critical thinking and spirituality

Critical Thinking

Why is critical thinking important? It is important because not everything you hear and read is true. And since none of us what to believe what is false, we must have some way to tell the difference between what is true and what is false. Nobody wants to be wrong. This is where critical thinking comes in. It gives you the skills to think more clearly.

Be Skeptical

Martin Cohen says that “Lesson One in critical thinking is that you need to always be aware that what you think on any issue may be wrong.” He goes on to say, “Lesson Two is the harder learnt: what you read others saying may be wrong too” (294). A skeptical state of mind is required in order to think critically about anything. We are too prone to overlook evidence that is contrary to what we already believe.

“The fundamental cause of the trouble,” writes Bertrand Russell, “is that in the modern world the stupid are cocksure while the intelligent are full of doubts” (Cohen 12). The sure sign of shallow thinking is the dogmatic attitude towards what they believe. As you grow older you realize the wisdom of the saying, “The wider the pool of knowledge, the greater the shores of ignorance.

But it is not just the claims that should be questioned, but the assumptions behind the claim. As Sylvan Barnet and Hugo Bedau writes, “Critical thinking means questioning not only the assumptions of others, but also questioning your own assumptions” (5). Assumptions are the things we take for granted. Wrong assumptions lead to wrong conclusions.

Claims and Beliefs

A claim, sometimes called a truth claim or proposition, is “a statement that is either true or false” (Moore and Parker 500). Not all statements are claims, but many statements are. In fact, we hear claims every day of our lives. The problem is that we don’t question these claims and ask if they are really true. A claim is true if it corresponds to reality, it is false if it does not. When what you think matches the way things really are, you have a true claim.

The best definition of truth is that it is the correspondence of thought and reality. Every other attempted definition has to assume this one. In other words, every other definition has to assume that their definition corresponds to the reality of what truth is.

Now the truth of a claim can never be absolute or certain. The truth of a claim cannot be absolute, because we do not know everything, and what we don’t know might show that the claim is false. This also means that we can never be absolutely certain of any claim. This is true for every aspect of human endeavor, from science to philosophy.

Furthermore, a claim can never be completely comprehensive. In other words, a claim is made of words, and words are not reality – they are symbols created to represent reality. As such, words cannot contain the depth and scope of reality itself. This is why Zen Buddhism warns us about mistaking the symbol for the reality. Just because you know the definition of humility doesn’t mean you have humility.

Beliefs are claims that we have accepted as true. Critical thinkers should be careful about what they accept as true. They should have good reasons for the things they believe. But many times we don’t have good reasons. Often times we just accept the beliefs of family, friends, and the media. We should learn not to automatically believe everything we hear. We should test it out, think it through, weigh the evidence, discern the assumptions, and come to a reasoned decision.

Faith and belief are different, and you should be aware of this difference. Belief is merely the accepting of a claim as true. It says nothing about the grounds for that belief. Some beliefs are justified, which means there are good reasons for accepting them. Other beliefs are unjustified, they are reached not by solid reasoning but bias, prejudice, or emotional considerations. The point is that the word belief says nothing about the grounds of accepting a claim.

Faith, on the other hand, does indicate the grounds of belief, or the lack thereof. Faith is accepting a claim as true without evidence, without good rational reasons. Faith and trust should not be confused, trust is confident reliance on a person or thing, but says nothing about whether this trust is warranted. In this sense, trust is like belief, it does not indicate whether the grounds for the trust or belief is good, bad, or nonexistent.

Paradigm Prisons

Claims are statements that are true or false. Once a claim is accepted as true it becomes a belief, and beliefs are very important. As Joyce and River Higginbotham point out, “What you believe about yourself and your world determines to a large extent the kinds of experiences you will have and how you will interpret them” (45). Your experiences in life are limited by your beliefs, and then they are interpreted by your beliefs.

If you take a hike on a mountain and are suddenly in rapt awe, your experience will be filtered through your beliefs. This network of beliefs is called a paradigm, it is the mental map you have created of the world. It is the world as you interpret it, your worldview. The rapt awe will be interpreted by a Pagan as union with Mother Nature and a Christian as God. All our experience are filtered and altered by what we believe. Beliefs shape your view of reality, and as such, they shape your life.

The problem is that paradigms allow us to make sense of the world, but they also blind us. We can’t see any other perspective but our perspective. Everything makes so much sense to us, we are just so certain that reality is how we envision it. We are caught in the paradigm prison, a prison for the mind.

Paradigms are not optional, we need them to think at all. They are our effort at trying to fit the pieces of the puzzle of reality together. Unfortunately, many us inherited our paradigm from our family and society, and few actually question the paradigm that they inherited. This is why, generally speaking, Muslims come from Muslim countries, Christians come from Christian countries, Hindus come from Hindu countries, and so on. Being born into a Muslim country is not a good reason to be a Muslim.

Critical thinkers know the dangers of being stuck in a particular viewpoint, and that is why they try to expand their vision, look at things from a different perspective. They know that a claim that can’t be tested shouldn’t be trusted. Sometimes you may find that the opponent’s viewpoint is actually closer to the truth. They you will have to decide whether you follow the truth or whether you just don’t want to be wrong. You might also discover that we believe many things for other than rational reasons.

Possibility and Probability

Since the truth can never be known with absolute certainty, we need to accept the fact that we will never know for sure that we are right. That should bring a sense of humility and perspective into every conversation. But for some people, that will cause distress and unease. For if we don’t know anything for sure, what about questions of God, death, hell, and the afterlife?

This is when it is helpful to remember the difference between the possible and the probable. Many things are possible, but few things are probable. The key is to believe the probable, and be open but unbelieving of the possible. The possible could possibly be true, but we have no good reason to believe it is. The probable is that which we have good reason to believe is true.

There are only three options we can take when dealing with a claim. We can accept the claim, reject the claim, or suspend judgment concerning the claim. Accepting the claim means believing it, rejecting the claim means disbelieving it, and suspending judgment means that we are still in doubt about the claims status. The question is on what basis should we make the decision?

Evidence is the basis for accepting or rejecting a claim, and a lack of evidence either way is the basis for suspending judgment. By evidence I mean objective and verifiable facts, observations, or inferences. The ultimate authority for the critical thinker is evidence. The scientific method is the best self-correcting means to evidence that we have developed. The further we get from science and into more subjective things, and the more careful we need to be in our thinking.

In weighing the evidence, you are trying to reason to the most probable claim that offers the best explanation of the evidence. You want to make sure the claim is logical and consistent, based on objective physical observations, that it works in real life, and that it answers best all the questions raised by the issue.

The Burden of Proof

There is a teapot buried 12 feet deep somewhere on Pluto. Do you believe me? Why not? You can’t prove that the claim is false. I mean, it could possibly be that NASA sent a probe to bury a teapot on Pluto. It could be true, I mean it is possible, no matter how very unlikely.

First, this demonstrates the difference between the possible and the probable. A teapot on Pluto is not probable and therefore should not be believed. But a second point is revealed by the line, “You can’t prove that the claim is false.” Possible claims and mere assertions are the same thing. And this is why the understanding the burden of proof is so important.

The rule of the burden or proof says that a person who makes a positive claim has the burden to prove it. In other words, if you affirm that something is the case, it is your responsibility to give good reasons for accepting your claim. This also means that the person denying a claim has no obligation to prove a negative. In the case of the teapot, the burden of proof says you have no obligation to prove that there is no teapot on Pluto. Rather, it is my job to first give you evidence of my claim.

Once an affirmative claim is made and evidence is offered, it is only then that the burden of proof switches to the person denying the claim.

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• Barnet, Sylvan and Hugo Bedau. Current Issues and Enduring Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking and Argument, with Readings , 8th. Ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008. • Cohen, Martin. Critical Thinking Skills for Dummies . West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2015. • Higginbotham, Joyce and River. Paganism: An Introduction to Earth-Centered Religions . Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Publications, 2002. • Moore, Brooke Noel and Richard Parker. Critical Thinking , 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2000.

5 thoughts on “Critical Thinking”

“Reason is in fact the path to faith, and faith takes over when reason can do no more.” -Thomas Merton. Critical thinker, yes. Faithless, no. – Patty Kay

I enjoyed your article! I think that most who claim faith have no reason. And I think many do.

Does it really matter? Just because some do not need proof for everything, doesn’t mean they can’t be critical thinkers.

Hi Patty, although I enjoy some of what Thomas Merton has written, I must disagree with him here. Rational belief is accepting a claim for good reasons, logical and empirical reasons. Faith is accepting a claim without evidence. Clear logical thinking that follows the evidence is not “the path to faith.” It is the path to truth. Truth is the correspondence between thought and reality. How are you going to know that your thought matches reality? By following the evidence.

Does it really matter? It depends on whether or not truth is important to the person. The path to truth is evidence, not faith. Evidence will lead you to the most probable answer. Faith is not a path to truth. That is why there are so many faiths and none of them agree. Being a critical thinker does, in fact, mean that you follow the evidence to the best possible claim, at least on all important issues.

W. K. Clifford is famous for saying, “It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything on insufficient evidence.” Thomas Henry Huxley put it this way, “it is wrong for a man to say he is certain of the objective truth of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty.” A more colloquial way of saying the same thing, in the words of English historian G.M. Young, “a man has no more right to an opinion for which he cannot account than to a pint of beer for which he cannot pay.” My advice is, “Don’t believe beyond the available evidence.”

Hello Jay, I appreciated your response. Concerning Merton, he’s difficult to read … long sentences and even longer paragraphs. I’m not looking for a debate, really … and I don’t think you’re making it one. I enjoyed your essay, I just think about old Merton when I read something along your lines. Truly, I’ve read more than Merton about faith and no matter how hard I try, I just can’t say I don’t have it. Faith in Something I have no clear image of, except for all that is. I enjoy reading other points of view. The only thing I really know is that I don’t know. So more power to you. You are a good writer!

Hopefully your friend, and definitely an admirer, Patty

Hi Patty, thank you for your response. I never found Merton hard to understand, I just disagree with his beliefs. When I was a Christian I was a big fan. He was a gentle and sincere teacher and was open-minded for a Roman Catholic.

I understand that feeling of “Something” greater. It is real, but interpretations differ. Some call it God, others the Tao, and yet others, like myself, I call it Nature. Nobody has all the answers, certainly not me.

My path is to follow the evidence to the best possible explanation. At the same time we have to realize the limits of what we know. That humility will keep us open to reality as it unfolds and help us live in harmony with one another, despite our differences of opinion.

Count me as your friend. Jay

Dear Jay, I must say, I am enjoying this exchange. You make me think. And what may seem laughable, I’m not thinking I should change my thinking, but thinking how I can explain it without the need to defend it.

I don’t know how to convey my agreement with you without explaining the differences in our fundamental understanding. Perhaps the main issue is vernacular. “You say tomato, I say tomaHto.”

What you call Nature, I call God. It really is that simple. At some point, all the evidence, all the verifiable comes to an Uncreate. If it all began with the Big Bang, or whatever you choose to call the emergence of Being outside eternity, okay. Then, to me, God is the Universe. Something had to be to cause, or become, that. If it is Nature, okay. I still call it God.

If our Universe is a bubble, or a wave amongst countless other waves or bubbles, then there is an Uncreate that existed to usher in all the Universes that are, have been, or will be. Or, I can imagine that eternity is a human-made construct and nothing I see or feel even exists. I am an avatar.

Regardless, I am. To me, that’s all the evidence I need. Human or avatar, here I am. And I respect and honor however I came to be, mostly because I like Being, or imagining I’m being.

Merton isn’t hard to understand. He’s very wrapped up in a patriarchal frame of mind. But that doesn’t mean that everything he says is wrong. He Is hard to read, for me, because I’m in search of meaning out of what is, literarily, rambling. I prefer pithy little sayings.

I am perfectly willing to accept that my thinking is full of beans. But I don’t think my beans add up to a hill in the giant scheme of things. It is how I can best understand the “how.” I’m still trying to figure the “why,” but I’m comfortable never being sure. In terms of my existence, I know that it is finite. A bitter pill, perhaps, but I’ve swallowed it.

If I’ve had past human lives, I’ve always been some version of a Kitchen Wench who has been raped and pillaged by patriarchy and maybe this time around I’m too aware of that fact to want no more. Maybe I’ll die and that’s it. Or maybe, just maybe, I get my fondest wish and my energy will merge with whatever flow there is. Whatever, I know my physical remains will be cremated after all the usable parts have been donated. Any ashes will fertilize a tree.

What concerns me is Now. “Now is the time, now is the place, this very day is salvation.” ~ A song I don’t remember much about, except that line. ~ And what is salvation to me? That my finite existence doesn’t impede other existence and that I work to ensure existence continues in whatever form Nature or God deems it to be. A friend of mine posted a Facebook link to an article about a bug that eats plastic. A leap of imagination from there, I can envision “Nature’s Revenge.” LoL I don’t think there will ever be enough of the bugs to eliminate all the waste humans have produced, but maybe it’s a hint. The Earth is in self-preservation mode. Humans think it’s okay to frack and to demonstrate it’s not, the Earth quakes. We trash up the place and Earth responds. If you want to call it Nature, then Nature is producing Super Bugs that are not responsive to human-made treatments. In a war, I’m certain that Nature would win.

A tangent, sorry!

So, let me conclude with a tip I use to cope with the horrors of this existence. I got it from a daily meditation I receive from the “Center for Action and Contemplation” ….

“It’s not about being correct; it’s about being connected.” —Richard Rohr

Most sincerely (if wackily), Patty

The Science Behind the Benefits of ‘Spiritual Thinking’

Holly Lebowitz Rossi

How spirituality expands our thinking and secures our mental health.

In the 1990s, when I first worked as a religion reporter, a new category of believer was emerging in America. Some of my colleagues called this SBNR: Spiritual, But Not Religious. More recently, journalists responded to demographic data suggesting that as many as twenty percent of the American public identify as “nones,” or having no religious home.

Both “SBNRs” and “nones” are less likely to belong to religious communities or identify overtly with a faith tradition. But in both cases, social science research consistently identified a simple truth— any sense of spirituality, any level of “spiritual thinking” in a person’s life benefits their mental health, their happiness and their resilience.

Lisa Miller, a clinical psychologist and director of the Spirituality Mind Body Institute at Teachers College, Columbia University, has written a new book— The Awakened Brain: The New Science of Spirituality and Our Quest for an Inspired Life —about the brain science behind the mental health benefits of spiritual thinking, regardless of whether or not a person’s spirituality is attached to a religion.

“Spirituality is innate,” Miller recently told The Wall Street Journal , “We can all cultivate this natural capacity and build our spiritual muscle .”

When we do, Miller said, our mental health is more likely to strengthen and be resilient against life’s challenges. “ A strong spiritual awareness protects against the most prevalent forms of inner suffering, the diseases of despair: addiction, depression and even suicidality,” she said, referencing multiple studies. These studies are based on brain scans that showed spiritual thoughts to activate parts of the brain associated with greater blood flow, lower stress hormones and emotional responses like bonding with others.

Protection from mental illness is not the only benefit of spiritual thinking, she continued. “Character strengths and virtues such as optimism, grit, commitment and forgiveness go hand-in-hand with strong spiritual awareness . It helps us be more creative. It also leads to more gratitude and more resilience. There is a sense that things will work out.”

“Spiritual thinking,” according to Miller, includes intentional practices to quiet the mind, elevate feelings of awe and gratitude and think generously and altruistically about others.

Meditation, prayer, community fellowship, text study and simple kindness are all ways to cultivate and practice spiritual thinking. For some, those might be connected to a religious congregation or set of teachings. For others, they might have simply evolved over a lifetime of learning, self-reflection and growth.

What does “spiritual thinking” look like in your life? How do you use it to strengthen your emotional health?

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Faith, Reason, and Critical Thinking

It is not unusual to hear discussions of the relationship between faith and reason, or science and religion, cast in terms of the blind acceptance of unquestionable propositions (religion) versus careful, skeptical, and critical rational reflection (science). Indeed, one of the hallmarks of religious faith, at least as commonly depicted in a great deal of our daily public discourse, is that it rests on claims that are “incontestable”—that is, impervious to skeptical scrutiny, empirical or logical analysis, or rational dispute. In contrast, scientific or secular knowledge claims are presumed to rest on “evidence” and the sure foundation of rational and/or empirical demonstration. As Suzanna Sherry (1996) has written, for example, someone operating under the epistemology of faith is “able to ignore contradictions, contrary evidence, and logical implications. Indeed, one test of faith is its capacity to resist the blandishments of rationality; the stronger the rational arguments against a belief, the more faith is needed to adhere to it” (p. 482). In contrast, “secular science and liberal politics, both committed to the primacy of reason, necessarily deny that any truth is incontestable” (p. 479).

Contrary to the naïve assumption that faith and reason must necessarily have a mutually allergic relationship, religious belief can often be strengthened and supported by critical, rational reflection. Indeed, as people of faith, we should always be willing to think critically about all of our beliefs. This does not mean we should approach intellectual questions about doctrines and beliefs with an attitude of scholarly aloofness or dismissive skepticism, nor does it mean that we should adopt a disparaging or fault-finding stance towards religious teachings. Good critical thinkers are not, as is sometimes uncritically assumed, relentless skeptics who—in Nietzsche’s (1967) memorable phrase—“worship the question mark itself as God” (p. 156). Being careful and reflective is not in any way incompatible with also being deeply optimistic and full of hope. Rather, thinking critically means that we look at our assumptions and contrast them with alternatives.

When we think critically, then, we question our basic assumptions in the light of competing or alternative assumptions. This does not necessarily mean we doubt or dismiss our assumptions—that is (again) the flawed fixation of the skeptic. Rather, it means we take them seriously by examining their origins and implications. For example, we might ask, “What does our belief system require of us that a contrasting belief system does not, and why?” Or, we might ask, “If this idea or belief is true, then where does it take me, both logically and practically, if I run with it all the way to its farthest implications?” Such questions are not full of skeptical and paralyzing doubt, but can rather reflect the attempt to more deeply understand (and live) our beliefs. It can also reflect a sincere desire to winnow out the chaff of sloppy thinking or incomplete understanding of our religious faith and spiritual commitments.

When we think critically in this way, we can better understand how our faith (and its assumptions about the world) differs from other perspectives and other beliefs, and what those differences might mean for us. Critical thinking can help us identify, and perhaps even reject, ideas that undermine the core assumptions of our faith. Conversely, it can help us be more open to ideas that do not contradict the core assumptions of our faith, but which at first glance may seem to do so. In short, by learning to think critically, coupled with the guiding influence of spiritual sensitivity, we can become more discerning and thoughtful religious believers. Remember, even Christ, the Son of God, amidst unimaginable suffering and agony upon the cross at Calvary, was willing to ask His Father a deep and troubling question:

And about the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani? that is to say, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?” (Matt. 27:46).

Now, I assume it is possible that in that moment of utter extremity the Son of God, the Creator of the Universe, and the Savior of all mankind chose to abandon His faith and give in to the temptations of radical skepticism… but I doubt it. There is more than a little irony in Sherry’s claim that for the secularist committed to the primacy of reason no truth claim is incontestable, especially given that such a claim is itself an incontestable truth claim (see, Beckwith, 2015 for a more detailed discussion of this issue).

Beckwith, F. J. (2015). Taking rites seriously: Law, politics, and the reasonableness of faith. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Nietzsche, F. (1967). The genealogy of morals (W. Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale, Trans.). New York, NY: Random House.

Sherry, S. (1996). Enlightening the religious clauses. Journal of Contemporary Legal Issues, 7 (1), 473-495.

SpiritualityPedia

Exploring the Depths of Spiritual Thinking: Importance, Beliefs, and Sources

Spiritual thinking, a profound facet of human consciousness , extends far beyond the limitations of conventional mental processes. It serves as a gateway to a dimension where introspection meets transcendence, guiding individuals toward a deeper understanding of themselves and their place in the cosmos. In the intricate tapestry of spirituality , this article endeavors to unravel the threads of thought that weave through the fabric of existence.

Embarking on a journey into the essence of spiritual thinking, we navigate the landscapes of introspection and self-discovery . Here, the ordinary boundaries of thought are transcended, opening doors to realms where intuition and higher consciousness coalesce. The significance of spiritual thinking becomes apparent as we explore its transformative power in fostering inner peace , enhancing self-awareness, and providing a panoramic perspective on the intricacies of life.

Addressing common questions that often arise on this metaphysical odyssey, we navigate the intersections between spirituality and cognition. Do spiritual people perceive thinking as inherently negative, or is there a harmonious coexistence between the realms of thought and spirit? These questions propel us deeper into the exploration, guiding our quest to understand the nuanced relationship between the spiritual and the intellectual.

So, join us on this intellectual pilgrimage as we unravel the enigma of spiritual thinking, paving the way for a profound exploration into the realms where thoughts transcend the ordinary and touch the sublime.

What is Spiritual Thinking and What is its Importance?

Spiritual thinking is a transformative cognitive process that goes beyond the ordinary boundaries of the mind, reaching into the realms of higher consciousness. Unlike conventional cognitive processes that often revolve around logical reasoning and analysis, spiritual thinking delves into the profound mysteries of existence , purpose, and interconnectedness. It is a contemplative journey that invites individuals to explore the depths of their inner selves and connect with a broader, more transcendent understanding of reality.

Contemplating the deeper aspects of existence forms the core of spiritual thinking. This involves questioning the nature of reality, pondering the purpose of life , and seeking meaning beyond surface-level experiences. It’s an exploration that transcends the material world, inviting individuals to consider the spiritual dimensions that underpin their existence.

The importance of spiritual thinking becomes evident when we recognize its transformative power. At its essence, spiritual thinking serves as a conduit for fostering inner peace. By delving into the profound questions of life, individuals can find a sense of tranquility and acceptance, transcending the chaos and uncertainties that often accompany daily existence. In cultivating this inner peace, spiritual thinking becomes a source of resilience, providing a stable foundation amid life’s inevitable challenges.

Enhancing self-awareness is another vital aspect of spiritual thinking. As individuals engage in contemplation and self-reflection, they gain a deeper understanding of their beliefs, values, and motivations. This heightened self-awareness empowers individuals to navigate their lives with a greater sense of purpose and authenticity, aligning their actions with their spiritual principles.

Moreover, spiritual thinking offers a broader perspective on life’s challenges. When faced with difficulties, individuals grounded in spiritual thinking can view these obstacles as opportunities for growth and learning. This expansive outlook fosters resilience and adaptability, enabling individuals to navigate adversity with a sense of equanimity.

The interconnectedness inherent in spiritual thinking extends beyond the individual to encompass a broader sense of unity with all living beings. This awareness of interconnectedness fosters compassion, empathy, and a sense of responsibility toward the well-being of others and the planet. Spiritual thinking, therefore, not only transforms the individual but also has the potential to contribute to the collective well-being of humanity.

In essence, the importance of spiritual thinking lies in its capacity to elevate individuals beyond the mundane aspects of life, offering a transformative journey toward inner peace, enhanced self-awareness, and a profound understanding of interconnected existence. As individuals engage in spiritual thinking, they embark on a path of self-discovery and enlightenment , enriching their lives and contributing to the greater tapestry of human consciousness.

Thoughts Are Spiritual While Ideas Are Mental

Distinguishing between thoughts and ideas is a fundamental aspect of unraveling the intricacies of spiritual thinking. Here we discern that thoughts, in their essence, emerge from the spiritual realm, serving as conduits for inner wisdom and intuition. Unlike ideas, which are crafted through mental processes influenced by external factors, thoughts bear the indelible imprint of one’s spiritual core.

Thoughts, as manifestations of the spiritual realm, reflect the deeper, intrinsic understanding that goes beyond the surface of conscious awareness. They arise from a wellspring of inner wisdom, tapping into the intuitive currents that flow through the spiritual self. This intuitive wisdom often transcends logical reasoning, offering insights that extend beyond the limitations of the analytical mind.

On the other hand, ideas find their origin in the mental processes shaped by external influences such as societal norms, cultural conditioning, and learning experiences. While ideas play a crucial role in problem-solving, innovation, and intellectual pursuits, they lack the innate connection to the spiritual dimensions that characterize thoughts. Ideas are malleable, and subject to change based on external input and rational considerations.

Recognizing the distinction between thoughts and ideas becomes a cornerstone in understanding and embracing spiritual thinking. It allows individuals to navigate the intricate interplay between the spiritual and the mental, fostering a more profound connection with their spiritual selves. By acknowledging the origin of thoughts in the spiritual realm, individuals gain access to a wellspring of intuitive guidance that can enrich their lives and deepen their understanding of the world.

This recognition encourages a holistic approach to cognition, where individuals integrate the wisdom derived from spiritual thoughts with the analytical capabilities of ideas. It harmonizes the intuitive and rational aspects of the mind, fostering a balanced and comprehensive understanding of the self and the surrounding reality.

In essence, thoughts, rooted in the spiritual realm, serve as beacons of inner wisdom, guiding individuals on their spiritual journey. Ideas, products of mental processes, complement this journey by providing tools for navigating the external world. Recognizing and honoring this duality allows individuals to embrace a more integrated, holistic approach to thinking—one that transcends the confines of the purely rational and opens the door to the profound depths of spiritual understanding.

Do Spiritual People Believe Thinking Is Bad?

Contrary to common misconceptions, spiritual individuals do not inherently view thinking as a negative or detrimental aspect of human experience. Instead, their perspective centers on the quality of thoughts and the mindful cultivation of a positive mental space. In the realm of spiritual thinking, there is a recognition that the mind, when approached with intention and awareness, can be a powerful tool for personal growth and understanding.

Spiritual individuals emphasize the importance of mindful thinking, encouraging a conscious awareness of thoughts and an intentional focus on positivity. This approach involves steering away from harmful or destructive thought patterns and actively cultivating thoughts that align with higher principles, such as compassion, gratitude, and love.

The essence of spiritual thinking lies in the harmonious integration of various cognitive elements. It acknowledges the coexistence of intuition, rationality, and emotional intelligence, recognizing that each aspect contributes uniquely to the richness of human experience. Rather than viewing thinking as inherently bad, spiritual individuals seek to balance these cognitive facets, fostering a more comprehensive and holistic approach to life.

The emphasis on positive and mindful thinking aligns with the understanding that thoughts have a profound impact on one’s well-being and the energy they bring into the world. By cultivating a mindset that promotes love, kindness, and understanding, spiritual individuals aim to create a positive ripple effect not only in their own lives but also in the broader human experience.

Thus, spiritual people do not condemn thinking but rather advocate for a discerning and positive engagement with one’s thoughts. The philosophy of spiritual thinking encourages individuals to navigate the realm of the mind with consciousness, fostering a balanced and harmonious approach that contributes to personal well-being and the well-being of the collective consciousness.

What Are Spiritual Thoughts?

Spiritual thoughts form a diverse tapestry of contemplations that extend beyond the surface of everyday cognition. They encapsulate a broad spectrum of profound reflections, each contributing to an individual’s spiritual journey and understanding of existence.

At the heart of spiritual thoughts lies gratitude—an acknowledgment and appreciation for the blessings and experiences that shape one’s life. Gratitude serves as a powerful spiritual thought, fostering a mindset of appreciation that transcends material concerns and connects individuals to the deeper currents of existence.

Compassion is another integral component of spiritual thoughts. It involves the empathetic consideration of others, recognizing the shared human experience, and extending kindness and understanding. Spiritual thoughts rooted in compassion contribute to a sense of interconnectedness, forging bonds that transcend individual differences and promote a harmonious coexistence.

Self-reflection is a cornerstone of spiritual thoughts, prompting individuals to delve into the depths of their own consciousness. This introspective journey allows for a better understanding of personal values, motivations, and aspirations. Through self-reflection, spiritual thoughts become a catalyst for personal growth and transformation.

The essence of interconnectedness is a central theme within spiritual thoughts. Recognizing the interconnected nature of all living beings and the universe at large, these thoughts transcend the boundaries of the self. This awareness fosters a sense of unity and collective responsibility, influencing thoughts and actions toward the betterment of not just the individual but the broader human experience.

Central to spiritual thoughts is the recognition of a higher purpose—a profound understanding that life extends beyond mere existence. These thoughts contemplate the metaphysical aspects of purpose, seeking meaning beyond the material and temporal dimensions. Embracing this higher purpose through spiritual thoughts can lead to a transformative journey, offering individuals a sense of direction and fulfillment.

Embracing spiritual thoughts holds the potential for profound personal transformation. As individuals engage with these contemplations, they open themselves to a more meaningful existence—one that transcends the superficial and taps into the spiritual dimensions of life. Spiritual thoughts, therefore, serve as guiding lights on the path of self-discovery, contributing to a richer, more purposeful journey through the complexities of human experience.

What is the Basis of All Spiritual Thought?

The bedrock of all spiritual thought rests upon the acknowledgment of a divine force or universal energy that transcends the tangible and finite aspects of existence. Whether characterized as God, the Universe, or a higher power, spiritual thinking hinges on the recognition of a transcendent source that unites all living beings and permeates the fabric of reality.

This profound acknowledgment serves as the cornerstone of diverse spiritual philosophies found across cultures and belief systems worldwide. It encapsulates the understanding that there exists a force beyond the observable, one that holds the keys to the mysteries of creation and interconnectedness. This recognition of a higher power becomes the focal point around which spiritual thoughts orbit, influencing perspectives, behaviors, and the very essence of human experience.

The divine force or universal energy, revered in spiritual thinking, is often perceived as an omnipresent, omnipotent, and benevolent presence. It is the unifying thread that binds all living beings, fostering a sense of oneness and interconnection. This foundational concept lays the groundwork for ethical frameworks, moral guidance, and the pursuit of a purposeful and harmonious existence.

Across various spiritual traditions, the nuances of how this divine force is conceptualized may differ, reflecting cultural diversity and individual interpretations. Some may personify it as a personal deity, while others may perceive it as an abstract cosmic energy. Despite these differences, the shared essence remains—the acknowledgment of a higher power that transcends the material world and gives profound meaning to human existence.

In essence, the basis of all spiritual thought lies in the recognition that there is something beyond the tangible and measurable—a force that infuses life with purpose, meaning, and interconnectedness. It is this acknowledgment that forms the spiritual bedrock, inviting individuals to explore the depths of their beliefs, engage in contemplation, and seek a profound connection with the divine, however, it may be understood within the context of their spiritual journey.

Should We Think Spiritually?

Engaging in spiritual thinking is a deeply personal choice, influenced by an individual’s unique set of spiritual beliefs and perspectives. This contemplative approach to life is not a universal mandate but rather an invitation for those who find resonance in exploring the dimensions beyond the tangible and the immediate.

The decision to think spiritually is woven into the fabric of an individual’s journey of self-discovery and connection with the spiritual dimension. It involves a conscious exploration of beliefs, values, and the recognition of a higher purpose. For some, spiritual thinking becomes a guiding force that infuses their lives with profound meaning, fostering a sense of direction and purpose.

The benefits of thinking spiritually can be transformative. Increased resilience often accompanies this mindset, providing individuals with the strength to navigate life’s challenges and uncertainties. Emotional well-being is another potential outcome, as spiritual thinking may offer solace, inner peace, and a broader perspective on the ebb and flow of emotions .

Moreover, thinking spiritually can instill a profound sense of purpose—a compass guiding individuals toward a life that aligns with their spiritual principles and values. This purpose-driven approach can contribute to a more fulfilling and intentional existence, shaping choices and actions in harmony with one’s spiritual beliefs.

However, it’s crucial to recognize that the journey of spiritual thinking is not prescriptive. It does not impose a singular path or set of beliefs. Rather, it invites individuals to explore the depths of their own spirituality in a way that resonates authentically with their inner selves.

Thus, whether one chooses to think spiritually is a deeply personal decision shaped by individual beliefs, experiences, and the quest for meaning. For those who embark on this contemplative journey, the potential benefits—resilience, emotional well-being, and a sense of purpose—can be profound, contributing to a richer and more interconnected experience of life.

Where Can I Get Spiritual Thoughts?

Discovering spiritual thoughts encompasses a multifaceted exploration that extends beyond traditional avenues. Here are various sources where you can tap into the wellspring of spiritual wisdom:

Sacred Texts: Delve into the scriptures and writings of various religious traditions. Whether it’s the Bible, Quran, Bhagavad Gita, or other sacred texts, these timeless writings often contain profound spiritual insights.
Philosophical Literature: Explore the works of renowned philosophers who have delved into the realms of spirituality. Thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, and more contemporary philosophers offer perspectives on the metaphysical and spiritual dimensions of life.
Teachings from Spiritual Leaders: Listen to the wisdom shared by spiritual leaders, gurus, and enlightened beings. Their teachings often provide guidance on spiritual principles, mindfulness, and the pursuit of inner peace.
Nature: Immerse yourself in the beauty of the natural world. Nature has a way of inspiring spiritual thoughts, fostering a sense of awe, interconnectedness, and harmony with the universe.
Meditation : Practice meditation to quiet the mind and create space for spiritual insights. Meditation serves as a direct channel to the inner self, allowing for the emergence of profound thoughts and a heightened sense of awareness.
Introspection: Reflect on your own experiences, beliefs, and values. Journaling and introspective practices enable you to explore your inner landscape, uncovering spiritual thoughts that resonate with your personal journey.
Everyday Experiences: Cultivate mindfulness in your daily life. Spiritual thoughts can emerge from ordinary moments when approached with a receptive mindset. Pay attention to the present moment, finding beauty and meaning in simple experiences.
Conversations and Community: Engage in conversations with like-minded individuals or participate in spiritual communities. Sharing perspectives and insights with others can broaden your understanding and introduce new dimensions to your spiritual thoughts.

Remember, the pursuit of spiritual thoughts is a personal and evolving journey. Stay open to various sources, and allow your own experiences to guide you on a path of self-discovery and spiritual growth.

In summary, the exploration of spiritual thinking unfolds as a transformative odyssey, transcending the boundaries of conventional cognitive processes. By understanding the significance of spiritual thinking, differentiating between thoughts and ideas, and embracing the foundational principles of all spiritual thought, individuals can enrich their human experience.

The recognition of the profound importance of spiritual thinking opens doors to inner peace, heightened self-awareness, and a broader perspective on life’s challenges. Distinguishing between the ethereal nature of thoughts and the more tangible quality of ideas allows for a nuanced approach to cognition, fostering a more profound connection with one’s spiritual self.

At the core of spiritual thinking lies the acknowledgment of a divine force or universal energy, uniting all living beings. This recognition becomes the cornerstone of diverse spiritual philosophies, offering individuals a compass for navigating the complexities of existence.

Ultimately, the journey to spiritual thinking is inclusive and accessible to all who embark upon it. Whether driven by a pursuit of personal growth or a desire for a deeper connection with the universe, the path to spiritual thinking beckons, inviting individuals to explore the realms of consciousness, purpose, and interconnected existence. In embracing this transformative journey, individuals can unlock the potential for a more meaningful and enriched life experience.

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The Spiritual Dialogue between Janaka and Astavakra: Ancient Wisdom for Modern Seekers

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Uncovering the Mysteries of Prana, the Life Force Energy: From Ancient Texts to Modern Science

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The concept of zero is fundamental to our understanding of mathematics and science. Yet, its origins are shrouded in mystery, spanning different civilizations and intertwining with spirituality. In this blog post, we will delve into the intriguing history of zero, exploring how it emerged independently across the world and its deep connections to both science…

How Critical Thinkers Lose Their Faith in God

Religious belief drops when analytical thinking rises

By Daisy Grewal

Why are some people more religious than others? Answers to this question often focus on the role of culture or upbringing. While these influences are important, new research suggests that whether we believe may also have to do with how much we rely on intuition versus analytical thinking. In 2011 Amitai Shenhav, David Rand and Joshua Greene of Harvard University published a paper showing that people who have a tendency to rely on their intuition are more likely to believe in God. They also showed that encouraging people to think intuitively increased people’s belief in God. Building on these findings, in a recent paper published in Science , Will Gervais and Ara Norenzayan of the University of British Columbia found that encouraging people to think analytically reduced their tendency to believe in God. Together these findings suggest that belief may at least partly stem from our thinking styles.

Gervais and Norenzayan’s research is based on the idea that we possess two different ways of thinking that are distinct yet related. Understanding these two ways, which are often referred to as System 1 and System 2, may be important for understanding our tendency towards having religious faith. System 1 thinking relies on shortcuts and other rules-of-thumb while System 2 relies on analytic thinking and tends to be slower and require more effort. Solving logical and analytical problems may require that we override our System 1 thinking processes in order to engage System 2. Psychologists have developed a number of clever techniques that encourage us to do this. Using some of these techniques, Gervais and Norenzayan examined whether engaging System 2 leads people away from believing in God and religion.

For example, they had participants view images of artwork that are associated with reflective thinking (Rodin’s The Thinker) or more neutral images (Discobulus of Myron). Participants who viewed The Thinker reported weaker religious beliefs on a subsequent survey. However, Gervais and Norenzayan wondered if showing people artwork might have made the connection between thinking and religion too obvious. In their next two studies, they created a task that more subtly primed analytic thinking. Participants received sets of five randomly arranged words (e.g. “high winds the flies plane”) and were asked to drop one word and rearrange the others in order to create a more meaningful sentence (e.g. “the plane flies high”). Some of their participants were given scrambled sentences containing words associated with analytic thinking (e.g. “analyze,” “reason”) and other participants were given sentences that featured neutral words (e.g. “hammer,” “shoes”). After unscrambling the sentences, participants filled out a survey about their religious beliefs. In both studies, this subtle reminder of analytic thinking caused participants to express less belief in God and religion. The researchers found no relationship between participants’ prior religious beliefs and their performance in the study. Analytic thinking reduced religious belief regardless of how religious people were to begin with.

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In a final study, Gervais and Norenzayan used an even more subtle way of activating analytic thinking: by having participants fill out a survey measuring their religious beliefs that was printed in either clear font or font that was difficult to read. Prior research has shown that difficult-to-read font promotes analytic thinking by forcing participants to slow down and think more carefully about the meaning of what they are reading. The researchers found that participants who filled out a survey that was printed in unclear font expressed less belief as compared to those who filled out the same survey in the clear font.

These studies demonstrate yet another way in which our thinking tendencies, many of which may be innate, have contributed to religious faith. It may also help explain why the vast majority of Americans tend to believe in God. Since System 2 thinking requires a lot of effort , the majority of us tend to rely on our System 1 thinking processes when possible. Evidence suggests that the majority of us are more prone to believing than being skeptical. According to a 2005 poll by Gallup, 3 out of every 4 Americans hold at least one belief in the paranormal. The most popular of these beliefs are extrasensory perception (ESP), haunted houses, and ghosts. In addition, the results help explain why some of us are more prone to believe that others. Previous research has found that people differ in their tendency to see intentions and causes in the world. These differences in thinking styles could help explain why some of us are more likely to become believers.

Why and how might analytic thinking reduce religious belief? Although more research is needed to answer this question, Gervais and Norenzayan speculate on a few possibilities. For example, analytic thinking may inhibit our natural intuition to believe in supernatural agents that influence the world. Alternatively, analytic thinking may simply cause us to override our intuition to believe and pay less attention to it. It’s important to note that across studies, participants ranged widely in their religious affiliation, gender, and race. None of these variables were found to significantly relate to people’s behavior in the studies.

Gervais and Norenzayan point out that analytic thinking is just one reason out of many why people may or may not hold religious beliefs. In addition, these findings do not say anything about the inherent value or truth of religious beliefs—they simply speak to the psychology of when and why we are prone to believe. Most importantly, they provide evidence that rather than being static, our beliefs can change drastically from situation to situation, without us knowing exactly why.

Are you a scientist who specializes in neuroscience, cognitive science, or psychology? And have you read a recent peer-reviewed paper that you would like to write about? Please send suggestions to Mind Matters editor Gareth Cook, a Pulitzer prize-winning journalist at the Boston Globe. He can be reached at garethideas AT gmail.com or Twitter @garethideas .

Guided Journey

The Spirituality of Critical Thinking

by Linda Deir | - Linda's Weekly Guided Insights | 3 comments

The takeaway from this episode is … spirituality and critical thinking are not separate; it’s about living in two worlds simultaneously, a spiritual hybrid to living in just this world.
Here’s what this will do for you … being a spiritual hybrid is about harnessing the conversations you are having with your higher self and your Guides .
Here’s what I want you to do with it … it’s a delicate balance to live in 2 worlds, so you must write down what you are observing while living it. This is how you will master being a spiritual hybrid.

NOTE: The “italic text” within this post is channeled from Linda’s Spirit Guides and Angels

Critical thinking does not stand alone.

The spirituality of critical thinking is a hybrid … not just being spiritual, or just thinking. However, for those who are just now beginning to desire this hybrid of the spirituality of critical thinking, it’s also harder to do than ever before. That’s because the outside forces are stronger than ever causing you to doubt yourself.

Fear will instantly seize up all critical thinking .

There’s so much pressure to just think about what you are told that it makes you feel like a pinball getting smacked around that eventually drops into some random hole. People find it difficult to identify what the truth is because of the constant barrage of manipulation being forced on them.

Spirituality alone … lacks depth.

If you take the opinion that everybody’s lying about everything, or out to take advantage of you in some way then you might think it’s difficult, or even impossible to be a spiritual person. Is there such a thing as being half spiritual? … after all, half is better than nothing, right? Your better judgment coming from your higher-self will tell you, “no, that is not right.” This would limit you so much that making any decision would be traumatic. Is your spiritual glass half empty, or half full? It’s not like that.

The spirituality of critical thinking is a process of living in two worlds – simultaneously.

You must learn to focus inward and retreat into the inner light of your being, as opposed to the outer darkness of the world. Being a spiritual hybrid means you are observant, loving, and conscious about what you do and WHY you do it. Once you start putting this into practice you will begin to realize that the truth is already inside you . You just need to slow down, listen, and write it down.

From this cleared-up, inner perspective, you will laugh at what you hear others saying and doing. Living in two worlds allows you to see much more than what is happening in just the physical world. That’s why living in just this world with its limitations will become so obvious that you can no longer accept it as all there is . This greater awareness begins the moment you stop reacting, just calm down and observe, this is when we can reach you and help you on your journey here.

CALL TO ACTION:

Being a spiritual hybrid is what the new leaders are made of. Are you a spiritual hybrid?
Although outside forces attempt to push you away from the spirituality of critical thinking , it’s easier than you think .
Start listening to what others say and then look between the lines. Who benefits? It really is easy to see what’s going on .

HOW IT WORKS: Once you release yourself from panic mode, relax your mind, and stop over-thinking everything you will be able to hear the pure truth coming through from your higher self and your most trustworthy advisors, your Spirit Guides . With the help of your Guides , you will become a superior decision-maker. They have never given up on you. All you need to do is create consistent quiet time and place to detect their guidance and write it down . They have no agenda and always tell you the truth.

Once you tap into this hybrid of being in 2 worlds at the same time you will understand what they meant in this session when they said, “from this cleared up perspective you will laugh at what you hear others saying and doing.” Be a spiritual hybrid of critical thinking and you will be the example others want to learn from . By your example, they will be able to recognize and release the outside pressures that has been controlling them. ~ Linda Deir

Against Dogma: How Blending Spiritually and Critical Thinking Can Improve Your Quality of Life – Medium

‘The missing ingredient in spirituality is critical thinking’ – Philosophy for Life

Critical Thinking as a Spiritual Practice – Keen

How does religion affect critical thinking? – Quora

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Another deep and meaningful message. Thank you.

Yesterday I had a work meeting about reducing the CO2 footprint of transportation (sea containers). In this meeting, it was impossible to question if CO2 (produced by men and machine) is causing global warming. The second item that was impossible to question is if earth is really warming up, and if so, by what, and if it is not warming up, then we would not have a problem?! I could absolutely not go that way!

It is so weird to me that global warming and CO2 are taken as a given fact, and that many people are not questioning it. It makes me laugh at all the weird things that are invented to make people and businesses pay for. The company that we had the meeting with, was hiding behind ‘norms’ and ‘standards’ and that is quite easy to do. My colleague who is in charge said that he also questioned it in some way, but because ‘we are going to have to register the CO2 footprint anyway, in the future because that is the agenda! For that reason, he also took the vaccines, and for that reason, he always blindly follows all rules and regulations that are imposed upon us. Because of that, we will have to do it anyway.

Who says that? For me, it feels that work, jobs, and problems are a joke most of the time. Just to keep us busy enough not to think for ourselves.

Linda’s work keeps me awake, it always triggers me in something that is going on in my life right then.

I barely listen to the regular news channels as that only creates imbalance in my being. To steer clear from the news makes me stay closer to my core and makes it easier to feel what is right or wrong for me.

Looking forward to the next Weekly Insights Linda and Ray ❤️

The work environment you are in sounds like a prison. No open minds or critical thinking going on there, let alone the spiritual side of anything. It feels like a dead zone.

You, Viola, are a critical thinker and a spiritual person making all this obvious to you. So, how can you have any impact in a scenario like this? You can’t!

The spirituality of critical thinkers must find their own way. It’s these types of people who will change a world stuck in fear of stepping out of the status quo.

The people you described will never change anything as they play it safe, making no waves until they can collect their pensions. They will have contributed nothing to making the world a better place, just following the agenda. These people who are currently in charge, are self-serving and obsolete. “They” are what’s wrong with the environment, and not the agenda of a CO2 footprint.

– Linda's Weekly Guided Insights (269)
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2-Taking the Journey (19)
3-Guided Journal Writing System (20)
4-What GUIDED Teaches (9)
5-Lessons from: GUIDED (2)
6-Being "Guided" (14)
7-Know Yourself First (10)
8-Reflections on GUIDED (8)
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MEDIA-Articles (2)
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Companion journal to Guided, My Guided Journey© is available on Amazon , or Immediate Download

“Thank you for these insights, Linda. Everything your Guides say is always so clear. It makes such perfect sense and your weekly postings really keep me motivated and thinking positively. What you are doing really does help people to lift themselves up.”~ Viv Folan

Spirituality, critical thinking, and the desire for what is infinite

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Published: 21 July 2006
Volume 25 , pages 315–326, ( 2006 )

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Gary, K. Spirituality, critical thinking, and the desire for what is infinite. Stud Philos Educ 25 , 315–326 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-006-9008-0

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The Role of Students’ Spiritual Intelligence in Enhancing Their Academic Engagement: A Theoretical Review

Spiritual intelligence as a new type of intelligence has been limitedly explored in education. As it connects one’s mental and spiritual life to his/her performance and functioning, it can play an especial role in students’ L2 education. However, few studies have empirically examined this construct in relation to student-related factors like academic engagement. Against this shortcoming, the present mini-review study presented both theoretical and empirical underpinnings of this line of research by defining the concepts, their components, and previous studies. Finally, the study enumerated the existing gaps and offered future directions and implications for the educational practitioners and researchers whose awareness of spiritual intelligence and its impact on L2 education and learner-psychology variables can improve.

Introduction

Learning a second/foreign language is widely considered as a complicated process involving numerous factors and layers to effectively occur ( Benevene et al., 2020 ). It requires an integration of variables and issues related to both teachers and students. One of the most important drives of L2 learning is taking students’ emotions and diversities into account. This entails an education based on learners’ unique cognitive, affective, and social abilities ( Arnold and Fonseca, 2004 ). Now, it is a common belief among L2 practitioners that language learners in various contexts extensively vary in their personal and instructional profiles and preferences. This proposition came into vogue with a groundbreaking study of multiple intelligences (MIs) by Gardner (1983) who proposed different intelligences for learners to which teachers must pay attention. However, in L2 research, the cognitive aspect of intelligence (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ) have dominated the field for decades, especially their impacts and correlations with other L2 learning variables ( Elhambakhsh et al., 2018 ).

Drawing on MI theory, Zohar and Marshall (2001) took a giant step and proposed a new intelligence known as spiritual intelligence (SI, hereafter) that works independently and requires a different understanding of the connection between one’s inner life, mind, and spirit to the external world ( Vaughan, 2002 ). It is an intelligence that focuses on macro-level problem-solving potentials of learners/teachers, particularly problems pertaining to meaning and value of different ways of life ( Zohar and Marshall, 2001 ). It goes beyond a person’s mental ability and conventional psychological development, linking the personal to the transpersonal and the self to spirit ( Vaughan, 2002 ; Estaji and Pourmostafa, 2020 ). As stated by Denny et al. (2008) , SI can establish a learning atmosphere in which students can reach their full potentials as it capitalizes on their ability to make personal meanings out of life experience, consciousness, and critical thinking. In support of these benefits, Zohar (2010) called for an education oriented to the principles of SI that considers students’ curiosity and motivates them to interrogate their previous assumptions about values and events and to embrace new experiences.

Having positioned itself in the body of knowledge in L2 education, SI has recently caught the attention of researchers who mainly explored its impacts and associations with teacher-related variables such as pedagogical success, leadership style, self-regulation, job satisfaction, burnout, professional commitment, and critical thinking ability ( Kaur, 2013 ; Azizi and Azizi, 2015 ; Zhaleh and Ghonsooly, 2017 ; Elhambakhsh et al., 2018 ; Emma et al., 2018 ; Estaji and Pourmostafa, 2020 ). With regard to EFL students, there are only a couple of studies that are limited to the role of SI in developing their writing skills and learning strategies ( Santoso, 2016 ; Sotoudehnama et al., 2018 ) and the impact of SI on EFL students’ classroom behaviors and practices has largely been ignored.

One such overlooked area is the effect of SI on EFL students’ academic engagement that refers to their involvement in classroom activities as a sign of motivation that produces academic energy, zest, investment, and success ( Skinner and Pitzer, 2012 ; Phillips, 2015 ). As language learning is a complex process, students need to be highly engaged in the classroom so that they can pass the challenges involved in L2 education. This is obtainable by developing their SI level that, in turn, causes more confidence, agency, context-sensitivity, academic achievement ( Hassan, 2009 ). However, the existing literature in this domain lacks empirical/theoretical studies on the correlation between students’ SI and engagement. To fill this gap, the present mini-review study aimed to present the theoretical underpinnings of this line of research and offers future directions concerning EFL students’ SI and academic engagement.

Intelligence(s) and Education

The long history of intelligence in education has witnessed many twists and turns since 1980s when it was first regarded as a fixed and innate feature focusing largely on IQ ( Sotoudehnama et al., 2018 ). Such a simplistic view addressed only one dimension of cognitive ability and ignored others ( Hajhashemi et al., 2012 ). However, with the emergence of Gardner’s (1983) MI model the door was opened for a learner-specific education that cares for learner diversity. For Gardner (1983) , intelligence was a combination of several abilities that satisfy individuals’ unique needs and styles. He proposed eight types of intelligence including linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist ( Figure 1 ).

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Types of intelligence (Reproduced with permission from Gardner, 1983 ).

According to him, musical intelligence concerns one’s sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and tones of music, while visual–spatial intelligence pertains to one’s judgment and the ability to visualize through his/her mind’s eye. People with high verbal–linguistic intelligence are skillful in dealing with words and languages, while those with logical-mathematical intelligence are strong in coping with reasoning, numbers, logic, abstractions, and critical thinking. Moreover, he defined bodily-kinesthetic intelligence as being generally good at physical activities like sports, dance, and creating things. Interpersonal intelligence concerns one’s sensitivity to others’ feelings, emotions, intentions, and the ability to work in a group, while interpersonal intelligence means having a deep understanding of the self. Finally, individuals with high naturalistic intelligence have comprehensive knowledge for recognizing and classifying various typologies of plants and animals in the natural world. Despite its universal popularity, Gardner’s (1983) model lacks sufficient empirical data to support the validity of the proposed typologies of intelligence. Additionally, the measurement of these intelligences is yet to be psychometrically approved in education. However, Gardner’s attempts around the theory of MI and existential intelligences paved the way for the introduction of other types of intelligence like emotional intelligence ( Goleman, 1995 ) and SI for the first time in 1990s. Yet, Gardner did not regard SI as a major type of intelligence as it could not meet his eight criteria. Later, at the beginning of the 20th century, the viability of the concept was approved in different disciplines (psychology, general education, medicine), but it is still new to second/foreign language teaching and learning.

The Concept of Spiritual Intelligence

The construct of SI as a new term in educational psychology refers to the adjustable use of spiritual information to expedite one’s daily problem-solving and goal achievement ( Emmons, 2000 ). It is the capacity to employ and represent spiritual resources to boost everyday performance and wellbeing ( Amram and Drye, 2007 ). It is worth noting that SI is derived from the notion of spirituality and differs from religiosity ( Koenig et al., 2000 ). In education, SI unifies flexibility and emotional resilience and plays a critical role in helping students/teachers make sense of their world and construct aims and values ( Zohar and Marshall, 2001 ). To put simply, SI pertains to one’s capability to behave and perform judiciously and empathetically, while maintaining inner and outer harmony, regardless of the surroundings ( Wigglesworth, 2006 ). To use Gardner’s (2006 , p. 20) interpretation, SI is “the intelligence of big questions” that draws on human predisposition to probe fundamental questions about existence. According to Zohar (2010) , this type of intelligence can promote one’s motivations for exploration, creativity, cooperation, self-mastery, situational-mastery, and service-provision. In the educational arena, SI concerns the dynamic interplay of students’ or teachers’ inner life of mind, spirit, and their association to instructional experiences and events ( Vaughan, 2002 ). Operationally, SI refers to the use and application of different spiritual information gathered from various resources by EFL/ESL students to improve their academic behavior and classroom practice.

The Principles and Components Underlying Spiritual Intelligence

In the available literature, many principles and components have been proposed for the construct of SI as a complicated variable related to learners. As a case in point, Zohar (2000) proposed 12 key principles underlying this crucial construct as what follows:

Self-awareness: Knowing and recognizing what we believe in, value, and what really motivates us.
Spontaneity: Living in the moment.
Being vision- and value-led: Acting based on principles and beliefs and living in tune with inspirations.
Holism: Seeing things as an integrated system with connected and interwoven parts.
Compassion: Having deep empathy.
Celebration of diversity: Valuing and accepting others with their differences to form a passionate dialogue.
Field independence: Standing against the crowd and having one’s own convictions.
Humility: Accepting when we have been wrong and deeply questioning ourselves.
Tendency to ask fundamental “why?” questions: This is rooted in our desire to understand and discover things profoundly.
Ability to reframe: The ability to see the bigger picture in a wider context to get connected to a larger vision of something.
Positive use of adversity: Having courage to admit and learn from mistakes, obstacles, and challenges.
Sense of vocation: Doing work with a goal to benefit humanity.

In a similar manner, Emmons (2000) proposed five components for the construct of SI including; (1) the capability to transcend the physical and material; (2) the capability to experience enhanced states of consciousness; (3) the capacity to sanctify everyday experience; (4) the capability to use spiritual resources to solve problems, and (5) the ability to be virtuous (to express gratitude, compassion, forgiveness). Drawing on these, King (2008) added four elements of critical existential thinking, personal meaning-production, transcendental awareness , and conscious-state expansion to the construct of SI ( Table 1 ).

Different components of SI.

These dimensions indicate that SI is a complex variable that may differ across cultures and contexts. Hence, it can be argued that further empirical studies on this construct in L2 education may come across more and various components. The proposed dimensions are by no means fixed and universal as they have been offered decades ago. Consequently, future empirical studies are suggested to test the existing dimensions or even add/modify them in L2 education, especially in relation to learner psychology variables (e.g., academic engagement, motivation, resilience, efficacy, etc.).

Student Engagement

As one of the most important objectives of education and what teachers are urgently seeking for, student engagement in language education became more visible and highlighted by positive psychology that gave weight to learners’ positive emotions and inner states ( MacIntyre et al., 2019 ). It is a multi-faceted variable concerning the extent and quality of students’ involvement and participation in classroom tasks and activities ( Skinner and Pitzer, 2012 ; Tu, 2021 ). Students’ engagement is a representation of their intrinsic motivation that is shaped over time and in a positive academic context ( Elliott and Tudge, 2012 ; Wang and Guan, 2020 ).

As for the dimensions of this meta-construct, research shows that it encompasses behavioral, emotional, cognitive, agentic, academic, and social dimensions as described in Table 2 ( DeVito, 2016 ; Oga-Baldwin, 2019 ).

The dimensions of student engagement.

According to Collins (2014) , this dynamic and multi-layered variables can be affected by different factors including phenomenological factors that are related to one’s ability, culture, and task difficulty; individual - demographic factors such as age, gender, educational background/qualification; and lastly instructional factors that concern teachers’ classroom practices and behaviors. However, SI as an individual-demographic factor that highlights the diversity of learners and the role of spirituality and mind in learning has not been studied sufficiently as a factor influencing academic engagement.

Previous Studies

Contrary to other areas of research on learner-psychology and intelligence, scant studies exist considering students’ SI and its role in L2 education. This might be due to the unclear conceptualization of the term and its association to SLA. Likewise, the concept seems to be more fitting fields that are religion-oriented ( Emmons, 2000 ; Koenig et al., 2000 ). Nevertheless, some scholars have broken the ice and begun exploring the construct of SI in SLA over the past years arguing that it can promote teachers’ pedagogical success, self-regulation, job satisfaction, burnout, professional commitment, and critical thinking ability ( Kaur, 2013 ; Azizi and Azizi, 2015 ; Zhaleh and Ghonsooly, 2017 ; Elhambakhsh et al., 2018 ; Emma et al., 2018 ). Additionally, in their recent mixed-methods study, Estaji and Pourmostafa (2020) examined the relationship between Iranian EFL teachers’ SI and leadership style in light of their teaching experience level. In so doing, 236 EFL teachers completed two questionnaires on these two variables out of which 10 teachers were later interviewed. The results indicated that the components of SI significantly predicted novice and experienced EFL teachers’ perceptions of leadership styles. Likewise, Emma et al. (2018) quantitatively investigated the effect of SI on Indonesian teachers’ teamwork and commitment using a questionnaire that was completed by 143 teachers. The results of correlation analysis revealed a direct impact of SI on participants’ teamwork and commitment.

As for the effect of SI on students’ classroom behaviors and practices like their degree of engagement in/with classroom activities, Smartt (2014) argued that SI and its features have a strong influence on American secondary students’ engagement and performance. Moreover, the role of SI in shaping EFL students’ language learning has caught the attention of some studies that identified that SI improves EFL students’ writing skills and learning strategies ( Santoso, 2016 ; Sotoudehnama et al., 2018 ). Furthermore, research displays that students’ engagement can cause diverse positive academic outcomes ( Eccles, 2016 ) and is correlated with achievement, motivation, interpersonal skills, psychosocial adjustment, psychological safety, effective learning, success, and classroom culture ( Chase et al., 2015 ; Jang et al., 2016 ; Wang, 2017 ; Tu, 2021 ; Xie and Derakhshan, 2021 ). Despite these studies, empirical research on the association of student engagement and SI, as two constructs in learner-psychology, is demanded in various EFL/ESL contexts. Moreover, this area lacks sufficient research on the intersection of intelligence and positive emotions which have tight connections on the part of learners and their learning. Hence, running explorations in this strand of research is highly recommended.

Concluding Remarks

In this mini-review study, it was maintained that SI can play a pivotal role in shaping and raising EFL students’ academic engagement in the class. Hence, it can offer implications for different stakeholders as their knowledge of intelligence and positive emotions adds fresh insights to their practices. This theoretical review is meritorious to EFL teachers in that they can work on techniques by which they can improve their pupils’ SI and engagement levels. They can also get familiar with the role of learner-related variables (SI) and emotions in the process of learning. Similarly, EFL students can benefit from this study in that it can increase their awareness of the power of their mental/spiritual resources to solve problems and experience well-being in education. Teacher trainers, as another group, may find this study valuable and offer training courses to EFL teachers in which ways of dealing with and improving students’ SI and engagement are fully explained and practiced. Additionally, they can add a psycho-emotional aspect to their training programs along with pedagogical issues. Furthermore, this article can be useful for L2 researchers and inspire them to run similar and complementary studies in which the role of SI in SLA is more illustrated. The current state of research in this domain is limited to a number of correlational studies using a one-shot design. Hence, future studies can be conducted using qualitative and mixed-methods designs. Moreover, most of the studies on SI have focused on teacher-related variables, so future research can be recommended examining learner-related variables especially those of PP. As both SI and engagement are dynamic and multi-faceted, experimental studies are also suggested to see if they develop over a course or not. Finally, cross-cultural examinations can be done of EFL students’ level of SI and engagement to identify whether cultural and social factors mediate their relationship.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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The influence of spirituality and religion on critical care nursing: An integrative review

Affiliations.

1 Research Group under the Andalusian Research CTS 1050 "Complex Care, Chronic and Health Outcomes", Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, Physiotherapy, and Podiatry, University of Seville, Seville, Spain.
2 University of Seville, Seville, Spain.
3 Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil.
4 Research Group CTS 969 "Innovation in HealthCare and Social Determinants of Health", School of Nursing, Physiotherapy and Podiatry, University of Seville, Seville, Spain.
PMID: 33966310
DOI: 10.1111/nicc.12645

Background: Spiritual care could help family members and critically ill patients to cope with anxiety, stress and depression. However, health care professionals are poorly prepared and health managers are not allocating all the resources needed.

Aims and objectives: To critically review the empirical evidence concerning the influence of spirituality and religion (S-R) on critical care nursing.

Methods: An integrative review of the literature published in the last 10 years (2010-2019) was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, CINHAL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Cochrane and LILACS. In addition, searches were performed in the System for Information on Grey Literature in Europe and the Grey Literature Report. Quantitative and/or qualitative studies, assessing S-R and including health care professionals caring for critically ill patients (i.e. adults or children), were included.

Results: Forty articles were included in the final analysis (20 qualitative, 19 quantitative and 1 with a mixed methodology). The studies embraced the following themes: S-R importance and the use of coping among critical care patients and families; spiritual needs of patients and families; health care professionals' awareness of spiritual needs; ways to address spiritual care in the intensive care unit (ICU); definition of S-R by health care professionals; perceptions and barriers of addressing spiritual needs; and influence of S-R on health care professionals' outcomes and decisions. Our results indicate that patients and their families use S-R coping strategies to alleviate stressful situations in the ICU and that respecting patients' spiritual beliefs is an essential component of critical care. Although nurses consider spiritual care to be very important, they do not feel prepared to address S-R and report lack of time as the main barrier.

Conclusion and implications for practice: Critical care professionals should be aware about the needs of their patients and should be trained to handle S-R in clinical practice. Nurses are encouraged to increase their knowledge and awareness towards spiritual issues.

Keywords: adult; critical care; intensive care; nursing; paediatric; religious; spirituality.

Publication types

Critical Care Nursing*
Critical Illness
Spiritual Therapies*
Spirituality

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Background: Spiritual care could help family members and critically ill patients to cope with anxiety, stress and depression. However, health care professionals are poorly prepared and health managers are not allocating all the resources needed. Aims and objectives: To critically review the empirical evidence concerning the influence of spirituality and religion (S-R) on critical care nursing.
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