaling (DAT).

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a neurotrophin with high expression in the brain that is highly concentrated in the hippocampus and cortex. It has an important role in neuronal development, being important for neuronal proliferation, migration, differentiation, and maturation, as well as for synaptogenesis [ 46 ].

BDNF has been implied in ADHD pathophysiology. It has been proposed that low levels of this neurotrophin may explain the reduction in brain volume observed in ADHD patients, and it has also been implied in dopaminergic system homeostasis. Some pharmacological treatments for ADHD promote the regulation of plasma BDNF levels [ 47 ].

4.1.1. Circulating BDNF

Since BDNF is able to cross the blood–brain barrier and plasma concentrations of BDNF are highly correlated with its levels on cerebrospinal fluid, a number of studies have searched for a difference in plasma concentrations of BDNF in ADHD patients when compared against controls. There are reports indicating a lower concentration of BDNF in plasma of ADHD patients, both in children [ 48 ] and adults [ 49 ]. In another study involving children, an increase in plasma BDNF was observed after 6 weeks of treatment with an effective dose of methylphenidate [ 50 ]. In accordance, a recent study revealed that methylphenidate treatment produces an increase in serum BDNF in boys with ADHD [ 51 ]. However, this has not always been replicated, since there are also articles reporting no difference in serum BDNF between children with ADHD and controls [ 52 , 53 , 54 ].

A recently published meta-analysis encompassing studies comparing BDNF levels in ADHD patients without any other comorbidity found no overall difference between ADHD patients and controls. However, when analyzing males and females separately, they found significantly higher levels of plasma BDNF in males with AHDH than in control males, while no difference was found between females with and without ADHD [ 55 ].

Thus, different and even contrary results have been obtained regarding BDNF concentrations in plasma or sera of ADHD patients. While this suggests that the link between BDNF and ADHD is not completely clear, other alternatives should be considered. For example, fluctuations in serum BDNF concentrations in morning and evening samples have been reported [ 56 ], meaning the lack of relation between peripheral BDNF concentration and ADHD might be due to the time of the day when the sample was obtained.

4.1.2. Genetics of BDNF

There are a number single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) of the BDNF gene that have been associated with ADHD. Among the most studied variations in the BDNF gene, there is a polymorphism called Val66Met (also known as rs6265), in which a change in codon 66 produces a substitution of the original amino acid (valine) by methionine. The anatomical effects of this variation are more apparent in the hippocampus and cortex [ 46 ]. While some studies have assessed the presence of this SNP in ADHD patients [ 57 , 58 , 59 ], other studies failed to find an association between this polymorphism and ADHD [ 46 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ].

Another SNP of the BDNF gene whose association with ADHD is not conclusive is rs2030324, since some studies report an association between this polymorphism and ADHD [ 57 , 58 , 59 , 64 ], while other reports fail to find this association [ 46 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ].

There are other SNPs of the BDNF gene that have been studied so far, with positive correlations being shown between ADHD and the presence of C270T (rs27656701) [ 58 , 61 ], rs11030101 [ 62 , 64 , 65 ], and rs10835210 [ 62 , 63 ]. There are also reports addressing SNPs of the BDNF gene for which no association with ADHD has been found, including rs12291186, rs7103411 [ 63 ], and rs7103873 [ 62 , 63 ].

Moreover, rare single nucleotide variants of BDNF gen have also been associated with a higher risk of developing ADHD [ 66 ]. However, this is an area that requires further research.

As observed with peripheral BDNF concentrations, genetic variants of the BDNF gene have been associated with ADHD in numerous cases, although in some cases there are contradictory results in different articles (see Table 1 ). Moreover, some of the genetic variants of the BDNF gene associated with ADHD have also been studied in association with other neurological conditions and treatments. For example, C270T is reported to be associated with intellectual disabilities [ 58 ]. Moreover, rs11030101 is associated with a better response to electroconvulsive shock therapy for treatment-resistant depression [ 67 ], with body weight gain in schizophrenic patients treated with atypical antipsychotics [ 68 ], as well as with the presence of major depressive disorder [ 69 ], schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder [ 70 ], although there is another publication in which no evidence of association between this SNP and bipolar disorder was found [ 71 ]. Additionally, rs10835210 has been associated with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia [ 70 ], and phobic disorders [ 72 ].

Polymorphisms of the BDNF gene studied in relation with ADHD incidence. * Polymorphisms for which contradictory results have been reported. rs, reference SNP ID number.

For rs6265 (Val66Met), there are many articles addressing the association of this SNP with different conditions, and in some of them it has been found. For example, some articles report an association of this SNP with major depressive disorder [ 69 , 73 ], while other studies fail to find this association [ 74 , 75 ]. An association has also been reported between rs6265 and amnestic mild cognitive impairment, as well as with the transition from this condition to Alzheimer’s disease [ 76 ]. However, in patients with early-stage breast cancer, this SNP is associated with a lower probability of presenting cognitive impairment after chemotherapy [ 77 ].

4.1.3. Other Neurotrophines

While BDNF has been widely studied in association with ADHD, it is not the only neurotrophin studied in relation with this condition, given the important role of neurotrophines in central nervous system development and synaptic plasticity. In this regard, there are studies addressing the participation of fibroblast growth factor (FGF), vascular endothelial growth factor, insulin-like growth factor (IGF2) [ 47 ], glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), and neurotrophin-3 (NTF-3) [ 47 , 53 ] in ADHD pathophysiology.

BDNF is a molecule highly involved in synaptic plasticity and has an undisputed role in central nervous system development. Therefore, it is not surprising to find a number of studies associating alterations in the presence of this neurotrophin in serum, or different SNPs of its gene, with ADHD. However, its role in ADHD development is not a constant for every sample of ADHD patients studied so far, and for many of the aspects of this molecule (serum levels, SNPs) there are reports indicating associations, with others finding no association at all. This does not mean that the alterations associated with this molecule are not important for ADHD, but rather highlight the variable etiology of this condition.

4.2. Dopaminergic System

The dopaminergic system emerges in early stages of CNS embryonic development, and an imbalance in this system might affect brain development. It is related with cell proliferation, neuronal differentiation and migration, synaptogenesis, and neurogenesis. Thus, it is not surprising that a role of this neurotransmitter system has been reported in different neurological diseases, including ADHD [ 78 ].

One of the most studied molecules of the dopaminergic system in relation to ADHD is DAT, a molecule responsible for dopamine reuptake, and the main target of two commonly used pharmacological treatments for ADHD, methylphenidate and amphetamines [ 78 ]. Genetic studies support the importance of this neurotransmission system for ADHD. Mice heterozygous for the DAT gene (+/− heterozygotes) are reported to present altered attentional function [ 79 , 80 ] and hyperactivity [ 80 ], while rat models with this heterozygous genotype do not present major affectations [ 81 , 82 ]. However, DAT knockout rats present hyperactivity [ 81 , 82 ], as well as a dysregulation in frontostriatal BDNF function [ 82 ]. Hyperactivity in these rats can be counteracted by amphetamine, haloperidol, and methylphenidate [ 82 ].

In humans, ADHD patients present lower DAT availability in the basal ganglia, caudate nucleus, and putamen [ 83 ]. The DAT gene presents a variable tandem repeat region (VNTR) at the untranslated 3′region, and there are different alleles for this VNTR, with the 9-repeat and 10-repeat alleles being the most frequently encountered. The reported effects of this VNTR on DAT expression vary in different articles, however the most recent results indicate that the 9-repeat allele is associated with a higher DAT expression than the 10-repeat allele. [ 84 ]. The possible association between this VNTR and ADHD has been addressed in various studies. For example, an analysis of both patients and the literature found an association of the 10-repeat/10-repeat genotype with ADHD only in adolescents [ 85 ], studies performed in children reported an association between the 10-repeat/10-repeat genotype and ADHD [ 86 , 87 ], while a recently published meta-analysis reported an association of the 10-repeat allele with ADHD in children and adolescents, specifically in European population [ 88 ]. However, there are also reports indicating no association at all between ADHD and the VNTR of DAT gene (9-repeat/10-repeat, 10-repeat/10-repeat, and 10-repeat/11-repeat genotypes) [ 89 ], no association between the 10-repeat/10-repeat allele with ADHD [ 90 ], and no association between ADHD and the 9-repeat or the 10-repeat alleles for this polymorphism [ 91 ]. The last three studies were performed in children.

Additionally, the relevance of this VNTR has been studied in relation to cognitive function in healthy subjects. Again, mixed results were found. A meta-analysis published in 2016 addressing studies performed in healthy subjects did not find any association between DAT VNTR and different cognitive functions, such as executive functions, inhibition, attention, and long-term declarative memory [ 92 ]. A study performed in children aged 3 to 5 years old addressing the presence of the 9-repeats and 10-repeats alleles revealed that the presence of the 10-repeat allele of the DAT gene is associated with diminished ability to voluntarily regulate reactivity in healthy children [ 93 ]. A recent study on both ADHD and healthy children reported an effect of the specific genotype in the performance of children on attentional switching when studying the whole research sample, in which children carrying the 9-repeat allele performed worse than those carrying the 10-reapet homozygous or the 10-repeat/11-repeat heterozygous allele [ 91 ]

The participation of the dopaminergic system in the pathophysiology of ADHD has been widely reported [ 78 ]. Herein, we study a particular variation of the DAT gene, a VNTR in the 3′ region of the gene, finding articles supporting a role of this polymorphism in ADHD, as well as works failing to find an association between this VNTR and ADHD. This does not imply a lack of importance of this variation, but rather highlights the variability in the genetic etiology of this condition. Moreover, while the dopaminergic system is highly involved in the pathophysiology of ADHD, given its role in CNS development, it is also strongly related with other neuropsychiatric conditions, such as autism [ 78 , 94 , 95 ] and schizophrenia [ 78 , 94 , 96 , 97 ].

5. Changes in Brain Structure and Function in ADHD Patients

As an NDD, ADHD involves alterations of mechanisms such as neurogenesis and synaptogenesis. There are a number of possible mechanisms through which these alterations take place, both environmental and genetic, some of which have been mentioned in the present review. In the end, all of these altered mechanisms produce an altered brain function affecting attention and impulse control, functions regulated by the central nervous system. Understanding the changes in brain function associated with ADHD might shed some light not only on the functional causes of this condition, but also on possible ways to deal with it.

5.1. Brain Imaging Studies

Children with ADHD present atypical connectivity in reward circuitry when compared with control children. Increased connectivity of the nucleus accumbens with the prefrontal cortex was observed to be associated with greater impulsivity [ 98 ].

Hypofunction and abnormal cortico-striatal pathways of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuit are associated with ADHD. Five different CSTC circuits have been reported: the sustained attention circuit, emotion circuit, selective attention circuit, hyperactivity circuit, and impulsivity–compulsivity circuit. Four of them (except emotion circuit) have been related with ADHD diagnostic criteria. However, pathogenesis of the emotion circuit is also related with ADHD [ 99 ]

A study on ADHD children reported significantly decreased white matter volume, as well as decreased volume in the cortex and caudate nucleus, although it did not reach statistical significance. Cortical thickness was reduced in ADHD patients bilaterally in the frontal cortex and in the right cingulate cortex, structures related with executive function and attention. Regarding default mode network, functional connectivity was reduced in ADHD children in the anterior and posterior cingulate cortexes, lateral prefrontal cortex, left precuneus, and thalamus. However, connectivity was increased in the bilateral posterior medial frontal cortex [ 100 ].

A study on male adolescents with ADHD and controls reported decreased gray matter volume in the left anterior cingulate cortex and bilateral decreases in the occipital cortex, hippocampus–amygdala complex, and cerebellum in ADHD adolescents [ 101 ]. Such decreases in cerebellar volume have been previously reported in both female and male ADHD patients [ 102 ].

An important issue with many of the imaging studies in ADHD patients has been small sample size. A large-scale study performed on children, adolescents, and adults with ADHD reported decreased surface area in children, mainly in the frontal, cingulate, and temporal regions. This effect was more pronounced in younger children (4–9 years old). Moreover, cortical thickness in ADHD children is also reduced in the fusiform gyrus and temporal lobe, an effect more prominent in children of 10 and 11 years old. No change in surface area or cortical thickness was observed in adolescent or adult ADHD patients [ 103 ].

There are important changes in brain morphology in ADHD patients. An elegant study performed in ADHD patients and controls from 6 to 28 years of age analyzed differences in neurodevelopmental trajectories. This study reported that ADHD patients present overall reduced cortical volume, mainly in frontal lobes, and primarily due to a decrease in surface area and gyrification. Interestingly, although both groups presented maturational changes due to age, they presented different trajectories for these changes, suggesting that ADHD is associated with developmentally persistent changes in the whole cortex, mostly due to decreased surface expansion (reduced surface area and less convolution) [ 7 ].

When comparing children with comorbid epilepsy and ADHD with control children, a widespread decrease in cortical thickness is observed, along with decreased volume in some subcortical structures and the brainstem. These alterations were observed early in the course of epilepsy, thus the authors suggested that neurodevelopmental changes occurred before epilepsy onset [ 104 ]. In children with comorbid autism spectrum disorder and ADHD, when compared with typically developing controls, presented significantly lower volumes in left postcentral gyrus. This was observed through magnetic resonance imaging in both children and preadolescents, but was absent in adolescents. The authors suggested that pathophysiology in these comorbid patients may be related to somatosensory deficits and delayed maturation in this area [ 105 ].

5.2. Quantitative Electroencephalography

All these changes lead to alterations in brain function. A frequently used technique for the study of brain activity is quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG), since it has a low cost, a high temporal resolution, and does not need special facilities to be performed. Furthermore, qEEG has also been used to determine the effects of pharmacological treatments on brain activity in order to assess effectiveness [ 106 , 107 ], to choose the correct pharmacological option for a patient [ 108 ], to study the effects of previous pharmacological treatments on the current one [ 109 , 110 ], as well as to determine a possible cognitive effect of the chosen pharmacological treatment [ 111 ].

During the last decades, several studies have performed qEEG analyses on ADHD patients. A review on the subject published in 2012 addressed the main associations between brain activity and ADHD, including increased frontocentral theta activity. Another frequently reported factor, although not always replicated, is an increased theta/beta ratio. For beta and alpha bands, most of the reports have indicated decreased activity, although there are also reports that have indicated increased activity in these frequency bands in ADHD patients [ 112 ]. One of the most used indicators for ADHD is the theta/beta ratio in the Cz region. It has been reported that ADHD children (inattentive and combined subtypes) present increased theta/beta ratios [ 1 ]. Another study found that children with ADHD presented more delta and theta activity [ 113 ]. However, some authors have mentioned that this measure is not necessarily useful for diagnosis, since among other issues, it presents variations according to age [ 114 ].

Another example of the influence of age on brain electrical activity associated with ADHD is a study comparing children with and without ADHD, as well as adults with and without ADHD. Interestingly, children with ADHD presented higher delta and theta activity than control children, while in adults no difference was found between ADHD group and controls in the frequency bands analyzed [ 115 ]. Among the few differences in qEEG activity found in adults with ADHD is a higher gamma activity (39.25–48 Hz), suggesting a functional alteration in dorsal attention network [ 116 ].

ADHD patients often present comorbidities [ 117 ], which might influence qEEG in a different way to the findings in ADHD only patients. For example, children with ADHD and problematic Internet use present differences in qEEG when compared to ADHD only patients. However, no differences were found between ADHD only patients and ADHD patients with depression [ 118 ]. Another study found that adolescents with ADHD and Internet gaming disorder presented lower relative delta power and greater relative beta power than adolescents with ADHD only [ 119 ].

It is noteworthy that although a number of studies have been published regarding neurophysiological correlates of ADHD through qEEG, there are still some differences in the results reported by different authors. Beyond possible methodological differences, there are a number of factors reported to influence qEEG activity in ADHD patients, which might be responsible—at least in part—for the differences reported so far, and which might be of importance when using qEEG information to choose or design a therapeutic approach. These factors include comorbidities [ 4 , 120 ] and the ages of the patients [ 114 , 116 , 121 ]. Other factors reported to affect qEEG activity in other populations and conditions are ethnicity [ 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 ], sociocultural environment during development [ 127 , 128 ], and the degree of advancement of a psychiatric condition, as reported for alcohol dependence [ 129 , 130 , 131 ].

6. Therapeutic Approaches

6.1. pharmacological treatment.

Both stimulant and non-stimulant pharmacological treatments have proven to be effective in diminishing ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents [ 132 , 133 ], although stimulant medication seems to have greater effectiveness [ 133 , 134 ]. Herein, we will address one frequently used stimulant (methylphenidate) and one frequently used non-stimulant (atomoxetine)

6.1.1. Methylphenidate

Methylphenidate is one of the most used drugs for ADHD treatment. It has been present in the market for 50 years and it reduces excessive hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention in children and adolescents with ADHD. In the United States, it is prescribed to 8% of children and adolescents under 15 years of age and to around 3% to 5% of the same population in Europe [ 135 ].

Methylphenidate blocks DAT and NET, reducing reuptake and producing an increase in available dopamine and norepinephrine in the synaptic cleft [ 135 , 136 , 137 ], leading to increased dopamine and norepinephrine transmission in the prefrontal cortex [ 132 ]. A meta-analysis on the effects of methylphenidate treatment on ADHD in adults found it effective in improving neurocognitive performance, accomplishing better results than placebo groups in terms of working memory, reaction time variability, vigilance, driving, and response inhibition [ 136 ].

6.1.2. Atomoxetine

Atomoxetine has been reported to be effective for ADHD treatment [ 138 ], being more effective in adults than in children [ 134 ].

Atomoxetine blocks norepinephrine reuptake, producing increased presence of norepinephrine and dopamine in prefrontal cortex [ 132 ]. Since atomoxetine does not produce an increase of dopamine or norepinephrine in the nucleus accumbens, it lacks abuse potential [ 132 , 139 ]. This drug is associated with improvements in quality of life in children adolescents and adults, although this parameter is not further increased with long-term use [ 139 ].

6.1.3. Adverse Effects

Both stimulant and non-stimulant pharmacological treatments for ADHD produce adverse effects in a percentage of treated patients. The main adverse effects found for these drugs (% of patients treated with stimulants/% of patients treated with non-stimulants) are decreased appetite (28.6%/14.2%), nausea (7.9%/10.3%), headache (14.5%/20.8%), insomnia (12.3%/8.6%), nasopharyngitis (6.0%/7.1%), dizziness (5.1%/10.0%), abdominal pain (7.8%/11.5%), irritability (9.3%/6.9%), and somnolence (4.4%/34.1%) [ 133 ].

A systematic review on the adverse effects of methylphenidate in children and adolescents revealed that about 1 in 100 patients present serious adverse events after methylphenidate treatment (including death, cardiac problems and psychiatric disorders), while more than half of the patients treated with methylphenidate suffer one or more adverse events. The authors concluded that it is important to identify subgroups of patients who might be harmed by methylphenidate treatment and highlight the importance of remaining alert to possible adverse events in patients with this treatment [ 135 ]. There might also be uncommon adverse effects. For example, there is a report of 3 cases of systemic sclerosis associated with methylphenidate treatment [ 140 ]. The authors of the last study suggested that patients with signs of autoimmune or vasospastic conditions should be briefed about this possible side effect before commencing methylphenidate treatment.

A systematic review on possible adverse effects of atomoxetine, including decreased growth rate, cardiovascular and hepatic effects, aggression, psychosis, seizures, and suicidal ideation, determined that evidence indicates it is safe to use in ADHD patients [ 141 ]. Furthermore, the presence of comorbidities does not interfere with treatment efficacy, nor does treatment exacerbate comorbid symptoms [ 142 , 143 ]. However, it is important to be alert to other possible adverse effects. A case report and review indicated that the appearance of tics is a common side effect of atomoxetine treatment [ 144 ].

Methylphenidate and atomoxetine are known to increase heart rate and blood pressure, raising concern regarding possible cardiovascular effects of these drugs in ADHD patients. A review on the cardiovascular effects of these drugs in healthy subjects found the drug to be safe to use. Most of these studies were performed in children and adolescents, although there have also been some studies performed on adults, with no serious risk being reported in these subjects either. However, patient blood pressure and heart rate should be monitored on a regular basis. Moreover, careful follow-up should be performed for patients presenting certain cardiovascular conditions [ 145 ].

Weight loss has also been reported after atomoxetine treatment, occurring during the first two years of treatment. However, evidence suggests this decrease begins to be compensated between 2 and 5 years after the beginning of treatment [ 141 ]. Similarly, methylphenidate has been associated with adverse effects such as anorexia, weight loss, and insomnia [ 146 ].

A comparative study on short-term effects of methylphenidate and atomoxetine on ADHD reported significantly higher weight loss in children treated with atomoxetine [ 147 ]. However, a more recent study reported that children present significantly more weight loss after methylphenidate than after atomoxetine treatment [ 148 ].

A meta-analysis on gastrointestinal adverse effects of methylphenidate reported increased risk of decreased appetite, weight loss, and abdominal pain in children and adolescents under this pharmacological treatment [ 149 ].

A comparison between the presence of adverse effects after methylphenidate and atomoxetine treatments in ADHD children indicated methylphenidate as a safer option, since children under atomoxetine treatment presented higher incidence rates of anorexia, nausea, somnolence, dizziness, and vomiting than children under methylphenidate treatment [ 147 ]. A more recent study reported similar results, since children treated with atomoxetine presented higher incidence rates of mild adverse effects, such as decreased appetite, weight loss, dyspepsia, abdominal pain, stomach ache, irritability, mood disorders, and dizziness. As for severe adverse effects, patients under atomoxetine treatment presented higher incidence rates of gastrointestinal, neuropsychiatric, and cardiovascular effects [ 150 ].

6.1.4. Long-Term Adverse Effects

Long-term adverse effects of methylphenidate are the subject of intense study, given that it is the first-line stimulant drug used for ADHD treatment in children, adolescents, and adults [ 11 , 151 ]. A review on the subject addressed different adverse effects studied in patients after long-term (over one year) administration of methylphenidate, including low mood or depression, anxiety, irritability or emotional reactivity, suicidal behavior or ideation, bipolar disorder, psychotic symptoms, substance use disorders, tics, seizures or EEG abnormalities, and sleep disorders. The authors concluded that existing information indicates that methylphenidate is safe to use, although caution should be taken when prescribing this drug to specific groups, such as preschool children, patients prone to psychosis or tics, and high-risk adolescents [ 152 ]. However, the need for more studies on the long-term effects of treatment with this drug is highlighted, since studies in humans are rather scarce and with a high degree of heterogeneity in terms of methodological approach [ 151 , 152 ].

6.1.5. Long-Term Therapeutic Effect

Given that ADHD is a chronic disorder and that many of the children presenting ADHD will still present symptoms in adulthood, it is particularly important to determine the long-term effectiveness of pharmacological treatments. However, very few studies address this issue, and no conclusion can yet be drawn regarding the long-term effects (years) of pharmacological treatment of ADHD on symptom reduction and quality of life. Thus, the long-term efficacy of drug treatment for ADHD remains under debate [ 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 ]

Current pharmacological treatments for ADHD have proven to be safe and effective. The efficacy of these treatments on ADHD symptoms is clear, and thus pharmacological therapy is often used to treat ADHD patients [ 136 , 138 , 141 , 152 ]. However, there are also some drawbacks to this therapeutic approach, including the time required to reach the effective dose for each patient [ 3 , 157 ]; the lack of response in some patients [ 121 , 158 , 159 , 160 ]; the unresolved issue of long-term effectiveness (of great importance given that in many cases the treatment must go on for years) [ 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 ]; the presence of adverse effects, which although not life threatening in most cases, are nevertheless upsetting [ 133 , 135 , 144 ]; and the existence of specific groups of patients with whom a greater caution must be taken [ 140 , 145 , 152 ]. Altogether, these drawbacks have led to the search of new therapeutic approaches. One of the strategies studied so far is the possibility of using other drugs to treat ADHD, including drugs interacting with serotoninergic (metadoxine, paroxetine, duloxetine, buspirone), glutamatergic (memantine), cholinergic (AZD3480, AZD1446, lobeline, galantamine, mecamylamine), histaminergic (mk-0249), and catecholaminergic neurotransmission systems (modafinil, droxidopa, desipramine, bupropion, nomifensine, reboxetine, venlafaxine, duloxetine, guanfacine, aripiprazol, dasotraline, selegiline), as well as lithium [ 161 ].

6.2. Non-Pharmacological Therapies

Pharmacological therapy is effective although presents some inconveniences, including the existence of adverse effects in some patients and lack of effect in others. Therefore, there are also different non-pharmacological approaches for ADHD treatment.

6.2.1. Behavioral Parent Training

The goal of parent training is to equip parents with techniques that will be useful in managing ADHD-related behavior presented by their children. A systematic review published on 2011 found no reliable effect of ADHD children’s behavior, although it may lead to increased confidence and decreased stress in parents [ 162 ]. Later studies found an effect of behavioral parent training on ADHD symptoms, which is not increased by previous working memory training, although this combination did produce positive effects on working memory storage and processing [ 163 ]. It is noteworthy that cognitive functioning of both parents and children influences the effectiveness of this therapeutic approach on ADHD symptoms. Better working memory in children and higher parental response caution presented an association with improvements in inattention. As for conduct problems, better parental self-regulation was associated with a better result in this area. However, none of the measured cognitive functions in children or parents were associated with improvements in hyperactivity [ 164 ]. Moreover, behavioral parent training improves coexistence at home, since a reduction in the frequency and severity of problematic situations is produced, along with a reduction of stress in parents [ 165 ].

6.2.2. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has also been used to treat ADHD. A review performed on the subject found CBT to be effective in reducing ADHD symptoms in adults, however only when improvement was evaluated by the patient and not when evaluated by the clinician [ 166 ], although a more recent meta-analysis on the subject reported a good effect of CBT on ADHD adults [ 167 ]. A Cochrane systematic review concluded that CBT has a positive effect on ADHD symptoms, either alone or in conjunction with other therapies, although considered the evidence to be low-quality in accordance with the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) working group approach. [ 168 ]. A meta-analysis found that CBT is one of the most effective non-pharmacological options to treat ADHD, ranking just after physical exercise [ 169 ]. A later systematic review confirmed the effects of CBT on ADHD symptoms [ 170 ]. A recent study reported CBT to be effective in reducing ADHD symptoms in patients, either with or without conjunct medication [ 171 ].

6.2.3. Attention Training Techniques

Attention training techniques are often used to improve life quality and increase well-being. Given the effect of these techniques on brain activity, as well as on attention and self-regulation, their use to reduce ADHD symptoms and improve life quality in these patients is currently under study [ 172 ].

Mindfulness can be defined as paying attention to the present, an activity that implies sustained attention. A systematic review on the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on ADHD found that such approaches were popular among adults with ADHD, finding improvements in attention, although the effects of such approaches in children and adolescents are still unclear [ 173 ]. A recent meta-review reported a large effect size of mindfulness on ADHD [ 174 ]. A review on the effects of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy on ADHD adults reported good effects of this therapeutic approach, especially when used in conjunction with pharmacological therapy [ 175 ], while a systematic review analyzing the effects of meditation-based techniques (either on parents and children or on children only) on ADHD children could not draw a clear conclusion regarding beneficial effects [ 176 ].

Adult ADHD patients that underwent an 8-week mindfulness awareness practice period presented decreased ADHD, depression, and anxiety symptoms [ 177 ]. Similarly, a study performed with children revealed that an 8-week period of mindfulness-oriented meditation produced improvements in the performance of neuropsychological tests, as well as in ADHD symptoms. Although encouraging, the authors stated that the results are still preliminary, given the small number of children participating in the study [ 178 ]. There are also results indicating that this technique produces an improvement in ADHD symptoms in ADHD children with oppositional defiant disorder [ 179 ].

6.2.4. Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback (NFB) is a therapy in which patients learn to modify EEG patterns through operant conditioning. There are articles reporting the induction of plastic changes after NFB training [ 180 , 181 , 182 , 183 ], supporting a theory explaining the effects of NFB on different brain disorders through the induction of synaptic plasticity, leading to an homeostatic set point. Additionally, besides some unusual cases of headache, no collateral effects have been reported with this technique. One of the most interesting aspects of NFB is the induction of plastic changes from within the brain under normal physiological conditions, without the need for an external stimuli such as pharmacological treatments or transcranial stimulation to alter brain activity, thus the probability of adverse effects is minimal [ 181 ].

Specific NFB protocols have been developed over the decades. These protocols were designed based on articles reporting specific qEEG variations in neurological patients or qEEG patterns associated with cognitive function. Some of these standardized protocols have been studied in terms of their ability to treat ADHD [ 184 ].

Several articles have addressed the use of NFB in ADHD patients. The results have been mixed and numerous meta-analyses have been published on the subject. The conclusions of these meta-analyses have also been mixed. There are meta-analyses reporting good effects of NFB on ADHD [ 185 , 186 , 187 ], not finding reliable effects [ 188 ], not reaching a conclusion on the subject of efficacy [ 189 ], finding a minor effect of this therapeutic approach significantly below what is observed with pharmacological treatment [ 190 ], or finding a minor effect only in the presence of pharmacological treatment [ 191 ].

An overview of recent publications gave the same impression. Some reports found effects of NFB theta/beta or theta/alpha protocols on ADHD, measurable at follow-up 8 weeks or 12 months after treatment completion [ 192 , 193 ]. Other reports found no effect [ 194 , 195 , 196 ]. Moreover, there are reports revealing a minor effect of NFB, below the effect levels of other therapeutic approaches [ 197 , 198 , 199 ].

NFB is a therapeutic approach widely studied for ADHD treatment. The results so far have been mixed. However, given the absence of side effects and its ability to induce synaptic plasticity [ 181 ], it is an option worth keeping in mind.

6.2.5. Other Non-Pharmacological Approaches

The use of non-pharmacological supplementations, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, peptides, amino acids, plat extracts, probiotics, micronutrients, and herbal supplementation, is currently being studied in order to determine their usefulness in treating ADHD. However, further research is still needed in this area [ 200 ].

A study performed in ADHD children under methylphenidate treatment for whom zinc supplementation was added reported no significant effect of zinc supplementation on the total score for a parent’s questionnaire for ADHD or in the hyperactivity and impulsivity subscales. However, zinc-supplemented children present improvements in inattention scores [ 201 ].

A meta-analysis on non-pharmacological interventions for ADHD patients found that physical exercise produced a good effect on ADHD cognitive symptoms, especially aerobic exercise targeting executive functions [ 169 ].

7. Treatment Personalization

In the first sections of this review, we addressed some of the factors associated with ADHD incidence, ranging from a variety of environmental factors to the presence of different genetic polymorphisms. However, these different etiologies are not always present, since patients might present one or another (see Section 2 and Section 3 ). Similarly, while there are some changes in brain activity associated with ADHD, they are not always the same (see Section 4 ). Accordingly, there is also variation in the response of patients to both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments (see Section 5 ).

Since the etiology of ADHD could be very different from patient to patient, the precise nature of the physiological changes underlying the clinical manifestations of ADHD in each case could be slightly different, affecting the effectiveness of the chosen treatment and possibly explaining the variation in the effect of the same treatment on different patients. This can be observed in the variations in qEEG activity observed in different studies [ 112 , 113 , 114 , 116 , 121 ]. However, the design of personalized treatments based on specific characteristics of each patient could lead to better clinical results. In this regard, strategies to adjust therapeutic approaches based on patients’ characteristics have been used for both pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies.

Selecting the appropriate pharmacological treatment and the dose to be used takes some time, given the large inter-individual variability regarding treatment efficacy, leading to a delay in reaching a therapeutic effect, and in some cases producing an early termination of treatment due to frustration, either by the provider or the family [ 157 ]. Moreover, there is some variability regarding patient response to methylphenidate, including patients that do not achieve adequate symptom control or experience adverse effects with commonly used doses. Therefore, dose optimization has been proposed as a means to achieve an adequate effect for most of the patients, enhancing both the efficacy and safety of methylphenidate treatment [ 3 ]. This has led to the search for strategies to find adequate treatments for each patient, such as pharmacogenomics, in which a patient’s genotype for a particular gene is used to predict the effects of medication in that patient. However, in spite of the progress that has already been made, no pharmacogenomic test so far has been found to be helpful in treatment selection [ 157 ].

Treatment resistance has been reported for both atomoxetine [ 158 ] and methylphenidate [ 121 , 159 , 160 ]. For this reason, qEEG can be used as a source of information to determine at an earlier point whether methylphenidate [ 121 , 160 , 202 ] or atomoxetine [ 107 , 202 ] is effective or if an alternative treatment is needed for a patient.

Most of the reports on the use of NFB for ADHD use a standardized protocol, either equal for all participants or adapted to each patients after qEEG analysis. However, there is another more personalized approach known as qEEG-informed (or qEEG-guided) NFB. In this variant of NFB, rather than selecting a particular protocol (for example, theta/beta ratio) and applying it to all participants, subjects receive a NFB protocol selected for them after qEEG analysis. This type of NFB has been successfully used in schizophrenia [ 203 ], obsessive compulsive disorder [ 204 ], migraine [ 205 ], dementia [ 206 ], and with learning-disabled children [ 207 , 208 ].

There are so far only two studies applying qEEG-informed NFB in ADHD patients, so it is not yet possible to perform a meta-analysis on the effects of this type of NFB on ADHD. However, a positive effect of NFB has been reported in both published studies [ 209 , 210 ].

8. Discussion

ADHD is an NDD with a complex etiology. While it is clear that its main cause is alterations in neurodevelopmental processes such as synaptogenesis, myelination, and neurogenesis [ 5 ], the causes of these neurodevelopmental alterations are diverse. In some cases they might be associated with environmental factors such as premature birth [ 6 ], perinatal problems [ 9 ], nutrition during pregnancy [ 10 ], or exposure to heavy metals [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 26 , 27 , 29 ]. Additionally, there is strong evidence of genetic influence on ADHD [ 43 , 44 ], and an interaction between environmental and genetic factors cannot be discarded.

The purpose of this review is not to fully describe all factors associated with ADHD appearance, but rather to address some of the main etiologies described so far, in order to clarify the high diversity of factors associated with this NDD. When analyzing the different sections of this review, one thing becomes evident—that ADHD patients are diverse regarding the etiology of their condition and their responses to treatment. This heterogeneity outlines the high variability in patients’ particular conditions regarding ADHD symptom manifestation and treatment, since it is probable that the underlying neurophysiological alterations for each patient are at least slightly different. Thus, standardized treatment (either pharmacological or non-pharmacological) may not be equally efficient in all cases.

Moreover, there could be other factors that are usually disregarded in relation with ADHD incidence, but which might play an important role in this condition. Recently, the gut microbiome has been the subject of intense research as an ADHD-associated factor, and even though further research is needed in order to determine its precise influence on ADHD, there are already reports indicating a possible link between them [ 211 , 212 , 213 , 214 ].

In the end, all of these factors produce changes in brain structure and function [ 1 , 7 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 ], leading to the symptomatology observed in ADHD patients. Therapeutic approaches to treat this condition have the objective of compensating such alterations in order to reduce symptoms and improve quality of life. However, as we have observed in this review, not all patients present the same neurophysiological changes. Studies performed on qEEG activity have yielded different results regarding brain electrical activity in ADHD patients [ 4 , 112 , 114 , 120 ]. Additionally, both brain imaging and qEEG techniques have revealed that changes are not consistent throughout the lifespan, being different in children and adults [ 114 , 115 , 116 , 121 ]. Therefore, there is a need for treatment personalization for each ADHD patient in order to achieve greater effect with minimal adverse effects.

Pharmacological treatments, both stimulants and non-stimulants have proven to be effective and safe for ADHD patients [ 132 , 133 ], and thus are widely prescribed to treat this condition. However, the pharmacological approach to ADHD treatment has some drawbacks, mostly regarding difficulties in reaching effectiveness in all patients [ 3 , 121 , 157 , 158 , 159 , 160 ] and the presence of adverse effects [ 133 , 135 , 144 ].

The search for other therapeutic options has led to the assessment of the effects of other drugs on ADHD [ 161 ], as well as the design of non-pharmacological treatments, such as behavioral parent training, CBT, attention-improving techniques, and NFB.

The effects of behavioral parent training on ADHD symptoms in children are not consistent, with some articles finding effects [ 163 ] and others not finding any [ 162 ]. However, behavioral parent training does reduce stress in parents and promotes a better coexistence at home, which is favorable for children [ 162 , 165 ]. In the case of CBT, there is more evidence indicating a good effect in reducing ADHD symptoms [ 167 , 168 , 169 , 170 , 171 ]

Attention training techniques are still under intense study. There is some evidence regarding the effect of this technique on ADHD in adults [ 173 , 175 ], while in children and adolescents the results are not clear so far [ 173 , 176 ].

A number of studies on the effect of NFB on ADHD symptoms have yielded different results, either finding a positive effect [ 185 , 186 , 187 , 192 , 193 ], a mild effect [ 190 , 197 , 198 , 199 ], or no effect at all [ 188 , 194 , 195 , 196 ]. However, NFB has a number of advantages that encourage the search for an adequate protocol to treat ADHD patients. It is targeted directly to change brain activity associated with the condition under treatment, it has virtually no side effects, and the therapeutic effect is due to the induction of plastic changes in the central nervous system, thus it might establish a long-term changes [ 180 , 181 , 182 , 183 ].

9. Conclusions

In the present review, we have gone through some of the factors associated with ADHD, and it is clear that a great heterogeneity exists in the etiology of this condition. Therapeutic approaches, although functional in many cases, also show heterogeneity in their effects in certain groups of patients. The diverse range of effects of the therapeutic approaches used should not be a surprise, given the diversity of etiologies found in ADHD. Even though clinical manifestations of this condition might be similar (diagnosis is based on the presence certain symptoms), the same clinical manifestations could occur with different underlying physiological changes, considering the variations in qEEG activity in different groups of patients [ 112 , 113 , 114 , 116 , 121 ]. Thus, these neurophysiological changes presented by patients may not necessarily respond in equal form to a given therapeutic approach. Given the inter-personal variance in the etiology of ADHD, it is advisable to personalize the therapeutic approach. Regarding pharmacological therapies, dosage optimization [ 3 ], pharmacogenomics [ 157 ], and the use of qEEG to select the adequate drug for a given patient have been proposed [ 107 , 121 , 160 , 202 ].

Regarding non-pharmacological options, the use of qEEG-informed NFB has been proposed for personalized treatment in ADHD patients. The studies carried out to date have shown positive results [ 209 , 210 ], although the number of studies is still too small to draw a conclusion. However, given the advantages of NFB [ 181 ] and the positive effects of this approach reported for other conditions [ 203 , 204 , 205 , 206 , 207 , 208 ], it is worth performing further studies on the effectiveness of this type of NFB on ADHD.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.N.-J. and W.V.H.-M. writing—reviewing and editing, L.N.-J., W.V.H.-M., and A.H.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

I Tried 4 Thesis Nootropic Blends (My 2024 Review)

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Thesis stands out in the wellness industry with its personalized nootropic supplements, designed to cater to the individual’s specific cognitive needs. It has been pushed by health and wellness celebrities, causing a wave of popularity.

Do Thesis nootropics live up to the hype?

• Variety Of Blends: Various nootropic blends based on individual brain chemistry, maximizing effectiveness for each user.
• Strong Advocacy and Support: Gained endorsements from notable wellness advocates and public figures, like Andrew Huberman, enhancing credibility.
• Limited Clinical Research: While the company plans clinical trials, the current scientific backing may be limited.
• Price: The ongoing cost of customized nootropics may be higher than standard off-the-shelf supplements or medications.
• Dependence on Self-Reporting: The effectiveness of blends relies partly on user feedback, which may not always be accurate or consistent.
• Many Underdosed Ingredients: As you’ll read below, many ingredients are dosed below what was used in human clinical trials.

Quick Verdict

Thesis has a range of suitable nootropic blends to cater to many needs.

However, our #1 nootropic of choice is Nooceptin. It’s designed for long-term brain changes, not short-term boosts in mental performance.

What Is Thesis Nootropics?

Thesis Nootropics is a company specializing in customized cognitive performance products. It was founded by Dan Freed in 2017.

Freed’s personal challenges with focusing, which he faced from a young age, led him to discover nootropics.

This personal journey of transformation through nootropics inspired him to create Thesis, aiming to help others find the right combination of nootropic ingredients that work for them.

The company’s unique approach involves allowing customers to experiment with high-quality nootropic ingredients to maximize results systematically.

Thesis has gained popularity primarily through word-of-mouth and a strong focus on personalization.

The company has raised over $13.5 million in funding and is reportedly profitable with a robust growth trajectory.

Thesis has garnered support from health and wellness advocates like Dr. Andrew Huberman, Rich Roll, Kevin Love, and Kate Bock.

Thesis Nootropics

Customized Blends For Cognitive Enhancement

Take the quiz and see which blends are right for you.

Thesis Nootropic Ingredients

Thesis have six unique blends designed to target various aspects of cognitive function. What’s similar between them is the option to include or exclude caffeine and L-theanine. The caffeine and l-theanine combination is the most potent instant nootropic, making each blend effective.

The caffeine L-theanine stack benefits physical and cognitive function. Some advantages include faster reaction time, faster visual processing speed, better working memory, increased awareness, and less tiredness and mental fatigue [1] [2] .

The research employs a 2:1 L-theanine to caffeine ratio, which Thesis has followed. Since this stack is available in every blend, I won’t include it in the ingredients breakdown below.

Thesis Clarity Blend

Alpha gpc (speculative).

Alpha GPC, a choline-containing phospholipid, improves cognitive function in neurological conditions like dementia [3] .

Research indicates it enhances memory and attention and may support brain health. Clinical trials show it can improve cognitive performance, especially when combined with other treatments like donepezil [4] .

It’s generally well-tolerated and safe. Alpha GPC increases acetylcholine levels in the brain, which is essential for memory and learning [5] .

It’s used both as a medicine and a nutritional supplement. Studies suggest Alpha GPC effectively boosts cognitive functions, particularly in adult-onset dementia disorders [6] .

Thesis Clarity Blend contains 500 mg, which is more than any other nootropic available.

Lions Mane Mushroom (Speculative)

The Lion’s Mane mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) includes chemicals that stimulate nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis, which is necessary for nerve cell proliferation and differentiation [7] .

According to research, Lion’s Mane improves cognitive abilities, particularly memory and brain cell regeneration [8] .

It is renowned for its neuroprotective qualities, which may be effective in treating illnesses such as Alzheimer’s disease and cognitive impairment [9] .

Brain functioning, memory, and mood improvements have been linked to regular ingestion [10] .

While the mushroom does not directly improve cognitive skills, it does increase NGF, which improves brain health [11] . The dosage varies but is generally well-tolerated and has few negative effects.

Thesis Clarity contains 500 mg of Lions Mane, which may give a long-term nootropic effect.

Mycelium is typically avoided since the active chemicals are found in the primary mushroom. Jeff Chilton, a long-time mushroom researcher, discusses this in the podcast below:

Camellia Sinensis Tea Leaf (Speculative)

Camellia Sinensis, commonly known as tea, exhibits varying neuropharmacological effects based on the part of the plant used.

Seed extracts tend to be more stimulating, enhancing motor functions and showing potential as an antidepressant without causing drowsiness.

Leaf extracts, on the other hand, tend to produce a calming effect on the mind and mood. Both seeds and leaves have shown positive results in various tests assessing motor function and behavior in animal models [12] .

The study suggests these parts of the Camellia Sinensis plant have potential as cognitive enhancers, warranting further research, especially on seed extracts for their mode of action and possible new beneficial compounds.

I couldn’t find any human studies for this ingredient, so I can’t give you an efficacious dose range. But Thesis Clarity contains 278 mg of Camellia Sinensis Tea Leaf.

Dihydroxyflavone

Dihydroxyflavone research is all performed in rodents, so extrapolating to humans is rather challenging. 7,8-Dihydroxyflavone (7,8-DHF) is a compound that acts as an agonist for the TrkB receptor, which is associated with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).

BDNF is crucial for neuronal survival and brain plasticity. Studies have shown that 7,8-DHF can improve memory and cognitive functions [13] .

It enhanced memory formation in healthy rats, and in Alzheimer’s disease mouse models, it improved spatial memory [14] .

Further, 7,8-DHF has been shown to counteract aging-related cognitive impairments in rats, improving spatial memory and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus [15] .

This suggests that 7,8-DHF is a potential therapeutic agent for memory impairment and dementia, at least in rodents.

Thesis Energy Blend Ingredients

Citicoline is commonly mentioned in relation to memory enhancement. According to studies, 500 mg daily may improve episodic memory or the ability to recall personal experiences and specific events [16] .

According to other research, taking at least 500 mg of this supplement daily may provide cognitive benefits to healthy persons [17] .

The formulation of Thesis Energy Blend contains 300 mg of Citicoline. This dose may not achieve the full potential seen in studies proposing a higher dose.

Mango leaf extract, rich in the polyphenolic compound mangiferin, shows promise in neuropharmacology due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antidiabetic properties.

Studies indicate its potential in treating central complications associated with metabolic disorders like type 2 diabetes, which are risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia [18] .

In animal models, mango leaf extract has demonstrated effects on reducing brain inflammation and spontaneous bleeding and improving cognitive functions [19] .

These findings suggest its utility in addressing symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive impairments [20] .

Thesis Energy contains 300 mg of mango leaf.

Theacrine is a purine alkaloid similar to caffeine, found in the Camellia Kucha plant, and often included in dietary supplements.

Studies show that it can increase energy, focus, and cognitive performance, similar to caffeine, but without habituation [21] .

Theacrine’s impact on cognitive performance and physical endurance has been researched in athletes, indicating possible benefits in reaction time and endurance [22] .

It may work well alone or in combination with caffeine to enhance cognitive function and physical performance [23] .

Theacrine appears to be a promising supplement for improving mental alertness and physical capacity. Bear in mind the manufacturers of Theacrine fund some of these studies.

Thesis Energy contains 100 mg of Theacrine, which tends to be less than the dose used in these studies, suggesting it may have a weaker effect.

N-Acetyl Cysteine

N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) is explored for its potential to improve cognitive functions in psychosis and bipolar disorder due to its antioxidant, neurogenesis, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Studies show N-acetyl cysteine can improve working memory in psychosis [24] . However, results in bipolar disorder didn’t show significant cognitive improvements [25] .

Research indicates potential benefits for Alzheimer’s disease by promoting cognitive health and countering oxidative stress [26] .

The effectiveness of N-acetyl cysteine in various cognitive disorders still requires more targeted, larger studies to confirm its benefits [27] .

N-acetyl cysteine’s role is promising but not yet firmly established in cognitive enhancement.

In human trials, it seems a 600 – 2000 mg dose is needed for cognitive benefits. Thesis Energy contains 500 mg, being potentially underdosed.

Indian Trumpet Tree

Indian Trumpet Tree is known as Oroxylum indicum. In a 12-week study, older adults with memory complaints took 500 mg of Oroxylum indicum extract twice daily [28] .

Compared to a placebo, this supplementation led to improvements in episodic memory and numeric working memory. It also accelerated learning in location tasks.

However, there were no significant changes in other cognitive tests or overall cognitive and memory skills.

The study suggests that Oroxylum indicum, while well-tolerated, may primarily enhance specific memory functions.

Its potential effects could be linked to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and interactions with neurotransmitters like dopamine and GABA.

This is the only human study on the Indian Trumpet Tree, so more research is needed to fully understand its impact on cognitive health. Thesis Energy only contains 100 mg of this, making it potentially underdosed.

L-tyrosine, an amino acid, has been shown to increase dopamine levels in the brain. L-tyrosine supplementation has improved cognitive regulation, particularly in mentally demanding settings [29] .

It is especially helpful in improving cognitive flexibility, which is impacted by dopamine.

While L-Tyrosine’s promise for treating clinical problems and improving physical activity is limited, it is useful in stressful or cognitively taxing situations.

It has the greatest cognitive benefits when neurotransmitter activity is intact, but dopamine and norepinephrine levels are momentarily decreased [30] .

According to research, optimal doses for cognitive improvement begin at a minimum of 2 grams. That is more than six times the dose in Thesis Energy.

Thesis Creativity Blend Ingredients

Thesis Creativity contains 150 mg of Alpha GPC, yet their Clarity Blend contains 500 mg. I’m not sure why there is a large discrepancy, especially when 500 mg is likely a more efficacious dose.

Agmatine Sulfate

Currently, agmatine sulfate has only been tested in rodents. It is a central nervous system (CNS) neurotransmitter/neuromodulator that has been studied for its potential effects on stress-related conditions like depression, anxiety, and cognitive performance.

Research suggests that agmatine can have antidepressant and anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects, possibly related to its influence on the nitric oxide pathway [31] .

It may reduce oxidative stress and corticosterone levels while increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is beneficial for brain health.

Agmatine sulfate has been shown to be safe and well-tolerated in animal studies, with oral administration effectively increasing its levels in the brain [32] .

This indicates potential for therapeutic use in neurological disorders, though more research is needed to fully understand its effects and mechanisms.

Thesis Creativity contains 250 mg. In these studies, patients were administered 15-600 mg per kg, which is a much higher dose.

Panax Ginseng

Panax ginseng is available in two varieties: white ginseng and red ginseng. It has vasorelaxant and moderately hypotensive effects on nitric oxide generation in the body [33] .

It increases antioxidant enzyme activity and may prevent oxidative damage associated with aging in rats [34] .

Ginseng has shown promise in boosting memory, particularly in age-related cognitive decline, as well as in improving mental and physical resilience, reducing fatigue, and assisting the body in adapting to stress [35] .

Daily doses of 200 mg extract or 0.5 to 2 g dry root are recommended. It is not suggested for persons with acute asthma or hypertension because it may cause overstimulation and elevate blood pressure in excessive dosages.

Thesis Creativity has an effective dose of 200 mg, which may provide you with these mental performance benefits.

Ashwagandha Root

Ashwagandha is a traditional herbal remedy used to improve various health conditions. Animal studies have shown that it can increase blood cell counts, which might enhance aerobic capacity [36] .

It also demonstrates the potential to reduce oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, which could be beneficial in treating disorders like tardive dyskinesia [37] .

Additionally, Ashwagandha has shown nootropic effects and might be useful in treating Alzheimer’s disease [38] . Recommended dosages range from 6 to 10 grams of ground roots or 100 to 1250 mg of extract daily [39] [40] .

It’s generally safe but should be used cautiously, especially in cases of hyperthyroidism or pregnancy. High doses can have sedative effects and may cause gastrointestinal issues.

Thesis Creativity contains 300 mg of Ashwagandha, which is within the recommended range for cognitive benefits.

Sceletium Tortuosum

Sceletium tortuosum, also known as Kanna, is traditionally used for its mood-enhancing properties. It’s been studied for its potential in treating cognitive and neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s [41] .

Research suggests its constituents could target enzymes and receptors relevant to these diseases, offering neuroprotective benefits like antioxidant activity [42] .

Additionally, Sceletium Tortuosum is known for its antidepressant and anxiolytic effects, promoting relaxation and well-being, which could be beneficial in managing stress, anxiety, and depression [43] .

The plant’s bioactive alkaloids are also being explored for commercial medicinal use.

The 25 mg dose in Thesis Creativity is the same as used within the human trials.

Thesis Motivation Blend Ingredients

L-phenylalanine.

L-phenylalanine is a vital amino acid and has been explored for its potential benefits in managing conditions like attention deficit disorder and depression.

In studies, doses of up to 1200 mg showed initial improvements in mood and attention in individuals with attention deficit disorder, but tolerance developed over 2-4 months [44] .

In another study involving depressed patients, a dosage range of 75–200 mg/day for 20 days led to significant improvements in 12 out of 20 patients [45] .

However, the effectiveness and safety of L-phenylalanine can vary, and it is used in the treatment of various conditions, including depression and arthritis, and even as part of addiction recovery [46] .

Thesis Motivation has a 500 mg dose, which may provide some of these benefits. Will it improve motivation? I’m not sure.

Methylliberine

Methylliberine is a purine alkaloid explored for its cognitive and mood-enhancing effects. Studies have shown it can improve concentration, motivation, and mood, especially when combined with caffeine.

Methylliberine also appears to positively affect energy levels and well-being without significantly impacting vital signs like heart rate and blood pressure [47] .

These findings suggest its potential as a nootropic supplement, particularly for enhancing cognitive function and mood in various contexts, such as gaming or in tactical scenarios [48] [49] .

However, it’s essential to consider the dosage and combination with other compounds like caffeine for optimal effects.

The 100 mg dose in Thesis Motivation aligns with the current research.

Vitamin B12 (Speculative)

Vitamin B12 is essential for cognitive health and may be linked to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

Low levels of B12 are associated with cognitive impairment, but supplementation is only shown to be effective in improving cognition in cases of existing B12 deficiency [50] .

There is limited evidence that increasing B12 levels benefits people without B12 deficiency [51] .

B12’s impact on cognitive health may involve multiple mechanisms, including brain volume and function [52] . However, more extensive research is needed to fully understand its effects and potential as a cognitive enhancer.

Thesis Motivation contains 1000mcg. The research states that it may have no effect if you’re not Vitamin B12 deficient.

Forskolin (Speculative)

Forskolin has only been studied in rodents regarding cognitive function. Forskolin is an herbal extract that shows the potential to improve memory and reduce Alzheimer’s disease symptoms.

In studies, it restored nest-building and social behaviors in mice with Alzheimer-like symptoms, reduced amyloid plaque deposition, and regulated brain inflammation [53] .

Forskolin also influences memory and tau protein phosphorylation in the brain, which is relevant in Alzheimer’s [54] .

Additionally, forskolin has shown protective effects against Huntington’s disease-like neurodegeneration in rats by improving learning and memory and reducing oxidative stress [55] .

These findings indicate forskolin’s potential as a neuroprotective agent for certain neurological conditions, at least in rodents.

I’m skeptical whether 250 mg of Forskolin in Thesis Motivation will help you “feel” more motivated.

Artichoke (Speculative)

Artichoke extract is known for its prebiotic properties and promotes probiotic bacteria growth in the gut, potentially benefiting cognitive functions in mice [56] .

In elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment, combining artichoke extract and aerobic training improved cognitive status and reduced blood glucose and insulin resistance [57] .

Artichoke varieties Spinoso Sardo and Romanesco Siciliano demonstrated antioxidant properties and potential protective effects against cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders, with Romanesco Siciliano showing higher antioxidant power [58] .

The 450 mg dose is well under the dose used in these studies.

Thesis Confidence Blend Ingredients

Saffron (speculative).

Saffron is traditionally used in herbal medicine and shows promise in improving cognitive function in individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) [59] .

Research indicates that saffron’s effectiveness is comparable to common drugs used for these conditions without increasing side effects. It’s also well-tolerated in cognitively normal individuals [60] .

However, most current studies have a high risk of bias. More comprehensive, low-bias clinical trials are needed to confirm saffron’s potential as a treatment for cognitive impairments like AD and MCI.

All of the research used 30 mg of saffron daily. Thesis Confidence has 28 mg, and I’m unsure why they formulated it without the extra 2 mg.

Magnesium Bisglycinate

Magnesium is essential for brain functions and has been researched for its potential cognitive benefits. Magnesium is particularly effective in increasing brain magnesium levels and has shown promise in improving memory and cognition in healthy adults [61] .

However, its role in anxiety and mood disorders is less clear [62] .

Studies indicate magnesium may help reduce symptoms of depression, but results are not consistent across all mental health conditions [63] .

Further research is needed to conclusively establish magnesium’s effectiveness and appropriate use as a therapeutic supplement in various psychiatric and cognitive disorders [64] .

500 mg of magnesium may help if you’re deficient, but there’s no clear benefit to making you more confident.

Sage (Speculative)

Sage is known as Salvia and has been traditionally known to enhance memory. A recent study supports this, showing that acute ingestion of sage oil can significantly improve immediate word recall in healthy young adults [65] .

This suggests that sage may positively influence cognitive functions like memory, potentially due to its acetylcholinesterase inhibition activity in the brain.

However, this has not been replicated.

While historically used for various mental disorders, such as depression and age-related memory loss, contemporary research is needed to fully understand its benefits and potential as a cognitive enhancer.

Regardless of the 333 mg dose, this is one of the more speculative ingredients in all Thesis blends.

Sceletium Tortuosum (Speculative)

As mentioned in the Creativity Blend, Sceletium Tortuosum is known for its mood-enhancing properties. It is the same dose of 25 mg, which is used in human trials.

Magnolia Bark (Speculative)

Magnolia officinalis is commonly used in traditional medicine for mental disorders like anxiety and depression and shows potential as a nootropic supplement.

Studies have demonstrated that its ethanol extract can improve cognitive function and memory in stress-induced situations. It also exhibits anxiolytic properties, reducing anxiety-related behaviors in rats [66] .

The extract’s effectiveness is also evident in lowering stress-induced increases in corticosterone and tyrosine hydroxylase levels.

Moreover, Magnolia officinalis, especially its component honokiol, has neuroprotective effects and can regulate mood disorders by modulating GABA and CB1 receptors in rats [67] .

These are rodent studies, so it’s impossible to extrapolate to humans. Regardless, it’s included based on the mechanistic data with the theory of doing the same thing in humans with the 10 mg dose.

Ashwagandha Leaf & Root

The 120 mg of root and leaf ashwagandha may be enough to have a nootropic effect as the extract dose is between 100-1200 mg, as stated in the Creativity Blend section. However, this is root and leaf, and the main benefits are derived from the root.

Thesis Logic Blend Ingredients

Ginko biloba.

Ginkgo biloba is extracted from the leaves and fruit to improve cognitive function. Its compounds include antioxidants, enhance blood flow, and have anti-inflammatory properties.

Ginkgo biloba extract has been shown in animal studies to help with chronic brain difficulties by modifying inflammatory mediators and the cholinergic system [68] .

It has been shown in clinical trials to improve working memory and processing speed [69] . However, its usefulness in healthy people under the age of 60 is debatable [70] .

Typical daily doses vary from 120 to 300 mg. Although side effects are uncommon, they can include stomach irritation and headaches, which may cause blood to thin, affecting people on certain drugs.

Thesis Logic contains 160 mg of Ginkgo Biloba, which is within the recommended dosage range.

Theobromine

Theobromine is a compound found in chocolate and has been studied for its potential cognitive effects.

Research indicates that theobromine might have a lesser immediate nootropic effect compared to caffeine but could have neuroprotective benefits with long-term consumption, possibly reducing Alzheimer’s disease-related pathology [71] .

Further studies are needed to fully understand its impact on cognition.

Additionally, theobromine’s effects on mood and vigilance appear to be different from caffeine, with some studies suggesting it might not significantly influence these aspects in nutritionally relevant doses [72] .

However, combining theobromine with caffeine could modify its effects, potentially offering cognitive and mood benefits without significant blood pressure increases [73] .

More research is required to confirm theobromine’s cognitive and mood-related effects.

Thesis Logic contains 100 mg of theobromine, but it seems doses greater than 400 mg are needed to enhance cognition.

Phosphatidylserine

Phosphatidylserine is essential for proper brain function. Phosphatidylserine has been proven to be critical for maintaining nerve cell membranes and myelin, which is required for successful neurotransmission [74] .

Phosphatidylserine can help reverse cognitive loss as the brain ages by boosting cognitive activities such as memory formation, learning, concentration, and problem-solving [75] .

It is well absorbed in humans and crosses the blood-brain barrier.

Supplements containing phosphatidylserine have been shown to increase cognitive functions and are generally well-tolerated, with dosages ranging from 100 to 800 mg per day advised for cognitive support [76] [77] .

Thesis Logic contains 400 mg of phosphatidylserine, which may provide you with these cognitive-enhancing effects.

High DHA Algae

DHA is a vital component of neuronal membranes and plays an important role in brain health and cognitive function.

Adult cognitive abilities are improved by DHA consumption, especially when paired with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) [78] .

This impact is most noticeable in older people who have mild memory problems. Higher DHA and EPA doses (above 1 g per day) have been associated with better episodic memory.

Observational studies also show a link between DHA/EPA intake and memory performance in the elderly. DHA, both alone and in combination with EPA, improves memory in the elderly.

Thesis Logic contains 200 mg of DHA, suggesting insufficient DHA to provide a benefit.

Triacetyluridine (Speculative)

Triacetyluridine is being explored as a potential treatment for bipolar depression. In a study involving eleven patients with bipolar depression, high doses of triacetyluridine (up to 18 g per day) were administered over 6 weeks [79] .

The study measured the effects on depression symptoms using the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) and evaluated cellular bioenergetics using phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (P-MRSI).

Results indicated significant early improvement in depression symptoms.

Additionally, triacetyluridine responders showed notable differences in pH changes from baseline, suggesting triacetyluridine may improve mitochondrial function and reduce symptoms of depression.

Thesis Logic has 30 mg of triacetyluridine, which is well below the dose used in this study.

Bacopa Monnieri

Bacopa monnieri is a traditional plant that has been shown to improve cognitive performance, particularly memory.

Bacopa extract, namely bacosides A and B, has been demonstrated in studies to increase memory formation, recall, and cognitive function [80] .

It has neuroprotective properties and is used to treat cognitive dysfunctions such as Alzheimer’s disease.

Adults should take between 200 and 400 mg each day. Bacopa is generally well accepted, with only rare reports of mild drowsiness or stomach difficulties.

Clinical trials show that older people have better memory, attention, mood, and overall cognitive ability [81] [82] [83] . More research is needed, however, to thoroughly grasp its usefulness across many cognitive domains.

Thesis Logic contains 320 mg of Bacopa, giving you the efficacious dose to feel these benefits.

Thesis Nootropics Price

Thesis has two options: one time purchase or a subscription. Here’s how the prices break down:

• Subscription = $79
• One Time Purchase = $119

This is regardless of whether you purchase a personalized starter kit or build your own box.

You can’t buy them individually either. You must purchase 4 boxes. When building your own, you can choose if you want 4 of the same blend or mix and match.

They want you to try each blend for a week as part of the starter kit (there’s only a week’s worth of each blend in each container) to see which you like best.

Thesis has positioned itself as the most expensive nootropic available by adding the personalized element.

Is Thesis Nootropics Really Personalized?

I went through the initial quiz to see how they “personalize” their nootropic stack.

Here is what they recommended me:

Look, I get the marketing angle. In no way is this a truly personalized nootropic product. It’d be nearly impossible to create custom formulations for every unique individual.

However, the fact they have multiple blends means people can experiment to find which works best for them.

I will say, though, if you choose the caffeine options, every blend will work. Many of the ingredients used in these blends are speculative and only based on animal research, with many being underdosed.

Benefits Of Thesis Nootropics

Multiple blends for different purposes.

To be honest, this benefit is more of a marketing tactic. However, some people may find certain blends jive well with them over others, giving you options within the same brand.

Further, Thesis claims the ingredients in each formulation work synergistically. There’s no research to back that claim, but at least know there are no negative side effects from their interaction.

Options For Stimulants Or Not

You can choose whether or not you want stimulants within your Thesis Blends. Every blend will provide similar benefits if you add the caffeine and L-theanine nootropic stack, which is the most potent synergistic brain booster.

However, if you’re already a coffee addict or plan to take Thesis in the evening, having no stimulants is the better option.

My Experience With Thesis

Based on my quiz, I was recommended Thesis Clarity, Logic, Motivation, and Confidence Blends. I tried each for a week to see if one stood out. I took them without caffeine as they all work if you have the caffeine L-theanine stack.

I have to say the Confidence and Motivation Blends did absolutely nothing for me. I didn’t “feel” any brain-boosting effects or feel more confident or motivated.

I felt the Logic and Clarity Blends had small positive effects when concentrating on mentally demanding tasks like writing, coaching, or podcasting.

If I were to continue taking Thesis, I’d opt for either of these two blends.

Who Is Thesis For?

Busy working professionals.

Thesis Nootropics are ideal for busy professionals facing demanding schedules and high-stress environments. These blends can help enhance focus, improve decision-making, and increase productivity.

They are designed to support sustained mental energy throughout the day, enabling professionals to manage their workload more effectively without the usual mental fatigue.

Creative Artists

For creative artists, Thesis offers blends that stimulate creativity and enhance divergent thinking. These nootropics can aid in breaking through creative blocks, fostering innovative thinking, and maintaining a heightened state of inspiration.

They are particularly beneficial for artists seeking longer periods of creative flow and those seeking fresh perspectives.

Students can significantly benefit from Thesis Nootropics, especially during intense studying or when facing challenging academic projects.

The blends are formulated to enhance memory retention, improve concentration, and boost learning capabilities. This makes them a valuable tool for students who need to absorb and retain large amounts of information and perform well in academic assessments.

Gamers find Thesis Nootropics beneficial for improving their gaming performance. The blends can enhance reaction times, increase focus, and improve strategic thinking skills.

They are particularly useful during long gaming sessions, helping gamers stay alert and responsive, which is crucial in competitive gaming scenarios.

Coffee Haters

Thesis Nootropics provides an excellent alternative for those who dislike coffee or want to avoid caffeine jitters.

These blends offer a way to boost mental energy and alertness without relying on caffeine. This makes them ideal for individuals sensitive to caffeine or those seeking to reduce caffeine intake while maintaining high cognitive function.

User Testimonials And Reviews

You can’t access the review database on the Thesis website, so I did some digging to find user reviews. Here’s a couple of positive reviews:

“I must admit that during the weeks that I consistently take them, I perform better & I generally feel better just knowing I’ve ingested something intended to positively alter my natural brain state. Minor tasks/chores no longer seem as daunting and I get this underlying kick to complete my work well.” – ParsnipExtreme2502 (Reddit)

“I didn’t find Weeks 1 and 4 to do anything for me, but Weeks 2 and 3 really helped avoid the post-lunch, post-work slumps I tend to get now that I’ve been working from home; Energy is especially useful for days when I haven’t gotten enough sleep the night before.” – leftylucy88 (Reddit)

I can’t find many negative reviews other than potential side effects like migraines, which can be caused by many different factors.

Thesis Side Effects

Side effects are rare from the ingredients in these blends. I personally didn’t have any adverse reactions to the four blends I tried. However, like any supplement, they may have potential side effects.

Consult with a healthcare provider before starting any nootropic regimen, especially if they have pre-existing health conditions, are pregnant or breastfeeding, or are taking other medications.

Thesis Alternatives

If Thesis Nootropics isn’t quite the right match for you or you’re just curious about other products, here are some alternatives I’ve tried and can provide an insider’s look into.

SAP Nutra nootropic Nooceptin improves memory, concentration, and cognitive performance without stimulants. It offers gradual brain health gains.

It improves memory and focus and provides a prolonged boost without a caffeine crash. Students, gamers, professionals, and seniors should use Nooceptin to boost cognition.

This brain supplement contains Lion’s Mane Extract, Citicoline, Rhodiola Rosea Extract, L-Theanine, Bacopa Monnieri, Ginkgo Biloba, and Panax Ginseng.

Some of these compounds have been shown to be useful, but others are experimental. Nooceptin, a non-stimulant method for long-term cognitive enhancement, usually works after 7-14 days.

Despite the risk of underdosed components and increased cost, Nooceptin may provide a stimulant-free cognitive boost.

Read more in our Nooceptin review .

Mind Lab Pro

Mind Lab Pro is a popular nootropic that has gained appeal as a result of its alleged cognitive benefits.

Pure substances are used in its formulation, which is intended to improve mental clarity and attention. It is stimulant-free, making it an excellent choice for anyone seeking a well-rounded routine.

Its unique combination of 11 research-backed components distinguishes it from competitors in the brain health supplement sector.

These compounds were carefully chosen to help cognitive processes like memory, focus, mental clarity, mood, and cognitive processing speed.

Despite some criticism about the quantity of specific substances and the need for more scientific data, Mind Lab Pro has earned worldwide recognition for its ability to improve cognitive performance in professionals, students, the elderly, and athletes.

Our Mind Lab Pro review goes into great detail.

Braini distinguishes itself by being stimulant-free, providing long-term results, and having a short ingredient list focusing on long-term cognitive gains. It does not, however, deliver the immediate euphoric boost that some users may expect from a brain supplement.

Peptylin, a silk protein peptide with neuroprotective effects and potential benefits for executive function; NeurXcel, which is rich in omega fatty acids; and Wild Canadian Blueberry extract, which is known for its antioxidant characteristics and cognitive support, are all key ingredients in Braini.

Braini is backed by clinical trials, a 60-day money-back guarantee, and a 30-day challenge to scientifically quantify changes in brain function.

Our Braini review contains an in-depth breakdown.

Vyvamind is a nootropic supplement containing caffeine and L-theanine to help focus and improve cognitive performance. Users claim increased focus, vitality, and cognitive abilities without big crashes.

Vyvamind’s formulation, which contains less L-tyrosine and citicoline than some studies suggest, is intended to supplement the major nootropic duo of caffeine and L-theanine.

This combination is well-known for boosting concentration and cognitive function. The supplement is touted as a non-stimulant alternative, appealing to clients seeking a more natural and less intensive approach to cognitive growth.

Vyvamind is suitable for coffee-averse people, busy professionals who require a focus boost, and students during study sessions.

Our Vyvamind review goes into great detail.

Because of its purported fast cognitive effects, NooCube is a popular brain-boosting product. NooCube contains ingredients such as Bacopa Monnieri, L-Tyrosine, and L-Theanine.

These are well-known for their mental health advantages. Several compounds, such as Huperzine-A and Alpha GPC, remain speculative without additional investigation.

NooCube is intended to improve cognition and alertness without using stimulants, and the amounts of each ingredient are clearly labeled.

Because it gives different cognitive benefits without the jittery side effects associated with caffeine, NooCube is especially good for working professionals, students, elders, gamers, and combat athletes.

Our detailed analysis can be found in our NooCube review .

Frequently Asked Questions

What is thesis nootropic and what does it do.

Thesis Nootropic is a personalized supplement formulated to enhance cognitive functions. Users can expect improvements in focus, reduction in procrastination, stress management, and memory recall, depending on which blend you choose.

Does Thesis Work Like Adderall?

Thesis Nootropics and Adderall are used to enhance cognitive functions, but they are fundamentally different. Adderall is primarily prescribed for treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy.

Adderall is an amphetamine, classified as a controlled substance due to its strong stimulating effects and potential for abuse and dependency.

Thesis Nootropics are dietary supplements designed to enhance healthy individuals’ cognitive functions, such as memory, focus, and mental clarity. They are not intended to treat medical conditions like ADHD.

How Long Does It Take Thesis Nootropics To Work?

If you have the caffeine version, within 30 minutes. You may feel the non-stimulant blends kicking in just as quickly, but they won’t be as pronounced. Sometimes, they can take multiple weeks to feel them working.

I’ve taken a deep dive into the world of nootropics and shared my firsthand experience with Thesis Nootropic’s various blends. While the personalization is nothing more than a marketing tactic, the different blends are a nice touch for those who want to experiment with different ingredients.

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The Best Nootropics Supplements Personalized to Your Brain?

Updated: 01/25/2024

Affiliate Disclosure: This post contains affiliate links , which means Outliyr LLC gets a small commission if you buy (at no cost to you). Thanks for your support!

Your brain is a primary difference between winning a Nobel prize and living a life of mediocrity.

How well it functions isn’t solely a matter of genetics.

Neuroscience research, and overwhelming anecdotal experience, show that we can dramatically upgrade our:

• Mental clarity
• Productivity
• Access to the flow state
• Information processing speed

Welcome to the world of “neurohacking”. Using special ingredients and lifestyle practices to optimize the brains and increase our overall quality of life.

But there’s one glaring issue…

Companies making the best brain-boosting supplements recognize this and customize their formulas to your unique lifestyle.

One such nootropic experience is a “newcomer” (you’ll learn why this isn’t exactly true) called Thesis. You take a short brain assessment, they send you a starter kit, and their complimentary coach helps you hone the perfect brain supplements — customized to you!

This post will thoroughly review of TakeThesis, how it compares to other nootropics companies, and whether this is the last brain supplement you’ll need.

In a hurry?

Use the exclusive Thesis code URBAN to save 10%

Quick & Dirty Intro to Nootropics

These are different from the off-label use of prescription pharmaceuticals like Adderall.

Essentially, nootropics are a special class of ingredients that satisfy ALL the following criteria:

• Safe and non-toxic
• Enhance learning and memory
• Protect against injury
• Boost natural cognitive ability (memory, logic, creativity, focus, etc)

There’s something that makes them even better…

Nootropics upgrade your baseline performance even after you stop taking them . They cause long-term changes to brain structure and function. Almost like training you how to operate at a higher level and forming positive habits.

At the same time, the good ones provide a quick and noticeable pick-me-up. You don’t wonder if they’re working.

The right formulas help you reach your full potential faster and more effectively.

What is Take Thesis Nootropics?

Thesis is the masterpiece of expert brain supplement formulators Dan Freed and Adam Greenfield. This duo began researching nootropics out of personal need. Both struggled with poor cognitive performance. They learned how to balance brain chemistry to maximize performance.

Now they’re sharing their discoveries with the world.

After great success with their original product, Find My Formula (which I reviewed here), they revamped their formulations and process.

While each of us has unique neurochemistries, after working with enough people, they began to spot patterns in which ingredients, the forms of those ingredients, and doses work best. Over the span of years, they’ve amassed a huge dataset:

• 30,000+ users
• 550,000 recommendations made
• 127 ingredients tested

Resulting in 86% of users reporting higher energy levels, better mood, more reliable memory, and greater motivation.

Unsurprisingly, Thesis has garnered a stellar 96% customer satisfaction.

The company also has soul. By donating a portion of each sale to both the Covenant House and The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), they’re evolving the future of brain enhancement and also making it more accessible to the world.

Thesis Nootropics Ingredients

When evaluating any nootropic, you must consider how they source and test ingredients.

The sad truth is that most of the products on the market are WORSE than useless. Contaminated with heavy metals, mycotoxins, pathogens, even adulterated with banned (dangerous) substances.

Thesis puts each ingredient through a rigorous, multi-step ethical, medical, and legal evaluation. Before acquiring and testing the ingredients for safety and purity, every ingredient must be supported as safe and effective by clinical trials.

This team keeps up with the ever-changing regulations.

Since the days of Find My Formula, a lot has changed. Each of their blends has undergone a major overhaul.

One of the common gripes with naturals is that you don’t feel anything.

How Thesis Works

Thesis isn’t your run-of-the-mill supplement company.

They’ve streamlined a process resulting in 86 percent of users finding their neurochemically tuned formulations in less than one month.

This is how to best use Thesis:

• Assess your unique brain
• Establish your baseline
• Begin your Starter Kit
• Notice what works for you and what doesn’t
• Tweak and optimize with complimentary coaching

Your Thesis journey begins with a short survey to understand your basic lifestyle, how your brain functions, and your goals for using nootropics. The entire “quiz” takes just a few minutes. When you finish, their AI finds your “digital twin” to determine which formulations are most likely to work for you.

A few days later, you’ll receive the Thesis Starter Kit in the mail, with the four separate blends best matched to your brain.

I suggest jotting down the way you feel, your challenges, and goals. That way you’ll have something to reference after several weeks of testing. Bonus points for including audio/video in your log.

You’ll follow the directions, testing each product for six days in a row. Then take a break over the weekend, allowing your body to reset. Though you don’t need two days off, I notice better effects when I give my body the extra rest day.

If you’re sensitive, I suggest taking these capsules first thing in the morning.

At any point, you can schedule a call with one of the resident Thesis Nootropics Experts. They’ll help coach you to ensuring the best possible experience and tweak your kit as necessary. Definitely take advantage of the experts, as they’re a key bonus of Thesis !

By the end of the month, you’ll have discovered your favorite blends and the ones that you don’t like. It’s perfectly normal to not like some of them, and your future orders will only include the products you love most.

The Thesis Nootropic Blends for Every Goal

Note that I’ve written about five blends below, but your Starter Kit will only contain four. Once you’ve gone through the Starter Kit, you’ve demoed the blends.

Hopefully, you’ve discovered the ones that work great for you.

For every subsequent order, you get four slots to customize however you prefer. My favorite combo is:

• (2) Clarity

But if I really loved a particular blend, for example, I could just do:

• (4) Creativity

You can request any of the formulations in either of two versions: caffeinated or caffeine-free.

Don’t pay much attention to the names of each. They’re merely general suggestions of the most often reported benefits. It’s entirely possible that you’ll get more clarity from Creativity, or better logical reasoning from Energy.

Let’s examine each of the different blends.

Thesis Energy

I reach for Energy when I get less than 7 hours of sleep, or when I need extra energy to crush a workout and power through a long Monday. It’s also useful for travel days, or when I know I’ll wind up in energy-depleting situations. Others use it to reinforce new healthy habits.

Thesis Energy blend ingredients include:

• Zynamite® – 300mg
• TeaCrine® – 100mg
• Sabroxy® – 100mg
• CDP Choline – 300mg
• N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine – 300mg
• N-Acetyl Cysteine – 500mg
• Optional: Caffeine – 100mg
• Optional: L-Theanine – 200mg

Sabroxy is an ancient Ayurvedic extract that comes from the bark of the Indian trumpet tree. Research suggests it enhances memory, focus, immunomodulation, mood, and even skin health.

From previous experience, I know that I respond well to Zynamite and TeaCrine. The former is an extract of mango leaf, and the latter is a molecular cousin of caffeine that comes from a tea plant, is non-habit forming, and with fewer side effects. Both noticeably increase energy, as expected. As a bonus, I find that these two also lift my mood.

Compared to the previous Energy formula, this iteration is smoother and more refined. Each sachet contains three capsules, and I start feeling effects 15 minutes after swallowing them.

I’ve been a big fan of all the Energy blends I’ve tested so far. It’s constantly ranked in my top 2 favorites due to the pronounced effects. It feels like a more full-body caffeine without the jitters or crash.

Thesis Clarity

As the package insert describes, Clarity supports a calm, focused flow and is great for optimal performance during high-stakes days. Good for presentations, content creation, and non-stimulating concentration.

I’ve found this description to be spot on. The formula has undergone a complete overhaul, featuring two ingredients I haven’t found in other nootropics.

Thesis Clarity blend ingredients include:

• 7,8 Dihydroxyflavone – 30mg
• Camellia Sinesis Extract – 250mg
• Alpha GPC – 250mg
• Epicatechin – 250mg
• Lion’s Mane 8:1 Extract – 500mg

7, 8 Dihydroxyflavone is a man-made flavonoid that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier and mimic the effects of BDNF (dubbed “MiracleGro for the brain”). Camellia Sinesis is the ingredient that earned tea’s reputation as a health drink. It’s a potent source of the relaxing compound l-Theanine. Epicatechin also comes from tea, and it promotes optimal blood flow, mood, and neuroprotection.

A dose of Clarity takes three capsules, and I couldn’t pinpoint the exact time I started feeling it. The effects became more pronounced after approximately one hour.

Don’t expect a huge boost in energy or racing thoughts from this one. Once I released that expectation, I noticed that I felt clear, calm yet alert, steady, and mentally sharp . All without overstimulation. I flowed through my work, easily focusing on each task through completion.

To my surprise, Clarity went from among my least favorite Find My Formula blends, to my Thesis top pick.

I’m confident that this is one of the only nootropics that I can take in the afternoon (or even evening) and still sleep great.

Thesis Creativity

Creativity helps you generate new ideas, think abstractly, and finally bring your dream projects to fruition. It works by quieting overthinking and helping integrate both hemispheres of the brain.

The stack of powerful adaptogenic herbs also makes it an excellent choice for stressful situations, or to relax in social events.

You can rest assured that it contains some of the most researched and scientifically proven herbs on the planet. Ashwagandha and Panax Ginseng are staples in Ayurvedic (Indian) and Traditional Chinese Medicine. Thousands of studies back their use.

Thesis Creativity blend ingredients include:

• KSM-66 Ashwagandha – 300mg
• GS15-4 Panax Ginseng – 200mg
• Zembrin® – 25mg
• Agmatine Sulfate – 250mg
• Alpha GPC – 150mg

The Thesis formulators did a great job here, handpicking the strongest, cleanest, and most bioavailable forms of each ingredient.

Zembrin is one I hadn’t heard of, but am impressed by what I’ve learned. It’s a plant extract known to boost mood, improve workout focus, alleviate nervousness, and enhance complex problem-solving.

Approximately 45 minutes after my three-capsule dose, I noticed myself feeling slightly less reactive to urgent emails and other daily stressors. I could also more easily discern wisdom from my intuition. Each time I followed my instinct, I made the right choice.

I do already regularly take Ashwagandha and Ginseng in my own supplement regimen (which I stopped for this experiment), so it’s likely that my reaction is milder than most.

Thesis Logic

The name summarizes it well. Logic supports rational thinking. Making a popular choice among lawyers, bankers, programmers, scientists, academics, and those looking to boost their analytical abilities.

Though I didn’t get it selected for my Starter Kit, I reached out to their customer service to have it swapped in. As a Data Scientist, I knew that this would fit me well.

I was right. My first experience with the original Find My Formula Logic blend quickly took silver (only behind their original Energy). It hit the sweet spot between energetic stimulation and effortless focus. I went from spec sheet to finished product 35 percent faster than normal.

Thesis Logic blend ingredients include:

• Triacetyluridine – 30mg
• Vegan Omega-3 Lysine complex (EPA + DHA) – 200mg
• Phosphatidylserine – 200mg
• Theobromine – 100mg
• Gingko Biloba – 160mg
• Synapsa® (Bacopa monnieri extract) – 320mg

As its name suggests, Triacetyluridine is a more potent version of the nootropic uridine. It’s known to improve learning, memory, energy, mood, and reduce neuroinflammation.

Theobromine is a mild stimulant related to caffeine naturally occurring in cacao. It increases blood flow, and improves focus.

Those interested in memory enhancement may know Bacopa — one of the greatest ancient memory-enhancing herbs. Gingko is another notable natural herb, known to improve alertness, concentration, focus, and memory.

Phosphatidylserine comes from sunflowers. It gently alleviates stress without drowsiness, improves memory, and increases alertness.

Indeed, the Logic formulation improves working memory, offsets stress, and accelerates learning. On days I reluctantly approached tedious work, the two capsule dose of Logic took the edge off within about 20 minutes.

I’m still experimenting with the latest Logic blend, but so far it stacks up with the original. The new Logic feels slightly weaker, but I greatly prefer the new ingredients.

Thesis Motivation

Motivation comes in a lime-green sachet. It’s Thesis’ take on the classic and original CILTEP nootropic stack.

Motivation bills itself as best for:

• Crushing your TODO list
• Building healthy habits
• Increasing discipline and drive

It’s one of the blends that’s most polarizing. You either love it, or you hate it.

I’ve tested this exact formulation produced by several different companies (including NaturalStacks and Find My Formula), and I’ve had bad experiences every single time.

The predominant effect I notice is a headache (which I never get). I also feel slightly spacey. This time I came prepared and used Semax to pull me out of my CILTEP fog.

But just as many people rave about their Motivation.

Thesis Motivation blend ingredients include:

• Forskolin – 250mg
• Methylcobalamin – 1000mcg
• Dynamine – 100mg
• L-Phenylalanine – 500mg
• Artichoke Extract – 450mg

It’s safe to say that after two days of use, you’ll know which Motivation camp you fall into.

Thesis Confidence

Confidence is a newer Thesis blend that came out in mid-2022 after heavy internal research and development. I’ve been using it for the last few weeks and it’s certainly one of my favorites. Perhaps my top non-stimulating Thesis Formula.

Typical use cases for Confidence include:

• Important situations
• Doing uncomfortable or new things
• Times of leadership
• Stopping overwhelm

My experience with Thesis Confidence has been overwhelmingly positive. Within about 30 minutes, I felt a smooth and definite mood boost. The day seemed to flow easily. I didn’t feel jitters or nervousness before overwise stressful no-agenda meetings.

This one is great for social situations. I’m noticing that I feel more comfortable and bold as a newbie Bachata dancer.

Although it’s not very stimulating, I noticed a slight rush kind of like the effect of finishing a good workout. Increased blood flow and slight flushing paired with relaxation (but certainly not any sedation).

Thesis Confidence blend ingredients include:

• Saffron extract (affron®) – 28mg
• Ashwagandha extract (Shoden®) – 120mg
• Sage extract – 333mg
• Magnesium threonate – 50mg
• Magnolia bark extract (DHH-B) – 10mg

This is an excellent formula. I love the synergy between the ingredients. Plus, many of these (like Saffron) are expensive and commonly faked in supplements. By using the patented versions, we’re assuredly getting the real thing.

How to Use Thesis

When the shipment finally arrives in the mail, you might feel overwhelmed.

Here’s what to expect…

Inside the large box, you’ll find four smaller boxes. Each box contains five sachets. Monday through Saturday mornings, you take one full sachet (2-3 capsules).

I suggest you take notes beforehand on what you wish to get out of the experience. Some popular examples include:

• Spending less time distracted on social media
• Output at your main job
• Progress toward hobbies, projects, or other work
• Starting a new skill, language, or health habit
• Finish work faster

Then, at the end of each day, spend 15-seconds jotting down notes in the provided instruction manual. Trust me, this makes a huge difference. After completing week four, you’ll probably forget which blends you loved, the effects they had, and which ones didn’t work for you.

Some of the ingredients last slightly longer in your system, so I take the entire weekend off to allow my neurochemistry to reset. This also ensures you get the most bang for your buck.

After repeating this process for all four boxes, you’ll have discovered your favorite blends. A Thesis coach can help you customize future orders so you’ll only receive the ones you want!

Tips to Get the Most Out of Thesis Nootropics

Nootropics aren’t cheap.

You can skip this entire section, but these tips will help ensure that you get the most out of your experience.

Caffeine-free . If you’re new to nootropics, start with the non-caffeinated versions. I drink coffee most days. Sometimes two cups. But I always get my nootropics caffeine-free. For several reasons. First, nootropics potentiate caffeine. One coffee can feel like 3. If you’re not used to the combo, going caff-free gives you more control. Caff-free also means that I can take nootropics later in the day. Also, the health benefits of coffee don’t come from caffeine but from the polyphenols, flavonoids, and other phytochemicals. Plus, I just like the taste of coffee.

If you like this kind of thing, join my FREE nootropics mini-course where you’ll learn:

• How professionals choose products
• Tips to feel stronger effects and get more out of your supplements
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Thesis Nootropics Questions & Answers

Should i take thesis with caffeine.

I recommend taking Thesis without caffeine to start. Caffeine greatly increases the effects of certain nootropics. For some, this can be too much and lead to panic, headaches, and unease. You can always add coffee and more easily control your caffeine dosage later.

What’s the difference between Thesis and Find My Formula nootropics?

Thesis is the latest generation of Find My Formula nootropics. They’ve refined, upgraded, and revamped every single one of their formulas according to the latest neuroscience research. Find My Formula products are no longer available.

Which Thesis blend is best?

Your ideal Thesis stack depends on your neurochemistry, lifestyle, and goals. People either love or hate their Motivation blend. My favorites (in order) are Clarity, Energy, and then Logic.

How much do Thesis nootropics cost?

Thesis offers two different buying options: one-time, and subscription. One-time purchases cost $119.00 and subscriptions cost $79.00 per month. Use code URBAN and save an extra 15 percent! Thesis backs all purchases with a full 30-day no-questions-asked money-back guarantee.

Thesis Nootropics Review: Boosting Your Brain With Precision Formulas

Ignore those that say you’re stuck with a less-than-optimal brain.

According to the latest neuroscience (and countless personal examples), that’s demonstrably false.

That is if you use the right products.

The most popular nootropics today are:

I’m constantly trying the latest nootropic formulas.

I take most of them for a month and see little benefit.

Thesis is one exception, featuring an impressive array of the highest-quality forms of well-researched ingredients. Drawing from their millions of data points, they’ve come up with unique formulas that give you both a quick boost and long-term benefits .

So that one day, should you choose, you can completely stop supplementing and continue enjoying all the fruits of an upgraded brain.

I personally prefer their Clarity, Energy, and Logic. Each serves a role specific to the type of day I have ahead.

Since the original Find My Formula blends, I’m impressed with their improvements. They’ve moved away from some of the man-made ingredients and embraced natural (but effective) bioharmonizing compounds.

As of January 2022, Thesis has amassed a 4.5+ star rating on 7,411 ratings.

Try it yourself with the exclusive Outliyr discount:

Thesis nootropics code URBAN saves you 10%

To the long-term Formula users — what do you think of the update? Have you enjoyed the new Thesis blends?

Let’s have a discussion in the comments below!

Post Tags: Brain & Cognition , Lifestyle , Nootropics , Review , Supplements

12 thoughts on “The Best Nootropics Supplements Personalized to Your Brain?”

Unfortunately, I can not use any of the samples sent by Thesis. Each packet contained the caffeine equal to a cup of coffee.

What a bummer!

I’m not sure how you do with caffeine, but it also includes l-theanine which is a natural amino acid that really smoothes out the negative effects of caffeine (I won’t use any form of caffeine without it). You might want to reach out to their team about this, but last I heard, one of the pills in each sachet is exclusively caffeine/theanine. I’ve received a few caffeinated boxes, and just threw away the smallest white caffeine/theanine pill.

Or you can reach out to them and they will likely make it right.

Hey, I had the same issue. Fortunately, the caffeine portion comes in its own separate capsule (the white capsule in each packet), so you can choose to leave it out!

Correct. It’s the smaller white one if there are multiple white capsules.

I’ll be honest. I think this is a scam, like snake oil.

Hi Andrew. Not sure what you mean. Have you ever used nootropics? Or botanicals/herbals? What makes you think this is a scam?

This is my first time visiting the website although I’m no stranger to nootropics. I don’t remember where or how I discovered acetyl choline—AGP?—but it was a game changer for me. I’d been taking phosphatidylserine for memory enhancement for at least 2 decades, L-Tyrosine to boost dopamine, PEA, for the same reason. All on my own initiative, as a result of my own independent research. What disturbs me about Thesis is: 1). I suffer from a congenital disease for which there is no cure—Lipedema—and this is allegedly at the root of the fatigue which has blighted my entire life and which I have been attempting to overcome for most of it. The disease afflicts about 10% of women and as one doctor blithely informed me, “you;d be better off with cancer. At least there’s a chance you might recover.” As a result of the quiz I took, Thesis informed me I was in the bottom 4% of applicants and never investigated further. Well, Hello. 2). Quiz had questions about exercise but nothing about diet or meditation, Since I follow functional and integrative Medicine, these gaps disappointed me. I still haven’t made up my mind about becoming a member, but I am grateful to Andrew Huberman for drawing my attention to this range of products.

Hi Jacqueline, sorry about the super slow response here! Glad you’ve found things that work for you. That’s strange. When I took the quiz, they didn’t show percentiles. I agree, diet and meditation are essential. Impossible to overlook really, especially when we’re discussing nutraceuticals. I’ll let them know when I talk to them next.

Update on “the ingredients are not evenly distributed throughout the pills.” I spoke to a Thesis rep this week, and after a detailed conversation regarding the caffeine pills (the small white pill in each caffeine line of products), she clarified that the other pills (not the 100mg of caffeine + 200 mg of L-Theanine small white pill) have the remaining blend evenly distributed between the pills.

Loved your article, how you spelt it out, and agree strongly with the feelings on Clarity being “clear, calm yet alert, steady, and mentally sharp. All without overstimulation.”

Good correction! The caffeine/theanine pill is easy enough to spot.

Thanks for the feedback. Which are your favorite(s)?

Nick, this is an awesome intro to nootropics and Thesis, thank you for breaking this down! I was a Formula customer for years and my favorite blends were Clarity and Creativity. With the new Thesis formulations Energy has been added into my routine! I feel like I have tools at my disposal for any occasion… Creativity is great for social situations or other experiences that would otherwise leave me mentally fatigued, Clarity is great when I have a ton I want to accomplish without interruption, Energy is great when I haven’t had great sleep or need to do more physical stuff. I don’t use it every day, but it’s there when I need a lift. Great read, thanks for the knowledge!

Thanks! How often do you use Thesis? Do you combine it with anything else?

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Nick Urban  is the Founder of Outliyr, an expert Biohacker with 12+ years of experience, a Data Scientist, a Certified CHEK Practitioner, Host of the Mind Body Peak Performance Podcast, and a High-Performance Coach. Click  here  to read how Nick went from struggling pre-diabetic, to collegiate rugby national champion. To send Nick a message, visit his  Contact Page .

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Thesis Nootropic Review - Do Personalized Nootropics Work? I Found Out.

O dds are if you hadn’t heard about nootropics before the early 2010s, you’ve heard about them now. Nootropics burst onto the scene around that time, and they’ve been trending ever since. Why? Well, with bold claims of making you feel more focused, calmer, and even smarter , it’s no wonder that these unique supplements have been catching people’s attention. Especially after the toll of the pandemic on all of our mental wellbeing…

If you’re dealing with brain fog, fatigue, and poor productivity, nootropics probably sound enticing. But, finding natural, effective, no-nonsense nootropics in today’s crowded wellness market can seem like a steep order. 

That’s where Thesis comes in. Takethesis.com is an online brand that’s been a leader in personalized nootropics for years. With all-natural supplement blends that they claim are rooted in science, Thesis promises to bring a new meaning to the term “smart drugs”. 

But as someone who’s always reserved a healthy level of skepticism around the efficacy of supplements in general, I decided to try Thesis nootropics firsthand to see what the hype was all about. In this review, I’ll share my experience with Thesis, including my honest reaction after taking their formulas for greater focus, confidence, logic, and more.

Curious if Thesis can introduce you to the valuable world of nootropics, without the BS? Keep reading to learn what’s inside Thesis ‘ supplements and whether or not their nootropic blends had any effect on my brain.

What are nootropics?

Any natural or synthetic substance that can positively affect cognition, focus, memory, and other mental faculties, and sometimes your mood, is considered a nootropic.

Prescription stimulants like Adderall for ADHD are included as well. And while prescription drugs work for many, they typically exhibit a high instance of unwanted side effects. Natural remedies that boost mental performance, including organic supplements and dietary changes, are generally more sustainable over the long term. In fact, many ADHD patients first discover nootropics after seeking healthier alternatives to Adderall and other pharmaceuticals.

Read our full comparison of nootropics vs Adderall for more details on the key differences.

Source: Thesis

How long have nootropics been around?

The use of nootropics first became widespread in the 70s, when  Piracetam first became widely known as a treatment for motion sickness, then later was found to boost cognitive performance. This spurred more of an effort toward discovering and developing more nootropics . It’s since become a thriving market, especially after the global pandemic wreaked havoc on mental health and left many with persistent brain fog. Today, the internet is awash with countless brain-boosting products available to consumers without prescription, and most don’t have FDA approval or much clinical data to support their claims.

While we love having options, the wide range of (unproven) nootropic supplements available today makes it hard to know which could work for you. There are dozens of brands, each offering various different nootropic blends, all claiming to be the best in class. Should you really be expected to try them all?

Thesis is on a mission to solve this conundrum. The company emerged to not only offer great quality and transparency around their blends, but also to recognize patients’ need for personalized recommendations from experts.

Let’s dive in to see what nootropics Thesis offers, and how the support they offer differs from typical supplement companies.

What are Thesis nootropics?

Thesis (rebranded from FindMyFormula.com) is a longstanding nootropics company with an impressive customer base of over 500,000 users. Having been in the space for years, Thesis has developed a comprehensive data set of nootropics research that dwarfs those of their competitors. I found this data-driven pitch compelling, and thus decided that I’d give Thesis a shot as my first foray into the world of nootropics in general.

1. How Thesis works

To get started, complete Thesis’ online questionnaire . They only ask for basic info – you don’t have to share specific lab tests or detailed medical history. Next, the Thesis algorithm will process your answers to recommend one or more nootropic blends best suited to your needs, which will be shipped to your house within 1-3 business days. 

Thesis recommends you sample their nootropic blends for a month before selecting ones that you believe work the best for you. Of course, you don’t have to stick with just one – and many Thesis customers opt to continue taking two or more blends for varied nootropic benefits as desired. Customer’s purchase data then funnels back to bolster Thesis’s algorithm, further strengthening the reliability of its recommendation engine. Pretty cool, I must admit.

2. What makes Thesis unique

Thesis’ personalized nootropic recommendation algorithm, paired with the ability to try out four unique nootropic blends before selecting your go-to formula, is what defines the Thesis process. They spare you from the difficult, time-intensive testing of individual nootropics on your own, which could easily take months (and cost a serious amount of $). By first paring down your options to the supplements that are most likely to work for you, Thesis takes the legwork out of trying nootropics. 

Plus, when you become a Thesis customer, you’ll also get access to a nootropics expert. This coach is available for consultation at any time to help you optimize your nootropics routine so that you get the most out of these specialized supplements. This includes keeping track of your progress, as well as answering any and all questions you may have about the science supporting each ingredient.

What’s inside Thesis’s unique nootropic blends?

At this point, you’re probably wondering what nootropic blends Thesis has to offer, and what secret sauce ingredients lie within. Thesis currently has six different formulations, each designed to target specific needs:

After filling out Thesis’ online questionnaire, I was recommended all but their Creativity blend . Below, I’ll outline the key nootropic ingredients inside each, as well as review my own personal experience in experimenting with them for the first time.

Energy formula Ingedients

Thesis’ Energy formula is designed to boost energy, fight fatigue, and improve mental stamina. Its ingredients include:

• Choline, for learning and memory
• NAC, for detoxification
• NALT, to support nerve cell communication
• Sabroxy®, for a dopamine boost and heightened memory
• TeaCrine®, for improved motivation, energy, and cognitive function
• Zynamite®, for mental and physical energy
• Caffeine, for energy and alertness
• L-Theanine, for an improved stress response

Review of Thesis energy – did it work for me?

Keep in mind that the power of placebo is well documented, as is the tremendous bias in self-reporting of any kind. These two factors, in combination with the day-to-day choppiness of life in general, make it hard to objectively determine how well supplements of any kind work for a given individual, much less the general population at large. 

That said, putting those caveats aside for sec, I took Thesis’ energy blend for 6 days straight, and I definitely felt more ALERT. The results were noticeable and fairly instant – I felt more alive and energetic within the first hour of taking the four recommended pills , and the feeling generally continued late into the afternoon. 

Fearful that my morning cup of coffee might overshadow or confound the nootropic’s effects, my routine was to take Thesis’ energy formula first thing in the morning with just a glass of water. It could just be the pill’s healthy dose of caffeine (or again, perhaps just placebo?), but regardless, I no longer craved coffee. Thesis’ Energy nootropics jolted me to full attention and kept my energy high for hours. If you’re looking for a caffeine replacement, or perhaps just an extra boost after a night of poor sleep, I definitely recommend Thesis’ blend for higher energy. Here’s what they pills look like up close:

The one downside? I ended up trying Thesis Energy with coffee one morning and felt pretty jittery. Of course, caffeine (and nootropics!) affect everyone differently, so if you’re eager to give these a shot, try them with and without your normal dose of coffee or tea to see how you feel. For me, I only needed one, not both, but it’s worth testing to find out what works for you!

Clarity formula ingredients

Do you find yourself often feeling foggy or forgetful? If so, Thesis’s Clarity formula may be worth a try. Formulated for increased focus and attention span, the Clarity nootropics are designed to help you more easily enter a flow state. 

What ingredients are inside Thesis’ Clarity? Their unique formula contains:

• 7,8-DHF, for neural communication, neurogenesis, and neuroprotection
• Alpha GPC, for memory, neurogenesis, and neuroprotection
• Epicatechin, for improved mood, blood flow, and neuroprotection
• Lion’s Mane, for improved memory consolidation and neuroprotection
• L-Theanine, for a better response to stress

Review of Thesis clarity – my personal experience

In my next phase of experimentation with Thesis nootropics, I decided to sample the Clarity blend for 6 days straight. Note that these six days did not overlap with days I took other nootropics, as I wanted to document my reaction to their blends independently, rather than seeing how I felt taking all of them together at once.

Although the benefits of Thesis’ Clarity blend were admittedly less immediate and noticeable than those I experienced with their Energy blend, I can honestly report that on the days I took Clarity, I found it easy to maintain a state of mental flow for longer . I generally don’t struggle to enter flow and engage deeply with my work, and this remained true while taking Thesis Clarity. What was different for me, however, was the duration of my flow, and I did my best to document these benefits closely through journaling.

To try and make my process as scientific as possible, at lunch each day I recorded how long I was able to stay focused that AM, and then again at dinner, noting how long I had been able to focus in that afternoon. Upon comparing my notes from the week I took Clarity vs the week I didn’t take anything at all, some clear benefits emerged. Overall, I was able to stay in a state of flow for ~35% longer with Thesis Clarity , although I’d be careful not to assume similar results too broadly for a couple of key reasons.

For one, placebo could very much be to blame given that I wanted to be more focused, and thus that desire alone could be to blame for my positive results. There’s also a small sample bias. Having only taken Clarity for one week, my self-reported data is a long way from “scientific significance”. 

That said, nootropics and supplements are all about how you feel, and the end conclusion remains the same: I felt focused for longer when taking Thesis’ recommended blend for Clarity. If you find yourself being overly fidgety, forgetful, or disengaged at work, I recommend you give Thesis Clarity a shot.

Motivation formula ingredients

The Motivation formula is intended to boost willpower and productivity while reducing procrastination. This formula from Thesis includes the following nootropic ingredients:

• Artichoke extract, for stress management and circulation
• Dynamine®, for crash-free energy and a mood boost
• Forskolin, for improved cognitive function
• L-Phenylalanine, for mood, attention, and motivation
• B12, for energy and nerve wellness
• Theanine, for an improved stress response

Review of Thesis Motivation – does it actually work?

Although I consider myself highly motivated, we all have days when we feel kind of “meh”. Rather than sampling Thesis’ Motivation nootropic every day for six days in a row, as I had with other blends, I instead opted to only experiment with them on days I woke up feeling noticeably uninspired. Interestingly, but perhaps not so surprisingly, these mostly fell on Mondays, although I felt less inclined to face my responsibilities on other days as well.

So, on these days of lower motivation when I took Thesis’ recommended Motivation nootropics, how did they make me feel? Honestly, I’m not sure. When reviewing my journal entries, I don’t notice any strong signs that the Thesis’ Motivation nootropics helped me significantly. It’s possible they acted in more subtle or slower ways because, by the afternoon, my notes indicate that I always felt fully engaged and motivated with whatever I was doing. But I must admit, I felt no sudden rush of motivation or anything super perceptible about Thesis’ nootropics for Motivation.

This may be because I didn’t adequately measure my personal motivation level while journaling. It could also be that on cherry-picking days I felt less motivated and heavily on biased my experience. For instance, I wonder if my results would have been more pronounced if I took Motivation consistently every day? Ultimately, I should probably test Thesis’ Motivation blend more before drawing any hard conclusions. And again, it’s worth noting that everyone’s body is quite different. While I don’t struggle with day-to-day motivation, others clearly do, and thus might see more noticeable results than I did.

Creativity formula ingedients

Thesis’s Creativity formula is designed to spark inspiration, improve verbal fluency, and provide a boost of confidence. It contains:

• Agmatine, for stress management
• Alpha GPC, support for memory, neuroprotection, and neurogenesis
• Ginseng, for learning and memory
• Ashwagandha, to promote calm in stressful settings
• Zembrin®, for mood regulation and blood flow to the brain
• Caffeine, for energy

My review of thesis creativity

Unfortunately, Thesis didn’t recommend this formula to me, so I can’t comment on its efficacy. That said, it’s one of Thesis’ most popular formulations, and thus seems to work for thousands of happy customers. I’ll update this section when I have a chance to try it first-hand.

Confidence formula ingredients

Confidence is the newest nootropic blend from Thesis. It contains ingredients to target stress and insecurities while fostering a sense of self-assurance. The idea behind the Confidence blend is that it will help users to feel more sure of themselves and stay in the present.

The Confidence nootropic ingredients include:

• Magnesium L-threonate

Ashwagandha

Review of thesis confidence – does it work.

Even the most self-assured among us crave more confidence. That’s because it’s attractive and infectious. As Thesis’ newest nootropic blend, Confidence is recommended for “high-pressure situations” when you want to “expand your comfort zone”, so I decided to reserve mine for situations in which I was meeting new people, which often, for me, means anticipatory social anxiety.

Recording how I felt two hours before leaving to meet new folks (both for business and pleasure), and then comparing that to my notes from just one hour before each meeting, a clear pattern emerged. In all cases, I reported feeling more relaxed and ready for new encounters after taking Thesis nootropics .

Absent any supplements whatsoever, my typical levels of social anxiety generally increase steadily up until the moment I see people. Generally, I turn to meditation to try to remedy that in the short term. However, that didn’t appear to be the case the 6 times I sampled Thesis’ confidence formula, although it’s unclear why. Perhaps it’s a placebo effect. But in any event, I was encouraged to keep trying Thesis Confidence nootropics before performative moments of all kinds.

Do Thesis nootropics really work?

I didn’t expect any nootropics to have a significant perceptible impact on my mood or cognition, yet 3 of the 4 blends that I tried brought real benefits. In case you missed it, I chronicled my experience trying various nootropic blends from Thesis above. Overall, I have to say I was pretty impressed with their results. 

For me, Thesis’ Energy and Confidence blends worked the best. Clarity also helped me maintain flow for longer during the workday, but I didn’t notice any strong effects from their Motivation supplements. Of course, I don’t know for sure that the nootropics are directly responsible for the benefits I perceived after trialing each variety 6 times. It could have just been placebo effect or some other internal bias altering my perception of reality. But honestly, does it really matter? The effects were very positive, and for the most part, perceptible, too. That’s a win-win!

That said, everyone responds differently to nutrients, which explains why you should maintain a healthy dose of skepticism about how well nootropic blends might work for you. How can something as simple as an herb really make you feel happier, more focused, and more productive? You won’t know unless you try them for yourself and pay close attention to how you feel.

Since my initial exploration, several members of my team have tried Thesis nootropics as well. While we all agree that you likely won’t feel as stark of a mental difference from all natural nootropics as you would with synthetic prescription drugs, but we all experienced a noticeable, positive effect on mood, memory, energy, and focus. This corroborating evidence – albeit self-reported – reassured me that perhaps my experience wasn’t all placebo after all.

What’s it like to talk to a Thesis nootropic coach?

After trying Thesis supplements, I was eager to chat with their team of expert nootropic coaches to discuss my experience. Naturally, I wanted to know if what I felt was “normal”, as well as how to further optimize the benefits I felt by making adjustments. I know there are lots of telehealth platforms on the market and having a coach with the knowledge of something that I knew less about made me much more comfortable.

I was able to schedule a call within just a few days and chatted with someone named Cindy with a degree in neurobiology. She was able to explain how the various nootropics I had tried likely contributed to my experience and offered a few recommendations around what to try next given my individual results.

Ultimately, I not only enjoyed the conversation but felt like I had clear next steps. It was reassuring to know I could get advice again at any time in the future. This is an amazingly personal feature that makes Thesis stand out against other nootropic brands.

What active ingredients does Thesis include in their compounds?

Each ingredient included in Thesis’s formulations is backed by science, which you can find right on their website. There are ways to test for any deficiencies  that you might have, which can also help you decide which supplements would benefit you. Here’s an overview:

Synapsa® (Bacopa monnieri plant)

Bacopa has been shown to boost memory recall and be neuroprotective. 

TAU (uridine)

The body uses uridine to create choline (a cognitive enhancer), construct nerve cell membranes, and help prevent neuron damage. 

7,8-DHF (dihydroxyflavone)

Studies indicate that 7,8-DHF can help protect against brain damage and neurological decline. 

Choline supports nerve health, cerebral metabolism, and the function of neurotransmitters. It also has been shown to have neuroprotective benefits, preserving the health of your brain. 

When it’s taken regularly, DHA has been shown to boost memory and reaction time. 

Ashwagandha root helps regulate the body’s response to cortisol, the “ stress hormone”. 

The active components of GS15-4 Panax Ginseng have been found to boost memory formation and learning. 

NALT (N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine)

NALT can increase alertness, energy, and cognitive function . 

Artichoke extract

Artichoke extract is rich in antioxidants that can boost your overall bodily function and offer protection against stress and toxins. 

NAC boosts levels of glutathione, which can reduce oxidative stress and help naturally detoxify the body. 

Methylcobalamin, a form of vitamin B12, is used in Thesis supplements to improve nerve health and energy levels. 

Lion’s Mane mushrooms

Lion’s Mane mushrooms can enhance your mood and quality of sleep while reducing stress levels.

There are a total of 28 ingredients found in Thesis nootropic blends . Others not listed above include alpha GPC, Zembrin®, phosphatidylserine, forskolin, Sabroxy®, TeaCrine®, agmatine, epicatechin, alpha GPC, Dynamine®, L-theanine, Zynamite®, L-Phenylalanine, theobromine, ginkgo Biloba, and caffeine. 

How much do Thesis nootropics cost?

For a one-time purchase, Thesis costs $119 for a one-month supply . This isn’t the most economical way to try their nootropics, though. Instead, we’d recommend signing up for a subscription , which costs $79 for a one-month supply, and will force you to properly test Thesis over a longer period for more credible results.

Thesis offers a 30-day money-back guarantee, which eliminates the risk of trying them out. If you’re not sold after a month, you can simply get your investment back – no questions asked. 

Thesis alternatives: How does Thesis compare to other nootropic brands?

Of course, Thesis is far from the only nootropic company in town. How does it stack up vs alternatives? Take a look for yourself:

Thesis Nootropic reviews: What are customers saying?

Before diving into nootropics with Thesis, we knew that you’d want to read what other customers are praising or complaining about in their reviews. Here’s what we found online:

Source: Facebook

Source: Reddit

The verdict: Are Thesis nootropics legit?

Armed with all of the information, including my own personal journey trying their nootropics for the first time, and a comparison of Thesis vs other popular alternatives… should you give Thesis a shot?

While Thesis is pricier than its competitors, we believe that their personalized approach is ultimately worth it for the value. For one, Thesis offers you access to an expert nootropics coach, who can seriously enhance your experience with the supplements and guide you on your journey to optimal mental performance.

Additionally, Thesis has done the heavy lifting of finding legitimate ingredients that are backed by reputable science and are more transparent with their ingredients and dosage than other brands. If we’re comparing to taking it upon yourself to test out individual nootropics on your own, Thesis will save you a ton of time.

Plus, the company’s unique blends pair ingredients that complement each other, and you won’t find these formulations anywhere else. They are custom formulas based on your individual needs, and you can try them for 30 days risk-free thanks to their money-back guarantee.

When push comes to shove, we’d recommend Thesis to anyone who’s interested in testing nootropics for the first time and doesn’t know where to start, as well as more experienced wellness enthusiasts looking to make nootropics a regular part of their self-care routine. For greater focus, energy, motivation, and a major mood boost, nootropics from Thesis worked for me, and with thousands of happy customers, it’s reasonable to assume their blends can work wonders for anyone willing to experiment under the guidance of one of their coaches. Of course, you’ll never know unless you try it out for yourself. Just don’t forget to use our promo code FINVSFIN for 10% off at checkout.

Remember to always consult with your doctor before starting a new supplement to ensure it’s right for you.

Have you tried out nootropics? Let us know about your experience and result in the comments below!

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

For a one-time purchase, Thesis costs $119 for a  one-month supply . This isn’t the most economical way to try their nootropics, though. Instead, we’d recommend signing up for a  subscription , which costs $79 for a one-month supply, and will force you to properly test Thesis over a longer period for more credible results.

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What Is Thesis?

How does it work, thesis nootropics benefits, thesis blend breakdown, thesis energy benefits, clarity benefits, motivation benefits, logic benefits, creativity benefits, side effects, who should take it, who shouldn't take it, where can you buy it, other user reviews, how does thesis compare to other supplements, our verdict on thesis nootropics.

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• ThesIs Nootropics Review

Thesis Nootropics Review (2024) Is It Worth The Hype?

As a fitness coach, I've seen the impact of high-quality nootropic supplements on motivation and concentration during workouts.

Teaming up with my dietitian and 12 clients, we documented the significant cognitive benefits and general effects of Thesis over a period of four weeks.

Does it genuinely fulfill its promise of enhancing your mental performance and focus?

Before trying out the supplement, keep reading and find out if it's right for your mental wellness needs.

Thesis is a stack of supplements that aims to improve cognitive function, mental stamina, mood, and overall mental energy levels.

Thesis nootropics' energy formula claims to boost energy levels while catering to individuals following a certified gluten-free diet, promoting positive habits and supporting nerve health.

What's particularly interesting about purchasing this stack is the Thesis algorithm.

It’s a set of questions that assess your personal needs to create a bespoke starter kit.

More on this shortly.

As a result, you get a recommendation from a couple of their products to provide personalized blends for nootropics.

Let’s learn more about how Thesis supplements work with your brain health.

Thesis Nootropics

Rated With Total Shape's Scoring System

The Thesis experience begins with a questionnaire to assess your needs and goals, like improved physical and mental energy.

Based on your responses, the algorithm will recommend different Thesis blends to help you achieve your goals.

After going through the quiz, you get a recommended Thesis starter kit.

The five different products Thesis then recommends claim to work similarly to smart drugs by boosting your cognitive function and mood.

But unlike prescription medications, Thesis uses natural ingredients like vitamins, amino acids, minerals, and herbs.

“Nootropics, a greek word meaning 'Towards the Mind', are compounds that are both (1) neurologically active and (2) directly or indirectly enhance cognitive potential via increased capabilities (ie. reflexes), state of well-being, or learning potential.” - Kamal Patel, MPH, MBA at Examine.com

Once you are a Thesis customer, you can also set up a meeting with a Thesis coach to review your stack and the effects you are looking for and experiencing.

But does that make Thesis legit?

Let’s see what our detailed clinical research reveals.

The first thing that we got our testing team to do is to go through a full week of keeping an hourly journal to self-evaluate their mood, concentration, and cognitive function.

Then we put them through three weeks of taking their Thesis recommended stack and got them all to keep their hourly journaling going.

The first thing we noted was that the energy blend and creativity formula seemed to give our clients a good boost in brain performance.

And the folks that took the motivation blend a few hours before heading to the gym also found they were more focused on their workouts.

However, the majority of our test group highlighted that the effects seemed to wear off after about 4–5 hours.

We also noted that the logic formula didn’t provide a huge benefit, which could be down to a lack of a proven formula.

We also found that the Thesis nootropics cost can mount up if you want to stack a few of them.

• Allows you to combine different product formulas for personal goals
• Provides support from coaches to help you refine your stack
• Positive impacts on mood and concentration levels
• Some of the ingredients are not supported by reliable clinical trials
• You may need to swallow quite a few capsules, depending on your particular blend

Thesis Nootropics offers a unique blend of ingredients that target thesis energy, thesis creativity, cellular function, and even skin health, making it a notable contender in the supplement industry.

For this part of the Thesis supplements review, I got my dietitian to help out and analyze the Thesis formula for each of the products.

We also tested the effects with 12 clients to see whether the marketing hype lives up to expectations.

Let's have a more detailed look at the features and benefits of each blend.

The idea behind Thesis Energy is to help people clear brain fog and feel more mentally energized.

To verify this, we paid close attention to the journal entries our testing team made in the afternoons. This is typically when people feel a slump.

What we found was that folks who took this supplement after lunch gained some mental clarity.

But it seems like the effect wears off after about four hours, so you don’t gain an all-day effect like with other nootropics.

Key Ingredients:

• Choline: According to PubMed, this mineral may boost memory function and verbal fluency [ 1 ].
• L-Theanine: A controlled trial posted in Nutritional Neurosciences suggests that this amino acid can work well with caffeine to increase alertness without causing jitters [ 2 ].
• Caffeine: This stimulant can boost alertness, but you can get this from a morning coffee, so I’m not overly impressed that it’s added here [ 3 ].

Thesis Clarity is another product that aims to improve neural communication and allow you to think more clearly and effectively.

Thesis Nootropics' clarity formula provides an extra boost of cognitive performance, targeting stress response reduction and improving sleep quality, all while delivering a healthy dose for enhanced mental clarity and improved ability.

We did note in our testing review that there seems to be an improvement in mental function for several hours after taking it.

But this also seemed to happen more with those testers who took the clarity and energy formula.

• 7,8-DHF: Studies have shown that Dihydroxyflavone can cross the blood-brain barrier and act as a neuroprotective ingredient [ 4 ].
• Alpha GPC: This is an ingredient that has been shown to protect against neurological decline [ 5 ].
• Lion’s Mane: This mushroom is common in nootropics and has been shown to improve mental performance and creativity [ 6 ].

A large part of improving mental health comes down to how focused and motivated you are with daily tasks. Our clients who tested the Thesis Motivation noted that it seemed to help them remain more motivated during workouts.

But this doesn’t seem to happen if you take it in the morning and go to the gym later in the day. So you’d need to get your timing right.

• L-Phenylalanine: Research has shown that this ingredient can help with signs of depression and improve overall mood [ 7 ].
• Dynamine: Also known as Methylliberine, studies have highlighted that it can impact your mental well-being when combined with caffeine [ 8 ].
• Forskolin: The interesting thing about this herbal ingredient is that it can improve blood flow to the brain for better focus and motivation [ 9 ].

For this product, we looked at what our clients noted in their journals when they were at work or studying. While they did find a boost in focus, none of them noted that it helped improve verbal fluency or problem-solving skills.

• Ginkgo Biloba: This is a common ingredient in traditional medicine, but modern clinical trials have shown that it can help brain health through improved blood flow and anti-inflammatory properties [ 10 ].
• Ashwagandha: This herb can have a direct impact on stress and memory, allowing you to think clearly and effectively [ 11 ].
• Saffron: It’s the most expensive herb in the world, and studies have linked it to improved stress, mood, and cognitive capacity [ 12 ].

A few of our clients tried the creativity blends, but this is one of the products where most of them didn’t report any significant improvements.

Combinations with other products above did positively impact mood and stress, but we couldn’t find any comments where our clients highlighted that they felt more creative in their work or any other creatively demanding context.

• Agmatine: This amino acid doesn’t just boost cognitive performance but may also help to protect brain cells against oxidative stress [ 13 ].
• Zembrin: Research has shown that this herb can impact both stress and anxiety, but there’s no specific evidence that it can help with creativity [ 14 ].
• Ginseng: This is a common ingredient in diet supplements as it can improve blood sugar levels, but that wouldn’t directly influence creativity [ 15 ].

We also asked all of our clients to provide any feedback they had on side effects related to the nootropic blends.

Overall, the majority of people found that it didn't cause any major issues.

We only noted that one person had a bit of a rash, which could have been a result of an allergic reaction to one of the ingredients.

We also found that it’s best not to take these capsules on an empty stomach. Ideally, take them within 20 minutes of eating a meal to avoid stomach upset.

Based on my personal experience, people who want to achieve a moderate boost in brain function may want to take nootropic supplements.

You would need to experiment with the timing as these capsules don’t provide effects for the entire day. But after about a week, you should be in a position to spread out the capsules for maximum effect.

You can also contact a coach directly for advice on timing. It's especially important when you have no prior experience in taking these supplements. However, a good starting point is to take the minimum and adjust from there.

Based on our own experience, people with high blood pressure or neurological diseases shouldn’t take Thesis natural nootropics to enhance cognitive function.

In such cases, it’s best to have a doctor review your detailed medical history and the nootropic ingredients for any potential side effects.

Our testing team didn’t note any improvements whatsoever, and when we specifically asked them after the trial, none of them said they saw a noticeable difference.

You can buy Thesis Nootropics directly from the company website.

We generally recommend avoiding third-party retailers to ensure that you always get the real product, so this is a positive highlight.

We placed two orders, and the package arrived within four days, which is about average for nootropic supplement companies.

One thing to point out on the Thesis supplements shipping policy is that currently, the company doesn’t offer international shipping.

We also had a look for other nootropic reviews online to see what users were saying.

“It gave me more energy. I have struggled with low energy and I felt like my old self again. I could get up & get things done.” - Laurie C., taketheseis.com

“After 1 month of using Energy, Creativity, Clarity and Logic pack, I do not note any difference in mindset. I opted for the non-caffeinated blends as I am not a big caffeine person to begin with so a caffeinated blend might show some improvement.” - Beefnug, Reddit

“I have been continuously nauseated every day using thesis packets. I have given it a week and a half and cannot handle the negative side effects. Disappointed.” - AdGroundbreaking5162, Reddit

Our Thesis scientific research suggests that it doesn’t compare well to our testing of three other products for improving cognitive function.

First of all, we looked at the results we have for Mind Lab Pro .

The one thing that stands out the most is that it seems to be effective for many more hours than Thesis, so the timing doesn’t become an issue.

The second one we compared is Onnit Alpha Brain . This nootropic supplement seems to provide a lot more focus and motivation, especially while you’re at the gym.

Compared to Gorilla Mind Smooth , Thesis doesn’t have the same effect on boosting energy and reducing stress.

Related Articles:

• Avantera Elevate Review
• Best Nootropics For Men
• Best Nootropics For Women

Is It Safe To Take Thesis Nootropics Every Day?

Yes, it is safe to take Thesis Nootropics every day. We found Thesis to be generally easy to process, but you need to look out for allergies to any of the ingredients. A good way to do this is to ask your physician for advice since they will know whether these ingredients are good for your health.

Does Thesis Nootropics Contain Banned Ingredients?

No, Thesis Nootropics doesn’t contain any banned ingredients. All of the ingredients are based on minerals, amino acids, and herbs that won’t cause a positive drug test result.

Based on our feedback from a nutritionist and the test results with 12 clients, we don't recommend Thesis.

Not only do its effects wear off after a few hours, which makes timing your intake a problem, but it also burns a hole in your pocket for just a stack of three or four products.

Instead, I highly recommend one of the best nootropic brands we have tested so far: Mind Lab Pro .

Our results show that its effects last for most of the day and provide great clarity, energy, focus, and concentration, making it a favorite among clients of all age groups.

We Recommend This Instead

Mind Lab Pro

• Great combination of herbs and amino acids that work as a cognitive enhancer
• Added B vitamins to support red blood cell production and boosted energy levels
• Great feedback from users that it can help with relieving anxiety
• Get the BEST PRICE until the end of April
• The capsules are not the smallest ones to swallow

About The Author

James Cunningham is an author and dietary supplement connoisseur with a solid academic foundation, holding a BSc in Sport & Exercise Science from the University of Hertfordshire. Specializing in Performance Psychology, his expertise is backed by both rigorous study and practical experience.

As an author, James is committed to guiding his readers towards optimal health and performance, providing actionable insights and strategies through his writings.

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“Motivation gets me going during my six days in a row at work, and Clarity keeps my mind sharp and alert so I’m performing at my best . Creativity does just as it says -- I love this one for when I’m doing the Reading Comprehension and/or Arguments section of LSAT prep; I truly feel like it gives me an edge.”

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"I did feel different since day one. I got more motivated and had an overall better mood. [Thesis] has been a game changer for me."

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“With a busy life on and off the court, Thesis gives me energy and focus to get through the longest days and keep me sharp.”

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"Thesis has provided a substantial benefit to my ability to focus. Creativity works best for me — I take it 30 mins before a podcast or writing and it helps get me into the zone."

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Pure and effective ingredients

Potent active ingredients.

Quality counts when supplementing, and only the active ingredients in a blend make an impact.

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We only use nutrients that have been proven to safely deliver desired effects in clinical trials.

All ingredients in each batch are tested with a third party lab to ensure optimal potency and purity.

“ The Thesis process was developed by systematically testing different combinations of high quality ingredients. We made the process of finding the right nootropics quicker & safer.”

DAN FREED CEO & Founder, Thesis

Our research and product development teams review clinical studies and information on safety, side effects, and any potential interactions for each ingredient being considered for a Thesis blend.

Each ingredient goes through two rounds of internal testing, in which members of our research and product development team share feedback on individual ingredients.

The research and product development team reviews existing clinical literature about synergistic benefits between ingredients and integrates it as we continue to formulate, developing 2-4 blends to move forward to Phase 3 testing.

We test each prospective blend internally, as members of our research and product development team try each of the blends before we move forward to Beta testing.

Next, we test multiple iterations of each blend with a group of 100 Thesis beta group customers and collect quantitative and qualitative feedback to help us refine the final blend.

We finalize our winning blend (based on the Alpha and Beta test feedback) by completing a final round of safety testing by our third party lab partners before we release it. Ongoing safety testing occurs with each batch of production.

After the blend undergoes third party lab testing for safety, we launch a limited release to 5,000 customers to help us gather additional feedback and work through our supply chain process

Once a blend passes the limited release phase, we launch full production in a cGMP facility and release it to all customers.

The Thesis Story

As long as I can remember, people thought I was stupid, lazy, or unmotivated. I started to believe it. In school, I would read the same page over and over again, without absorbing anything. At 16, I dropped out of high school and went to work at a sandwich shop.

Fast-forward ten years — I scored in the 99th percentile on the GMAT and earned Master’s degrees from Yale and INSEAD. Nootropics turned everything around for me, and helped me form the positive habits that I built my success on. Once I balanced my brain chemistry, I could perform like never before.

I take Energy to get me going in the morning and Motivation to power through long afternoons.

DAN’s blends

A systematic meta-review of systematic reviews on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Affiliations.

• 1 Centre for Research and Education in Forensic Psychiatry, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.
• 2 Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
• 3 Division of Psychiatry, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.
• 4 Division for Health Services, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.
• 5 Department of Community Medicine, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
• 6 Centre for Work and Mental Health, Nordland Hospital, Bodø, Norway.
• PMID: 37974470
• PMCID: PMC10755583
• DOI: 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2451

Background: There are now hundreds of systematic reviews on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) of variable quality. To help navigate this literature, we have reviewed systematic reviews on any topic on ADHD.

Methods: We searched MEDLINE, PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science and performed quality assessment according to the Joanna Briggs Institute Manual for Evidence Synthesis. A total of 231 systematic reviews and meta-analyses met the eligibility criteria.

Results: The prevalence of ADHD was 7.2% for children and adolescents and 2.5% for adults, though with major uncertainty due to methodological variation in the existing literature. There is evidence for both biological and social risk factors for ADHD, but this evidence is mostly correlational rather than causal due to confounding and reverse causality. There is strong evidence for the efficacy of pharmacological treatment on symptom reduction in the short-term, particularly for stimulants. However, there is limited evidence for the efficacy of pharmacotherapy in mitigating adverse life trajectories such as educational attainment, employment, substance abuse, injuries, suicides, crime, and comorbid mental and somatic conditions. Pharmacotherapy is linked with side effects like disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, and increased blood pressure, but less is known about potential adverse effects after long-term use. Evidence of the efficacy of nonpharmacological treatments is mixed.

Conclusions: Despite hundreds of systematic reviews on ADHD, key questions are still unanswered. Evidence gaps remain as to a more accurate prevalence of ADHD, whether documented risk factors are causal, the efficacy of nonpharmacological treatments on any outcomes, and pharmacotherapy in mitigating the adverse outcomes associated with ADHD.

Keywords: ADHD; Child and adolescent psychiatry; Epidemiology; Public Health; Systematic reviews.

Publication types

• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity* / drug therapy
• Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity* / epidemiology
• Central Nervous System Stimulants* / therapeutic use
• Systematic Reviews as Topic
• Central Nervous System Stimulants

Thesis Nootropics vs Adderall: Which Is Better for ADHD?

In this article, I compare Thesis Nootropics Vs Adderall to see which is better and healthier for those experiencing ADHD.

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People who have been diagnosed with ADHD typically suffer from not being able to properly focus or concentrate on a task at hand. This can be something like a specific job that you’ve been given at work, or something as simple as trying to make dinner at home. ADHD, also known as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects both children and adults. Depending on the severity of the symptoms that a person experiences, this condition can be extremely life-limiting or something that can be easily managed with the right care plan.

For people who find that their ADHD is greatly affecting their ability to focus and concentrate, there are prescription medications that a doctor can prescribe which may be able to help. Adderall is a popular ADHD medication. It is a combination of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine, which are two central nervous stimulants. When your body has these stimulants in its system, you may be able to see an improvement in focus and reduced impulsivity thanks to increased levels of dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain. Unfortunately, Adderall can have long-term negative effects on your mental and physical health, so a lot of people avoid taking it.

There are also more natural options that have proven to be very effective. Nootropics are substances that improve your mental performance. Adderall is considered to be a nootropic, but other alternatives include caffeine, creatine, L-theanine and gingko biloba. Nootropics work by improving the brain's supply of glucose and oxygen so you can focus and concentrate better. The effects are not permanent, so you’ll need to continue using nootropics to see results.

In my lifetime, I have used both Adderall and other more natural nootropic options designed for ADHD and anxiety . Specifically, I’ve tried out the product Thesis Nootropics. I experienced great results when taking this product, so I want to share with you some information on this product, the brand that makes it and why it’s something you may want to consider for your own focus and concentration challenges.

My Experience with Adderall

Why i started searching for nootropics to replace adderall, overview of thesis nootropics, overview of adderall, comparing cost, comparing focus, comparing productivity, comparing side effects, main differences between thesis nootropics and adderall, what’s better: adderall or thesis nootropics, the bottom line.

I first started taking Adderall when I was a teen. My parents were concerned with my performance at school, as well as my ability to concentrate. With the guidance of my pediatrician, I was put on Adderall. I took this medication for many months. While it had some positive effects, there were also negative side effects that I didn’t like. This included things like a decreased appetite, trouble sleeping and headache. They were pretty consistent, so I ended up using Adderall off and on for a number of years. Having the dosage changed didn’t seem to really have an effect on my experience.

I also found that I had trouble stopping Adderall. If my symptoms were becoming a nuisance, I would try to cut down my dose or stop it completely. Unfortunately, the brain needs to re-adjust to fluctuating levels of dopamine when you’ve been using Adderall. I had some pretty nasty withdrawal symptoms when I would stop, which usually forced me to stay on the medication.

As I got older, I started finding that my ability to concentrate became more of a challenge. I was trying to balance things like college and working, and my symptoms really started to trouble me. I knew that I could eventually stop taking Adderall with the use of a proper wean-down schedule, but I was very worried that I was going to experience some severe Adderall withdrawal symptoms, such as fatigue, panic attacks, mood swings or even depression. Many of these symptoms are commonly experienced by people who have been taking Adderall for a long time.

I also knew that my symptoms of ADHD were going to return once I was off the Adderall, and I wanted to be prepared. This is when my search for a more natural option began. I learned about the use of nootropics for ADHD and found that a lot of people use it to replace their Adderall prescription.

How I Found Thesis Nootropics Vs. Adderall

I started looking online, gathering more and more information on nootropics. I learned a lot about how addictive Adderall really is, and its side effects can include permanent nerve damage. The more I read, the more I wanted to find an alternative. I came across a number of nootropic brands, including Thesis Nootropics. Diving into the details of these different products is a big part of why I’m such a wellness enthusiast now. I’ve learned so much about the different ingredients and components that make a supplement successful. Thesis’ product proved to be very reputable, made from high-quality ingredients and had an impressive client base. Now, it’s my turn to share this product with you.

Thesis Nootropics are high-quality nootropics that can help you with various aspects of your cognitive health. The company was originally called FindMyFormula before they rebranded their company into Thesis. They bring experience to the table, as one of the original nootropics' companies on the internet. They have an impressive following of more than 500,000 users, and there are some impressive reviews listed on the Thesis website. Over the years, their formulas have been adjusted and re-formulated to provide exceptional benefits.

There are a few different components to Thesis Nootropics that can help your cognitive function, whether or not you’ve been diagnosed with ADHD. Functional mushrooms can help your brain perform faster and more efficiently, and it only takes a few days to experience results. Acetylcholine from choline sources is a neurotransmitter that can boost your memory, learning ability and also protect your brain from symptoms associated with aging. Lastly, various amino acids, vitamins and plant–based adaptogens have been included in Thesis blends to protect the brain from toxins, fatigue and stress. All while promoting memory and learning.

The Customizable Formula

The way that you secure your nootropic supplements is a bit unique when you shop from Thesis. Upon visiting their website, you are asked to complete a questionnaire. It’s pretty basic information, but this data helps Thesis determine what nootropic blend will work best for your symptoms. There’s no testing involved, and you don’t really even have to provide any kind of lengthy medical history. The information that you provide regarding your symptoms and challenges is enough to determine what will help you move forward.

What I Like

I love that all of the ingredients in Thesis Nootropics are very natural and safe. They don’t have any kind of addictive properties, so you can start and stop your customized blend as needed. It won’t cause any kind of long-term health issues or permanent damage to your body. Also, the company uses very high-quality ingredients for all of their products. You can feel good about what you’re putting into your body rather than stressing about the unwanted side effects and damage that you might be causing.

What I Don’t Like

Unfortunately, you can’t really find out too much about Thesis Nootropics until you complete their questionnaire. For example, there aren’t any prices included on the main page. You can’t learn this information until you get into the process of creating your customized blend. It’s not an overly lengthy questionnaire, but at first glance you don’t really learn a lot about this product. I would prefer a little more transparency from Thesis.

Cost and Where to Purchase

You can purchase Thesis Nootropics by visiting the Thesis website, located at https://takethesis.com/ . The price varies a little bit based on what you choose. If you opt for a one-month supply of Thesis nootropics, the cost is $119. The price drops down to $79 if you choose to start a monthly subscription service.

My Final Verdict: There could be better nootropics out there, like 10x Brain ADHD gummies for a much cheaper price point.

Adderall is a prescription medication that is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as well as narcolepsy. This medication is a mixture of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine. These are both central nervous system stimulants that have an effect on various chemicals in the brain and nerves. The end result is meant to be better hyperactivity and impulse control.

You Need a Prescription

In order to obtain Adderall, you need to receive a prescription from a licensed medical professional. Most doctors who write a script for Adderall will require periodic appointments in order to monitor your progress. So, expect to see your doctor every few months in order to refill your script.

Side Effects / Long Term Health

There are a number of health concerns and long-term health effects that you should be aware of before you even start Adderall. Because it can be a very addictive medication, it’s important to understand the risks before you start.

There are other prescription medications that can interact with the amphetamine and dextroamphetamine that are in Adderall, resulting in something called serotonin syndrome. This is when too much serotonin builds up in the brain, causes symptoms such as shivering, muscle rigidity, diarrhea, agitation, hallucinations, vomiting and potentially even seizures.

Pregnant women should not take Adderall, as it can result in premature birth, low birth weight or withdrawal symptoms that could harm the newborn baby.

Cost of Adderall

The cost of Adderall will vary, based on where you obtain your prescription and whether or not you have insurance coverage that will lower the cost. A typical one-month supply of Adderall using prescription drug coverage is usually under $20. The retail cost can be between $65 and $100.

The cost of Thesis Nootropics is definitely higher than the cost of Adderall, even without the use of prescription drug coverage. However, you’re looking at two very different products. Adderall has a long list of dangerous side effects, including addiction. Whereas the use of nootropic supplements is a much safer option. Can you really put a price tag on your health and wellness? As a wellness enthusiast, I take cost into account, but I really like to look at the bigger picture.

Nootropics are considered “Smart Drugs” that can help improve things like focus and cognitive function. This is done naturally by getting rid of fatigue, helping you concentrate and clearing away that pesky brain fog that results in frequent distractions.

Adderall can also improve your focus and reduce impulsivity thanks to increased levels of dopamine and norepinephrine. Results will vary from person to person. I personally would rather try something safe and natural to see if it works, prior to trying any kind of addictive medication.

If you want to boost your productivity levels, nootropics are a safe way to do so. They can help you become more productive by boosting energy levels, getting rid of brain fog, reducing distractive thinking and allowing you to focus in on one task at a time. You may also see an increase in productivity with the use of Adderall, but it can take four to eight weeks to really see the full effects of Adderall. By this point, your body and mind are likely very addicted to the substance you’re taking.

Adderall is a much more dangerous substance compared to something like Thesis Nootropics. Made from natural ingredients, you reap similar benefits that Adderall can provide, but you don’t have to worry about becoming addicted. Withdrawals aren’t a risk for nootropic use, thanks to the use of safe substances like herbal remedies, amino acids and other nutrients. Whichever method you choose to treat your ADHD, keep an eye out for any side effects like increased heart rate, high blood pressure, shortness of breath, shaking, anxiety or depression.

A main difference between Thesis Nootropics and Adderall is their price points, but the safety of nootropics overshadows the slight difference in cost (in my opinion). I’ve done a lot of reading on the use of nootropics for ADHD and similar cognitive issues, and they tend to be very well tolerated. Also, you don’t have to worry about any long-term dangers or addiction. I strongly advise looking into Thesis Nootropics before settling on a prescription for Adderall.

There are different types of ADHD, each of them affecting the brain in different ways. The symptoms that you are dealing with may impact your decision regarding which option to choose. What I can say from my own personal experience, is that I found a great deal of benefits associated with using Thesis Nootropics compared to my experience with Adderall. Adderall was something that I never really was able to dial in for my own symptoms, and the side effects were something I really couldn’t get past. The length of time that I used Adderall didn’t really affect my body’s ability to better tolerate my prescription medication. Making the switch to something safer and more natural was life changing.

There are millions of people in the world that suffer from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In fact, it is the most common neurobehavioral disorder in the world. A large number of children are diagnosed with ADHD each year, and this can make it challenging for them to succeed in school. These problems often don’t go away in adulthood.

If you are struggling with symptoms associated with ADHD or know someone that is, there is help out there. Spend a little bit of time looking into Thesis, or other Nootropics and consider speaking to your doctor about the use of this type of supplement. It’s becoming more and more common for the modern medical world to support the use of natural supplements for the treatment of a variety of medical issues.

I recommend these nootropics as well as Thesis:

• 10X Brain ADHD Gummies
• Alpha Brain

Courtney D'Angelo, MS, RD

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Search strategy, data extraction, risk of bias and applicability, data synthesis and analysis, parent ratings, teacher ratings, youth self-reports, combined rating scales, additional clinician tools, neuropsychological tests, biospecimen, neuroimaging, variation in diagnostic accuracy with clinical setting or patient subgroup, measures for diagnostic performance, available tools, importance of the comparator sample, clinical implications, future research, conclusions, acknowledgments, tools for the diagnosis of adhd in children and adolescents: a systematic review.

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Bradley S. Peterson , Joey Trampush , Morah Brown , Margaret Maglione , Maria Bolshakova , Mary Rozelle , Jeremy Miles , Sheila Pakdaman , Sachi Yagyu , Aneesa Motala , Susanne Hempel; Tools for the Diagnosis of ADHD in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Pediatrics April 2024; 153 (4): e2024065854. 10.1542/peds.2024-065854

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• Ris (Zotero)
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Correct diagnosis is essential for the appropriate clinical management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents.

This systematic review provides an overview of the available diagnostic tools.

We identified diagnostic accuracy studies in 12 databases published from 1980 through June 2023.

Any ADHD tool evaluation for the diagnosis of ADHD, requiring a reference standard of a clinical diagnosis by a mental health specialist.

Data were abstracted and critically appraised by 1 reviewer and checked by a methodologist. Strength of evidence and applicability assessments followed Evidence-based Practice Center standards.

In total, 231 studies met eligibility criteria. Studies evaluated parental ratings, teacher ratings, youth self-reports, clinician tools, neuropsychological tests, biospecimen, EEG, and neuroimaging. Multiple tools showed promising diagnostic performance, but estimates varied considerably across studies, with a generally low strength of evidence. Performance depended on whether ADHD youth were being differentiated from neurotypically developing children or from clinically referred children.

Studies used different components of available tools and did not report sufficient data for meta-analytic models.

A valid and reliable diagnosis of ADHD requires the judgment of a clinician who is experienced in the evaluation of youth with and without ADHD, along with the aid of standardized rating scales and input from multiple informants across multiple settings, including parents, teachers, and youth themselves.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental conditions in youth. Its prevalence has remained constant at ∼5.3% worldwide over the years, and diagnostic criteria have remained constant when based on rigorous diagnostic procedures. 1   Clinical diagnoses, however, have increased steadily over time, 2   and currently, ∼10% of US children receive an ADHD diagnosis. 3   Higher rates of clinical compared with research-based diagnoses are because of an increasing clinician recognition of youth who have ADHD symptoms that are functionally impairing but do not fully meet formal diagnostic criteria. 4   The higher diagnostic rates over time in clinical samples also results from youth receiving a diagnosis incorrectly. Some youth, for example, are misdiagnosed as having ADHD when they have symptoms of other disorders that overlap with ADHD symptoms, such as difficulty concentrating, which occurs in many other conditions. 5   Moreover, ADHD is more than twice as likely to be diagnosed in boys than in girls, 3   in lower-income families, 6   and in white compared with nonwhite youth 7   ; differences that derive at least in part from diagnostic and cultural biases. 8   – 11  

Improving clinical diagnostic accuracy is essential to ensure that youth who truly have ADHD benefit from receiving treatment without delay. Similarly, youth who do not have ADHD should not be diagnosed since an incorrect diagnosis risks exposing them to unbeneficial treatments. 12 , 13   Clinician judgement alone, however, especially by nonspecialist clinicians, is poor in diagnosing ADHD 14   compared with expert, research-grade diagnoses made by mental health clinicians. 15   Accurately diagnosing ADHD is difficult because diagnoses are often made using subjective clinical impressions, and putative diagnostic tools have a confusing, diverse, and poorly described evidence base that is not widely accessible. The availability of valid diagnostic tools would especially help to reduce misdiagnoses from cultural biases and symptom overlap with ADHD. 12 , 16   – 19  

This review summarizes evidence for the performance of tools for children and adolescents with ADHD. We did not restrict to a set of known diagnostic tools but instead explored the range of available diagnostic tools, including machine-learning assisted and virtual reality-based tools. The review aimed to assess how diagnostic performance varies by clinical setting and patient characteristics.

The review aims were developed in consultation with the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute, the topic nominator American Academy of Pediatrics, key informants, a technical expert panel (TEP), and public input. The TEP reviewed the protocol and advised on key outcomes. Subgroup analyses and key outcomes were prespecified. The review is registered in PROSPERO (CRD42022312656) and the protocol is available on the AHRQ Web site as part of a larger evidence report on ADHD. The systematic review followed Methods of the (AHRQ) Evidence-based Practice Center Program. 20  

Population: age <18 years.

Interventions: any ADHD tool for the diagnosis of ADHD.

Comparators: diagnosis by a mental health specialist, such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, or other provider, who often used published scales or semistructured diagnostic interviews to ensure a reliable DSM-based diagnosis of ADHD.

Key outcomes: diagnostic accuracy (eg, sensitivity, specificity, area under the curve).

Setting: any.

Study design: diagnostic accuracy studies.

Other: English language, published from 1980 to June 2023.

We searched PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, ERIC, and ClinicalTrials.gov. We identified reviews for reference-mining through PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Campbell Collaboration, What Works in Education, PROSPERO, ECRI Guidelines Trust, G-I-N, and ClinicalKey. The peer reviewed strategy is in the Supplemental Appendix . All citations were screened by trained literature reviewers supported by machine learning ( Fig 1 ). Two independent reviewers assessed full text studies for eligibility. The TEP reviewed studies to ensure all were captured. Publications reporting on the same participants were consolidated into 1 record.

Literature flow diagram.

The data abstraction form included extensive guidance to aid reproducibility and standardization in recording study details, results, risk of bias, and applicability. One reviewer abstracted data and a methodologist checked accuracy and completeness. Data are publicly available in the Systematic Review Data Repository.

We assessed characteristics pertaining to patient selection, index test, reference standard, flow and timing that may have introduced bias, and evaluated applicability of study results, such as whether the test, its conduct, or interpretation differed from how the test is used in clinical practice. 21 , 22  

We differentiated parent, teacher, and youth self-report ratings; tools for clinicians; neuropsychological tests; biospecimens; EEG; and neuroimaging. We organized analyses according to prespecified outcome measures. A narrative overview summarized the range of diagnostic performance for key outcomes. Because lack of reported detail in many individual studies hindered use of meta-analytic models, we created summary figures to document the diagnostic performance reported in each study. We used meta-regressions across studies to assess the effects of age, comorbidities, racial and ethnic composition, and diagnostic setting (differentiating primary care, specialty care, school settings, mixed settings, and not reported) on diagnostic performance. One researcher with experience in use of specified standardized criteria 23   initially assessed the overall strength of evidence (SoE) (see Supplemental Appendix ) for each study, then discussed it with the study team to communicate our confidence in each finding.

We screened 23 139 citations and 7534 publications retrieved as full text against the eligibility criteria. In total, 231 studies reported in 290 publications met the eligibility criteria (see Fig 1 ).

Methodological quality of the studies varied. Selection bias was likely in two-thirds of studies; several were determined to be problematic in terms of reported study flow and timing of assessments (eg, not stating whether diagnosis was known before the results of the index test); and several lacked details on diagnosticians or diagnostic procedures ( Supplemental Fig 1 ). Applicability concerns limited the generalizability of findings ( Supplemental Fig 2 ), usually because youth with comorbidities were excluded. Many different tools were assessed within the broader categories (eg, within neuropsychological tests), and even when reporting on the same diagnostic tool, studies often used different components of the tool (eg, different subscales of rating scales), or they combined components in a variety of ways (eg, across different neuropsychological test parameters).

The evidence table ( Supplemental Table 10 , Supplemental Appendix ) shows each study’s finding. The following highlights key findings across studies.

Fifty-nine studies used parent ratings to diagnose ADHD ( Fig 2 ). The most frequently evaluated tool was the CBCL (Child Behavior Checklist), alone or in combination with other tools, often using different score cutoffs for diagnosis, and evaluating different subscales (most frequently the attention deficit/hyperactivity problems subscale). Sensitivities ranged from 38% (corresponding specificity = 96%) to 100% (specificity = 4% to 92%). 24 , 25  

Diagnostic performance parent and teacher ratings. For a complete list of scales see Supplemental Appendix .

Area under the curve (AUC) for receiver operator characteristic curves ranged widely from 0.55 to 0.95 but 3 CBCL studies reported AUCs of 0.83 to 0.84. 26   – 28   Few studies reported measurement of reliability. SoE was downgraded for study limitation (lack of detailed reporting), imprecision (large performance variability), and inconsistent findings ( Supplemental Table 1 ).

Twenty-three studies used teacher ratings to diagnose ADHD ( Fig 2 ). No 2 studies reported on rater agreement, internal consistency, or test-retest reliability for the same teacher rating scale. The highest sensitivity was 97% (specificity = 26%). 25   The Teacher Report Form, alone or in combination with Conners teacher rating scales, yielded sensitivities of 72% to 79% 29   and specificities of 64% to 76%. 30 , 32   reported AUCs ranged from 0.65 to 0.84. 32   SoE was downgraded to low for imprecision (large performance variability) and inconsistency (results for specific tools not replicated), see Supplemental Table 2 .

Six studies used youth self-reports to diagnose ADHD. No 2 studies used the same instrument. Sensitivities ranged from 53% (specificity = 98%) to 86% (specificity = 70%). 35   AUCs ranged from 0.56 to 0.85. 36   We downgraded SoE for domain inconsistency (only 1 study reported on a given tool and outcome), see Supplemental Table 3 .

Thirteen studies assessed diagnostic performance of ratings combined across informants, often using machine learning for variable selection. Only 1 study compared performance of combined data to performance from single informants, finding negligible improvement (AUC youth = 0.71; parent = 0.85; combined = 0.86). 37   Other studies reported on limited outcome measures and used ad hoc methods to combine information from multiple informants. The best AUC was reported by a machine learning supported study combining parent and teacher ratings (AUC = 0.98). 38  

Twenty-four studies assessed additional tools, such as interview guides, that can be used by clinicians to aid diagnosis of ADHD. Sensitivities varied, ranging from 67% (specificity = 65%) to 98% (specificity = 100%); specificities ranged from 36% (sensitivity = 89%) to 100% (sensitivity = 98%). 39   Some of the tools measured activity levels objectively using an actometer or commercially available activity tracker, either alone or as part of a diagnostic test battery. Reported performance was variable (sensitivity range 25% to 100%, 40   specificity range 66% to 100%, 40   AUCs range 0.75–0.9996 41   ). SoE was downgraded for imprecision (large performance variability) and inconsistency (outcomes and results not replicated), see Supplemental Table 4 .

Seventy-four studies used measures from various neuropsychological tests, including continuous performance tests (CPTs). Four of these included 3- and 4-year-old children. 42   – 44   A large majority used a CPT, which assessed omission errors (reflecting inattention), commission errors (impulsivity), and reaction time SD (response time variability). Studies varied in use of traditional visual CPTs, such as the Test of Variables of Attention, more novel, multifaceted “hybrid” CPT paradigms, and virtual reality CPTs built upon environments designed to emulate real-world classroom distractibility. Studies used idiosyncratic combinations of individual cognitive measures to achieve the best performance, though many reported on CPT attention and impulsivity measures.

Sensitivity for all neuropsychological tests ranged from 22% (specificity = 96%) to 100% (specificity = 100%) 45   ( Fig 3 ), though the latter study reported performance for unique composite measures without replication. Specificities ranged from 22% (sensitivity = 91%) 46   to 100% (sensitivity = 100% to 75%). 45 , 47   AUCs ranged from 0.59 to 0.93. 48   Sensitivity for all CPT studies ranged from 22% ( specificity = 96) to 100% (specificity = 75%). 49   Specificities for CPTs ranged from 22% (sensitivity = 91%) to 100% (sensitivity = 89%) 47   ( Fig 3 ). AUCs ranged from 0.59 to 0.93. 50 , 51   SoE was deemed low for imprecise studies (large performance variability), see Supplemental Table 5.

Diagnostic performance neuropsychological tests, CPTs, activity monitors, biospecimen, EEG.

Seven studies assessed blood or urine biomarkers to diagnose ADHD. These measured erythropoietin or erythropoietin receptor, membrane potential ratio, micro RNA levels, or urine metabolites. Sensitivities ranged from 56% (specificity = 95%) to 100% (specificity = 100% for erythropoietin and erythropoietin receptors levels). 52   Specificities ranged from 25% (sensitivity = 79%) to 100% (sensitivity = 100%). 52   AUCs ranged from 0.68 to 1.00. 52   Little information was provided on reliability of markers or their combinations. SoE was downgraded for inconsistent and imprecise studies ( Supplemental Table 6 ).

Forty-five studies used EEG markers to diagnose ADHD. EEG signals were obtained in a variety of patient states, even during neuropsychological test performance. Two-thirds used machine learning algorithms to select classification parameters. Several combined EEG with demographic variables or rating scales. Sensitivity ranged widely from 46% to 100% (corresponding specificities 74 and 71%). 53 , 54   One study that combined EEG with demographics data supported by machine learning reported perfect sensitivity and specificity. 54   Specificity was also variable and ranged from 38% (sensitivity = 95%) to 100% (specificities = 71% or 100%). 53   – 56   Reported AUCs ranged from 0.63 to 1.0. 57 , 58   SoE was downgraded for study imprecision (large performance variability) and limitations (diagnostic approaches poorly described), see Supplemental Table 7 .

Nineteen studies used neuroimaging for diagnosis. One public data set (ADHD-200) produced several analyses. All but 2 used MRI: some functional MRI (fMRI), some structural, and some in combination, with or without magnetic resonance spectroscopy (2 used near-infrared spectroscopy). Most employed machine learning to detect markers that optimized diagnostic classifications. Some combined imaging measures with demographic or other clinical data in the prediction model. Sensitivities ranged from 42% (specificity = 95%) to 99% (specificity = 100%) using resting state fMRI and a complex machine learning algorithm 56   to differentiate ADHD from neurotypical youth. Specificities ranged from 55% (sensitivity = 95%) to 100% 56   using resting state fMRI data. AUCs ranged from 0.58 to over 0.99, 57   SoE was downgraded for imprecision (large performance variability) and study limitations (diagnostic models are often not well described, and the number and type of predictor variables entering the model were unclear). Studies generally did not validate diagnostic algorithms or assess performance measures in an independent sample ( Supplemental Table 8 ).

Regression analyses indicated that setting was associated with both sensitivity ( P = .03) and accuracy ( P = .006) but not specificity ( P = .68) or AUC ( P = .28), with sensitivities lowest in primary care ( Fig 4 ). Sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy were also lower when differentiating youth with ADHD from a clinical sample than from typically developing youth (sensitivity P = .04, specificity P < .001, AUC P < .001) ( Fig 4 ), suggesting that clinical population is a source of heterogeneity in diagnostic performance. Findings should be interpreted with caution, however, as they were not obtained in meta-analytic models and, consequently, do not take into account study size or quality.

Diagnostic performance by setting and population.

Supplemental Figs 3–5 in the Supplemental Appendix document effects by age and gender. We did not detect statistically significant associations of age with sensitivity ( P = .54) or specificity ( P = .37), or associations of the proportion of girls with sensitivity ( P = .63), specificity ( P = .80), accuracy ( P = .34), or AUC ( P = .90).

We identified a large number of publications reporting on ADHD diagnostic tools. To our knowledge, no prior review of ADHD diagnostic tools has been as comprehensive in the range of tools, outcomes, participant ages, and publication years. Despite the large number of studies, we deemed the strength of evidence for the reported performance measures across all categories of diagnostic tools to be low because of large performance variability across studies and various limitations within and across studies.

We required that studies report diagnoses when using the tool compared with diagnoses made by expert mental health clinicians. Studies most commonly reported sensitivity (true-positive rate) and specificity (true-negative rate) when a study-specific diagnostic threshold was applied to measures from the tool being assessed. Sensitivity and specificity depend critically on that study-specific threshold, and their values are inherently a trade-off, such that varying the threshold to increase either sensitivity or specificity reduces the other. Interpreting diagnostic performance in terms of sensitivity and specificity, and comparing those performance measures across studies, is therefore challenging. Consequently, researchers more recently often report performance for sensitivity and specificity in terms of receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves, a plot of sensitivity versus specificity across the entire range of possible diagnostic thresholds. The area under this ROC curve (AUC) provides an overall, single index of performance that ranges from 0.5 (indicating that the tool provides no information above chance for classification) to 1.0 (indicating a perfect test that can correctly classify all participants as having ADHD and all non-ADHD participants as not having it). AUC values of 90 to 100 are commonly classified as excellent performance; 80 to 90 as good; 70 to 80 as fair; 60 to 70 as poor; and 50 to 60 failed performance.

Most research is available on parental ratings. Overall, AUCs for parent rating scales ranged widely from “poor” 58   to “excellent.” 59   Analyses restricted to the CBCL, the most commonly evaluated scale, yielded more consistent “good” AUCs for differentiating youth with ADHD from others in clinical samples, but the number of studies contributing data were small. Internal consistency for rating scale items was generally high across most rating scales. Test-retest reliability was good, though only 2 studies reported it. One study reported moderate rater agreement between mothers and fathers for inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity symptoms. Few studies included youth under 7 years of age.

AUCs for teacher rating scales ranged from “failed” 33   to “good.” 34   Internal consistency for scale items was generally high. Teacher ratings demonstrated very low rater agreement with corresponding parent scales, suggesting either a problem with the instruments or a large variability in symptom presentation with environmental context (home or school).

Though data were limited, self-reports from youth seemed to perform less well than corresponding parent and teacher reports, with AUCs ranging from “failed” for CBCL or ASEBA when distinguishing ADHD from other patients 33   to “good” for the SWAN in distinguishing ADHD from neurotypical controls. 36 , 37  

Studies evaluating neuropsychological tests yielded AUCs ranging from “poor” 60 , 61   to “excellent.” 50   Many used idiosyncratic combinations of cognitive measures, which complicates interpretation of the results across studies. Nevertheless, extracting specific, comparable measures of inattention and impulsivity from CPTs yielded diagnostic performance ranging from “poor” to “excellent” in differentiating ADHD youth from neurotypical controls and “fair” in differentiating ADHD youth from other patients. 42 , 60 , 62   No studies provided an independent replication of diagnosis using the same measure.

Blood biomarkers yielded AUCs ranging from “poor” (serum miRNAs) 63   to “excellent” (erythropoietin and erythropoietin receptors levels) 52   in differentiating ADHD from neurotypical youth. None have been independently replicated, and test-retest reliability was not reported. Most EEG studies used machine learning for diagnostic classification. AUCs ranged from “poor” 64   to “excellent” when differentiating ADHD youth from neurotypical controls. 65   Diagnostic performance was not prospectively replicated in any independent samples.

Most neuroimaging studies relied on machine learning to develop diagnostic algorithms. AUCs ranged from “poor” 66   to “excellent” for distinguishing ADHD youth from neurotypically developing controls. 57   Most studies used pre-existing data sets or repositories to retrospectively discriminate youths with ADHD from neurotypical controls, not from other clinical populations and not prospectively, and none assessed test-retest reliability or the independent reproducibility of findings. Reporting of final mathematical models or algorithms for diagnosis was limited. Activity monitors have the advantage of providing inexpensive, objective, easily obtained, and quantified measures that can potentially be widely disseminated and scaled.

Studies of combined approaches, such as integrating diagnostic tools with clinician impressions, were limited. One study reported increased sensitivity and specificity when an initial clinician diagnosis combined EEG indicators (the reference standard was a consensus diagnosis from a panel of ADHD experts). 67   These findings were not independently replicated, however, and no test-retest reliability was reported.

Many studies aimed to distinguish ADHD youth from neurotypical controls, which is a distinction of limited clinical relevance. In clinically referred youth, most parents, teachers, and clinicians are reasonably confident that something is wrong, even if they are unsure whether the cause of their concern is ADHD. To be informed by a tool that the child is not typically developing is not particularly helpful. Moreover, we cannot know whether diagnostic performance for tools that discriminate ADHD youth only from neurotypical controls is determined by the presence of ADHD or by the presence of any other characteristics that accompany clinical “caseness,” such as the presence of comorbid illnesses or symptoms shared or easily confused with those of other conditions, or the effects of chronic stress or current or past treatment. The clinically more relevant and difficult question is, therefore, how well the tool distinguishes youth with ADHD from those who have other emotional and behavioral problems. Consistent with these conceptual considerations that argue for assessing diagnostic performance in differentiating youth with ADHD from those with other clinical conditions, we found significant evidence that, across all studies, sensitivity, specificity, and AUC were all lower when differentiating youth with ADHD from a clinical sample than when differentiating them from neurotypical youth. These findings also suggest that the comparison population was a significant source of heterogeneity in diagnostic performance.

Despite the large number of studies on diagnostic tools, a valid and reliable diagnosis of ADHD ultimately still requires the judgement of a clinician who is experienced in the evaluation of youth with and without ADHD, along with the aid of standardized rating scales and input from multiple informants across multiple settings, including parents, teachers, and youth themselves. Diagnostic tools perform best when the clinical question is whether a youth has ADHD or is healthy and typically developing, rather than when the clinical question is whether a youth has ADHD or another mental health or behavioral problem. Diagnostic tools yield more false-positive and false-negative diagnoses of ADHD when differentiating youth with ADHD from youth with another mental health problem than when differentiating them from neurotypically developing youth.

Scores for rating scales tended to correlate poorly across raters, and ADHD symptoms in the same child varied across settings, indicating that no single informant in a single setting is a gold-standard for diagnosis. Therefore, diagnosis using rating scales will likely benefit from a more complete representation of symptom expression across multiple informants (parents, school personnel, clinicians, and youth) across more than 1 setting (home, school, and clinic) to inform clinical judgement when making a diagnosis, thus, consistent with current guidelines. 68   – 70   Unfortunately, methods for combining scores across raters and settings that improve diagnosis compared with scores from single raters have not been developed or prospectively replicated.

Despite the widespread use of neuropsychological testing to “diagnose” youth with ADHD, often at considerable expense, indirect comparisons of AUCs suggest that performance of neuropsychological test measures in diagnosing ADHD is comparable to the diagnostic performance of ADHD rating scales from a single informant. Moreover, the diagnostic accuracy of parent rating scales is typically better than neuropsychological test measures in head-to-head comparisons. 44 , 71   Furthermore, the overall SoE for estimates of diagnostic performance with neuropsychological testing is low. Use of neuropsychological test measures of executive functioning, such as the CPT, may help inform a clinical diagnosis, but they are not definitive either in ruling in or ruling out a diagnosis of ADHD. The sole use of CPTs and other neuropsychological tests to diagnose ADHD, therefore, cannot be recommended. We note that this conclusion regarding diagnostic value is not relevant to any other clinical utility that testing may have.

No independent replication studies have been conducted to validate EEG, neuroimaging, or biospecimen to diagnose ADHD, and no clinical effectiveness studies have been conducted using these tools to diagnose ADHD in the real world. Thus, these tools do not seem remotely close to being ready for clinical application to aid diagnosis, despite US Food and Drug Administration approval of 1 EEG measure as a purported diagnostic aid. 67 , 72  

All studies of diagnostic tools should report data in more detail (ie, clearly report false-positive and -negative rates, the diagnostic thresholds used, and any data manipulation undertaken to achieve the result) to support meta-analytic methods. Studies should include ROC analyses to support comparisons of test performance across studies that are independent of the diagnostic threshold applied to measures from the tool. They should also include assessment of test-retest reliability to help discern whether variability in measures and test performance is a function of setting or of measurement variability over time. Future studies should address the influence of co-occurring disorders on diagnostic performance and how well the tools distinguish youth with ADHD from youth with other emotional and behavioral problems, not simply from healthy controls. More studies should compare the diagnostic accuracy of different test modalities, head-to-head. Independent, prospective replication of performance measures of diagnostic tools in real-world settings is essential before US Food and Drug Administration approval and before recommendations for widespread clinical use.

Research is needed to identify consensus algorithms that combine rating scale data from multiple informants to improve the clinical diagnosis of ADHD, which at present is often unguided, ad hoc, and suboptimal. Diagnostic studies using EEG, neuroimaging, and neuropsychological tests should report precise operational definitions and measurements of the variable(s) used for diagnosis, any diagnostic algorithm employed, the selected statistical cut-offs, and the number of false-positives and false-negatives the diagnostic tool yields to support future efforts at synthetic analyses.

Objective, quantitative neuropsychological test measures of executive functioning correlate only weakly with the clinical symptoms that define ADHD. 73   Thus, many youth with ADHD have normal executive functioning profiles on neuropsychological testing, and many who have impaired executive functioning on testing do not have ADHD. 74   Future research is needed to understand how test measures of executive functioning and the real-world functional problems that define ADHD map on to one another and how that mapping can be improved.

One of the most important potential uses of systematic reviews and meta-analyses in improving the clinical diagnosis of ADHD and treatment planning would be identification of effect modifiers for the performance of diagnostic tools: determining, for example, whether tools perform better in patients who are younger or older, in ethnic minorities, or those experiencing material hardship, or who have a comorbid illness or specific ADHD presentation. Future studies of ADHD should more systematically address the modifier effects of these patient characteristics. They should make available in public repositories the raw, individual-level data and the algorithms or computer code that will aid future efforts at replication, synthesis, and new discovery for diagnostic tools across data sets and studies.

Finally, no studies meeting our inclusion criteria assessed the consequences of being misdiagnosed or labeled as either having or not having ADHD, the diagnosis of ADHD specifically in preschool-aged children, or the potential adverse consequences of youth being incorrectly diagnosed with or without ADHD. This work is urgently needed.

We thank Cynthia Ramirez, Erin Tokutomi, Jennifer Rivera, Coleman Schaefer, Jerusalem Belay, Anne Onyekwuluje, and Mario Gastelum for help with data acquisition. We thank Kymika Okechukwu, Lauren Pilcher, Joanna King, and Robyn Wheatley from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), Jennie Dalton and Paula Eguino Medina from PCORI, Christine Chang and Kim Wittenberg from AHRQ, and Mary Butler from the Minnesota Evidence-based Practice Center. We thank Glendy Burnett, Eugenia Chan, MD, MPH, Matthew J. Gormley, PhD, Laurence Greenhill, MD, Joseph Hagan, Jr, MD, Cecil Reynolds, PhD, Le'Ann Solmonson, PhD, LPC-S, CSC, and Peter Ziemkowski, MD, FAAFP who served as key informants. We thank Angelika Claussen, PhD, Alysa Doyle, PhD, Tiffany Farchione, MD, Matthew J. Gormley, PhD, Laurence Greenhill, MD, Jeffrey M. Halperin, PhD, Marisa Perez-Martin, MS, LMFT, Russell Schachar, MD, Le'Ann Solmonson, PhD, LPC-S, CSC, and James Swanson, PhD who served as a technical expert panel. Finally, we thank Joel Nigg, PhD, and Peter S. Jensen, MD for their peer review of the data.

Drs Peterson and Hempel conceptualized and designed the study, collected data, conducted the analyses, drafted the initial manuscript, and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript; Dr Trampush conducted the critical appraisal; Ms Brown, Ms Maglione, Drs Bolshakova and Padkaman, and Ms Rozelle screened citations and abstracted the data; Dr Miles conducted the analyses; Ms Yagyu designed and executed the search strategy; Ms Motala served as data manager; and all authors provided critical input for the manuscript, approved the final manuscript as submitted, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

This trial has been registered at PROSPERO (identifier CRD42022312656).

COMPANION PAPER: A companion to this article can be found online at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2024-065787 .

Data Sharing: Data are available in SRDRPlus.

FUNDING: The work is based on research conducted by the Southern California Evidence-based Practice Center under contract to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), Rockville, MD (Contract 75Q80120D00009). The Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI) funded the research (PCORI Publication No. 2023-SR-03). The findings and conclusions in this manuscript are those of the authors, who are responsible for its contents; the findings and conclusions do not necessarily represent the views of AHRQ or PCORI, its Board of Governors, or Methodology Committee. Therefore, no statement in this report should be construed as an official position of PCORI, AHRQ or of the US Department of Health and Human Services.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURES: The authors have indicated they have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

area under the curve

Child Behavior Checklist

continuous performance test

functional magnetic resonance imaging

receiver operating characteristics

strength of evidence

technical expert panel

Supplementary data

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