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References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

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References in Research

Definition:

References in research are a list of sources that a researcher has consulted or cited while conducting their study. They are an essential component of any academic work, including research papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications.

Types of References

There are several types of references used in research, and the type of reference depends on the source of information being cited. The most common types of references include:

References to books typically include the author’s name, title of the book, publisher, publication date, and place of publication.

Example: Smith, J. (2018). The Art of Writing. Penguin Books.

Journal Articles

References to journal articles usually include the author’s name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date.

Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 87-94.

Web sources

References to web sources should include the author or organization responsible for the content, the title of the page, the URL, and the date accessed.

Example: World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public

Conference Proceedings

References to conference proceedings should include the author’s name, title of the paper, name of the conference, location of the conference, date of the conference, and page numbers.

Example: Chen, S., & Li, J. (2019). The Future of AI in Education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Technology, Beijing, China, July 15-17, pp. 67-78.

References to reports typically include the author or organization responsible for the report, title of the report, publication date, and publisher.

Example: United Nations. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations.

Formats of References

Some common Formates of References with their examples are as follows:

APA (American Psychological Association) Style

The APA (American Psychological Association) Style has specific guidelines for formatting references used in academic papers, articles, and books. Here are the different reference formats in APA style with examples:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Smith, J. K. (2005). The psychology of social interaction. Wiley-Blackwell.

Journal Article

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Brown, L. M., Keating, J. G., & Jones, S. M. (2012). The role of social support in coping with stress among African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 218-233.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication or last update). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, December 11). COVID-19: How to protect yourself and others. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

Magazine article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. (2019, March 11). The power of positive thinking. Psychology Today, 52(3), 60-65.

Newspaper article:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, page numbers.

Example: Johnson, B. (2021, February 15). New study shows benefits of exercise on mental health. The New York Times, A8.

Edited book

Editor, E. E. (Ed.). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Thompson, J. P. (Ed.). (2014). Social work in the 21st century. Sage Publications.

Chapter in an edited book:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page numbers). Publisher.

Example : Johnson, K. S. (2018). The future of social work: Challenges and opportunities. In J. P. Thompson (Ed.), Social work in the 21st century (pp. 105-118). Sage Publications.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style

The MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the humanities. Here are the different reference formats in MLA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Smith, John. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Journal article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., et al. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 22, no. 1, 2012, pp. 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Publication date, URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC, 11 Dec. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, Mar. 2019, pp. 60-65.

Newspaper article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, 15 Feb. 2021, p. A8.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Thompson, John P., editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Chapter in an edited book

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last name, Publisher, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, Sage Publications, 2014, pp. 105-118.

Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers, dissertations, and books in the humanities and social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Chicago style:

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Publication year): page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. Publication date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Sage Publications, 2014.

Harvard Style

The Harvard Style, also known as the Author-Date System, is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Harvard Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2005. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number (issue number): page numbers.

Example: Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. 2012. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22 (1): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL. Accessed date.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, month and date of publication.

Example : Smith, Mary. 2019. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, month and date of publication.

Example : Johnson, Bob. 2021. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. 2014. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. 2014. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Vancouver Style

The Vancouver Style, also known as the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, is a widely used style for writing academic papers in the biomedical sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Vancouver Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title. Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Example : Brown LM, Keating JG, Jones SM. The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 2012;22(1):218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name [Internet]. Publication date. [cited date]. Available from: URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others [Internet]. 2020 Dec 11. [cited 2023 Apr 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Magazine. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Smith M. The Power of Positive Thinking. Psychology Today. 2019 Mar 1:32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Johnson B. New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health. The New York Times. 2021 Feb 15:A4.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Chapter. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. page numbers.

Example : Johnson KS. The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities. In: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014. p. 105-118.

Turabian Style

Turabian style is a variation of the Chicago style used in academic writing, particularly in the fields of history and humanities. Here are the different reference formats in Turabian style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Year of publication): page numbers.

Example : Brown, LM, Keating, JG, Jones, SM. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” J Res Adolesc 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Publication date. Accessed date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Month Day, Year of publication, page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 1, 2019, 32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Month Day, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, B. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Thompson, JP, ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s Last name, First name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, KS. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by Thompson, JP, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. Here are the different reference formats in IEEE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Oppenheim, A. V., & Schafer, R. W. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Abbreviated Journal Title, vol. number, no. issue number, pp. page numbers, Month year of publication.

Example: Shannon, C. E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 379-423, July 1948.

Conference paper

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Paper.” In Title of Conference Proceedings, Place of Conference, Date of Conference, pp. page numbers, Year of publication.

Example: Gupta, S., & Kumar, P. “An Improved System of Linear Discriminant Analysis for Face Recognition.” In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology, Harbin, China, Dec. 2011, pp. 144-147.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Date of publication or last update. Accessed date. URL.

Example : National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Apollo 11.” NASA. July 20, 1969. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.

Technical report

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Report.” Name of Institution or Organization, Report number, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, J. R. “Development of a New Solar Panel Technology.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-51645, 2011.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Patent.” Patent number, Issue date.

Example : Suzuki, H. “Method of Producing Carbon Nanotubes.” US Patent 7,151,019, December 19, 2006.

Standard Title. Standard number, Publication date.

Example : IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. IEEE Std 754-2008, August 29, 2008

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) style is commonly used in chemistry and related fields. Here are the different reference formats in ACS style:

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title Year, Volume, Page Numbers.

Example : Wang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Cui, Y.; Ma, Y. Facile Preparation of Fe3O4/graphene Composites Using a Hydrothermal Method for High-Performance Lithium Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 4, 2715-2721.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication.

Example : Carey, F. A. Organic Chemistry; McGraw-Hill: New York, 2008.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In Book Title; Editor’s Last name, First name, Ed.; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume number, Chapter number, Page Numbers.

Example : Grossman, R. B. Analytical Chemistry of Aerosols. In Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications; Baron, P. A.; Willeke, K., Eds.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 2001; Chapter 10, pp 395-424.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name, URL (accessed date).

Example : National Institute of Standards and Technology. Atomic Spectra Database. https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database (accessed April 1, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Patent Number. Patent Date.

Example : Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Chen, H.; Zhang, W. US Patent 9,999,999, December 31, 2022.

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. In Title of Conference Proceedings, Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume Number, Page Numbers.

Example : Jia, H.; Xu, S.; Wu, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tang, Y.; Huang, X. Fast Adsorption of Organic Pollutants by Graphene Oxide. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017; Volume 1, pp 223-228.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) style is commonly used in medical and scientific fields. Here are the different reference formats in AMA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Article Title. Journal Abbreviation. Year; Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example : Jones, R. A.; Smith, B. C. The Role of Vitamin D in Maintaining Bone Health. JAMA. 2019;321(17):1765-1773.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Guyton, A. C.; Hall, J. E. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: Page Numbers.

Example: Rajakumar, K. Vitamin D and Bone Health. In: Holick, M. F., ed. Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2010:211-222.

Author’s Last name, First name. Webpage Title. Website Name. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.

Example : National Cancer Institute. Breast Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)–Patient Version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq. Published October 11, 2022. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Conference presentation title. In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Place of Conference.

Example : Smith, J. R. Vitamin D and Bone Health: A Meta-Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research; September 20-23, 2022; San Diego, CA.

Thesis or dissertation

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. Degree level [Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis]. University Name; Year.

Example : Wilson, S. A. The Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women [Doctoral dissertation]. University of California, Los Angeles; 2018.

ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) Style

The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) style is commonly used in civil engineering fields. Here are the different reference formats in ASCE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number (year): page numbers. DOI or URL (if available).

Example : Smith, J. R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol. 146, no. 3 (2020): 04020010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001668.

Example : McCuen, R. H. Hydrologic Analysis and Design. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education; 2013.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example : Maidment, D. R. “Floodplain Management in the United States.” In: Shroder, J. F., ed. Treatise on Geomorphology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2013: 447-460.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example: Smith, J. R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019: 156-163.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. “Hurricane Sandy Coastal Risk Reduction Program, New York and New Jersey.” Report No. P-15-001. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; 2015.

CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

The CSE (Council of Science Editors) style is commonly used in the scientific and medical fields. Here are the different reference formats in CSE style:

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Year;Volume(Issue):Page numbers.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2020;146(3):04020010.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial., ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year:Page numbers.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Bluebook Style

The Bluebook style is commonly used in the legal field for citing legal documents and sources. Here are the different reference formats in Bluebook style:

Case citation

Case name, volume source page (Court year).

Example : Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

Statute citation

Name of Act, volume source § section number (year).

Example : Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7401 (1963).

Regulation citation

Name of regulation, volume source § section number (year).

Example: Clean Air Act, 40 C.F.R. § 52.01 (2019).

Book citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number (if applicable). Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example: Smith, J.R. Legal Writing and Analysis. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Aspen Publishers; 2015.

Journal article citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Volume number (year): first page-last page.

Example: Garcia, C. “The Right to Counsel: An International Comparison.” International Journal of Legal Information. 43 (2015): 63-94.

Website citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed month day, year).

Example : United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Oxford Style

The Oxford style, also known as the Oxford referencing system or the documentary-note citation system, is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, history, and philosophy. Here are the different reference formats in Oxford style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The Art of Writing. New York: Penguin, 2020.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue (year): page range.

Example: Garcia, Carlos. “The Role of Ethics in Philosophy.” Philosophy Today 67, no. 3 (2019): 53-68.

Chapter in an edited book citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Lee, Mary. “Feminism in the 21st Century.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed 3 January 2023).

Dissertation or thesis citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name, Year of Publication.

Example : Brown, Susan. “The Art of Storytelling in American Literature.” PhD diss., University of Oxford, 2020.

Newspaper article citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day, Year.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. “New Developments in Climate Change Research.” The Guardian, September 15, 2022.

AAA (American Anthropological Association) Style

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) style is commonly used in anthropology research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AAA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2019. The Anthropology of Food. New York: Routledge.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue: page range.

Example : Garcia, Carlos. 2021. “The Role of Ethics in Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 123, no. 2: 237-251.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example: Lee, Mary. 2018. “Feminism in Anthropology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name.

Example : Brown, Susan. 2022. “The Art of Storytelling in Anthropology.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. 2021. “New Developments in Anthropology Research.” The Guardian, September 15.

AIP (American Institute of Physics) Style

The American Institute of Physics (AIP) style is commonly used in physics research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AIP style:

Example : Johnson, S. D. 2021. “Quantum Computing and Information.” Journal of Applied Physics 129, no. 4: 043102.

Example : Feynman, Richard. 2018. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. New York: Basic Books.

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Future of Quantum Computing.” In The Handbook of Physics, edited by John Smith, 125-136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Conference proceedings citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Paper.” Proceedings of Conference Name, date and location: page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Chen, Wei. 2019. “The Applications of Nanotechnology in Solar Cells.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Nanotechnology, July 15-17, Tokyo, Japan: 224-229. New York: AIP Publishing.

Example : American Institute of Physics. 2022. “About AIP Publishing.” AIP Publishing. https://publishing.aip.org/about-aip-publishing/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Patent citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Patent Number.

Example : Smith, John. 2018. US Patent 9,873,644.

References Writing Guide

Here are some general guidelines for writing references:

• Follow the citation style guidelines: Different disciplines and journals may require different citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). It is important to follow the specific guidelines for the citation style required.
• Include all necessary information : Each citation should include enough information for readers to locate the source. For example, a journal article citation should include the author(s), title of the article, journal title, volume number, issue number, page numbers, and publication year.
• Use proper formatting: Citation styles typically have specific formatting requirements for different types of sources. Make sure to follow the proper formatting for each citation.
• Order citations alphabetically: If listing multiple sources, they should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name.
• Be consistent: Use the same citation style throughout the entire paper or project.
• Check for accuracy: Double-check all citations to ensure accuracy, including correct spelling of author names and publication information.
• Use reputable sources: When selecting sources to cite, choose reputable and authoritative sources. Avoid sources that are biased or unreliable.
• Include all sources: Make sure to include all sources used in the research, including those that were not directly quoted but still informed the work.
• Use online tools : There are online tools available (e.g., citation generators) that can help with formatting and organizing references.

Purpose of References in Research

References in research serve several purposes:

• To give credit to the original authors or sources of information used in the research. It is important to acknowledge the work of others and avoid plagiarism.
• To provide evidence for the claims made in the research. References can support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research by citing relevant studies, data, or theories.
• To allow readers to find and verify the sources used in the research. References provide the necessary information for readers to locate and access the sources cited in the research, which allows them to evaluate the quality and reliability of the information presented.
• To situate the research within the broader context of the field. References can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge, and can help readers to identify gaps in the literature that the research seeks to address.

Importance of References in Research

References play an important role in research for several reasons:

• Credibility : By citing authoritative sources, references lend credibility to the research and its claims. They provide evidence that the research is based on a sound foundation of knowledge and has been carefully researched.
• Avoidance of Plagiarism : References help researchers avoid plagiarism by giving credit to the original authors or sources of information. This is important for ethical reasons and also to avoid legal repercussions.
• Reproducibility : References allow others to reproduce the research by providing detailed information on the sources used. This is important for verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
• Context : References provide context for the research by situating it within the broader body of knowledge in the field. They help researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
• Evaluation : References provide a means for others to evaluate the research by allowing them to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.

Advantages of References in Research

There are several advantages of including references in research:

• Acknowledgment of Sources: Including references gives credit to the authors or sources of information used in the research. This is important to acknowledge the original work and avoid plagiarism.
• Evidence and Support : References can provide evidence to support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research. This can add credibility and strength to the research.
• Reproducibility : References provide the necessary information for others to reproduce the research. This is important for the verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
• Context : References can help to situate the research within the broader body of knowledge in the field. This helps researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
• Evaluation : Including references allows others to evaluate the research by providing a means to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.
• Ongoing Conversation: References allow researchers to engage in ongoing conversations and debates within their fields. They can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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12 What is a Reference List Citation?

A reference list is an alphabetized list located on a separate page at the end of your paper that lists all the reference citations for the sources used in your paper to support your research.

Each reference citation includes key elements referred to as the Four W’s :

Asking these 4 questions helps identify the key elements needed for a reference list citation.

Using APA resources to help create a reference citation is like using a recipe. The ingredients are the key pieces of information about a source (4Ws). If you’re missing an ingredient, leave it out or substitute it.

Following a recipe’s directions is like following a citation example. If you follow the directions and add the ingredients at the right point, then your recipe (i.e. your citation) will turn out!

You are not expected to memorize APA guidelines. Instead, use available resources (APA Quickguide and this tutorial) to help guide you. Over time you will become more comfortable with creating citations yourself.

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This page gives basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper. Most sources follow fairly straightforward rules. However, because  sources obtained from academic journals  carry special weight in research writing, these sources  are subject to special rules . Thus, this page presents basic guidelines for citing academic journals separate from its "ordinary" basic guidelines. This distinction is made clear below.

Formatting a Reference list using APA

Your reference list should be included at the end of your paper. The whole point of the reference list is to provide the information necessary for any reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.

Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page "References" in bold, centered at the top of the page (do NOT underline or use quotation marks for the title). All text should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.

The Basics for Most Sources

• All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation. (This is a key attribute of APA format)
• All authors' names should be inverted (i.e., last names should be provided first).
• For example, the reference entry for a source written by Jane Marie Smith would begin with "Smith, J. M."
• If a middle name isn't available, just initialize the author's first name: "Smith, J."
• Give the last name and first/middle initials for all authors of a particular work up to and including 20 authors ( this is a new rule, as APA 6 only required the first six authors ). Separate each author’s initials from the next author in the list with a comma. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name. If there are 21 or more authors, use an ellipsis (but no ampersand) after the 19th author, and then add the final author’s name.
• Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
• For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in chronological order, from earliest to most recent.
• Note again that the titles of academic journals are subject to special rules. See that section below.
• Italicize titles of longer works (e.g., books, edited collections, names of newspapers, and so on).
• Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as chapters in books or essays in edited collections.

The Basics for Academic Journal Citations using APA

• Include journal titles in full, such as " Hawai'i Journal of Medicine & Public Health " instead of an abbreviation.
• Italicize journal titles.
• For example, you should use  Past & Present  instead of  Past and Present.
• This distinction is based on the type of source being cited. Academic journal titles have all major words capitalized, while other sources' titles do not.
• Capitalize  the first word of the titles and subtitles of   journal articles , as well as the  first word after a colon or a dash  in the title, and  any proper nouns .
• Do not italicize or underline the article title.
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A publication of the harvard college writing program.

Harvard Guide to Using Sources 

• The Honor Code
• Reference List Format

What is a Reference list?

APA style requires you to provide, at the end of your paper, a list of the sources you have cited. The list should be double-spaced, and each line after the first one in each entry should be indented. The title of the list should be "References" and should be centered at the top of the page. You can see a sample References list here .

Each source on your reference list should include the following four elements:

Author: Who is responsible for creating the source?

The author should be listed first in each reference list entry, and the list should be alphabetical by last name. If there is more than one author, you should list each one last name first, and separate them by ampersands.

Date: When was the source published?

For books, you should include the date of publication. For journal articles, you should include the year of the volume listed. For websites and webpages, you should not use the copyright date on the website footer, which may not apply to the content on individual pages. Instead, look for a “last updated” date or a date at the top of a web article. If you are citing a website that may change, you should also include a retrieval date (the date you found and read the source). If you can’t find a publication date, list “n.d.” for no date in parentheses where the date would be listed.

Title: What is the title of the source?

In an APA reference list, titles are listed in sentence case, which means you only capitalize the first word of the title, the first word of the subtitle, and any word that appears after a colon, dash, period, or question mark. You should always capitalize proper nouns.

Sources that stand alone, like books or websites, should be listed in italics like this:

Follow the new way: American refugee resettlement policy and Hmong religious change

If you are citing a source that is contained in another source, such as an article in a book or a page on a website, you should include both titles. Sources that are part of other sources should not be listed in italics or in quotation marks like this:

Pandemics have long created labor shortages. Here’s why. Washington Post

Source: Where can the source be found by your readers?

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A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI
• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 22 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

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APA Citation Guide (7th edition) : Reference List and Sample Paper

• Getting Started
• How do I Cite?
• In-Text Citations
• Reference List and Sample Paper
• Additional Resources

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Quick Rules for an APA Reference List

Your research paper ends with a list of all the sources cited in your paper. Here are some quick rules for this Reference list:

• Begin the reference list on a new page after the text.
• Name it "References," and center the section label in bold at the top of the page.
• Order the reference list alphabetically by author (last name of the first author followed by the initials of the author's given name(s)).
• Alphabetize entries by authors who have the same given name and last name with suffixes indicating birth order chronologically, oldest first.
• Double-space the entire list (both within and between entries).
• Apply a hanging indent of 0.5 in. to each entry. This means that the first line of the reference is flush left and subsequent lines are indented 0.5 in. from the left margin.

Sample Paper with Reference List

The American Psychological Association (APA) has created  a sample paper  that includes explanations of the elements and formatting in APA 7th ed. 

Headings and Title Pages

APA Running Head   This resource discusses how to format running heads in APA style.

APA Title Page: Format and Templates   This article discusses how to format APA title pages and provides templates for MS Word.

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Ready, Set, Cite (APA, 7th)

• Reference List
• Formatting Your Paper
• How to Avoid Plagiarism

Elements of a Reference

What to cite and where (chapter 9), reference list format (9.43), reference examples (chapter 10), dois and urls (9.34-9.36).

• In-Text Citations

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• NoodleTools Express Use NoodleTools Express to create citations on the fly in MLA, APA, or Chicago style.
• NoodleTools (Login Full Database) This link opens in a new window Create and organize your research notes, share and collaborate on research projects, compose and error check citations, and complete your list of works cited in MLA, APA, or Chicago style using the full version of NoodleTools. You'll need to Create a Personal ID and password the first time you use NoodleTools.

NoodleTools Help:

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Elements of Reference List Entries: (Chapter 9)

References generally have four elements, each of which has a corresponding question for you to answer:

• Author:   Who is responsible for this work? (9.7-9.12)
• Date:   When was this work published? (9.13-9.17)
• Title:   What is this work called? (9.18-9.22)
• Source:   Where can I retrieve this work? (9.23-9.37)

By using these four elements and answering these four questions, you should be able to create a citation for any type of source.

For complete information on all of these elements, checkout the APA Style website.

This infographic shows the first page of a journal article. The locations of the reference elements are highlighted with different colors and callouts, and the same colors are used in the reference list entry to show how the entry corresponds to the source.

To create your references, you'll simple look for these elements in your source and put them together in your reference list entry.

American Psychological Association.  Example of where to find reference information for a journal article  [Infographic]. APA Style Center. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/basic-principles

What Do You Cite:

The purpose of your reference list is to provide a reliable way for readers to identify and locate the works you cited in your paper. 

In general, each work you cite in the text must appear in the reference list, and each work in the reference list must be cited in your text. Check your work carefully before submitting your manuscript or course assignment to ensure no works cited in the text are missing from the reference list and vice versa, with only the following exceptions.

Cite all outside sources whose ideas, theories, or research influenced your research paper. Specifically you site those sources that you:

• Quote  word-for-word
• Paraphrase   - rewrite using your own words
• Summarize   - restate the main idea of the source in your own words

What Don't You Cite:

There are a few kinds of works that are not included in a reference list. Usually a work is not included because readers cannot recover it or because the mention is so broad that readers do not need a reference list entry to understand the use.  

• Your original ideas and conclusions.
• Personal communications such as emails, phone calls, or text messages are cited in the text only, not in the reference list, because readers cannot retrieve personal communications.
• General mentions of whole websites, whole periodicals, and common software and apps in the text do not require in-text citations or reference list entries because the use is broad and the source is familiar.
• The source of an epigraph does not usually appear in the reference list unless the work is a scholarly book or journal. For example, if you open the paper with an inspirational quotation by a famous person, the source of the quotation does not appear in the reference list because the quotation is meant to set the stage for the work, not substantiate a key point.
• Quotations from research participants in a study you conducted can be presented and discussed in the text but do not need citations or reference list entries. Citations and reference list entries are not necessary because the quotations are part of your original research. They could also compromise participants’ confidentiality, which is an ethical violation.
• References included in a statistical meta-analysis, which are marked with an asterisk in the reference list, may be cited in the text (or not) at the author’s discretion. This exception is relevant only to authors who are conducting a meta-analysis.

Where to Cite:

You need to cite your sources in two places:

• Within your work at the place where you are incorporating the information, and 
• In a comprehensive list of all sources you’ve cited throughout the paper. This list is called References.

Placement:  The reference list  appears at the end of the paper, on its own page(s). If your research paper ends on page 8, your References begin on page 9.

Heading:  Place the section label References  in bold at the top of the page, centered.

Arrangement:  Alphabetize entries by author's last name. If source has no named author, alphabetize by the title, ignoring A, An, or The. (9.44-9.48)

Spacing:  Like the rest of the APA paper, the reference list is double-spaced throughout. Be sure NOT to add extra spaces between citations.

Indentation:  To make citations easier to scan, add a  hanging indent  of 0.5 in. to any citation that runs more than one line. Use the paragraph-formatting function of your word processing program to create your hanging indent.  

See Sample References Page (from APA Sample Student Paper):

Below you'll find two printable handouts showing APA citation examples. The first is an abbreviated list created by MJC Librarians. The second, which is more comprehensive, is from the APA Style website. Feel free to print these for your convenience or use the links to reference examples below:

• APA Citation Examples Created by MJC Librarians for you.
• Common References Examples (APA Handout) Printable handout from the American Psychological Association.
• APA Style Quick Reference Guide See how to format three typical types of references.
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Edited Book Chapter
• Webpage on a Website
• Classroom or Intranet Sources
• Classroom Course Pack Materials
• How to Cite ChatGPT
• Dictionary Entry
• Government Report
• Legal References (Laws & Cases)
• TED Talk References
• Religious Works
• Open Educational Resources (OER)
• Archival Documents and Collections

You can view the entire Reference Examples website below and view a helpful guide to finding useful APA style topics easily:

• APA Style: Reference Examples
• Navigating the not-so-hidden treasures of the APA Style website
• Missing Reference Information

Sometimes you won't be able to find all the elements required for your reference. In that case, see the  instructions in Table 9.1 of the APA style manual in section 9.4 or the APA Style website below:

• Direct Quotation of Material Without Page Numbers

The DOI or URL is the final component of a reference list entry. Because so much scholarship is available and/or retrieved online, most reference list entries end with either a DOI or a URL.

• A  DOI  is a unique alphanumeric string that identifies content and provides a persistent link to its location on the internet. DOIs can be found in database records and the reference lists of published works.
• A  URL  specifies the location of digital information on the internet and can be found in the address bar of your internet browser. URLs in references should link directly to the cited work when possible.

When to Include DOIs and URLs:

• Include a DOI for all works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version.
• If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI.
• For works without DOIs from websites (not including academic research databases), provide a URL in the reference (as long as the URL will work for readers).
• For works without DOIs from most academic research databases, do not include a URL or database information in the reference because these works are widely available. The reference should be the same as the reference for a print version of the work.
• For works from databases that publish original, proprietary material available only in that database (such as the UpToDate database) or for works of limited circulation in databases (such as monographs in the ERIC database), include the name of the database or archive and the URL of the work. If the URL requires a login or is session-specific (meaning it will not resolve for readers), provide the URL of the database or archive home page or login page instead of the URL for the work. (See APA Section 9.30 for more information). 
• If the URL is no longer working or no longer provides readers access to the content you intend to cite, try to find an archived version using the Internet Archive , then use the archived URL. If there is no archived URL, do not use that resource.

Format of DOIs and URLs:

Your DOI should look like this: 

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040251

Follow these guidelines from the APA Style website.

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How do I write a reference list or bibliography?

Check your style Make sure you know what style you need to use to make sure you have the right information

Look for missing information You need your references to be complete, so check that there are no gaps

Use referencing software This will make the whole process easier and quicker

Referencing is a two-part process. In addition to the citations within the text, you also need a list with a full reference for each source you have used. This list should contain all the information needed to find each piece of research. Correct citing and referencing should guide your reader to the sources of your information and evidence .

What's the difference between a reference list and a bibliography?

Reference list.

A reference list is a list of everything that you have cited in your work.

The list will be drawn from everything that you have either paraphrased or quoted in your assignment.

Bibliography

This is a list of everything that you have cited in your work and any other sources that you might have consulted during your research but have chosen not to cite in the assignment.

Whether you are asked to provide a reference list or a bibliography, both should provide accurate and full references. You need to give enough information that people can easily find your reference. It will vary depending on the type of material you need to reference, but you will always need to include the author, date of publication and title.

For books, you’ll need to include information on the publisher. For journals you’ll need to include facts on the journal itself - journal title and volume, issue and page numbers. For other types of reference you’ll need different pieces of information.

The more academic work you read, the more you will get used to recognising different types of reference.

The easiest thing to do is use some reference management software. For undergraduates, we suggest RefWorks . RefWorks is available online and free for you to use. It will manage the references for you but you’ll still need to make sure that the information that you put in is accurate.

The information you need to include in your reference will vary according to the style you’re using – make sure you know which style your department uses.

In the Library we support two styles, Harvard and Vancouver.

Referencing styles

Harvard referencing style

Harvard style

Vancouver referencing style

Vancouver style

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Reference List: Textual Sources

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Basic Format for Books

Edited book, no author, edited book with an author or authors, a translation.

Note : When you cite a republished work, like the one above, in your text, it should appear with both dates: Plato (385-378/1989)

Edition Other Than the First

Article or chapter in an edited book.

Note : When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers. List any edition number in the same set of parentheses as the page numbers, separated by a comma: (2nd ed., pp. 66-72).

Multivolume Work

Articles in periodicals.

APA style dictates that authors are named with their last name followed by their initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized. If a DOI has been assigned to the article that you are using, you should include this after the page numbers for the article. If no DOI has been assigned and you are accessing the periodical online, use the URL of the website from which you are retrieving the periodical.

Article in Print Journal

Note: APA 7 advises writers to include a DOI (if available), even when using the print source. The example above assumes no DOI is available.

Article in Electronic Journal

Note :  This content also appears on Reference List: Online Media .

As noted above, when citing an article in an electronic journal, include a DOI if one is associated with the article.

DOIs may not always be available. In these cases, use a URL. Many academic journals provide stable URLs that function similarly to DOIs. These are preferable to ordinary URLs copied and pasted from the browser's address bar.

Article in a Magazine

Article in a newspaper.

APA 6th Referencing Style Guide

• APA referencing style
• In-text citation
• Reference list

Reference List

Reference formatting guide, reference examples, reference list example, secondary citations, doi and url.

• TV, film & video
• Tables, figures & images
• Conferences
• Personal communications
• Lecture notes
• Social media
• Computer software & mobile applications
• Legislation & cases
• Standards & patents
• Specific health examples
• Exhibition catalogue

A  reference list  lists only the sources you refer to in your writing.

The purpose of the reference list is to allow your sources to be be found by your reader.  It also gives credit to authors you have consulted for their ideas.  All references cited in the text must appear in the reference list, except for personal communications (such as conversations or emails) which cannot be retrieved.  

A  bibliography  is different from a reference list as it lists all the sources used during your research and background reading, not just the ones you refer to in your writing.

One author (a book chapter)

One author, multiple works published in the same year

Two authors (a journal article with doi)

Three authors 

• Use "&" before the final author.

Four to seven authors

• List all authors in the reference entry

More than seven authors 

• First 6 authors ... last author. and follow by date and other information. 

Click the type of resources on the left column to find more reference examples.

Go to the In-text citation page to learn how to do in-text citations.

A secondary citation is where you are citing information or quotes the author of your reference has taken from source that you have not read.

In-text citation:

• Name the author of the original work in your text, cite the secondary source in in-text citation: (as cited in ..., 1993)

Reference list entry: 

• Give the secondary source in the reference list.

DOI = digital object identifier

• A DOI commonly identifies a journal article but it can also be found on other publication types including books.
• All DOIs start with 10 . and includes numbers and letters. Example: doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.08.001
• The DOI provides a permanent internet address for the item making it easy to locate.
• You may search by DOI numbers in Library Search to locate articles.

Doi in your reference list entry:

• Always use the DOI if available (for print or online articles and books).  
• No full stop at the end of a DOI. 

A new citing format for DOI was introduced by APA in March 2017. The new format includes  https and the prefix doi.org : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2016.11.001

Articles retrieved from library databases may include ezproxy.aut.ac.nz in the DOIs. This ezproxy information should be removed.

For example:

https://doi-org. ezproxy.aut.ac.nz /10.1093/pubmed/fdv045

The correct URL for this DOI is:

https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdv045

If there is no DOI for a online journal article or an e-book, include a URL in your reference.

Use the URL of a journal home page for journal articles without DOI

• Use the URL of the journal homepage, NOT the full URL of the article, in your reference.

Finding a journal homepage URL :

You could do a Google search for the journal title (within double quotation marks), e.g. "new zealand management magazine" to find the journal's homepage

Or, go to the Library database  Ulrichsweb , search by the journal title or the journal's ISSN to find the journal record. On the journal record page, find the journal URL for your reference.

Journals without a home page and no DOI:

This can happen to some discontinued journals, or journals archived in an archival database only. 

• Use the database home page URL in your reference. See the example in the following section.  

Use a URL of a library database:

Resources retrieved from a library database, without a DOI:

If you use electronic resources without DOI, such as an ebook or a data set or a journal without a website, from a library database, You are required to include the URL of the database homepage  in your reference.

• Do not use the full URL of the source that you retrieved from a database.

An ebook "Small town sustainability: economic, social,and environmental innovation".

The URL on the ebook page is:

https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/lib/AUT/detail.action?docID=1121624 

• You should remove ezproxy and other details following it.
• The correct URL in the reference for this book should be http://ebookcentral.proquest.com
• << Previous: In-text citation
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• Last Updated: Apr 20, 2023 1:46 PM
• URL: https://aut.ac.nz.libguides.com/APA6th

Capstone Form and Style

References: common reference list examples, article (with doi).

Alvarez. E., & Tippins, S. (2019). Socialization agents that Puerto Rican college students use to make financial decisions. Journal of Social Change , 11 (1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.5590/JOSC.2019.11.1.07

Laplante, J. P., & Nolin, C. (2014). Consultas and socially responsible investing in Guatemala: A case study examining Maya perspectives on the Indigenous right to free, prior, and informed consent.  Society & Natural Resources ,  27 , 231–248.   https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2013.861554

Provide a DOI number if there is one. DOI stands for "digital object identifier," a number specific to the article that can help others locate the source. Use  CrossRef.org  to locate DOI information. This rule applies regardless of how the source was accessed (e.g., online, paper, etc.; see APA 7, Section 9.34).

In APA 7, format the DOI as a web address. Active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in the formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout the reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

Also see our Quick Answer FAQ, "Can I use the DOI format provided by library databases?"

Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R. (2018). Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House.” PLoS ONE , 13 (3), Article e0193972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972

For journal articles that are assigned article numbers rather than page ranges, include the article number in place of the page range.

For more on citing electronic resources, see  Electronic Sources References .

Article (Without DOI)

Found in a common academic research database or in print.

Casler , T. (2020). Improving the graduate nursing experience through support on a social media platform. MEDSURG Nursing , 29 (2), 83–87.

If an article does not have a DOI and you retrieved it from a common academic research database through the university library, there is no need to include any additional electronic retrieval information. The reference list entry looks like the entry for a print copy of the article. (This format differs from APA 6 guidelines that recommended including the URL of a journal's homepage when the DOI was not available.)

Note that APA 7 has additional guidance on reference list entries for articles found only in specific databases or archives such as Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, UpToDate, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and university archives. See APA 7, Section 9.30 for more information.

Found on an Open Access Website

Eaton, T. V., & Akers, M. D. (2007). Whistleblowing and good governance. CPA Journal , 77 (6), 66–71. http://archives.cpajournal.com/2007/607/essentials/p58.htm

Provide the direct web address/URL to a journal article found on the open web, often on an open access journal's website.

In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

Weinstein, J. A. (2010).  Social change  (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

If the book has an edition number, include it in parentheses after the title of the book. If the book does not list any edition information, do not include an edition number. The edition number is not italicized. (Note: In APA 6, the location of the publisher was included. This is no longer the case in APA 7; only the publisher name is provided.) Regarding publisher name, when a publisher is named after a person (as is the case with Lawrence Erlbaum or John Wiley), list only the surname (Erlbaum or Wiley). In addition, exclude “Publishers,” “Inc.,” and “Co.” from publisher names in reference entries. 

American Nurses Association. (2010).  Nursing: Scope and standards of practice  (2nd ed.).  

In APA 7, if the author and publisher are the same, only include the author in its regular place and omit the publisher. (Note that this is a change from APA 6, where the term “Author” was used for the publisher instead of repeating the name.)

Lencioni, P. (2012). The advantage: Why organizational health trumps everything else in business . Jossey-Bass. https://amzn.to/343XPSJ

As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, it is no longer necessary to include the ebook format in the title. However, if you listened to an audiobook and the content differs from the text version (e.g., abridged content) or your discussion highlights elements of the audiobook (e.g., narrator's performance), then note that it is an audiobook in the title element in brackets. For ebooks and online audiobooks, also include the DOI number (if available) or nondatabase URL but leave out the electronic retrieval element if the ebook was found in a common academic research database, as with journal articles. APA 7 allows for the shortening of long DOIs and URLs, as shown in this example. See APA 7, Section 9.36 for more information. 

Chapter in an Edited Book

Poe, M. (2017). Reframing race in teaching writing across the curriculum. In F. Condon & V. A. Young (Eds.),  Performing antiracist pedagogy in rhetoric, writing, and communication  (pp. 87–105). University Press of Colorado.

Include the page numbers of the chapter in parentheses after the book title. The page range should not be italicized.

Christensen, L. (2001). For my people: Celebrating community through poetry. In B. Bigelow, B. Harvey, S. Karp, & L. Miller (Eds.),  Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice  (Vol. 2, pp. 16–17). Rethinking Schools.

Also include volume number and edition numbers in the parenthetical information after the book title where relevant.

Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)

When a text has been republished as part of an anthology collection, after the author’s name include the date of the version that was read. At the end of the entry, place the date of the original publication inside parenthesis along with the note “original work published.” For in-text citations of republished work, use both dates in the parenthetical citation, original date first with a slash separating the years, as in this example: Freud (1923/1961). For more information on reprinted or republished works, see APA 7, Sections 9.40-9.41.

Dissertations or Theses

Retrieved from a database

Nalumango, K. (2019). Perceptions about the asylum-seeking process in the United States after 9/11 (Publication No. 13879844) [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Retrieved From an Institutional or Personal Website

Evener. J. (2018). Organizational learning in libraries at for-profit colleges and universities [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6606&context=dissertations

Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis

Kirwan, J. G. (2005). An experimental study of the effects of small-group, face-to-face facilitated dialogues on the development of self-actualization levels: A movement towards fully functional persons [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center.

For further examples and information, see APA 7, Section 10.6.

Legal Material

For legal references, APA follows the recommendations of The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation , so if you have any questions beyond the examples provided in APA, seek out that resource as well.

Court Decisions

Reference format:

Name v. Name, Volume Reporter Page (Court Date). URL

Sample reference entry:

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483

Sample citation:

In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.

Note: Italicize the case name when it appears in the text of your paper rather than citing it—for example, “Cases such as  Brown v. Board of Education  and  Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle  illustrate ...”

Name of Act, Title Source § Section Number (Year). URL

Sample reference entry for a federal statute:

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004). https://www.congress.gov/108/plaws/publ446/PLAW-108publ446.pdf

Sample reference entry for a state statute:

Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, Minn. Stat. §§ 148.171 et seq. (2019). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/148.171

Sample citation: Minnesota nurses must maintain current registration in order to practice (Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, 2010).

Note: The § symbol stands for "section." Use §§ for sections (plural). To find this symbol in Microsoft Word, go to "Insert" and click on Symbol." Look in the Latin 1-Supplement subset.

Note: U.S.C. stands for "United States Code."

Note: The Latin abbreviation " et seq. " means "and what follows" and is used when the act includes the cited section and ones that follow.

Note: List the chapter first followed by the section or range of sections.

Unenacted Bills and Resolutions

(Those that did not pass and become law)

Title [if there is one], bill or resolution number, xxx Cong. (year). URL

Sample reference entry for Senate bill:

Anti-Phishing Act, S. 472, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/senate-bill/472

Sample reference entry for House of Representatives resolution:

Anti-Phishing Act, H.R. 1099, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/1099

The Anti-Phishing Act (2005) proposed up to 5 years prison time for people running Internet scams.

These are the three legal areas you may be most apt to cite in your scholarly work. For more examples and explanation, see APA 7, Chapter 11.

Magazine Article

Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology , 39 (6). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/06/ideology

Note that for citations, include only the year: Clay (2008). For magazine articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For magazine articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print magazine, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Newspaper Article

Baker, A. (2014, May 7). Connecticut students show gains in national tests. New York Times . http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/08/nyregion/national-assessment-of-educational-progress-results-in-Connecticut-and-New-Jersey.html

Include the full date in the format Year, Month Day. Do not include a retrieval date for periodical sources found on websites. Note that for citations, include only the year: Baker (2014). For newspaper articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For newspaper articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print newspaper, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Technical and Research Reports

The general structure for a technical or research report is as follows:

Author, A. A. (Publication Year). Title of work . Publisher Name. DOI or URL

Edwards, C. (2015). Lighting levels for isolated intersections: Leading to safety improvements (Report No. MnDOT 2015-05). Center for Transportation Studies. http://www.cts.umn.edu/Publications/ResearchReports/reportdetail.html?id=2402

Technical and research reports by governmental agencies and other research institutions usually follow a different publication process than scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. However, they present original research and are often useful for research papers. Sometimes, researchers refer to these types of reports as gray literature , and white papers are a type of this literature. See APA 7, Section 10.4 for more information.

American Federation of Teachers. (n.d.). Community schools . http://www.aft.org/issues/schoolreform/commschools/index.cfm

If there is no specified author, then use the organization’s name as the author. In such a case, there is no need to repeat the organization's name after the title.

Vartan, S. (2018, January 30). Why vacations matter for your health . CNN. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/why-vacations-matter/index.html

For webpages from news websites, include the site name after the title and before the URL. If the source is an online newspaper or magazine, follow the models in the previous sections of this page. In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. (Note that this guidance has changed from APA 6 where all hyperlink formatting was removed, and no active links were included. In APA 6, the URLs appeared in plain, black type and did not link out from the document.)

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CEMS APA 7th edition Referencing Style Guide: Introduction to a reference list

• Referencing & Plagiarism
• Introduction to in-text Citations
• Introduction to a reference list
• Journal Articles
• Dissertations and Theses
• Official Publications and Reports
• Government Publications
• Proceedings: conferences/symposia/meetings
• Newspaper Articles
• Unisa Study Guides and Lecture Notes
• Audiovisual Media
• Standards and Patents
• Software Programs
• Unpublished Works
• Electronic Media
• Reference Sources
• Social Media
• Tests, Scales and Inventories
• Webpages and Websites
• Secondary Referencing

Scribbr Video

What is a reference list?

A reference list consists of the works that specifically support an essay/article/thesis/dissertation. References cited in the text must appear in the reference list, and each entry in the reference list must be cited in the text.

All the APA references contain four main components namely, author, date, title and source. If you are unable to locate components for a reference, the APA Style website contains a page on Missing Reference Information  that you can consult.

D o not call a reference list a bibliograph y -  it is not one. It only covers the sources you have consulted; it is not a complete list of all possible sources on the topic.

Formating in terms of punctuation

Styles of the reference list

• Item Clarification
• Information about the Publication
• General Information about APA 7th edition
• Indentation

The surnames and initials of all authors of the work, are given in inverted order (Barnard, H.A.). If the work is an edited book and the reference is to the book as a whole, the editor(s) are placed in the author position and surname and initials also inverted.

Format: Last name, Initials (with a space between the initials)

Brann, A.C.L.

Peng, K. Z.

Shackleton-Jones, N.

MULTIPLE AUTHORS

Add all the authors and use commas to separate divisions, that is, commas between an author's surname and his/her initials, as well as commas between co- authors:

Kwok, A. O. J., Watabe, M., & Ahmed, P. K.

21+ AUTHORS

Include the first 19 authors in the reference, then add three ellipsis points (...), and then the last author. The in-text citation will only include the first author followed by et. al., e.g. Smith et al., 2009)

Smith, J., Jones, B. E., Brown, K. E., Doe, J., Chan, L., Garcia, S. M., White, C-G., Fernández, J., Ahmed, A. J., Zhào, L., Cohen, D., Watanabe, K., Kim, K., Del Rosario, J., Yilmaz, P. K., Nguyễn, T., Wilson, T. H., Wang, W., Kahale, A. ... Zhang, Z. Z. (Date). Title. Source.

AUTHORS OF CHAPTERS AS PART OF EDITED BOOK VERSUS WHOLE EDITED BOOK

If the work that you are referencing, is an edited book and the reference is to the book as a whole, the editor(s) are placed in the author position and surname and initials also inverted as in the examples above.

However, if the reference is to a chapter or part of the edited work, the authors’ inverted details are listed as in the example above, but the editors’ initials and surnames are not inverted. See the ‘Books’ tab above for examples and more detail.

Books and scholarly journals only need the year in parentheses, followed by a period, e.g. (2024).

Author. (Date). Title. Source

Other publication types are entered differently :

• Meetings, conferences, popular monthly magazines, and newsletters - (2023, August)
• Magazines, newsletters, newspapers, social media, YouTube videos, blog posts, etc. - (2024, January 9)
• Any publication acknowledged for publication but not yet in print or accessible in electronic form. - (in press)
• Republished works - (1923/1961)
• No date - (n.d.)
• When dealing with webpages, it's crucial to avoid relying solely on the website's copyright date. Instead, seek out a distinct date of creation, update, or modification for the specific page or document you're referencing.

REPUBLISHED WORKS

If you are citing a classic work that has been reprinted or republished, you can include the original date at the end of the reference. Include both dates in the in-text citation.

Freud, S. (2005).  Civilization and its discontents . Norton. (Original work published 1930)

The in-text citation will be written as follows - (Freud, 1930/2005)

SAME AUTHOR AND DATE

In cases where you reference two or more separate works from the same author and published in the same year, distinguish them using letters. Arrange these citations based on the title.

Format: Author surname, innitials. (2023a). The second publication will include a b, e.g. (2023b) and so forth.

This format should also be used for any other type of publication.

The formatting of your title will depend on the type of publication and may be written in either italics or regular font.

Certain words in the title should be capitalised :

• The first word of the title
• The first word of the subtitle, usually directly after a colon (:)
• Any proper nouns like a place, person, organisation, etc.)
• All significant words in a journal or website title

Titles of stand-alone works must be italicized :

The titles of books and names and volume numbers of journals are italicized.

When citing a component of a larger work, it is not necessary to italicize the titles :

• Chapters in books
• Title of an entry in a reference book
• Titles of articles appearing in journals, magazines, or newspapers.

PUNCTUATION

• If a title concludes with a non-period punctuation mark, such as a question mark or an exclamation mark, incorporate it as the concluding punctuation without appending an additional period.
• If the title employs an em dash instead of colons to distinguish a subtitle, maintain the usage of the em dash.

 between city/place of publication and state where applicable and as separators between journal name, volume number and inclusive pages.

Use a colon between the city/place of publication and the publisher's name.

Use brackets for extensions, qualifications, or interpretations of each subdivision or of the entire entry. Use “p.” or “pp.” when providing page numbers.

EDITION/VOLUME CLARIFICATION

Include the edition or volume used in parentheses after the title a book.

In exceptionally uncommon instances, you might be referencing a source lacking a distinct title, such as a social media post, untitled artwork, or a Google map. In the title section, incorporate a description within brackets, and if feasible, include the medium in the description.

Google. (n.d.). [Google Maps directions for driving from Gainesville, FL, to Miami, FL]. Retrieved October 8, 2019, from https://goo.gl/maps/jkV9HNbBw6nx9iLc8

FORMAT CLARIFICATION

When citing information that does not adhere to a standard format, employ square brackets after the title for clarification.

Examples include:

When a book has an edition or volume, include the relevant edition or volume in parentheses after the title, e.g. (2nd ed.)

American Psychological Association. (2020).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.).  https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

The components of a source may change depending on the format of the work you are citing:

Boo k s - Publisher

Article - journal, volume, issue, page numbers, and DOI. Write out the complete journal title, avoiding abbreviations. The journal title and volume should be  italicized .

• If any of this information is unavailable, exclude it. In this instance, there is no issue number or DOI. Tremblay, M. S., Inman, J. W., & Willms, J. D. (2000). The relationship between physical activity, self-esteem, and academic achievement in 12-year-old children.  Pediatric Exercise Science, 12 , 312–323.  

If an article has an article number, include it. Van Hedger, S. C., Heald, S. L. M., & Nusbaum, H. C. (2019). Absolute pitch can be learned by some adults. PLOS One , 14(9), Article e0223047. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223047

If an article is accessible online for free (open access) and lacks a DOI, you have the option to include the URL for the full text.

Include the name of a library database only if the source you are citing is specific to that database. Most journals, magazines, and newspapers do not meet these criteria. Some library databases, such as A to Z the World, Cochrane Library, and certain content in ERIC, Health and Wellness, and Opposing Viewpoints, fall into this category.

APA mandates the inclusion of DOIs, when available, in the citation of a journal article. A DOI, or Digital Object Identifier, serves as a permanent link to electronic content. Due to the dynamic nature of links generated by some databases (i.e., links that change with each access), they cannot reliably guide someone to an article. If an article possesses a DOI, providing that information facilitates directing readers to your references. DOIs are typically located in the database record, the journal's article page, or on the initial page of the article itself. They are identifiable as a string of numbers and slashes, potentially including letters, and commencing with 10.

DOI must be formated as an URL

https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02626667.2018.156044 9 Occasionally, a DOI may lead to a publication not accessible through the Unisa Library. For such cases, you can request these publications through our interlibrary loan service at [email protected].

INTERNET SOURCES

Internet sources typically include the  website  on which the source is located and the  URL . If the author and the website title are identical, omit the website title.

You may elect to add a retrieval date to the URL if the information is expected to change.

If a publication date is not available, use (n.d.)

If a URL is excessively long, you may use a URL shortener.

U.S. Department of State. (2019, April 9).  Afghanistan travel advisory . Retrieved October 9, 2019 from https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvisories/afghanistan-advisory.html .

Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids recession but growth remains weak. BBC News .  https://www.bbc.com/news/business 50419127

Use full stops to separate the major subdivisions of a reference citation, namely, author, date, title, publication data. Also, place full stops after an author's initials.

Use commas within subdivisions, that is, between an author's surname and his/her initials, between co- authors, between city/place of publication and state where applicable and as separators between journal name, volume number and inclusive pages. The APA convention is to insert a comma preceding the "&" before the last author, while PsySSA does not. Follow the PsySSA style in your reference list. Use a colon between the city/place of publication and the publisher's name.

CAPITALISATION

• Book, article, or chapter titles:
• Capitalise the initial letter of the first word only, with exceptions according to common usage, such as capital letters for names, first word of a title within a title, and first word after a colon or dash.  
• Journal names:

Capitalise the initial letter of all major words.

The titles of books and names and volume numbers of journals are italicised when typeset for print. If you cannot use italics, for example handwritten work, underline them.

ARABIC NUMERALS

Use Arabic numerals for all numbers in reference lists, even if the book or journal concerned makes use of Roman numerals.

ABBREVIATIONS

Al w a y s s t art be l ow t he t h i r d l e t t er o f t he f i r st w ord i f t he r e f e r e n ce i s l o n g e r t han one li ne . T h i s i s ca ll ed a ha n g i n g i n de n t .

General requirements of a reference list

T he g en e r al r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r r e f e r e nce l i s t s a r e g i ven be l o w . Ma k e s u r e t h a t y ou comp l y w i t h t h em .

• R e f e r enc e s m u s t be co r r ect and c o m p l e t e . C h e ck t h e m c a r e f u ll y a g a i n s t t he o r i g i nal pub li c a t i on i f y ou don't w ant f u t u r e r esearch e r s t o be an n o y ed at y ou as a w r i t er r esp o n s i b l e f or s u pp l y i ng i nco m p l e t e o r i n acc u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n .  
• T he hea d i n g f o r a r e f e r e nce li s t i s R EFER E NC E S .  
• I t s t a nds a l one at t he e n d o f an es s a y / a rt i c l e / t h e s i s / d i sse r t a t i o n ; t he r e f o r e, t he he a d i n g i s n o t g i v en a nu m b e r f o ll o w i ng t he m a i n head i n g nu m be r s i n y our t e x t .  
• Al l en tr i es i n t he r e f e r e n ce li st are a rr a n g ed i n a l phabeti c al order by t he surname o f t he a u t h o r ( or t i t l e in case o f no au t h o r ) .  S m i t p r e c edes S m i t h and  M ac A rt hur prece d e s M c Alli s t er w h i ch in t urn p r e c edes M ' C a rt hy  
• W he n a p r e f i x i s p a r t o f t he surn a m e , a l ph a betise acco r d i n g l y :  
• D e B e e r i s l i s t ed u nd e r D and  Von d e r O he i s l i s t ed u n der V  
• Autho r s w i t h t he s a m e s urname a r e a r r a n g ed a l p habe t i ca ll y a cco r d i n g t o t he i r i n i t i a l s.  
• N ames are l i s t ed i n i n v e rt ed o r de r : s u r n a m e f o l l o w ed b y t he i n i t i a l ( s ) . I n t he case o f m u l t i p l e au t ho r s , i n v e rt ed ord e r f or a l l n a m es i s u sed, s epara t ed by c o m m as a n d an " , & " b e f o r e t he la st na m e.  
• A l w a y s g i v e t he n a m es o f a l l a u t h o r s - ne v er use " e t a l . " i n a r e f ere n ce l i s t .  
• Se v eral w o r k s by t he s a m e f i r s t a u t h or is  c i t ed ac c ord i n g t o t he f o ll o w i ng r u l es:  
• Christensen, L. B. (1991)
• Christensen, L. B. (1994)  
• M auer, K . F . ( 1 98 7 )
• M auer, K . F . , & W a t k i ns , M . L. ( 19 94 )  
• Mauer, K. F., Marais, H. C., & Prinsloo, R. J. (1991)
• Mauer, K. F., & Retief, A. I. (1985)  
• Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1980)
• S chmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1981) ​​​​​​​
• Terpstra, D. E. (1981a)
• Terpstra, D. E. (1981b) ​​​​​​​
• Gr oup au t ho r s are a r r a n g ed a l ph a betica ll y acco r d i ng t o t he f i r s t s i g n i f i ca n t w ord.  H uman S c i ences R ese a r ch Cou n c i l  
• T he f u l l n a m e m u s t ap p ear i n t he r e f e r e nce l i s t , not an a bbre v i ation - i n t he abo v e e x amp l e HSR C.  
• En tr i es i n t he r e f erence l i st a r e n o t nu mb e re d .  
• Bo o k s a nd j o u r nal a r t i c l e s a r e m i x ed up i n t he r e f erence l i s t ; t hey a r e n o t gro up ed i n a n y w a y .  
• Second a r y s o u r ces w h i ch w ere not con s u l t ed a r e n o t i nc l uded i n t he r e f e r ence l i s t.  
• P ersonal c o m m un i c a t i o ns are n o t li s t ed .  
• DOI formatted as URL, e.g.  https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
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The Importance of the Cited-Reference List

  As an early-career researcher, you’re likely adjusting to a variety of challenges as you make your way. Writing and publishing a research paper is one of them. One part of the writing process might not seem important, but it can have a major impact not only on your prospects for getting published but, ultimately, on your career standing. This essential task is the proper selection and recording of the references you explicitly cite in the paper.

This post examines why a carefully chosen   and properly rendered reference list is so important.

Paying Your Debts  

The requirement to acknowledge your sources is one of the most important conventions in research communication. Based primarily on the writings of American sociologist Robert K. Merton (1910-2003), the act of citing previous work has been compared to the payment of an intellectual debt. That is, giving proper credit to the specific research (and its creators) that has guided or inspired the work reported in your paper. Because research proceeds largely on the basis of precedent, building on work that has come before, citations will ultimately tell a detailed story about how research in a given area unfolded. Your well-chosen cited references will add to this story, conferring suitable credit on particularly influential work.

Choose Carefully

Cited references can also tell a story about you – and not necessarily a flattering one. A 2018 editorial in the Journal of Critical Care Medicine notes that, “a wrong, inappropriate or unsuitable citation often blights the quality of a paper…An editor or reader may interpret poor referencing as a sign of intellectual laziness, unclear thinking, and inaccurate writing.” Needless to say, such reactions will not help your prospects when your paper is under review.

Editorial guidelines from life-science publisher BMC apply to authors in all disciplines. For example: any statement that derives from an external source, as opposed to the authors’ own ideas or findings, should be cited; authors should try to cite the primordial source of other original work, as opposed to relying on reviews that cite the original work; authors should cite only work that they have read and that accurately supports the statement in their paper — and, ideally, only work that has undergone peer review; and authors should not excessively cite work from their friends, peers, or home institution.

Watch Yourself

Excessive citations to your own work can be a red flag for editors and reviewers. Of course, self-citation is a normal and necessary practice, providing background and context for current research. Studies suggest typical rates of self-citation between 10% and 35% for the average paper, depending on the field. But engaging in the practice too much may draw the disapproving eye of editors and referees.

Protect Yourself

Along with establishing your authority and supporting your assertions, careful and thorough documentation of your sources can also protect you against possible charges of plagiarism.

Plagiarism expert Jonathan Bailey, in an essay posted on his website Plagiarism Today , notes that nowadays many students, with their easy electronic access to untold volumes of material, see no harm in appropriating text without citation as long as the information is correct. He provides three reasons for correct citing: giving credit where it’s due, strengthening your position, and, under the possible shadow of a plagiarism charge, engaging in the due diligence that can save you from potentially career-threatening trouble. But beyond these ethical considerations, he says, lies a more practical benefit: mastering proper citation will make you a better writer.

Know Your Journal

Familiarize yourself with the reference style and guidelines of the journal in which you intend to publish. Journal and publisher websites routinely feature pages with detailed instructions – noting, for example, whether the “Vancouver” (or “author-number”) system is favored, or if it’s the “Harvard” (“author-date,” or “parenthetical”) style, or some special variation. Many university libraries host web pages with guides to various systems – for example, this page at Imperial College London on citing and referencing with the Vancouver style. Such sites also offer guidance on citing works that appear in media other than journals: websites, videos, data repositories, and other relatively new venues for scholarly communication.

Put Technology to Work

Today’s researchers have an advantage over those of previous generations, who were compelled to manually compile references and bibliographies, laboriously changing and re-typing their style and sequence when citing the sources in different papers.

Programs devoted to reference and citation management have now automated the compilation, formatting, and sharing of reference lists. EndNote , for example, enables papers retrieved from the Web of Science to be instantly extracted and saved in the form of references for a bibliography. These references can then be individually selected and reformatted as needed in work being prepared for publication – and can even be altered automatically into different bibliographic styles.

Given today’s available tools,   it’s easy to render correct and thorough referencing of source materials. Your work and career will only benefit as a result.

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Communication Sciences & Disorders: Researching the Literature

• 1. Terms to Know
• 2. Identifying Sources: Scholarly? Peer Reviewed?
• 3: Browsing Key Journals
• 4: Author Searching

Introduction to Citation Searching

Forward citation search, backward citation search.

• 6: Database Searching
• 7. Finding Full Text Articles
• Sample Annotation
• Sample Annotation 2
• 9. Organizing: Literature Review Matrix
• 10. APA Style Citation

What is "Forward Citation Searching?"

Citation searching can take you forward in time from the article you begin with. This is sometimes referred to as "forward citation searching." This may help you assess the importance of an article to subsequent - or more current - research in a field.  Look for "Cited by" links (Google Scholar) and "Times cited" (EBSCOhost-ERIC) links in your search results.

The Cited Article                                 The Citing Articles

A word of caution:  Keep in mind that a citing author may reference an earlier study for many reasons. The citing author may be supporting or refuting arguments in the original research article.

How can I do this?

Databases such as Web of Science , and search engines such as Google Scholar , include information about who cited a particular reference. Look for "Cited by" or "Times Cited" features. 

What is "Backward Citation Searching?"

The list of works cited by an author gives you a picture of the thinking and research up to the time the article was published. It takes you back in time, telling you what sources, and theories have influenced the author's work. This may also help you identify key authors in a field. Looking at the reference list of sources cited by an author is called "bibliographic mining," "cited reference searching," or "backward citation searching." 

The sources from Thao's reference list                                                     

How Can I Do This?

As you read and article, note citations of interest as you read, and scan the article reference list for authors and articles that interest you. You may search for specific articles and authors using a database or try  Research@UWW

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Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

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What the data says about Americans’ views of climate change

A recent report from the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has underscored the need for international action to avoid increasingly severe climate impacts in the years to come. Steps outlined in the report, and by climate experts, include major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from sectors such as energy production and transportation.

But how do Americans feel about climate change, and what steps do they think the United States should take to address it? Here are eight charts that illustrate Americans’ views on the issue, based on recent Pew Research Center surveys.

Pew Research Center published this collection of survey findings as part of its ongoing work to understand attitudes about climate change and energy issues. The most recent survey was conducted May 30-June 4, 2023, among 10,329 U.S. adults. Earlier findings have been previously published, and methodological information, including the sample sizes and field dates, can be found by following the links in the text.

Everyone who took part in the June 2023 survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way, nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology .

A majority of Americans support prioritizing the development of renewable energy sources. Two-thirds of U.S. adults say the country should prioritize developing renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, over expanding the production of oil, coal and natural gas, according to a survey conducted in June 2023.

In a previous Center survey conducted in 2022, nearly the same share of Americans (69%) favored the U.S. taking steps to become carbon neutral by 2050 , a goal outlined by President Joe Biden at the outset of his administration. Carbon neutrality means releasing no more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than is removed.

Nine-in-ten Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents say the U.S. should prioritize developing alternative energy sources to address America’s energy supply. Among Republicans and Republican leaners, 42% support developing alternative energy sources, while 58% say the country should prioritize expanding exploration and production of oil, coal and natural gas.

There are important differences by age within the GOP. Two-thirds of Republicans under age 30 (67%) prioritize the development of alternative energy sources. By contrast, 75% of Republicans ages 65 and older prioritize expanding the production of oil, coal and natural gas.

Americans are reluctant to phase out fossil fuels altogether, but younger adults are more open to it. Overall, about three-in-ten adults (31%) say the U.S. should completely phase out oil, coal and natural gas. More than twice as many (68%) say the country should use a mix of energy sources, including fossil fuels and renewables.

While the public is generally reluctant to phase out fossil fuels altogether, younger adults are more supportive of this idea. Among Americans ages 18 to 29, 48% say the U.S. should exclusively use renewables, compared with 52% who say the U.S. should use a mix of energy sources, including fossil fuels.

There are age differences within both political parties on this question. Among Democrats and Democratic leaners, 58% of those ages 18 to 29 favor phasing out fossil fuels entirely, compared with 42% of Democrats 65 and older. Republicans of all age groups back continuing to use a mix of energy sources, including oil, coal and natural gas. However, about three-in-ten (29%) Republicans ages 18 to 29 say the U.S. should phase out fossil fuels altogether, compared with fewer than one-in-ten Republicans 50 and older.

There are multiple potential routes to carbon neutrality in the U.S. All involve major reductions to carbon emissions in sectors such as energy and transportation by increasing the use of things like wind and solar power and electric vehicles. There are also ways to potentially remove carbon from the atmosphere and store it, such as capturing it directly from the air or using trees and algae to facilitate carbon sequestration.

The public supports the federal government incentivizing wind and solar energy production. In many sectors, including energy and transportation, federal incentives and regulations significantly influence investment and development.

Two-thirds of Americans think the federal government should encourage domestic production of wind and solar power. Just 7% say the government should discourage this, while 26% think it should neither encourage nor discourage it.

Views are more mixed on how the federal government should approach other activities that would reduce carbon emissions. On balance, more Americans think the government should encourage than discourage the use of electric vehicles and nuclear power production, though sizable shares say it should not exert an influence either way.

When it comes to oil and gas drilling, Americans’ views are also closely divided: 34% think the government should encourage drilling, while 30% say it should discourage this and 35% say it should do neither. Coal mining is the one activity included in the survey where public sentiment is negative on balance: More say the federal government should discourage than encourage coal mining (39% vs. 21%), while 39% say it should do neither.

Americans see room for multiple actors – including corporations and the federal government – to do more to address the impacts of climate change. Two-thirds of adults say large businesses and corporations are doing too little to reduce the effects of climate change. Far fewer say they are doing about the right amount (21%) or too much (10%).

Majorities also say their state elected officials (58%) and the energy industry (55%) are doing too little to address climate change, according to a March 2023 survey.

In a separate Center survey conducted in June 2023, a similar share of Americans (56%) said the federal government should do more to reduce the effects of global climate change.

When it comes to their own efforts, about half of Americans (51%) think they are doing about the right amount as an individual to help reduce the effects of climate change, according to the March 2023 survey. However, about four-in-ten (43%) say they are doing too little.

Democrats and Republicans have grown further apart over the last decade in their assessments of the threat posed by climate change. Overall, a majority of U.S. adults (54%) describe climate change as a major threat to the country’s well-being. This share is down slightly from 2020 but remains higher than in the early 2010s.

Nearly eight-in-ten Democrats (78%) describe climate change as a major threat to the country’s well-being, up from about six-in-ten (58%) a decade ago. By contrast, about one-in-four Republicans (23%) consider climate change a major threat, a share that’s almost identical to 10 years ago.

Concern over climate change has also risen internationally, as shown by separate Pew Research Center polling across 19 countries in 2022. People in many advanced economies express higher levels of concern than Americans . For instance, 81% of French adults and 73% of Germans describe climate change as a major threat.

Climate change is a lower priority for Americans than other national issues. While a majority of adults view climate change as a major threat, it is a lower priority than issues such as strengthening the economy and reducing health care costs.

Overall, 37% of Americans say addressing climate change should be a top priority for the president and Congress in 2023, and another 34% say it’s an important but lower priority. This ranks climate change 17th out of 21 national issues included in a Center survey from January.

As with views of the threat that climate change poses, there’s a striking contrast between how Republicans and Democrats prioritize the issue. For Democrats, it falls in the top half of priority issues, and 59% call it a top priority. By comparison, among Republicans, it ranks second to last, and just 13% describe it as a top priority.

Our analyses have found that partisan gaps on climate change are often widest on questions – such as this one – that measure the salience or importance of the issue. The gaps are more modest when it comes to some specific climate policies. For example, majorities of Republicans and Democrats alike say they would favor a proposal to provide a tax credit to businesses for developing technologies for carbon capture and storage.

Perceptions of local climate impacts vary by Americans’ political affiliation and whether they believe that climate change is a serious problem. A majority of Americans (61%) say that global climate change is affecting their local community either a great deal or some. About four-in-ten (39%) see little or no impact in their own community.

The perception that the effects of climate change are happening close to home is one factor that could drive public concern and calls for action on the issue. But perceptions are tied more strongly to people’s beliefs about climate change – and their partisan affiliation – than to local conditions.

For example, Americans living in the Pacific region – California, Washington, Oregon, Hawaii and Alaska – are more likely than those in other areas of the country to say that climate change is having a great deal of impact locally. But only Democrats in the Pacific region are more likely to say they are seeing effects of climate change where they live. Republicans in this region are no more likely than Republicans in other areas to say that climate change is affecting their local community.

Our previous surveys show that nearly all Democrats believe climate change is at least a somewhat serious problem, and a large majority believe that humans play a role in it. Republicans are much less likely to hold these beliefs, but views within the GOP do vary significantly by age and ideology. Younger Republicans and those who describe their views as moderate or liberal are much more likely than older and more conservative Republicans to describe climate change as at least a somewhat serious problem and to say human activity plays a role.

Democrats are also more likely than Republicans to report experiencing extreme weather events in their area over the past year – such as intense storms and floods, long periods of hot weather or droughts – and to see these events as connected with climate change.

About three-quarters of Americans support U.S. participation in international efforts to reduce the effects of climate change. Americans offer broad support for international engagement on climate change: 74% say they support U.S. participation in international efforts to reduce the effects of climate change.

Still, there’s little consensus on how current U.S. efforts stack up against those of other large economies. About one-in-three Americans (36%) think the U.S. is doing more than other large economies to reduce the effects of global climate change, while 30% say the U.S. is doing less than other large economies and 32% think it is doing about as much as others. The U.S. is the second-largest carbon dioxide emitter , contributing about 13.5% of the global total.

When asked what they think the right balance of responsibility is, a majority of Americans (56%) say the U.S. should do about as much as other large economies to reduce the effects of climate change, while 27% think it should do more than others.

A previous Center survey found that while Americans favor international cooperation on climate change in general terms, their support has its limits. In January 2022 , 59% of Americans said that the U.S. does not have a responsibility to provide financial assistance to developing countries to help them build renewable energy sources.

In recent years, the UN conference on climate change has grappled with how wealthier nations should assist developing countries in dealing with climate change. The most recent convening in fall 2022, known as COP27, established a “loss and damage” fund for vulnerable countries impacted by climate change.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published April 22, 2022. Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology .

• Climate, Energy & Environment
• Environment & Climate
• Partisanship & Issues
• Political Issues

How Republicans view climate change and energy issues

How americans view future harms from climate change in their community and around the u.s., americans continue to have doubts about climate scientists’ understanding of climate change, growing share of americans favor more nuclear power, why some americans do not see urgency on climate change, most popular.

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CheckList for EvaluAtion of Radiomics research (CLEAR)

• Report problem with article
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Citation, DOI, disclosures and article data

At the time the article was created Burak Kocak had no financial relationships to ineligible companies to disclose.

At the time the article was last revised Burak Kocak had no financial relationships to ineligible companies to disclose.

• CheckList for EvaluAtion of Radiomics research

The CheckList for Evaluation of Radiomics Research (CLEAR) is a 58-item reporting guideline designed specifically for radiomics . It aims to improve the quality of reporting in radiomics research 1 . CLEAR is endorsed by the European Society of Radiology (ESR) and the European Society of Medical Imaging Informatics (EuSoMII).

CLEAR's checklists are accessible online 1

a shortened version, CLEAR-S, is available and includes only the methodological items and the ones related to open science

CLEAR does not primarily aim to improve and assess the methodological quality. A quality scoring tool, METhodological RadiomICs Score (METRICS), also endorsed by EuSoMII, is highly recommended for this purpose 2

CLEAR covers both hand-crafted and deep learning-based radiomics

56 items of CLEAR are essential, while 2 items in the open science are non-essential but recommended

self-reporting with a filled-out CLEAR as a supplement may add value to the radiomics studies, making it more transparent and easy to assess for readers and reviewers alike 3

adherence to CLEAR in designing radiomics research is expected to improve the quality of studies and is highly recommended; it can also be used following the completion of studies

when filling out the CLEAR checklist, the use of "No" (i.e. not fulfilled) and "N/A" (i.e. non-applicable) needs utmost care in terms of the accuracy of the reporting 3

• 1. Kocak B, Baessler B, Bakas S et al. CheckList for EvaluAtion of Radiomics Research (CLEAR): A Step-By-Step Reporting Guideline for Authors and Reviewers Endorsed by ESR and EuSoMII. Insights Imaging. 2023;14(1):75. doi:10.1186/s13244-023-01415-8 - Pubmed
• 2. Kocak B, Akinci D'Antonoli T, Mercaldo N et al. METhodological RadiomICs Score (METRICS): A Quality Scoring Tool for Radiomics Research Endorsed by EuSoMII. Insights Imaging. 2024;15(1):8. doi:10.1186/s13244-023-01572-w - Pubmed
• 3. Kocak B, Akinci D'Antonoli T, Ates Kus E et al. Self-Reported Checklists and Quality Scoring Tools in Radiomics: A Meta-Research. Eur Radiol. 2024. doi:10.1007/s00330-023-10487-5 - Pubmed

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