graphical representation of global warming

Science News by AGU

What Five Graphs from the U.N. Climate Report Reveal About Our Path to Halting Climate Change

1. Global Warming Thus Far

Graph of global surface temperature over the past 2,000 years.

The takeaway: The world has warmed 1.1°C compared to preindustrial levels, and regional hot spots already feel the heat, but we have not surpassed the Paris Agreement goal of limiting warming to 1.5°C or 2°C.

In the past 100,000 years, Earth has been this warm only once. Around 6,500 years ago, the planet’s temperatures were about on par with what they are today. The difference? That warming was part of an ebbing and flowing cycle of ice sheets from natural variation of Earth’s orbit. Today’s temperatures come from pollution that will continue to grow unless we hit the brakes.

Today, some areas on Earth have already warmed beyond 2°C. The Washington Post reported in 2019 that 71 counties in the United States have already warmed past 2°C. Temperatures in the Arctic are rising at least twice as fast as the rest of the world. Islands are particularly at risk: The rallying cry for 1.5°C originated from an alliance of 44 small island states that commissioned a study in 2008 and became alarmed that 2°C warming would threaten their survival.

Previous climate agreements favored a 2°C rise, but mounting evidence suggests that keeping temperatures to a 1.5°C rise would greatly reduce extreme heat, instances of extreme precipitation and drought, sea level rise, species loss and extinction, and ocean acidification.

Global temperatures have a 20% chance of reaching 1.5°C above preindustrial levels during at least one of the next five years, according to the U.K. Met Office and the World Meteorological Organization.

2. Future Warming Pathways

Graph of global surface temperature from 2000 to 2100.

The takeaway: Keeping warming below 2°C, and perhaps 1.5°C, is still possible; it’ll take immediate and sustained emissions cuts.

Future illustrative scenarios of warming are one of the hallmarks of IPCC reports. The scenarios include natural forcing like solar activity and volcanoes, along with social and economic forces that drive greenhouse gas emissions, land use, climate mitigation, and air pollution.

The scenarios will underpin international policy, research, and activism for years to come.

The scenarios aren’t predictions; they can’t determine the fate of global warming. Instead, they provide road maps. The scenarios often underpin international policy, research, and activism for years to come.

The new report has five scenarios: two with low emissions, one with intermediate emissions, and two with high emissions. The very low emissions scenario meets the 1.5°C Paris Agreement goal with likely warming of 1.4°C by 2100—but it overshoots the target to just above 1.5°C midcentury before decreasing to 1.4°C. The low emissions scenario reaches 1.8°C by 2100, just skirting under the high bounds of the Paris Agreement. Midlevel emissions hit 2.7°C, high emissions clock in at 3.6°C, and very high emissions extend to 4.4°C in 2100.

Climate scientist and IPCC Working Group I cochair Valérie Masson-Delmotte said that the midlevel emissions scenario most closely resembles the pledges made by countries to plateau emissions until around 2030. The highest emissions scenarios represent futures without any climate mitigation.

The last IPCC assessment in 2013 included just one low emissions scenario that kept warming under 2°C.

3. Carbon Dioxide’s Oversized Footprint

Graph of global surface temperature from climate forcings.

The takeaway: Net zero carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a requirement for any long-term climate solution.

Greenhouse gases include CO 2 , methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases. When headlines or politicians talk about “net zero carbon” or “carbon neutral,” it may seem like they’re leaving out other greenhouse gases. But although most climate targets aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as a group, the essential ingredient is carbon dioxide.

The graph above illustrates why.

Warming is overwhelmingly controlled by the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. There is a nearly linear relationship between cumulative carbon dioxide increasing and global surface temperatures rising. The latest report even has an equation for it: Every 1,000 metric gigatons of cumulative CO 2 emissions (GtCO 2 ) will likely cause planetary warming of 0.45℃.

4. Annual Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Graph of annual carbon dioxide emissions between 2000 and 2100.

The takeaway: The most aggressive scenario to limit warming requires sharp CO 2 cuts per decade, net zero CO 2 by 2050, and carbon capture.

Carbon emissions come from burning oil, gas, and coal; these fossil fuels drive heating, electricity, agriculture, land use, industry, and transport.

During COVID-19, emissions fell an unprecedented 2.6 GtCO 2 in 1 year , according to research published in Nature Climate Change in 2021. Because the emissions cuts during the pandemic were temporary, those reductions won’t have any detectable effect on CO 2 concentrations or temperature. The researchers of the Nature Climate Change study predict that emissions cuts of about this scale (1–2 GtCO 2 ) are necessary at least through the 2020s to meet the Paris Agreement.

5. Carbon Extraction

Graphs of surface temperature, permafrost area, and thermal ocean expansion.

The takeaway: The two scenarios in the report that limit warming below 2°C use carbon removal from the atmosphere during the latter part of the century.

Carbon naturally cycles through the soil, water, plants, and air continuously. We can draw carbon out of the atmosphere by planting trees, sequestering carbon in agricultural soil, restoring ocean ecosystems that store carbon, and applying carbon capture and storage technology.

Model simulations in the latest report suggest that removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere drops temperatures in just a matter of years.

Although some carbon removal methods show promise , the practice remains in the research and development phase and would require deployment at massive scales, according to the report. Carbon capture could cause undesirable effects such as losses of biodiversity, water, or food production.

More to Come

The report by Working Group I on the physical science is one of four expected over the next year; reports from Working Group II in February 2022 and Working Group III in March 2022 will explore the impacts of climate change and mitigation, respectively. The synthesis report in November 2022 will combine all findings.

—Jenessa Duncombe ( @jrdscience ), Staff Writer

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2021), Summary for policymakers, in Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , edited by V. Masson-Delmotte et al., Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K., in press.

Duncombe, J. (2021), What five graphs from the U.N. climate report reveal about our path to halting climate change, Eos, 102 , https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EO161811 . Published on 09 August 2021.

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COP26: 6 charts to help you understand climate change

at a climate protest, protesters are holding up a 1.5 degrees celsius sign, which is the temperature the world must aim for to avoid some of the worst effects of climate change

An atmospheric scientist explores the key driving forces behind climate change and the impact it's having on the planet. Image: UNSPLASH/Mika Baumeister

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Stay up to date:, climate change.

With COP26 underway in Glasgow, it's useful to understand the science behind climate change.
Here, an atmospheric scientist explores the key driving forces behind climate change and the impact it's having on the planet.
While larger-scale solutions such as renewable energy are being used to combat rising temperatures, more people are now finding ways to reduce their own personal impact.

With the United Nations’ climate conference in Scotland turning a spotlight on climate change policies and the impact of global warming, it’s useful to understand what the science shows.

I’m an atmospheric scientist who has worked on global climate science and assessments for most of my career. Here are six things you should know, in charts.

What’s driving climate change

The primary focus of the negotiations is on carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that is released when fossil fuels – coal, oil and natural gas – are burned, as well as by forest fires, land use changes and natural sources.

The Industrial Revolution of the late 1800s started an enormous increase in the burning of fossil fuels. It powered homes, industries and opened up the planet to travel. That same century, scientists identified carbon dioxide’s potential to increase global temperatures , which at the time was considered a possible benefit to the planet. Systematic measurements started in the mid-1900s and have shown a steady increase in carbon dioxide, with the majority of it directly traceable to the combustion of fossil fuels.

a chart showing how how much the CO2 concentration increased each year from 1960 to 2020

Once in the atmosphere, carbon dioxide tends to stay there for a very long time. A portion of the carbon dioxide released through human activities is taken up by plants, and some is absorbed directly into the ocean, but roughly half of all carbon dioxide emitted by human activities today stays in the atmosphere — and it likely will remain there for hundreds of years , influencing the climate globally.

During the first year of the pandemic in 2020 , when fewer people were driving and some industries briefly stopped, carbon dioxide emissions from fuels fell by roughly 6%. But it didn’t stop the rise in the concentration of carbon dioxide because the amount released into the atmosphere by human activities far exceeded what nature could absorb.

If civilization stopped its carbon dioxide-emitting activities today, it would still take many hundreds of years for the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to fall enough naturally to bring the planet’s carbon cycle back into balance because of carbon dioxide’s long life in the atmosphere.

a chart showing how long CO2 stays in the atmosphere

How we know greenhouse gases can change the climate

Multiple lines of scientific evidence point to the increase in greenhouse emissions over the past century and a half as a driver of long-term climate change around the world. For example:

Laboratory measurements since the 1800s have repeatedly verified and quantified the absorptive properties of carbon dioxide that allow it to trap heat in the atmosphere.

Simple models based on the warming impact of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere match historical changes in temperature .

Complex climate models, recently acknowledged in the Nobel Prize for Physics , not only indicate a warming of the Earth due to increases in carbon dioxide but also offer details of the areas of greatest warming .

a chart showing climate history: 500 million years before the present, to the present day

Long-term records from ice cores , tree rings and corals show that when carbon dioxide levels have been high, temperatures have also been high.

Our neighboring planets also offer evidence. Venus’ atmosphere is thick with carbon dioxide, and it is the hottest planet in our solar system as a result, even though Mercury is closer to the sun.

Have you read?

Climate change jargon: 8 terms you need to know, here are 7 of the world's greenest buildings at cop26 - and how they can help tackle climate change, temperatures are rising on every continent.

The rising temperatures are evident in records from every continent and over the oceans.

The temperatures aren’t rising at the same rate everywhere, however. A variety of factors affect local temperatures, including land use that influences how much solar energy is absorbed or reflected, local heating sources like urban heat islands , and pollution.

The Arctic, for example, is warming about three times faster than the global average in part because as the planet warms, snow and ice melt makes the surface more likely to absorb, rather than reflect, the sun’s radiation. Snow cover and sea ice recede even more rapidly as a result.

a chart showing how temperatures have risen over time around the world

What climate change is doing to the planet

Earth’s climate system is interconnected and complex, and even small temperature changes can have large impacts – for instance, with snow cover and sea levels.

Changes are already happening. Studies show that rising temperatures are already affecting precipitation, glaciers, weather patterns, tropical cyclone activity and severe storms. A number of studies show that the increases in frequency , severity and duration of heat waves, for example, affect ecosystems, human lives , commerce and agriculture.

Historical records of ocean water level have shown mostly consistent increases over the past 150 years as glacier ice melts and rising temperatures expand ocean water, with some local deviations due to sinking or rising land.

a chart showing how sea level has risen in coastal cities around the world

While extreme events are often due to complex sets of causes, some are exacerbated by climate change. Just as coastal flooding can be made worse by rising ocean levels, heat waves are more damaging with higher baseline temperatures.

Climate scientists work hard to estimate future changes as a result of increased carbon dioxide and other expected changes, such as world population. It’s clear that temperatures will increase and precipitation will change. The exact magnitude of change depends on many interacting factors.

a diagram of the earth highlighting a high-emissions scenario for climate change

A few reasons for hope

On a hopeful note, scientific research is improving our understanding of climate and the complex Earth system, identifying the most vulnerable areas and guiding efforts to reduce the drivers of climate change. Work on renewable energy and alternative energy sources, as well as ways to capture carbon from industries or from the air, are producing more options for a better prepared society.

At the same time, people are learning about how they can reduce their own impact, with the growing understanding that a globally coordinated effort is required to have a significant impact. Electric vehicles, as well as solar and wind power, are growing at previously unthinkable rates. More people are showing a willingness to adopt new strategies to use energy more efficiently, consume more sustainably and choose renewable energy.

Climate change poses an urgent threat demanding decisive action. Communities around the world are already experiencing increased climate impacts, from droughts to floods to rising seas. The World Economic Forum's Global Risks Report continues to rank these environmental threats at the top of the list.

To limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C and as close as possible to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, it is essential that businesses, policy-makers, and civil society advance comprehensive near- and long-term climate actions in line with the goals of the Paris Agreement on climate change.

The World Economic Forum's Climate Initiative supports the scaling and acceleration of global climate action through public and private-sector collaboration. The Initiative works across several workstreams to develop and implement inclusive and ambitious solutions.

This includes the Alliance of CEO Climate Leaders, a global network of business leaders from various industries developing cost-effective solutions to transitioning to a low-carbon, climate-resilient economy. CEOs use their position and influence with policy-makers and corporate partners to accelerate the transition and realize the economic benefits of delivering a safer climate.

Scientists increasingly recognize that shifting away from fossil fuels has additional benefits , including improved air quality for human health and ecosystems.

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License and Republishing

World Economic Forum articles may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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Six graphics that explain climate change

A breakthrough deal to attempt to limit global temperature rises was agreed at a conference of world nations in December 2015. These charts from the time show how and why the Earth’s climate is changing.

1. What is the problem?

The world is getting warmer.

The average temperature of the Earth's surface has increased by about 0.85°C (1.4F) in the last 100 years. Up until 2015, 13 of the 14 warmest years had been recorded in the 21st Century. 2015 then became the hottest year on record, but was surpassed by record-breaking 2016.

How years compare with the 20th Century average

2015 is the coldest year on record is the second coldest year on record is the third coldest year on record is the fourth coldest year on record is the fifth coldest year on record is the sixth coldest year on record is the seventh coldest year on record is the eighth coldest year on record is the ninth coldest year on record is the tenth coldest year on record is the warmest year on record is the second warmest year on record is the third warmest year on record is the fourth warmest year on record is the fifth warmest year on record is the sixth warmest year on record is the seventh warmest year on record is the eighth warmest year on record is the ninth warmest year on record is the tenth warmest year on record.

10 warmest years

10 coldest years

20th Century average temperature

Source: NOAA

2. Why is this happening?

Greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide.

Scientists believe that gases released from industry and agriculture (known as emissions) are adding to the natural greenhouse effect, the way the Earth's atmosphere traps some of the energy from the Sun.

Human activities such as burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are increasing the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2), the main greenhouse gas responsible for global warming. Carbon-absorbing forests are also being cut down.

The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is now higher than at any time in the last 800,000 years and reached a record high in May 2015. But 2016 marked five consecutive years of CO2 increases of at least two parts per million.

Monthly average CO2 concentration (parts per million)

Scripps CO2 Program, data from the Mauna Loa Observatory

3. What are the effects?

Arctic sea ice melt.

Higher temperatures, extreme weather events and higher sea levels are all linked to a warming climate and could have a drastic effect on the world’s regions.

Since 1900, sea levels have risen by on average about 19cm globally. The rate of sea-level rise has accelerated in recent decades, placing a number of islands and low-lying countries at risk.

The retreat of polar ice sheets is an important contributor to this rise.

Arctic sea ice is also shrinking because of higher temperatures, though it makes little contribution to raised sea levels.

An area of sea ice roughly 10 times the size of the UK has been lost when the current day is compared with average levels from the early 1980s.

Arctic sea ice min. extent: 1980, 7.8 million sq km. 2015, 4.6 million sq km

Source: National Snow and Ice Data Center

4. What does the future hold?

Higher temperatures and more extreme weather.

The scale of potential impacts is uncertain.

The changes could drive shortages in freshwater, bring about major changes in food production conditions and cause a rise in the number of casualties from floods, storms, heat waves and droughts.

This is because climate change is expected to increase the frequency of extreme weather events - however linking any single event to global warming is complicated.

Projected temperature change (1986–2005 to 2081-2100)

If greenhouse gas emissions peak between 2010-2020 and then decline substantially (RCP2.6)

If greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise throughout the 21st century (RCP8.5)

Source: International Panel on Climate Change - Fifth Assessment Report (AR5)

5. What can be done?

World’s top ten greenhouse gas emitters.

The top 10 greenhouse gas emitters make up over 70% of total emissions

Source: Carbon Brief, figures are for 2012

6. Limiting the damage

By the end of October 2015, 146 countries had submitted national climate plans on curbing emissions that are expected to form the cornerstone of a binding, global treaty on climate change.

According to a UN report, submissions in their current form point to a rise of 2.7°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100.

Scientists have determined that if temperature rises surpass 2°C, this will lead to substantial and dangerous climate impacts, which will hit the world's poor in particular.

Average warming (°C) projected by 2100

Source: Climate Action Tracker, data compiled by Climate Analytics, ECOFYS, New Climate Institute and Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research.

Design by Emily Maguire and Tom Nurse, development by Steven Connor and Punit Shah. Written and produced by Nassos Stylianou, Paul Rincon and John Walton.

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What's Going On in This Graph?

Teach About Climate Change With These 24 New York Times Graphs

By Michael Gonchar

Feb. 28, 2019

Update, Feb. 3, 2024: We published a new collection of 30 graphs related to climate change .

Climate change is a gradual process. If you simply measure air temperature, atmospheric carbon dioxide or sea-ice thickness in any given year, you won’t be able to see the full picture of how the planet’s weather patterns are changing. That’s why graphs showing change over time can be such a powerful teaching resource to help students better understand climate trends.

In this teaching resource, we have gathered 24 graphs previously published elsewhere in The New York Times that relate to climate change. In the first section, we discuss teaching strategies for using these graphs in the classroom. In the second section, we present a collection of graphs organized by topic: melting ice, rising seas, changing ocean temperature, changing air temperature, rising carbon emissions, impacts on humans, intensifying storms and contradicting attitudes.

Part I: Strategies for Teaching With Graphs

Each week in “What’s Going On in This Graph? ,” we spotlight an engaging graph previously published elsewhere in The Times and pair it with a simple set of questions: What do you notice? What do you wonder? What do you think is going on in this graph? On Wednesdays, teachers from the American Statistical Association provide live facilitation in our comments section to respond to students as they post analyses and consider what story the graph is telling. Then, at the end of the week, we add an end-of-activity “reveal” that shares the original article containing the graph, highlights from the moderation, related statistical concepts and helpful vocabulary.

The philosophy behind our approach is to let students begin analyzing graphs with the skills they will most naturally and successfully use — simple noticing and wondering. From there, students can simultaneously build confidence and acquire new conceptual understanding. Over time, as their critical thinking skills develop and their vocabulary grows, students’ analyses become more sophisticated.

Below, we detail step-by-step instructions for how to adapt this approach to teaching with graphs to your classroom, and we provide examples from students who have participated in our weekly conversations about climate change-related graphs.

1. What do you notice?

In this Stats and Stories podcast , Sharon Hessney, the curator of “What’s Going On in This Graph?,” describes the benefits of the Notice & Wonder approach: “Noticing and wondering has a ‘low floor and a high ceiling.’ Every student can notice something in a graph. There are dots on it; it’s about different countries. As they hear each other’s noticings, they dig deeper. They’ll discover more by comparing and contrasting aspects of the graph and by relating these noticings to the world they know.”

So, what can simply noticing look like in action? Here are examples of what students noticed about the above graph about summer temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere.

I noticed that the graph is only focusing on the summer temperatures, and not the overall temperatures. The base year has a 29-year difference while the other years have a 10-year difference. The graph does not cover the years 1981-1982. — Deija Robins from California I noticed that as the years go by, the mean or the center of the graph shifts farther to the right. This upward trend seems to be in a stage of rapid acceleration and I wonder if it will continue to increase at the same rate in the coming years. — Brooke Shalam from New York City

I noticed that as the years went on the temperatures became hot and extremely hot more frequently. I also noticed that the distribution of the temperatures starts as an approximately symmetric distribution and becomes skewed right over the years. — Chandler B from Georgia

2. What do you wonder?

Discussing what students notice and wonder, either online or in the classroom, is an important part of the learning process. Ms. Hessney recommends: “We think the best practice for doing ‘What’s Going on in This Graph?’ is first, for students to converse about what they notice and wonder either individually or in small groups, and then to discuss as a whole class. By hearing other people’s ideas, students form more and deeper stories from the graph.”

Here are examples of student wonderings about the same graph.

I wonder if the progressing extreme heat will affect our animals and even, human beings. Will this affect us in dangerous ways? For example, will we die from heat stroke, Will the water sources dry up and the animals die of thirst? These are my wonders for this graph. — Ruby Casey from New Hampshire

We wonder what “extremely cold,” “normal” etc. means in terms of temperatures. We also wondered if there were outliers at all. It seems like there were outliers on the hot side and then outliers on the cold side. We wonder if something similar is happening in the southern hemisphere and if this type of trend happens in the winter, too. We also wonder if these are actual temperatures and where was the data gathered — cities, country, novice weather people as opposed to trained weather people We think that global warming is being illustrated by this graph. — @mathteacher24 from Bethlehem, Pa.

3. Discuss.

An essential part of our approach to teaching with graphs is that students don’t do their thinking in a vacuum. On The Learning Network, moderators from the American Statistical Association provide students with feedback on their comments. Plus, students get to read what others have to say, and have a chance to reply as well — whether they are in the same classroom or on the other side of the globe.

In the screen shot below, you can see a student, Madison from New Jersey, responding to Christian in Pittsburgh. One of the questions Madison asks is, “Are these the effects of naturally increasing temperatures, or the doing of man made emissions?”

4. What’s going on in this graph?

Just like photographs, graphs tell stories. After students have “noticed and wondered,” we ask them: What’s going on in this graph? What story can it tell?

Here are some examples of the comments students made about the above graph about winter temperatures.

This graph shows that although the average winter temperature in the US is not increasing at a steady rate, overall the temperatures are getting warmer with time. This is in favour of the discussion about climate change causing global warming. — Tatyana from New Zealand

This graph depicts how the winter temperatures from the 1900s differ from the 2000s. And how the temperatures are gradually getting warmer. This could be happening due to global warming or maybe how they say the sun is gradually getting closer and closer to our planet. — Matthew Laing from Philadelphia

From brief observations, I can conclude that this is a graph depicting the differences between the average winter temperature in 1900 and the present average winter temperature at the time. Because of this, I’m curious if an increase in air pollution, carbon dioxide, and deforestation is responsible for the overall increase of winter temperatures on Earth. This graph could capture how pollution and an increase of carbon dioxide within the atmosphere because the gas prevents small bits of heat from the sun from escaping the Earth’s atmosphere, forcing it to bounce back to the Earth’s surface as more thermal energy from the sun reaches our planet. A similar phenomenon has been present on Venus, which, due to the gases within Venus’ atmosphere capturing the majority of thermal energy from the sun, has made Venus the hottest planet in the Solar System. — Ben S. from Allen Tex.

5. Come up with a catchy headline.

This past summer Robert Lochel, a math teacher in the Hatboro-Horsham School District, mentioned to us that he always asked students to write a catchy headline after they were done noticing and wondering. We liked the idea so much, we added it to our weekly protocol.

Here are a few examples of students’ headlines about the graph above.

• “You Thought This Winter Was Cold? Check This Graph,” by Nathan of Virginia

• “Is Earth on the Hot Seat?,” by Kero K. and Jon I. from Hampton High School

• “Dreaming of a Green Christmas,” by Isaac from Hampton High School

• “Doomsday Deviation,” by Michael, Harper, Joseph and Owen from Hampton High School

Part II: A Collection of Climate Change-Related Graphs by The Times

The graph above illustrates how rising temperatures could affect ice cover across 1.4 million lakes in the Northern Hemisphere. It is one of scores of graphs related to climate change that The Times has published in the last few years. We hope that by collecting a selection of these graphs in one place, organized by topic and accompanied by links to the original Times articles, we are providing teachers with a valuable resource for teaching about climate trends.

With any one of these graphs, you can have students notice, wonder and do the sequence of strategies recommended above.

And here is one more teaching idea: Choose a handful of these graphs and ask students to select the one they think is most valuable for teaching the general public about Earth’s changing climate. Then they can explain why they selected that graph.

Melting Ice

We Charted Arctic Sea Ice for Nearly Every Day Since 1979. You’ll See a Trend. | Arctic sea ice has been in a steep decline since scientists started using satellites to measure it 40 years ago. And the 10 lowest ice extents have all been recorded since 2007.

As Greenland Melts, Where’s the Water Going? | Each year, Greenland loses 270 billion tons of ice as the planet warms. New research shows that some of the water may be trapped in the ice sheet, which could change how scientists think about global sea levels.

In the Arctic, the Old Ice Is Disappearing | In the winter of 2018, the Arctic Ocean hit a record low for ice older than five years. Scientists say that summers in the Arctic may be ice-free in the future.

Rising Seas

What Could Disappear | These 2012 maps show coastal and low-lying areas that would be permanently flooded, without engineered protection, with a five-foot sea level rise over the current level. Percentages are the portion of dry, habitable land within the city limits of places listed that would be permanently submerged.

Changing Ocean Temperature

Ocean Warming Is Accelerating Faster Than Thought, New Research Finds | An analysis concluded that Earth’s oceans are heating up 40 percent faster on average than a United Nations panel estimated five years ago, a finding with dire implications for climate change.

Changing Air Temperature

Nights Are Warming Faster Than Days. Here’s Why That’s Dangerous. | Nationwide, summer evening temperatures have risen at nearly twice the rate of daytime temperatures, putting older people, the sick, and young children at greater risk during heat waves.

It’s Official: 2018 Was the Fourth-Warmest Year on Record | The Earth’s temperature in 2018 was more than one degree Celsius, or 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit, above the average temperature of the late 19th century, when humans started pumping large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

How Much Hotter Is Your Hometown Than When You Were Born? | As the world warms because of human-induced climate change, most of us can expect to see more days when temperatures hit 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 degrees Celsius) or higher. See how your hometown has changed so far and how much hotter it may get.

Of 21 Winter Olympic Cities, Many May Soon Be Too Warm to Host the Games | Because of climate change, by midcentury many prior Winter Games locations may be too warm to ever host the Olympics again.

Rising Carbon Emissions

Here’s How Far the World Is From Meeting Its Climate Goals | This 2017 graph shows how two years after countries signed a landmark climate agreement in Paris, the world remains far off course from preventing drastic global warming in the decades ahead.

U.S. Carbon Emissions Surged in 2018 Even as Coal Plants Closed | America’s carbon dioxide emissions rose by 3.4 percent in 2018, the biggest increase in eight years.

Where Americans (Mostly) Agree on Climate Change Policies, in Five Maps | Americans are politically divided over climate change, but there’s broader consensus around some of the solutions.

The U.S. Is the Biggest Carbon Polluter in History. It Just Walked Away From the Paris Climate Deal. | The United States, with its love of big cars, big houses and blasting air-conditioners, has contributed more than any other country to the atmospheric carbon dioxide that is scorching the planet.

How Does Your State Make Electricity? | Over all, fossil fuels still dominate electricity generation in the United States. But the shift from coal to natural gas has helped to lower carbon dioxide emissions and other pollution.

Affecting Humans

Migrants Are on the Rise Around the World, and Myths About Them Are Shaping Attitudes | Rising average temperatures are already pushing people from their homes in many middle-income countries, according to research by Cristina Cattaneo and Giovanni Peri, increasing migration from rural areas to urban centers and across borders to other nations. As warming continues in the coming decades, it will probably push people from agricultural areas to urban areas and from the global South to the richer global North.

A Rise in Murder? Let’s Talk About the Weather | The correlation between heat and crime suggests the need for more research on shootings in American cities.

As Climate Changes, Southern States Will Suffer More Than Others | As the United States confronts global warming in the decades ahead, not all states will suffer equally. Maine may benefit from milder winters. Florida, by contrast, could face major losses, as deadly heat waves flare up in the summer and rising sea levels eat away at valuable coastal properties.

Intensifying Storms

The Cost of Hurricane Harvey: Only One Recent Storm Comes Close | The graph above, from Sept. 1, 2017, compares more than $200 billion natural disasters since 1980. Note that it does not include major storms that occurred after Hurricane Harvey, including Hurricanes Maria, Irma, Florence and Michael.

The Story of 2018 Was Climate Change | David Leonhardt writes: “From year to year, the number of serious hurricanes fluctuates. But the last few decades show a clear and disturbing trend.”

Contradicting Attitudes

How Americans Think About Climate Change, in Six Maps | This 2017 article reports that Americans overwhelmingly believe global warming is happening and that carbon emissions should be scaled back. But fewer are sure that the changes will harm them personally.

What graphs related to climate change would you want to see?

Students studying climate change might have other data sets in mind they would like to see graphed. For example, perhaps they are interested in retreating glaciers or regional changes in precipitation. You could have students research topics that interest them, find relevant quantitative data and create their own graphs.

We would love to hear about any climate change-related graphs your students create — or about topics you would like to see The Times illustrate in graphs. Post in our comments, or write to us at [email protected] — and if your students make some great graphs, be sure to send us photos too since we would love to show them off on our site and on social media.

Sharon Hessney helped to curate this selection of climate change-related graphs.

Environment

Climate change in graphics: the charts that show we must act now.

Global warming is already happening as carbon emissions keep on rising, with effects from sea level rise to more and more extreme weather events worldwide

By New Scientist

21 April 2021

Buildings and farmlands are seen partially submerged in floodwaters following heavy rainfall in Poyang county of Jiangxi

REUTERS/China Daily CDIC

Earth is warming. Globally, 2020 was the second-warmest year on record, with a mean temperature 1.2°C above the pre-industrial average. By that measure, this means we are already four-fifths of the way to the 1.5°C “safe” level to which the world committed to try to limit global warming.

The culprits are carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels and land use changes that reduce Earth’s ability to draw down greenhouse gases. The results are already being felt, not just through rising temperatures, but also through loss of ice cover, rising sea levels and more extreme droughts, floods and storms across the globe.

Greenhouse gas levels

In March 1958, climate scientist Charles David Keeling began measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from a monitoring station atop Mauna Loa in Hawaii. The readings continue to this day , now carried out by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Together with measurements of air trapped in ice cores collected from the Antarctic and elsewhere, our record of the concentrations of this crucial greenhouse gas stretches back 800,000 years.

Atmospheric carbon dioxide is now 50 per cent above pre-industrial levels

In March 2021, the average atmospheric CO 2 concentration at Mauna Loa was 417.64 parts per million. Readings taken at other places around the globe confirm the picture at Mauna Loa: atmospheric CO 2 concentration varies seasonally owing to differing levels of plant growth, but is…

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Blue and orange graphics depicting a warming world

Why eye-catching graphics are vital for getting to grips with climate change

Professor of Geographic Information and Cartography, UCL

Disclosure statement

James Cheshire receives funding from UKRI.

University College London provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation UK.

View all partners

Like many people, the first graph I ever saw explaining climate change was in a school geography textbook. It showed the “hockey stick” curve of the Earth’s surface temperature over time, which has become one of the world’s most recognisable line graphs.

Despite relatively minor fluctuations, the line on the graph depicting global surface temperature remains almost horizontal across centuries, before suddenly inclining to an almost vertical trajectory over the past 50 years. Since 1970 the rate of global temperature increase has hit an unprecedented 1.7°C per century .

One challenge of understanding the information contained in this hockey stick graph – and this is a gift to climate-change deniers – is the inclusion of the grey fuzz of “ uncertainty data ”: outlying data points that can be cherry-picked to raise doubts about the mass of evidence supporting a general warming trend.

Global surface warming: the hockey stick

A graph displaying changes in global surface temperature

Uncertainty is a complex thing to communicate in a single chart. In 2018 the UK-based climate scientist Ed Hawkins chose to omit it altogether when he presented his “ warming stripes ” graphic to help clearly visualise key trends in climate data. Hawkins explained that the warming stripes were designed to remove all superfluous information, leaving behind only the undeniable scientific evidence of a steadily warming world.

Climate change in warming stripes

A series of stripes, shifting from blue on the left to red on the right, represents warming global temperatures over time.

If getting to grips with all the data and complexity in the hockey stick required a long read, Hawkins’ climate stripes give us the headline. The stripes are now a global phenomenon , having appeared on the lapels of US senators, the ties of TV weather presenters and on the front cover of The Economist.

As calls for change grow louder in light of the latest IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) report and in the run up to COP26 conference in Glasgow this November, it’s time to focus on how data visualisation can help people grasp the challenges that lie ahead.

The power of maps

One misconception about the climate crisis is that warming will be uniform across the world. Deniers cite cold fronts or blizzards as evidence that warming is exaggerated, or hark back to past heatwaves – such as that experienced by the UK in 1976 when temperatures exceeded 35°C – as proof that the scientists have got it wrong.

Apart from this misleading conflation of weather (daily conditions) and climate (long-term conditions), this kind of argument misses the complex patchwork of effects that interact to create what gets reported in the headline figures.

Maps can be an invaluable weapon against this misunderstanding. For the first time, the IPCC has released an “interactive atlas” with its latest report, allowing audiences to pan and zoom through the data themselves. But if you give the IPCC’s atlas a try, you can see how it’s hard to capture complexity for a specialist audience while retaining simplicity for a global audience.

Most users are unlikely to closely engage with towering datasets named ‘CMIP5’ or ‘APHRODITE’, or with the mass of code that constitutes the IPCC-WG1 repository on Github . Although it’s a step in the right direction, what is needed are more universally accessible visualisations that are able to show where we’re heading in no uncertain terms.

With that in mind, when I set out to map global warming for a new book entitled Atlas of the Invisible , my co-author Oliver Uberti and I chose to combine the most important lessons from the warming stripes with the intricacies of geographical context.

This intriguingly named “ Peirce quincuncial ” projection, which you can see below, is a type of 2D map that flattens the Earth into a grid of 130 mini maps called tiles. Like all projections, it’s not a perfect representation of the 3D Earth, since some areas are stretched more than others. But it lets us create a series of tiles representing the planet in each year from 1890 to 2019, coloured by how and where temperatures deviated from a reliable baseline measured between 1961 and 1990 . Blue areas represent temperature anomalies between -2°C and 0°C, while red areas represent anomalies between 0°C and 3°C and grey represents insufficient data.

Heat gradient map

A series of coloured maps represents the global warming trend

Reading the images from left to right reveals that while heatwaves and cold spells speckle the grid, tiles representing the current century are increasingly filled with warm tones. For example, compare the few pink splotches in 1976 when the UK experienced its famous heatwave to years later in 2006 and 2016 when ruddy hues spanned the globe. In fact, the ten hottest years on record have occurred since 2005.

Heat gradient map: specific years

A visualisation of increasing global temperatures from 1976-2016, from Atlas of the Invisible.

Time to think local

When mitigation targets aim to keep the overall global temperature increase at an average of below 1.5 or 2°C, we need data visualisations to remind us that there can still be large local variations even when such targets are achieved, with the warming creating drastic and often devastating conditions for those living in affected areas.

Generalised warming will inevitably affect some places far worse than others, causing knock-on effects like sea-level rises and storms in different areas. For proof, look to the 2021 summer heatwave experienced by many parts of Europe yet escaped by the UK, the “ heat dome ” that scorched British Columbia in June, or the Arctic, where temperatures are rising at twice the global rate.

Even within cities, conditions can vary from neighbourhood to neighbourhood. Across the US, global warming is compounding the legacy of racist housing policies enacted through a process known as redlining . This rated the “investment risk” of urban areas , condemning many black neighbourhoods to a “hazardous” rating and thus to reduced infrastructure and increased poverty.

As the New York Times has expertly mapped, such areas saw a lack of investment in – amongst other things – green spaces and street trees. This has resulted in some historically redlined neighbourhoods suffering summers that are up to 7°C warmer compared to their non-redlined counterparts.

Maps reveal these social injustices in the UK, too. Local authorities are under pressure to turn a blind eye to flood-risk maps in order to permit thousands of “affordable” homes to be built for those priced out of higher ground.

The power of maps lies in their ability to show us simultaneously that as global average temperatures rise, local conditions threaten to become ever more extreme. We now need to better harness that power to inspire action.

Climate change
Global warming
Environment
Data visualisation
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

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Yale Climate Connections

Why eye-catching graphics are vital for getting to grips with climate change

The power of maps

Time to think local

James Cheshire is professor of geographic information and cartography at UCL, London.

Reprinted with permission of The Conversation.

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Climate change graphics are important—make them simple, say experts

by University of Southern California

Climate change graphics are important, so make them simple

When the "hockey stick" graph, which illustrated a steep increase in global temperatures, was published in 1998, it reshaped the world's understanding of climate change. A quarter-century later, with climate change now wreaking havoc around the world, graphics depicting global warming are more important than ever to inform policymaking.

However, a recent USC-led study reveals that some graphics developed for reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are too complex, even for the intended audiences of policymakers and practitioners.

Researchers recommend limiting each graphic, which the IPCC refers to as "figures," and its title to one key message. The study produced a detailed checklist to improve the design of graphics that target policymakers and practitioners.

"Because climate experts want to be accurate and complete, they tend to cram too much information into their graphics," said Wändi Bruine de Bruin, the study's lead author and Provost Professor of Public Policy, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences at the USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences and the USC Price School of Public Policy. "A graphic is worth a thousand words, but only if it clearly communicates one key message."

The study was published in Climatic Change in a paper titled "Improving figures for climate change communications: Insights from interviews with international policymakers and practitioners."

This is the second study in which USC researchers collaborated with the UN Foundation to improve the effectiveness of climate change communication. The first study , which looked at language comprehension, was published on Aug. 21, 2021, in a special edition of the journal Climatic Change titled "Climate Change Communication and the IPCC."

"This research sheds new light on how policymakers and practitioners engage with, interpret, and utilize IPCC report graphics," said Pete Ogden, Vice President of Climate and Environment at the United Nations Foundation (UNF). "This will be a valuable tool not only for the IPCC as it embarks on its new report cycle, but for anyone engaged in the vital work of making climate science clear and accessible."

Global collaboration produces results

In collaboration with the UNF, USC Dornsife Public Exchange convened a team of USC behavioral scientists to interview 20 policymakers and practitioners from the IPCC's and UNF's global network.

Participants viewed three figures drafted for the Second Order Draft Summary for Policymakers from Working Group III of the IPCC's Sixth Assessment Report. Interviews typically reach saturation—revealing no new topics—after talking to 15–20 participants. This study achieved saturation by the 15th interview.

The study's participants came from developed economies with robust climate science research capabilities, like the United States and Germany, and developing economies, like Chad. Participants representing various sectors were asked to rate how easy or hard it was to understand the three graphs.

One participant remarked, "My first impression is: too much information." Another questioned, "So as a policymaker, what is the message?"

Graphics first, explanation later

The researchers noted that the graphics appeared to be designed primarily for scientists without considering a broader audience. This can cause graphics to be too technical and complex. Readers often engage with graphics first and might share them out of context. Indeed, more than half of the participants said they tended to review graphics before reading the main text of a report.

Simplicity shouldn't compromise accuracy

The three graphics assessed were "GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions trends and projections," "Feasibility challenges" and "Breakdown of average investment needs until 2030." "GHG emissions trends and projections" was the only graph revised for inclusion in the IPCC's report. The other graphs were not.

Specifically, the graphic illustrating GHG emissions—emissions causing climate change—drew mixed responses because of its dense presentation of data. One participant suggested dividing it into two or three graphs for better clarity.

In response, the IPCC revised the graph's format and title to reflect the key message.

Similarly, even participants familiar with IPCC's graphs found a graph depicting the need for climate investment confusing. An occasional user of the IPCC graphs said, "You've got to read the fine print, and you shouldn't have to read the fine print. I mean, these graphs should stand on their own."

A challenge for IPCC authors lies in simplifying graphs without sacrificing accuracy or details, however.

Clarity is key

Participants also struggled with graphs that had unclear titles—as was the case with the GHG emissions graph—ambiguous labels, indistinct color schemes, complex scientific jargon and captions that read like technical footnotes. They wanted clarification about specific technical terms and acronyms.

The checklist

To improve climate change communication, the team developed a checklist for designing more effective graphs for IPCC reports and other communications. The checklist recommends following graph design best practices and including audience feedback to improve climate change communication.

"We are excited that our study provides a user-friendly checklist for the IPCC to create graphs that are more accessible," said Monica Dean, Climate and Sustainability Practice Director at USC Dornsife Public Exchange.

Provided by University of Southern California

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Emissions of air pollutants OECD
Emissions of particulate matter
Exposure to PM2.5 air pollution vs. GDP per capita
Exposure to particulate matter air pollution
Global sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions by world region
Number of deaths from air pollution
Outdoor air pollution death rate
Outdoor air pollution death rate by age
Outdoor air pollution deaths in 1990 vs. 2019
Ozone (O₃) concentration
Particulate matter exposure in 1990 vs. 2017
Share of deaths attributed to air pollution
Share of deaths attributed to outdoor air pollution
Share of population exposed to air pollution above WHO targets
Share of the population exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines
Sources of air pollution in the UK
Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions Klimont et al.
Sulphur oxide (SO₂) emissions

Alcohol Consumption

Alcohol and drug use disorders as a share of total disease burden
Alcohol and drug use disorders death rate IHME
Alcohol and drug use disorders death rate WHO
Alcohol and drug use disorders death rate by age
Alcohol and drug use disorders deaths IHME
Alcohol and drug use disorders deaths WHO, by substance
Alcohol and drug use disorders deaths WHO
Alcohol and drug use disorders deaths by age IHME
Alcohol and drug use disorders deaths by age WHO
Alcohol and drug use disorders deaths by sex
Alcohol consumption by tourists
Alcohol consumption by type of alcoholic beverage
Alcohol consumption per capita Per capita alcohol consumption in high-income countries
Alcohol consumption per capita in men and women
Alcohol consumption per person WHO
Alcohol consumption per person NIAAA
Alcohol consumption vs. GDP per capita
Alcohol expenditure
Alcohol expenditure as a share of total household expenditure
Alcohol-attributable fraction of mortality
Average alcohol consumption by 15-19 year old males vs. females
Average per capita alcohol consumption in 15-19 year olds
Beer as a share of total alcohol consumption
Beer consumption per person
Consumption shares in non-essential products
Consumption shares in selected non-essential products
DALY rates from alcohol use disorders by age
Death rate from alcohol use disorders IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from alcohol use disorders IHME, crude
Death rates from alcohol use disorders
Deaths attributed to tobacco, alcohol and drugs
Deaths due to alcohol use
Deaths from alcohol use disorders IHME
Deaths from alcohol use disorders WHO
GDP price levels relative to the US
Mental health as a risk factor for alcohol dependency or abuse
Number of people with alcohol or drug use disorders
Number of people with alcohol use disorders
Number of people with alcohol use disorders by region
Number with an alcohol use disorder
Premature deaths attributed to alcohol use by age
Prevalence of alcohol use disorders by age
Prevalence of alcohol use disorders in males vs. females
Rate of premature deaths due to alcohol IHME, age-standardized
Rate of premature deaths due to alcohol IHME, crude
Share of adults in the UK who drank alcohol on 5 or more days in last week by income
Share of adults who drank alcohol in last year
Share of adults who drank, drank heavily or binged in last 30 days
Share of adults who have not drunk alcohol in the last year
Share of alcohol in total household consumption
Share of crimes which are alcohol-related
Share of drinkers who "binged" on heaviest day of drinking in last week, United Kingdom
Share of drinkers who have had a heavy drinking session in past 30 days
Share of people with alcohol use disorders receiving treatment
Share of population who drank alcohol in the last week, United Kingdom
Share of population who never drink alcohol
Share of population with alcohol use disorder vs. alcohol consumption
Share of population with alcohol use disorder vs. drug use disorder
Share of population with alcohol use disorders
Share of population with an alcohol use disorder
Share of road traffic deaths attributed to alcohol
Share of the population who don't drink alcohol, United Kingdom
Share of the population with alcohol or drug use disorders
Share with alcohol or drug use disorders, men vs. women
Spirits as a share of total alcohol consumption
Spirits consumption per person
Standard alcoholic drink measure
The disease burden from alcohol use disorders
Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption

Alzheimer's & Dementia

Death rate from Alzheimer's IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from Alzheimer's IHME, crude
Death rate from Alzheimer's WHO
Deaths from Alzheimer's IHME
Deaths from Alzheimer's WHO
Deaths from dementia-related diseases, by age
Higher labor productivity and price levels in richer and poorer countries

Animal Welfare

Active fur farms
Animal lives lost per kilogram of product
Animal lives lost per kilogram of product, including indirect deaths
Egg production by system in the United Kingdom
Global number of farmed finfishes used for food
Kilograms of meat produced per animal
Laying hens in cages and cage-free housing
Levels of pain endured by the average hen in different production systems
Number of farmed crustaceans killed for food
Number of farmed fish killed for food
Number of wild-caught fish killed for food
Public attitudes to bans on factory farming and slaughterhouses in the United States
Public attitudes to dietary choices and meat-eating in the United States
Public attitudes to livestock treatment and animal pain in the United States
Self-reported dietary choices by age, United Kingdom
Share of egg production that is cage-free
Share of eggs produced by different housing systems
Time that fast and slower-growing chicken breeds spend in pain over their lifespan
Vegans, vegetarians and meat-eaters: self-reported dietary choices, United Kingdom
Which countries have banned bullfighting?
Which countries have banned chick culling?
Which countries have banned fur farming?
Which countries have banned fur trading?
Yearly number of animals slaughtered for meat

Antibiotics

Antibiotic use in livestock in Europe
Antibiotic use in livestock vs. GDP per capita
Antibiotic use in livestock vs. meat supply per capita
Global antibiotic use in livestock under reduction scenarios
Share of E. coli infections resistant to cephalosporins
Share of S. aureus infections resistant to methicillin

Artificial Intelligence

Affiliation of research teams building notable AI systems, by year of publication
Annual attendance at major artificial intelligence conferences
Annual global corporate investment in artificial intelligence, by type
Annual granted patents related to artificial intelligence, by industry
Annual industrial robots installed
Annual patent applications related to AI per million people
Annual patent applications related to AI, by status
Annual patent applications related to artificial intelligence
Annual private investment in artificial intelligence NetBase Quid
Annual private investment in artificial intelligence CSET
Annual private investment in artificial intelligence, by focus area NetBase Quid
Annual professional service robots installed, by application area
Annual reported artificial intelligence incidents and controversies
Annual scholarly publications on artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence: Performance on knowledge tests vs. dataset size
Artificial intelligence: Performance on knowledge tests vs. number of parameters
Artificial intelligence: Performance on knowledge tests vs. training computation
Chess ability of the best computers
Computation used to train notable AI systems, by affiliation of researchers
Computation used to train notable artificial intelligence systems
Countries with national artificial intelligence strategies
Cumulative AI-related bills passed into law since 2016
Cumulative number of notable AI systems by domain
Datapoints used to train notable artificial intelligence systems
Domain of notable artificial intelligence systems, by year of publication
Employer of new AI PhDs in the United States and Canada
GPU computational performance per dollar
Global views about AI's impact on society in the next 20 years, by demographic group
Global views about the safety of riding in a self-driving car, by demographic group
How worried are Americans about their work being automated?
ImageNet: Top-performing AI systems in labeling images
Industrial robots: Annual installations and total in operation
Market share for logic chip production, by manufacturing stage
Newly-funded artificial intelligence companies
Parameters in notable artificial intelligence systems
Parameters vs. training dataset size in notable AI systems, by researcher affiliation
Protein folding prediction accuracy
Scholarly publications on artificial intelligence per million people
Share of artificial intelligence jobs among all job postings
Share of companies using artificial intelligence technology
Share of computer science PhDs specializing in artificial intelligence in the US and Canada
Share of notable AI systems by domain
Share of notable AI systems by researcher affiliation
Share of women among new artificial intelligence and computer science PhDs, United States and Canada
Test scores of AI systems on various capabilities relative to human performance
Top performing AI systems in coding, math, and language-based knowledge tests
Training computation vs. dataset size in notable AI systems, by researcher affiliation
Training computation vs. parameters in notable AI systems, by domain
Training computation vs. parameters in notable AI systems, by researcher affiliation
Views about AI's impact on society in the next 20 years
Views about the safety of riding in a self-driving car
Views of Americans about robot vs. human intelligence

Banks & Financial Institutions

Commercial bank branches
Financial soundness indicators

Biodiversity

African elephant carcass ratio
Annual fish catch relative to mean catch
Annual fish catch relative to mean catch by region
Aquaculture production
Black rhino population
Capture fishery production
Change in bird populations in the EU
Change in total mangrove area
Changes in UK butterfly populations
Chlorophyll-a deviation from the global average
Countries have a budget for invasive alien species management
Countries that are party to the Nagoya Protocol
Countries that have legislative measures reported to the Access and Benefit-Sharing Clearing-House
Countries with more than 25 species at risk of losing more than 25% of their habitat by 2050
Day of the year with peak cherry tree blossom in Kyoto, Japan
Drivers of recovery in European bird populations
Endemic amphibian species
Endemic bird species
Endemic freshwater crab species
Endemic mammal species
Endemic reef-forming coral species
Endemic shark and ray species
Fish and seafood production
Fish catch in the United Kingdom
Fish discards
Fish stocks and fishing intensity by group
Fish stocks and fishing intensity by region
Fishing intensity
Fishing intensity by region
Five centuries of cod catches in Eastern Canada
Global aquaculture production and wild fish used for animal feed
Global biomass vs. abundance of taxa
Global wildlife exports
Health of fish stocks by fish group
Health of fish stocks by region
Indian rhino population
Javan rhino population
Living Planet Index
Living Planet Index by region
Local animal breeds with conserved genetic material
Material footprint per capita
Material footprint per unit of GDP
Member countries of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
Mountain Green Cover Index
National biodiversity strategy and action plan targets align with Aichi Biodiversity Target 9
National progress towards Aichi Biodiversity Target 2
Northern white rhino population
Number of African elephants
Number of Asian elephants
Number of animal species losing habitat due to cropland expansion by 2050
Number of coral bleaching events
Number of coral bleaching events by stage of the ENSO cycle
Number of described species
Number of parties in multilateral environmental agreements
Number of rhinos poached
Number of seized rhino horns and pieces
Number of severe coral bleaching events by stage of the ENSO cycle
Number of species evaluated for their level of extinction risk
Number of species that have gone extinct since 1500
Number of species threatened with extinction
Number of threatened endemic mammal species
Number of unique plant genetic samples in conservation facilities
Number of whales killed
Number of whales killed globally per decade
Projected changes in cropland
Proportion of local livestock breeds at risk of extinction
Protected area coverage of marine key biodiversity areas
Protected area coverage of mountain key biodiversity areas
Red List Index
Seafood production: wild fish catch vs. aquaculture Line chart
Seafood production: wild fish catch vs. aquaculture Stacked area chart
Share of Caribbean reefs with Acropora corals present or dominant
Share of described species that have been evaluated for their extinction risk
Share of fish stocks that are overexploited
Share of forest area within protected areas
Share of freshwater Key Biodiversity Areas that are protected
Share of land area that is protected
Share of land covered by forest
Share of marine territorial waters that are protected
Share of ocean area that is protected
Share of species that are traded
Share of species threatened with extinction
Share of terrestrial Key Biodiversity Areas that are protected
Share of traded species that are traded as pets
Share of traded species that are traded as products
Southern white rhino population
Status of membership in the International Whaling Commission
Status of the world's fish stocks
Sumatran rhino population
The decline of global whale biomass
The decline of global whale populations
Threatened bird species
Threatened endemic bird species
Threatened endemic reef-forming coral species
Threatened fish species
Threatened mammal species
Total amount donated for biodiversity conservation in developing countries
Total donations received for biodiversity conservation
Transboundary animal breeds with conserved genetic material
Weight of seized rhino horns
What is wild fish catch used for?
Which countries are members of the International Whaling Commission?
Wild fish catch by gear type Stacked area chart
Wild fish catch by gear type Line chart
Wild fish catch from bottom trawling

Biological & Chemical Weapons

Countries that have ratified the Biological Weapons Convention
Countries that have ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention
Current biological weapons activity
Current chemical weapons activity
Historical biological weapons activity
Historical chemical weapons activity
Number of countries by their current activity on biological weapons
Number of countries by their current activity on chemical weapons
Number of countries by their historical activity on biological weapons
Number of countries by their historical activity on chemical weapons
Annual per capita consumption of books
Manuscript production per century, 6th to 15th century
Number of new book titles published per million people
Production of printed books per half century

Burden of Disease

Asthma prevalence
Burden of disease IHME, age-standardized
Burden of disease IHME, crude
Burden of disease WHO
Burden of disease by cause
Burden of disease from injuries, by age
Burden of disease, by age group
Buruli ulcer endemicity
Coverage of underlying data on the prevalence of major depression
Cutaneous leishmaniasis endemicity
DALY rates from communicable, neonatal, maternal & nutritional diseases
DALY rates from injuries
DALY rates from non-communicable diseases (NCDs)
Death rate from Parkinson's disease WHO
Death rate from chronic respiratory diseases IHME
Death rate from diabetes IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from diabetes IHME, crude
Death rate from diabetes WHO
Death rate from digestive diseases IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from digestive diseases IHME, crude
Death rate from digestive diseases WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized
Death rate from drowning IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from drug use disorders for 15- to 49-year olds
Death rate from high blood sugar IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from high blood sugar IHME, crude
Death rate from infectious diseases IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from infectious diseases IHME, crude
Death rate from liver disease IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from liver disease IHME, crude
Death rate from pneumonia in children vs. GDP per capita
Death rate from poisoning IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from poisoning IHME, crude
Death rate from poisoning WHO
Deaths by risk factor for ages 50-69
Deaths due to high blood sugar
Deaths from Parkinson's disease IHME
Deaths from chronic respiratory diseases
Deaths from cysticercosis
Deaths from diabetes WHO
Deaths from diabetes, by type
Deaths from digestive diseases
Deaths from fires and burns WHO
Deaths from illicit drugs
Deaths from infectious diseases
Deaths from liver disease
Deaths from lower respiratory infections, by age
Deaths from meningitis, by age
Deaths from pneumonia, by age
Deaths from poisoning IHME
Deaths from poisoning WHO
Dengue fever infections
Diabetes prevalence International Diabetes Federation
Diabetes prevalence vs. GDP per capita
Diarrheal disease deaths in children under five by risk factor
Disease burden by age
Disease burden by risk factor
Disease burden due to communicable diseases vs. GDP per capita
Disease burden from communicable, maternal, neonatal & nutritional diseases by age
Disease burden from communicable, maternal, neonatal and nutritional diseases
Disease burden from injuries
Disease burden from non-communicable diseases
Disease burden from non-communicable diseases by age
Disease burden from non-communicable diseases vs. GDP per capita
Disease burden vs. health expenditure per capita
Drug use disorder death rate IHME, age-standardized
Drug use disorder death rate IHME
Drug use disorder death rate WHO
Drug use disorder deaths IHME
Drug use disorder deaths WHO, by type of drug
Drug use disorder deaths by age IHME
Global case numbers of infectious diseases
Global disease burden by region
Healthy life expectancy WHO GHO data
Hepatitis B incidence rate
Hepatitis C: total number of deaths by age group
Leading causes of death
Life expectancy vs. expected years lived with disability or disease
Meningitis death rate in children
Mental health and substance use disorders death rate by age IHME
Mental health and substance use disorders: death rate IHME
Neonatal mortality rate
New cases of tuberculosis with uncertainty intervals
Number of people living with tuberculosis by drug susceptibility
Number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases
Number of people with depressive disorders, by region
Number of pneumonia deaths in children by risk factor
People living with lymphatic filariasis
People living with trachoma
Prevalence of cysticercosis
Prevalence of drug use disorders by age
Prevalence rate of diabetes in adults WHO Global Health Observatory, age-standardized, estimated
Rate of disease burden from drug use disorders IHME
Rate of disease burden from drug use disorders WHO
Reported cases of acute African trypanosomiasis
Reported cases of chronic African trypanosomiasis
Reported yaws cases
Share of children with a respiratory infection taken to a healthcare provider
Share of disease burden from NCDs vs. GDP per capita
Share of disease burden from communicable diseases vs. GDP per capita
Share of population with mental health disorders
Share of the population estimated to have prior infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Share of total disease burden by cause
Status of trachoma as a public health problem
Substance use disorder deaths IHME
The burden of disease vs. GDP per capita
Total disease burden IHME
Total disease burden WHO
Total disease burden by cause
Tuberculosis cases attributable to risk factors
Visceral leishmaniasis endemicity
Years lived with disease or disability vs. GDP per capita

Business Environment

Power outages in firms in a typical month
Share of firms with a female top manager
Share of people who report having intentions to start business
Time required to start a business

CO2 & Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Adjusted net savings per capita
Annual CO₂ emissions
Annual CO₂ emissions by world region
Annual CO₂ emissions from cement
Annual CO₂ emissions from coal
Annual CO₂ emissions from deforestation by product
Annual CO₂ emissions from deforestation for food production
Annual CO₂ emissions from flaring
Annual CO₂ emissions from gas
Annual CO₂ emissions from land-use change
Annual CO₂ emissions from land-use change per capita
Annual CO₂ emissions from oil
Annual CO₂ emissions from other industry
Annual CO₂ emissions including land-use change
Annual change in GDP and CO₂ emissions
Annual change in GDP, population and CO₂ emissions
Annual greenhouse gas emissions by world region
Annual percentage change in CO₂ emissions
Are consumption-based CO₂ per capita emissions above or below the global average?
Are per capita CO₂ emissions above or below the global average?
Average temperature anomaly
Aviation's share of global CO₂ emissions
CO₂ emissions by fuel or industry
CO₂ emissions by fuel or industry type
CO₂ emissions by sector
CO₂ emissions embedded in trade
CO₂ emissions from aviation
CO₂ emissions from domestic air travel
CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels and land-use change Stacked area chart
CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels and land-use change Line chart
CO₂ emissions from international aviation
CO₂ emissions from transport
CO₂ emissions per capita
CO₂ emissions per capita vs. GDP per capita
CO₂ emissions per capita vs. fossil fuel consumption per capita
CO₂ emissions per capita vs. population growth
CO₂ emissions per capita vs. share of electricity generation from renewables
CO₂ reductions needed to keep global temperature rise below 1.5°C
CO₂ reductions needed to keep global temperature rise below 2°C
Carbon dioxide emissions by income level
Carbon dioxide emissions factors
Carbon emission intensity vs. GDP per capita
Carbon footprint of travel per kilometer
Carbon intensity of energy production
Carbon intensity vs. GDP per capita
Carbon intensity: CO₂ emissions per dollar of GDP
Carbon opportunity costs per kilogram of food
Change in CO₂ emissions and GDP
Change in per capita CO₂ emissions and GDP Adjusted for consumption
Change in per capita CO₂ emissions and GDP Production-based
Consumption-based CO₂ emissions
Consumption-based CO₂ emissions per capita vs. GDP per capita
Consumption-based CO₂ emissions per capita vs. Human Development Index
Consumption-based carbon intensity
Consumption-based vs. territorial CO₂ emissions per capita
Contribution to global mean surface temperature rise
Contribution to global mean surface temperature rise by gas
Contribution to global mean surface temperature rise from agriculture and land use
Contribution to global mean surface temperature rise from fossil sources
Contribution to value added vs. share of CO₂ emissions in China
Contribution to value added vs. share of CO₂ emissions in Germany
Contribution to value added vs. share of CO₂ emissions in USA
Countries using the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting
Cumulative CO₂ emissions
Cumulative CO₂ emissions by source
Cumulative CO₂ emissions by world region
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from cement
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from coal
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from flaring
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from gas
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from land-use change
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from oil
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from other industry
Cumulative CO₂ emissions including land-use change
Emissions-weighted carbon price
Emissions-weighted carbon price in emissions trading systems
Energy use per capita vs. CO₂ emissions per capita
Export of environmentally sound technologies
Food: emissions from production and the supply chain
Food: greenhouse gas emissions across the supply chain
Global emissions from food by life-cycle stage
Global warming contributions by gas and source
Global warming contributions from fossil fuels and land use
Global warming potential of greenhouse gases relative to CO2
Global warming: Contributions to the change in global mean surface temperature
Greenhouse gas emissions
Greenhouse gas emissions by gas
Greenhouse gas emissions by sector Lines
Greenhouse gas emissions by sector Stacked areas
Greenhouse gas emissions from food systems
Greenhouse gas emissions from plastic by life-cycle stage
Greenhouse gas emissions from plastics
Greenhouse gas emissions per 100 grams of protein
Greenhouse gas emissions per 1000 kilocalories
Greenhouse gas emissions per kilogram of food product
Greenhouse gas emissions per kilogram of seafood
How have things changed?
Hypothetical number of deaths from energy production
Import of environmentally sound technologies
Imported or exported CO₂ emissions per capita
Kaya identity: drivers of CO₂ emissions
Land-use change CO₂ emissions: quality of estimates
Level of implementation of sustainable procurement policies and plans
Life expectancy at birth vs. CO₂ emissions per capita
Life satisfaction vs. CO₂ emissions per capita
Meat consumption vs. GDP per capita
Mechanisms in place to enhance policy coherence for sustainable development
Methane concentration in the atmosphere
Methane emissions
Methane emissions by sector
Monthly CO₂ emissions from commercial passenger flights
Monthly CO₂ emissions from domestic and international commercial passenger flights
Nitrous oxide emissions
Nitrous oxide emissions by sector
Number of companies publishing sustainability reports that meet the minimum reporting requirements
Per capita CO₂ emissions from domestic commercial passenger flights
Per capita CO₂ emissions
Per capita CO₂ emissions by fuel type
Per capita CO₂ emissions by region
Per capita CO₂ emissions by sector
Per capita CO₂ emissions by source
Per capita CO₂ emissions from aviation
Per capita CO₂ emissions from cement
Per capita CO₂ emissions from coal
Per capita CO₂ emissions from commercial aviation, tourism-adjusted
Per capita CO₂ emissions from deforestation for food production
Per capita CO₂ emissions from domestic aviation
Per capita CO₂ emissions from domestic aviation vs. GDP per capita
Per capita CO₂ emissions from domestic aviation vs. land area
Per capita CO₂ emissions from flaring
Per capita CO₂ emissions from gas
Per capita CO₂ emissions from international aviation
Per capita CO₂ emissions from international commercial passenger flights, tourism-adjusted Clarke & UNWTO
Per capita CO₂ emissions from international passenger flights, tourism-adjusted Graver & World Bank
Per capita CO₂ emissions from oil
Per capita CO₂ emissions from transport
Per capita CO₂ emissions including land-use change
Per capita CO₂ emissions vs. per capita energy consumption
Per capita GHG emissions vs. per capita CO₂ emissions Land use not included
Per capita GHG emissions vs. per capita CO₂ emissions Land use included
Per capita consumption-based CO₂ emissions
Per capita greenhouse gas emissions
Per capita greenhouse gas emissions by sector
Per capita greenhouse gas emissions, excluding land use and forestry
Per capita methane emissions
Per capita methane emissions by sector
Per capita nitrous oxide emissions
Per capita nitrous oxide emissions by sector
Share of CO₂ emissions covered by a carbon price
Share of CO₂ emissions embedded in trade
Share of children who are stunted vs. CO₂ emissions per capita
Share of cumulative CO₂ emissions from oil
Share of global CO₂ consumption-based emissions
Share of global CO₂ emissions
Share of global CO₂ emissions and population
Share of global CO₂ emissions from aviation
Share of global CO₂ emissions from cement
Share of global CO₂ emissions from coal
Share of global CO₂ emissions from domestic air travel
Share of global CO₂ emissions from flaring
Share of global CO₂ emissions from gas
Share of global CO₂ emissions from international aviation
Share of global CO₂ emissions from land-use change
Share of global CO₂ emissions from oil
Share of global CO₂ emissions including land-use change
Share of global CO₂ emissions vs. share of population
Share of global annual CO₂ emissions from other industry
Share of global consumption-based CO₂ emissions and population
Share of global consumption-based CO₂ emissions vs. share of population
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from cement
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from coal
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from flaring
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from gas
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from land-use change
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from other industry
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions including land-use change
Share of global greenhouse gas emissions
Share of global greenhouse gas emissions from food
Share of global methane emissions
Share of global nitrous oxide emissions
Share of national greenhouse gas emissions that come from food
Share of required information submitted to international environmental agreements on hazardous waste and other chemicals
Share that think people in their country should act to tackle climate change
Status of net-zero carbon emissions targets
Territorial and consumption-based CO₂ emissions
Territorial vs. consumption-based CO₂ emissions per capita
Total greenhouse gas emissions per capita
Total greenhouse gas emissions, excluding land use and forestry
Transport's share of global greenhouse gas emissions from food
Value added growth vs. CO₂ emissions growth in China
Value added growth vs. CO₂ emissions growth in Germany
Value added growth vs. CO₂ emissions growth in the USA
Which countries have a carbon emissions trading system?
Which countries have a carbon tax?
Which countries have set a net-zero emissions target?
Year-on-year change in CO₂ emissions
Are children eligible for COVID-19 vaccination?
Biweekly change in confirmed COVID-19 cases
Biweekly change in confirmed COVID-19 deaths
Biweekly confirmed COVID-19 cases
Biweekly confirmed COVID-19 cases per million people
Biweekly confirmed COVID-19 deaths
Biweekly confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million people
COVID-19 Containment and Health Index
COVID-19 testing policies
COVID-19 vaccination policy
COVID-19 vaccinations vs. COVID-19 deaths
COVID-19 vaccine boosters administered
COVID-19 vaccine boosters administered per 100 people
COVID-19 vaccine doses administered by manufacturer
COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people, by income group
COVID-19 vaccine doses donated to COVAX
COVID-19 vaccine doses donated to COVAX, per capita
COVID-19 vaccine doses donated to COVAX, per dose administered
COVID-19 vaccine doses donated to COVAX, per million dollars of GDP
COVID-19: Daily tests vs. daily new confirmed cases
COVID-19: Daily tests vs. daily new confirmed cases per million
COVID-19: Where are the world's unvaccinated people?
Cancellation of public events during COVID-19 pandemic
Chile: COVID-19 weekly death rate by vaccination status
Confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million vs. GDP per capita
Cumulative confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths
Cumulative confirmed COVID-19 cases by world region By Region
Cumulative confirmed COVID-19 deaths by world region
Cumulative confirmed COVID-19 deaths vs. cases
Daily COVID-19 tests
Daily COVID-19 tests per 1,000 people Rolling 7-day average
Daily COVID-19 vaccine doses administered
Daily and total confirmed COVID-19 deaths
Daily confirmed COVID-19 cases by world region Stacked area chart – by world region
Daily confirmed COVID-19 deaths by world region
Daily new confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths
Daily new confirmed COVID-19 deaths in Sweden
Daily new estimated COVID-19 infections from the ICL model
Daily new estimated COVID-19 infections from the IHME model
Daily new estimated COVID-19 infections from the LSHTM model
Daily new estimated COVID-19 infections from the YYG model
Daily new estimated infections of COVID-19
Daily share of the population receiving a COVID-19 vaccine dose
Daily vs. total confirmed COVID-19 cases per million people
Debt or contract relief during the COVID-19 pandemic
Economic decline in the second quarter of 2020
Economic decline in the second quarter of 2020 vs. confirmed COVID-19 cases per million people
Economic decline in the second quarter of 2020 vs. total confirmed COVID-19 deaths (as of August 2020)
England: COVID-19 monthly death rate by vaccination status
Estimated cumulative excess deaths during COVID Faceted Explorer version
Estimated cumulative excess deaths during COVID, from the WHO
Estimated cumulative excess deaths during COVID-19 Non-Explorer, single-entity version
Estimated cumulative excess deaths per 100,000 people during COVID, from The Economist
Estimated cumulative excess deaths, from The Economist and the WHO
Estimated daily excess deaths during COVID Faceted Explorer version
Estimated daily excess deaths during COVID Non-Explorer, single-entity version
Estimated daily excess deaths per 100,000 people during COVID, from The Economist
Excess mortality: Cumulative deaths from all causes compared to projection based on previous years Absolute deaths
Excess mortality: Cumulative deaths from all causes compared to projection based on previous years Percentage
Excess mortality: Cumulative deaths from all causes compared to projection based on previous years, per million people
Excess mortality: Deaths from all causes compared to average over previous years P-scores, average baseline
Excess mortality: Deaths from all causes compared to average over previous years, by age P-scores, average baseline
Excess mortality: Deaths from all causes compared to projection P-scores, projected baseline
Excess mortality: Deaths from all causes compared to projection based on previous years, by age P-scores, projected baseline
Excess mortality: Raw number of deaths from all causes compared to projection based on previous years Raw death counts, stacked years
Excess mortality: Raw number of deaths from all causes compared to projection based on previous years Raw death counts, extended series
Face covering policies during the COVID-19 pandemic
Grocery and pharmacy stores: How did the number of visitors change relative to before the pandemic?
How did the number of visitors change since the beginning of the pandemic?
How do key COVID-19 metrics compare to the early 2021 peak in Israel?
How do key COVID-19 metrics compare to the early 2021 peak in Spain?
How do key COVID-19 metrics compare to the early 2021 peak?
Income support during the COVID-19 pandemic
International travel controls during the COVID-19 pandemic
Number of COVID-19 patients in ICU per million
Number of COVID-19 patients in hospital
Number of COVID-19 patients in hospital per million
Number of COVID-19 patients in intensive care (ICU)
Number of people who completed the initial COVID-19 vaccination protocol
Parks and outdoor spaces: How did the number of visitors change relative to before the pandemic?
Public information campaigns on the COVID-19 pandemic
Public transport closures during the COVID-19 pandemic
Residential areas: How did the time spent at home change relative to before the pandemic?
Restrictions on internal movement during the COVID-19 pandemic
Restrictions on public gatherings in the COVID-19 pandemic
Retail and recreation: How did the number of visitors change relative to before the pandemic?
SARS-CoV-2 sequences by variant
SARS-CoV-2 variants in analyzed sequences
School closures during the COVID-19 pandemic
Share of SARS-CoV-2 sequences that are the delta variant
Share of SARS-CoV-2 sequences that are the omicron variant
Share of global daily COVID-19 vaccine doses administered as boosters
Share of people who completed the initial COVID-19 vaccination protocol
Share of people who completed the initial COVID-19 vaccination protocol by age
Share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine Line chart
Share of people with a COVID-19 booster dose by age
Share of people with at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine by age
Share of total COVID-19 tests that were positive
Stay-at-home requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic
Sweden: Daily new confirmed COVID-19 deaths, by date of death
Switzerland: COVID-19 weekly death rate by vaccination status
Tests and new confirmed COVID-19 cases per day
Tests conducted per new confirmed case of COVID-19
The share of COVID-19 tests that are positive
Total COVID-19 tests Line chart
Total COVID-19 tests conducted vs. confirmed cases
Total COVID-19 tests conducted vs. confirmed cases per million
Total COVID-19 tests per 1,000 people Line chart
Total COVID-19 tests per 1,000 vs. GDP per capita
Total COVID-19 tests per confirmed case Bar chart
Total COVID-19 vaccine doses administered
Total COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people
Total confirmed COVID-19 cases vs. deaths per million
Total confirmed COVID-19 cases, by source
Total confirmed COVID-19 deaths and cases per million people
Total confirmed deaths due to COVID-19 vs. population
Total confirmed deaths from COVID-19, by source
Total number of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine
Transit stations: How did the number of visitors change relative to before the pandemic?
UK: Cumulative confirmed COVID-19 deaths per 100,000
UK: Daily new confirmed COVID-19 cases
UK: Daily new confirmed COVID-19 cases per 100,000
UK: Daily new confirmed COVID-19 deaths
UK: Daily new hospital admissions for COVID-19
UK: Number of COVID-19 patients in hospital
UK: Share of COVID-19 tests that are positive
US: Daily COVID-19 vaccine doses administered
US: Daily COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people
US: Number of people who completed the initial COVID-19 vaccination protocol
US: Number of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine
US: Share of available COVID-19 vaccine doses that have been used
US: Share of people who completed the initial COVID-19 vaccination protocol
US: Share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine
US: Total COVID-19 vaccine doses administered
US: Total COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people
US: Total COVID-19 vaccine doses distributed
US: Total COVID-19 vaccine doses distributed per 100 people
United States: COVID-19 weekly death rate by vaccination status
Week by week change in confirmed COVID-19 cases
Week by week change of confirmed COVID-19 deaths
Weekly confirmed COVID-19 cases
Weekly confirmed COVID-19 cases per million people
Weekly confirmed COVID-19 deaths
Weekly confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million people
Weekly new ICU admissions for COVID-19
Weekly new ICU admissions for COVID-19 per million
Weekly new hospital admissions for COVID-19
Weekly new hospital admissions for COVID-19 per million
What is the youngest age group eligible for COVID-19 vaccination?
Which countries do COVID-19 contact tracing?
Willingness to get vaccinated against COVID-19 by month
Workplace closures during the COVID-19 pandemic
Workplaces: How did the number of visitors change relative to before the pandemic?
Cancer death rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized
Cancer death rate by age group IHME
Cancer death rate by type
Cancer death rate: crude versus age-standardized WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized
Cancer death rates in the United States over the long-run
Cancer deaths by type Bar chart
Cancer deaths by type Stacked area chart
Cancer incidence
Death rate from cancer IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from cancer WHO
Death rate from cancer IHME, crude
Death rate from cancer for 15- to 49-year olds
Death rate from cancers vs. GDP per capita
Death rate from cancers vs. income inequality
Death rates from different causes WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized
Deaths from cancer IHME
Deaths from cancer WHO
Deaths from cancer, by age
Disease burden rates by cancer types
Disease burden rates from cancers
Five year survival rate from liver cancer
Five year survival rates by cancer type
Five year survival rates from breast cancer
Five year survival rates from lung cancer
Five-year breast cancer survival rates vs. GDP per capita
Five-year cancer survival rates by sex and race
Five-year cancer survival rates in the USA
Five-year lung cancer survival rate vs. GDP per capita
Hepatitis B: deaths by type of disease
Hepatitis C: deaths by type of disease
Lung cancer death rates
Lung cancer death rates in males
Lung cancer deaths in men vs. women
Number of people with cancer
Number of people with cancer by type
Prevalence of cancer by age
Share of cancer deaths attributed to risk factors
Share of deaths from underlying causes
Share of population with cancer Age-standardized, by country
Share of population with cancer By cancer type
Share of population with cancer Crude, by country
Share of population with cancer by age
Share of population with cancer vs. GDP per capita
Three measures of cancer mortality

Cardiovascular Diseases

Average HDL cholesterol levels age-standardized
Average non-HDL cholesterol levels age-standardized
Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) units per million people
Cardiac surgeons per million people
Cardiologists per million people
Catheterization labs per million people
Computed tomography (CT) imaging units per million people
Coronary angiographies and diagnostic cardiac catheterizations per million people
Coronary stents per million people
Death rate from cardiomyopathy, myocarditis and endocarditis WHO Global Health Estimates, age-standardized, estimated
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases IHME, crude
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases WHO Global Health Estimates, crude, estimated
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized, reported
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases WHO Global Health Estimates, age-standardized, estimated
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases WHO Mortality Database, crude, reported
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases by age group IHME, crude
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases by age group WHO Mortality Database, crude, reported
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases by risk factor IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases by sex WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized, reported, scatterplot
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases by sex WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized, reported
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases in 15- to 49-year olds IHME
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases vs. GDP per capita
Death rate from hypertension IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from hypertension IHME, crude
Death rate from hypertensive heart diseases WHO
Death rate from ischaemic heart disease WHO
Death rate from rheumatic heart diseases WHO
Death rate from stroke IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from stroke IHME, crude
Death rate from stroke WHO, age-standardized
Death rate from stroke by age group IHME
Death rates from different causes in France over the 20th century
Death rates from different causes in the United States over the 20th century
Gamma camera or nuclear medicine units per million people
Hospitals with cath labs per million people
Hospitals with dedicated heart failure centers per million people
Hospitals with dedicated stroke units per million people
Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) per million people
Incidence rate of cardiovascular diseases IHME, age-standardized
Incidence rate of peripheral artery disease age-standardized
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) units per million people
Number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases IHME
Number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases WHO Global Health Estimates, estimated
Number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases by age IHME
Number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases by region WHO Global Health Estimates, estimated
Number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases by region WHO Global Health Estimates, slope chart
Number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases by risk factor IHME, age-standardized
Number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases by type WHO Global Health Estimates, estimated
Number of deaths from hypertension IHME
Number of deaths from stroke IHME
Number of deaths from stroke WHO
Number of deaths from stroke by age IHME
Pacemaker implantations per million people
Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging units per million people
Prevalence rate of cardiovascular diseases IHME, age-standardized
Prevalence rate of hypertension in adults aged 30-79
Prevalence rate of hypertension in men aged 30-79
Prevalence rate of hypertension in women aged 30-79
Prevalence rate of obesity in adults Age-standardized
Prevalence rate of peripheral artery disease age-standardized
Share of adults who smoke
Share of deaths from cardiovascular diseases
Share of deaths from cardiovascular diseases Slope chart
Share of deaths from major causes WHO Mortality Database
Share of percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI) performed by transradial access
Statin accessibility in the public health sector
Statin use by people with cardiovascular diseases to prevent complications
Statin use to prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases
Statin use vs death rate from cardiovascular diseases
Statin use vs. average non-HDL cholesterol levels

Causes of Death

Acute hepatitis death rate
Amphetamine use disorder death rate IHME, age-standardized
Amphetamine use disorder death rate WHO
Amphetamine use disorder deaths by sex
Annual death rate from all causes
Annual deaths from road accidents
Annual number of deaths: reported versus estimated
Autopsy rate
Cancer death rate by age group WHO
Causes of death IHME
Causes of death
Causes of death in 15- to 49-year-olds
Causes of death in 50- to 69-year-olds
Causes of death in children aged 5 to 14
Causes of death in children under five
Causes of death in the United States over the 20th century
Causes of death in the over 70s
Causes of death, by income group
Child mortality by the type of congenital birth defect
Child mortality rate by cause
Chronic respiratory diseases death rate IHME, age-standardized
Cocaine use disorder death rate IHME, age-standardized
Cocaine use disorder death rate WHO
Cocaine use disorder death rate by age
Cocaine use disorder deaths by sex
Congenital birth defect mortality rates in children under-5
Countries adopting the International Classification of Diseases guidelines
Crude death rate
Crude death rate: the share of the population that dies each year WHO
Crude death rate: the share of the population that dies each year IHME
Death rate by cause
Death rate due to low physical activity IHME, age-standardized
Death rate due to low physical activity IHME, crude
Death rate due to road traffic injuries
Death rate from Parkinson's disease IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from Parkinson's disease IHME, crude
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from communicable vs. non-communicable diseases
Death rate from diabetes
Death rate from drowning IHME, crude
Death rate from drowning WHO
Death rate from falls WHO
Death rate from falls IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from falls IHME, crude
Death rate from fires and burns IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from fires and burns IHME
Death rate from fires and burns WHO
Death rate from indoor air pollution Crude
Death rate from indoor air pollution in 1990 vs. 2019
Death rate from malnutrition IHME, crude
Death rate from malnutrition WHO
Death rate from meningitis IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from meningitis IHME, crude
Death rate from meningitis WHO
Death rate from obesity IHME, crude
Death rate from pneumonia IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from pneumonia IHME, crude
Death rate from pneumonia WHO
Death rate from pregnancy or maternal conditions WHO
Death rate from pregnancy or maternal conditions IHME
Death rate from respiratory infections IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from respiratory infections IHME, crude
Death rate from road accidents for 15- to 49-year olds
Death rate from road injuries IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from road injuries IHME, crude
Death rate from road injuries WHO
Death rate from secondhand smoke IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from secondhand smoke IHME, crude
Death rate from smoking IHME, crude
Death rate from smoking by age
Death rate from unintentional poisoning
Death rate from unsafe sex IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from unsafe sex IHME, crude
Death rate from venomous animal contact
Death rate from venomous snakes
Death rates from natural disasters
Deaths attributed to drug use IHME
Deaths attributed to drug use by age
Deaths by risk factor
Deaths by risk factor for ages 15-49
Deaths by risk factor for ages 5-14
Deaths by risk factor for over 70s
Deaths by risk factor for under-5s
Deaths due to low physical activity
Deaths due to measles
Deaths due to obesity
Deaths due to unsafe sex
Deaths from Parkinson's disease WHO
Deaths from acute hepatitis, by age
Deaths from acute hepatitis, by type
Deaths from diabetes IHME
Deaths from diabetes, by age
Deaths from drowning IHME
Deaths from drowning WHO
Deaths from falls WHO
Deaths from falls IHME
Deaths from fires and burns IHME
Deaths from malnutrition IHME
Deaths from malnutrition WHO
Deaths from measles, by age
Deaths from meningitis IHME
Deaths from meningitis WHO
Deaths from natural disasters
Deaths from obesity, by age
Deaths from pneumonia IHME
Deaths from pneumonia WHO
Deaths from rabies, by age
Deaths from respiratory infections
Deaths from road injuries IHME
Deaths from road injuries WHO
Deaths from tobacco smoking, by age
Deaths from venomous animal contact
Deaths from venomous snakes
Deaths from whooping cough, by age
Dengue fever deaths
Drowning death rate in children under the age of 5
Drug overdose death rate by drug type United States (CDC WONDER)
Drug use disorder death rate WHO, slope chart
Drug use disorder deaths IHME, by type of drug
Drug use disorder deaths WHO
Drug use disorder deaths by age WHO
Drug use disorder deaths by sex
Expected chances of death from non-communicable diseases, by gender
Expected share of deaths from non-communicable diseases
Fatal occupational injury rates
Global aviation fatalities by flight phase
Hepatitis B: total number of deaths
Hepatitis B: total number of deaths by age group
Hepatitis C: total number of deaths
ICD version used to classify causes of death
Incidence of meningitis
Incidence of tuberculosis IHME
Incidence of venomous animal contact
Infectious and parasitic diseases death rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized
Leading broad cause of death
Major causes of child deaths
Neonatal asphyxia and trauma mortality rates
Neonatal deaths by cause
Number of child deaths by the type of congenital birth defect
Number of deaths United Nations
Number of deaths WHO
Number of deaths IHME
Number of deaths from HIV/AIDS WHO GHE
Number of infant deaths UN via WHO
Number of reported road incidents
Opioid use disorder death rate IHME, age-standardized
Opioid use disorder death rate WHO
Opioid use disorder death rate by age
Opioid use disorder death share
Opioid use disorder deaths by sex
Population whose cause of death is registered
Protein-energy malnutrition mortality rates in children
Rate of deaths attributed to drug use IHME, age-standardized
Rate of deaths attributed to drug use IHME
Reported rabies deaths
Reported suicide rates WHO Mortality Database
Respiratory infection death rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized
Respiratory infections death rate by age group
Road accident deaths
Road incident death rate vs. GDP per capita
Road mortality rate, IHME vs. WHO data
Share of deaths by age group IHME
Share of deaths by cause
Share of deaths for which the cause is registered
Share of deaths from secondhand smoke
Share of deaths registered with an ill-defined cause of death
Share of deaths that are registered
Substance use disorder deaths IHME, drugs dissagregated
Substance use disorder deaths WHO
Suicide rate for 15- to 49-year olds
Tuberculosis death rate
Tuberculosis deaths WHO GHE
Tuberculosis deaths WHO 2023
Unintentional injuries death rate by age group

Child & Infant Mortality

Child death rates by cause for boys vs. girls in India
Child deaths from diseases caused by invasive pneumococcus
Child deaths from malaria
Child deaths in the first five years of life by age group Line chart
Child deaths in the first year of life
Child mortality by cause IHME
Child mortality by income level of country
Child mortality by sex UN IGME
Child mortality from respiratory infections vs. access to clean fuels for cooking
Child mortality from respiratory infections vs. share taken to a healthcare provider
Child mortality in the past vs. today UN IGME
Child mortality rate IHME, GBD
Child mortality rate UN IGME
Child mortality rate UN WPP
Child mortality rate Long-run data; Gapminder & UN IGME
Child mortality rate UN IGME with SDG target
Child mortality rate UN IGME, slope chart
Child mortality rate Gapminder & UN IGME
Child mortality rate by household wealth
Child mortality rate by sex UN IGME
Child mortality rate by source
Child mortality rate vs. GDP per capita
Child mortality rate vs. electoral democracy
Child mortality rate vs. mean male height
Child mortality rate vs. share of population practicing open defecation
Child mortality rate, including UN projections
Child mortality vs. CO₂ emissions per capita
Child mortality vs. average years of schooling for women
Child mortality vs. health expenditure
Child mortality vs. level of prosperity
Child mortality vs. per capita health expenditure
Child mortality vs. prevalence of child wasting
Child mortality vs. prevalence of stunting
Child mortality vs. prevalence of teenage pregnancy
Child mortality vs. share in extreme poverty
Child mortality vs. share of children immunized against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus
Child mortality vs. share of children who are anemic
Child mortality vs. share with respiratory infections taken to a healthcare provider
Child mortality: IHME vs. UN IGME estimates
Childhood deaths from the most lethal infectious diseases
Children per woman that survived childhood vs. those that died in childhood
Children with diarrheal disease vs. oral rehydration salts
Death rate from neonatal preterm birth complications
Death rate from pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections in children
Diarrheal diseases death rate in children under five By world region
Diarrheal diseases death rate in children vs. access to basic handwashing facilities
Fertility rate vs. child mortality
Global child deaths by cause
Global child mortality Gapminder & UN IGME
Global infant mortality by cause for boys vs. girls
Has country already reached SDG target on child mortality?
Infant mortality by sex
Infant mortality rate UN IGME
Infant mortality rate IHME
Infant mortality rate UN WPP
Infant mortality rate by sex World Bank; UN IGME
Infant mortality rates in England and Wales
Infant mortality vs. prevalence of prenatal care
Life satisfaction vs. child mortality
Live births in England and Wales at or under 22 weeks gestation
MDG4.A: Child mortality rate
Malnutrition: Number of children who are underweight
Maternal mortality vs. neonatal mortality
Mothers who have lost a child under five, across birth cohorts
Neonatal mortality rate UN IGME
Neonatal mortality rate IHME
Neonatal mortality vs. births attended by skilled health staff
Number of child deaths Slope chart
Number of child deaths IHME
Number of child deaths UN IGME
Number of child deaths by age UN IGME
Number of child deaths by region UN IGME
Number of child deaths by source
Number of child deaths by world region UN WPP
Number of child deaths per woman
Number of deaths by age UN
Number of deaths from pneumonia in children under five
Number of infant deaths UN IGME
Number of infant deaths IHME
Number of infant deaths UN WPP
Number of neonatal deaths IHME
Number of neonatal deaths UN IGME
Number of neonatal deaths by region
Number of neonatal, infant and child deaths
Number of new tetanus cases in children under-5
Number of youth deaths
Probability of dying in infancy, by sex
Rotavirus deaths in children under five
Rotavirus deaths that were preventable in children under five
Share of children with an active hepatitis B infection
Share of children with symptoms of pneumonia who are taken to a health provider
Share of mothers visited by a health professional during pregnancy
Share of mothers who have lost a child under five
Share of mothers who have lost an infant
Stillbirth rate
Tetanus mortality in children under-5
UN projection of infant deaths
Under-five mortality vs. prevalence of anemia in pregnant women
Youth mortality rate

Child Health

Malnutrition: Prevalence of childhood stunting, male vs. female
Malnutrition: Share of children who are stunted United Nations
Malnutrition: Share of children who are stunted IHME
Malnutrition: Share of children who are underweight
Malnutrition: Share of children who are wasted United Nations
Prevalence of stunting vs. improved sanitation facilities
Prevalence of undernourishment vs. share of children who are stunted
Prevalence of underweight children vs. share in extreme poverty
Share of children who are overweight
Share of children who are overweight or obese
Share of children who are stunted vs. GDP per capita
Share of children with diarrhea receiving oral rehydration salts
Share of neonates protected at birth against neonatal tetanus
Stunting vs. GDP per capita

Child Labor

Average weekly working hours of children
Child labor
Child labor in Italy
Child labor in the United States
Children in employment vs. hours worked by children
Global incidence of child labor
Global incidence of child labor by age groups
Global share of children aged 10-14 in the labor force
Incidence of child labor in the United States
Level of national compliance with labor rights
Percentage of children (aged 7-14) in employment by sex
Share of children aged 5-17 years engaged in labor
Share of children aged 5–17 years engaged in labor Scatterplot by gender
Share of children in employment
Share of children in employment vs. GDP per capita
Share of children in employment, boys vs. girls
Share of working children who do not attend school
Various measures of child labor incidence
Weekly hours worked by children vs. GDP per capita
Working children out of school vs. hours worked by children
Countries where interstate or intrastate wars took place
Death rate in armed conflicts Regional data
Death rate in armed conflicts based on where they occurred Country-level data
Death rate in state-based conflicts
Death rate in wars Project Mars
Death rate in wars Correlates of War
Deaths from one-sided violence based on where they occurred
Deaths in armed conflicts Regional data, stacked bars
Deaths in armed conflicts based on where they occurred Country-level data, stacked bars
Deaths in intrastate conflicts based on where they occurred
Deaths in non-state conflicts based on where they occurred
Deaths in state-based conflicts
Deaths in state-based conflicts by type
Deaths in wars Project Mars
Deaths in wars Correlates of War
Number of active United Nations peacekeeping missions
Number of armed conflicts
Number of new armed conflicts
Number of new state-based conflicts
Number of new wars
Number of state-based conflicts
Number of states involved in state-based conflicts
Number of wars Project Mars
Number of wars Correlates of War
Rate of armed conflicts
Rate of state-based conflicts
Rate of wars Project Mars
Rate of wars Correlates of War
States involved in state-based conflicts Map
United Nations peacekeepers on active missions
United Nations peacekeepers on active missions by type
Wars ranked by death toll, 1800-2011 Bar chart

Clean Water

Bathing sites with excellent water quality
Death rate from unsafe water sources IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from unsafe water vs. GDP per capita
Drinking water service usage
Drinking water services usage in rural areas
Has country already reached SDG target on improved water access?
Improved water sources vs. GDP per capita
People not using an improved water source
People not using safe drinking water facilities
People using at least a basic drinking water source
Rate of deaths attributed to unsafe water sources IHME, crude
Share of deaths attributed to unsafe water sources
Share of population using at least a basic drinking water source
Share of the population not using an improved water source
Share of the population using drinking water facilities
Share of the rural population using at least basic water services
Share of urban population using at least basic water services
Share of urban vs. rural population using at least basic drinking water
Share of urban vs. rural population using safely managed drinking water
Share using safely managed drinking water
Urban improved water usage vs. rural water usage
Usage of improved water sources

Clean Water & Sanitation

Average ammonium concentration in freshwater
Average nitrate concentration in freshwater
Average phosphorus concentration in freshwater
Death rate attributable to unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene
Death rate from no access to hand-washing facilities IHME, crude
Death rate from unsafe sanitation IHME, age-standardized
Deaths attributed to lack of access to handwashing facilities
Deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation
Deaths attributed to unsafe water sources
Diarrheal disease episodes vs. safely managed sanitation
Drinking water services usage in urban areas
Has country already reached SDG target for usage of improved sanitation facilities?
Implementation of integrated water resource management
Number of people in rural areas without basic handwashing facilities
Open defecation in rural areas vs. urban areas
People in rural areas not using an improved water source
People in rural areas not using improved sanitation facilities
People not using improved sanitation facilities
People not using to safely managed sanitation
People without basic handwashing facilities
Population with basic handwashing facilities, urban vs. rural
Progress towards the ratification and accession of UNCLOS
Rate of deaths attributed to no access to handwashing facilities IHME, age-standardized
Rate of deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation IHME, crude
Sanitation facilities usage
Sanitation facilities usage in rural areas
Sanitation facilities usage in urban areas
Share of deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation
Share of people practicing open defecation
Share of population with access to basic handwashing facilities
Share of population with improved sanitation vs. GDP per capita
Share of rural population with access to basic handwashing facilities
Share of schools with access to basic drinking water
Share of schools with access to basic handwashing facilities
Share of the population not using improved sanitation
Share of the population using at least basic sanitation services
Share of the population using safely managed sanitation facilities
Share of the population using sanitation facilities
Share of the population with access to basic services
Share of the population with access to handwashing facilities
Share of the rural population using at least basic sanitation services
Share of transboundary water basins with arrangement for water cooperation
Share of urban population using at least basic sanitation services
Share of urban vs. rural population using at least basic sanitation
Share of urban vs. rural population using safely managed sanitation facilities
Share of water bodies with good ambient water quality
Share using safely managed drinking water, rural vs. urban
Total official financial flows for water supply and sanitation, by recipient
Usage of at least basic sanitation facilities

Climate Change

Annual temperature anomalies
Antarctic sea ice extent
Arctic sea ice extent
Average monthly surface temperature
Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere
Concentration of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere
Countries with national adaptation plans for climate change
Decadal temperature anomalies
Financial support provided through the Green Climate Fund
Glaciers: change of mass of US glaciers
Global atmospheric CO₂ concentration
Global atmospheric methane concentrations
Global atmospheric nitrous oxide concentration
Global monthly temperature anomaly
Global warming: monthly sea surface temperature anomaly
Global yearly surface temperature anomalies
Heat content in the top 2,000 meters of the world's oceans
Heat content in the top 700 meters of the world's oceans
Ice sheet mass balance
Monthly average ocean heat content in the top 2,000 meters
Monthly average ocean heat content in the top 700 meters
Monthly average surface temperatures by decade decadal
Monthly average surface temperatures by year
Monthly surface temperature anomalies by decade decadal
Monthly surface temperature anomalies by year
Monthly temperature anomalies
Nationally determined contributions to climate change
Ocean acidification: mean seawater pH
Opinions of young people on the threats of climate change
People underestimate others' willingness to take climate action
Sea level rise
Sea surface temperature anomaly
Seasonal temperature anomaly in the United States
Share of people who believe in climate change and think it's a serious threat to humanity
Share of people who say their government should do more to tackle climate change
Share of people who support policies to tackle climate change
Snow cover in North America
Surface temperature anomaly

Communication Technology

Share of people in range of 4G mobile network
Share of people who own a mobile phone, by sex
Share of population in range of mobile network, by capability

Consumer Credit, Debt & Saving

Adjusted net saving (current US dollars)
Genuine saving per capita and GDP per capita
Genuine savings per capita
Loan from a financial institution, poorest 40% vs. richest 60%
Share of adults borrowing from a financial institution vs. family or friends
Share of adults borrowing from a private informal lender
Share of adults borrowing from different sources
Share of adults who report saving money in the past year
Various measures of national saving/investment (per capita, in international dollars)
Various measures of national saving/investment compared to GDP per capita

Contraception & Abortion

Contraceptive prevalence: modern methods vs. any methods
Fertility rate vs. contraceptive prevalence
Fertility rate vs. unmet need for contraception
Share of women using contraceptives
Women who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care
Average rating of perceived corruption in public sector
Bribe payers index
Bribery incidence for firms
Bribery prevalence
Bribery rates
Corruption Perception Index
Corruption Perception Index vs. share of people who have bribed
Human Development Index vs. Corruption Perception Index
Incidence of bribe requests, private sector
Learning-adjusted years of schooling vs. Corruption Perception Index
Perception of corruption by institution
Political corruption index
Share of people who think political parties are very corrupt
Unpaid parking violations per diplomat in New York City by country of origin
Prison population rate
Share of women who experienced violence by an intimate partner

Crop Yields

Almond yields
Area of land needed to meet global vegetable oil demand
Area of land needed to produce one tonne of vegetable oil
Banana yields
Barley yields
Bean yields
Cashew nut yields
Cassava yields
Cereal yield vs. GDP per capita
Cereal yield vs. extreme poverty rate
Cereal yield vs. fertilizer use
Cereal yields
Change in cereal production, yield, land use and population
Change in production, yield and land use of oil palm fruit
Cocoa bean yields
Coffee bean yields
Corn yields
Corn: Attainable crop yields
Corn: Yield gap
Cotton yields
Crop yields
Global land spared as a result of cereal yield improvements
Groundnut yields
How much cropland has the world spared due to increases in crop yields?
Land use vs. yield change in cereal production
Lettuce yields
Millet yields
Oil palm fruit yields
Oil yields by crop type
Orange yields
Potato yields
Rapeseed yields
Rice yields
Sorghum yields
Soybean yields
Sugar beet yields
Sugar cane yields
Sunflower seed yields
Tomato yields
Wheat yields
Which countries overapplied nitrogen without gains in crop yields?
Yields of important staple crops
Access to justice for men Regimes of the World
Access to justice for women Regimes of the World
Age of democracy Boix et al.
Age of democracy Boix et al., including women's right to vote
Age of democracy Polity
Age of electoral democracy Regimes of the World
Age of electoral democracy Lexical Index
Age of liberal democracy Regimes of the World
Age of polyarchy Lexical Index
Basic state functions score BTI
Citizen satisfaction with democracy
Citizen support for democracy
Civil liberties index EIU
Civil liberties rating Freedom House
Civil liberties score Freedom House
Civil rights score BTI
Civil society participation index V-Dem
Common good justifications score V-Dem
Competitive elections Lexical Index
Competitiveness of executive recruitment score Polity
Competitiveness of political participation score Polity
Constraints on the executive score Polity
Countries that are democracies and autocracies Regimes of the World
Countries that are democracies and autocracies Regimes of the World, including ambiguous regimes
Countries that are democracies and autocracies Lexical Index
Countries that are democracies and autocracies BTI
Countries that are democracies and non-democracies Boix et al.
Countries that are democracies and non-democracies Boix et al., including women's right to vote
Countries that are democracies and non-democracies Freedom House
Countries that are democracies and non-democracies Polity
Countries that are democracies and non-democracies EIU
Countries that are democratizing and autocratizing Episodes of Regime Transformation
Countries that are democratizing and autocratizing Episodes of Regime Transformation, within regimes
Countries that are long-standing democracies Boix et al.
Countries that are long-standing democracies Boix et al., including women's right to vote
Countries that are long-standing democracies Polity
Countries that are long-standing electoral democracies Regimes of the World
Countries that are long-standing electoral democracies Lexical Index
Countries that are long-standing liberal democracies Regimes of the World
Countries that are long-standing polyarchies Lexical Index
Countries with universal right to vote
Deliberative democracy index V-Dem
Deliberative democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Deliberative political institutions index V-Dem
Democracy index Polity
Democracy index Polity, weighted by population
Democracy index EIU
Democracy index EIU, weighted by population
Democracy index by source
Democratic culture index EIU
Democratic electoral institutions Freedom House
Democratic features BTI
Democratic features BTI, weighted by population
Direct popular voting index V-Dem
Distribution of deliberative democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Distribution of deliberative democracy index V-Dem
Distribution of democracy index Polity, weighted by population
Distribution of democracy index EIU, weighted by population
Distribution of democracy index EIU
Distribution of democracy index Polity
Distribution of democratic features index BTI
Distribution of democratic features index BTI, weighted by population
Distribution of egalitarian democracy V-Dem, weighted by population
Distribution of egalitarian democracy index V-Dem
Distribution of electoral democracy index V-Dem
Distribution of electoral democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Distribution of liberal democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Distribution of liberal democracy index V-Dem
Distribution of participatory democracy index V-Dem
Distribution of participatory democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Effective power to govern score BTI
Egalitarian democracy index V-Dem
Egalitarian democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Egalitarian political institutions index V-Dem
Elected political leaders index
Election voter turnout rate by age in the United States
Elections for government's chief executive Lexical Index
Elections for legislature Lexical Index
Electoral democracy Lexical Index
Electoral democracy Regimes of the World
Electoral democracy index V-Dem
Electoral democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Electoral pluralism index EIU
Elite consultations score V-Dem
Engaged society score V-Dem
Equal access to power index V-Dem
Equal resource distribution index V-Dem
Equal rights protection index V-Dem
Free and fair elections Regimes of the World
Free and fair elections index V-Dem
Free and fair elections score BTI
Free countries and territories Freedom House
Freedom of association index V-Dem
Freedom of association score BTI
Freedom of expression index V-Dem
Freedom of expression score BTI
Functioning government index EIU
GDP per capita vs. electoral democracy index
Government effectiveness vs. liberal democracy
Human rights index vs. electoral democracy index
Individual liberties and equality before the law index
Judicial constraints on the executive index
Justified political positions score V-Dem
Legislative constraints on the executive index
Liberal democracy Regimes of the World
Liberal democracy index V-Dem
Liberal democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Liberal political institutions Regimes of the World
Liberal political institutions index
Life expectancy vs. liberal democracy index
Meaningful democratic electoral institutions Regimes of the World
Men's universal right to vote Lexical Index
Multi-party elections Regimes of the World
Multi-party elections for government's chief executive Regimes of the World
Multi-party elections for legislature Regimes of the World
Number of democracies by age Boix et al.
Number of democracies by age Boix et al., including women's right to vote
Number of democracies by age Polity
Number of electoral democracies by age Regimes of the World
Number of electoral democracies by age Lexical Index
Number of liberal democracies by age Regimes of the World
Number of polyarchies by age Lexical Index
Openness of executive recruitment score Polity
Participatory democracy index V-Dem, weighted by population
Participatory democracy index V-Dem
Participatory political institutions index V-Dem
People living in countries with universal right to vote
People living in democracies and autocracies Regimes of the World
People living in democracies and autocracies Regimes of the World, including ambiguous regimes
People living in democracies and autocracies Lexical Index
People living in democracies and autocracies BTI
People living in democracies and autocracies Lexical Index, simplified
People living in democracies and non-democracies Boix et al.
People living in democracies and non-democracies Boix et al., including women's right to vote
People living in democracies and non-democracies Freedom House
People living in democracies and non-democracies Polity
People living in democracies and non-democracies EIU
People living in democratizing and autocratizing countries Episodes of Regime Transformation
People living in democratizing and autocratizing countries Episodes of Regime Transformation, within regimes
People living in free countries and territories Freedom House
People living in long-standing democracies Boix et al.
People living in long-standing democracies Boix et al., including women's right to vote
People living in long-standing democracies Polity
People living in long-standing electoral democracies Regimes of the World
People living in long-standing electoral democracies Lexical Index
People living in long-standing liberal democracies Regimes of the World
People living in long-standing polyarchies Lexical Index
Political and social integration index BTI
Political centralization index
Political liberties Lexical Index
Political opposition Lexical Index
Political participation index BTI
Political participation index EIU
Political regime Regimes of the World
Political regime Boix et al.
Political regime Regimes of the World, including ambiguous regimes
Political regime Boix et al., including women's right to vote
Political regime Freedom House, free countries
Political regime Freedom House, electoral democracies
Political regime Lexical Index
Political regime Polity
Political regime BTI
Political regime EIU
Political regime Episodes of Regime Transformation
Political regime Episodes of Regime Transformation, within regimes
Political regime classification by source
Political rights rating Freedom House
Political rights score Freedom House
Polyarchy Lexical Index
Progress towards the implementation of UNCLOS
Regulation of political participation score Polity
Respect for counterarguments score V-Dem
Rule of law index BTI
Rule of law index V-Dem
Separation of powers score BTI
Share of US citizens less willing to do activities because of terrorism
Share of adult citizens who have the right to vote
Share of member states in international organizations
Share of people who find political decision-making inclusive and responsive
Share of people who trust their national government
Share of voting rights in international organizations
Stability of democratic institutions index BTI
Stateness index BTI
Strong elected local governments index V-Dem
Strong elected regional governments index V-Dem
Tax revenues vs. electoral democracy index
Transparent laws Regimes of the World
Trust in government, OECD average
Universal right to vote Lexical Index
Varieties of democracy V-Dem, weighted by population
Varieties of democracy V-Dem
Voter turnout
Women's political empowerment index vs. electoral democracy index
Women's universal right to vote Lexical Index

Diarrheal Diseases

Cholera case-fatality rate
Cholera reported cases
Cholera reported deaths
Diarrheal disease deaths IHME
Diarrheal disease deaths WHO GHE
Diarrheal disease deaths in people aged 70+ by risk factor
Diarrheal disease deaths, by age
Diarrheal disease episodes
Diarrheal diseases death rate IHME, age-standardized
Diarrheal diseases death rate IHME, crude
Diarrheal diseases death rate WHO
Diarrheal diseases death rate by age
Diarrheal diseases death rate in children under five
Diarrheal diseases death rate in children vs. GDP per capita
Diarrheal diseases death rate in people aged 70+, by risk factor
Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella death rate by age group
Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella death rate in children under five
Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella deaths in children under five
Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella incidence rate by age
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against rotavirus
Rate of deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation vs. GDP per capita
Rotavirus death rate in children under five
Rotavirus deaths prevented by vaccination
Share of children with diarrhea receiving oral rehydration salts and zinc
Share of children with diarrhea receiving treatment
Share of children with diarrhea receiving zinc
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against rotavirus
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever death rate by age
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever death rate in children under five
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever incidence rate by age
Which countries include rotavirus vaccines in their vaccination schedules?

Diet Compositions

Animal protein consumption
Average per capita fruit intake vs. minimum recommended guidelines
Average per capita vegetable intake vs. minimum recommended guidelines
Calorie supply by food group
Cocoa bean consumption per person
Consumption of animal products in the EAT-Lancet diet
Daily caloric supply derived from carbohydrates, protein and fat
Dietary composition by country
Dietary compositions by commodity group
Dietary land use vs. GDP per capita
Fruit consumption by type
Fruit consumption per capita
Fruit consumption vs. GDP per capita
How do actual diets compare to the EAT-Lancet diet?
Share of calories from animal protein vs. GDP per capita
Share of dietary energy derived from protein vs. GDP per capita
Share of dietary energy supply from carbohydrates vs. GDP per capita
Share of dietary energy supply from fats vs. GDP per capita
Share of energy from cereals, roots, and tubers vs. GDP per capita
Share of global habitable land needed for agriculture if everyone had the diet of...
Share of the daily caloric intake that comes from animal protein
Vegetable consumption per capita

Doctors & Health Workers

Dentistry personnel per 10,000 population
Health provider absence rate
Medical doctors per 1,000 people
Medical doctors per 1,000 people vs. GDP per capita
Nurses and midwives per 1,000 people
Pharmaceutical personnel per 10,000 population
Specialist surgical workforce rate
Trust in doctors and nurses vs. disagree that vaccines are safe

Economic Complexity

Economic complexity rank vs. GDP per capita
Rank in the Economic Complexity Index

Economic Growth

Access to electricity vs. GDP per capita
Annual GDP growth
Annual average growth of trade vs. GDP per capita
Annual broad money growth
Annual growth of GDP IMF
Annual growth of GDP per capita World Bank
Annual growth of GDP per employed person
Annual growth of exports of goods and services
Annual growth of general government final consumption expenditure
Annual growth of imports of goods and services
Annual growth of the gross capital formation
Annual working hours per worker vs. GDP per capita
Annual working hours vs. GDP per capita Penn World Table
Antidepressant drug consumption per 1,000 people vs. GDP per capita
Augmented Human Development Index vs. GDP per capita
Automated teller machines (ATMs)
Average hourly earnings of employees
Bank capital to total assets ratio
Broad money to total reserves ratio
Capital intensity
Capital intensity vs. labor productivity
Change of GDP per capita over the last generation in countries with a high share in extreme poverty
Coal energy consumption per capita vs. GDP per capita
Consumer price index
Countries reporting progress in multi-stakeholder development effectiveness monitoring frameworks in support of the SDGs
Countries with a signed bilateral investment treaty
Country-level estimates of negative reciprocity
Country-level estimates of risk taking
Current account balance as a share of GDP
Decadal average: Economic damages from disasters as a share of GDP
Distribution of gross domestic product by economic sector
Domestic material consumption per capita
Domestic material consumption per unit of GDP
Economic damages from disasters as a share of GDP
Energy use per person vs. GDP per capita
England's economy over the long run: GDP per capita vs. population
England's economy over the long run: GDP vs. population
Existence of a national strategy for youth employment
External debt as a share of GNI
GDP per capita Penn World Table, constant international-$
GDP per capita World Bank, constant international-$
GDP per capita World Bank, constant US$
GDP per capita Maddison (2020) – slope chart
GDP per capita Maddison Project Database, constant international-$
GDP per capita in England Broadberry et al., since 1270
GDP per capita in international and market dollars
GDP per capita: Comparing data from World Bank and Maddison Project Database
GDP per capita: Comparing data from World Bank and Penn World Table
GDP per employed person
GDP per head vs. share of industry in GDP
GDP per head vs. share of industry in employment
GDP per head vs. share of services in GDP
GDP per head vs. share of services in employment
GNI per capita vs. GDP per capita
Gap in GDP per hour worked with respect to the United States
Gini Index around 2015 vs. Gini Index around 2000
Gini index of consumption in 2015 vs. 1990 Income only
Gini index of income in 2015 vs. 1990 Inc. non-survey years
Gini index of income in 2015 vs. 1990 Survey years only
Global GDP over the long run
Global average GDP per capita over the long run
Global inequality between world citizens and its components
Globalization over 5 centuries 5 sources
Government expenditure vs. GDP
Government spending as a share of GDP vs. GDP per capita
Gross domestic product (GDP) Penn World Table, constant international-$
Gross domestic product (GDP) World Bank, constant US$
Gross domestic product (GDP) Fouquin and Hugot, current GBP
Gross domestic product (GDP) World Bank, constant international-$
Gross domestic product (GDP) Maddison Project Database, constant international-$
Gross domestic product (GDP) by world region Maddison Project Database, constant international-$
Gross domestic product (GDP) in England Broadberry et al., since 1270
Gross national income (GNI) per capita World Bank
Gross public sector debt as a proportion of GDP
Hidden Hunger Index vs. GDP per capita
Historical national accounts estimates of the distribution of people living at different income thresholds globally
Historical national accounts estimates of the share of people living below $5 a day
Human Capital Index vs. GDP per capita
Human Development Index vs. GDP per capita
Income or consumption of the poorest 10% vs. GDP per capita
Inequality in 1990 vs. 2015
Inflation of consumer prices
Labor force participation rate of men aged 65+ in the United States
Labor productivity and capital intensity
Labor share of gross domestic product (GDP)
Life expectancy vs. GDP per capita Maddison, historical
Mean income or consumption per day 2011 Int-$
Mean income or consumption per day vs. GDP per capita
Mean income or consumption per day vs. GDP per capita 2011 PPPs
Mean income or consumption per day: 2011 vs. 2017 international-$
Mean vs. median income or consumption World Bank
Median income (after tax) LIS
Median income or consumption per day vs. GDP per capita
Median income or consumption per day vs. GDP per capita 2011 PPPs
National poverty line vs. GDP per capita
Net portfolio investment
Nominal wages, consumer prices and real wages
Official development assistance World Bank
Output of key industrial sectors in the United Kingdom Broadberry et al.
Output of key industries in the United Kingdom Broadberry et al., more industries
Output of key service and industrial sectors in the United Kingdom
PPP conversion factor for private consumption
Per capita electricity generation vs. GDP per capita
Price level relative to the US vs. GDP per capita
Price per kilogram of gold
Productivity per hour of work in the UK
Productivity vs. GDP per capita
Productivity: output per hour worked
Reconstruction of historical global extreme poverty rates
Reconstruction of historical poverty trends by country
Revenue from corporate income taxes as a share of GDP
Self-reported life satisfaction vs. GDP per capita
Share in poverty relative to different poverty thresholds 2011 PPPs
Share of adults with an account at a financial institution
Share of employment in agriculture, industry, and services
Share of firms for which access to finance is a major constraint
Share of global merchandise exports
Share of government consumption in GDP vs. GDP per capita
Share of household consumption in GDP vs. GDP per capita
Share of industry in GDP vs. GDP per capita
Share of manufacturing in gross domestic product (GDP)
Share of medium and high-tech in gross domestic product (GDP)
Share of one-person households vs. GDP per capita
Share of population living in extreme poverty vs. GDP per capita
Share of small-scale industries with a loan or line of credit
Share of small-scale manufacturing in total manufacturing
Share of workers employed in agriculture vs. GDP per capita
Sustainable fisheries as a proportion of GDP
Tax revenues as a share of GDP vs. GDP per capita
Total GDP vs. GDP per capita
Total assistance for development received
Total factor productivity
Total market capitalization of listed domestic companies as a share of GDP
Total reserves in months of imports
Total wealth by asset group
Total wealth per capita, by income groups
Unemployment rate ILO
Unemployment rate IMF
Unemployment rate in people with vs. without disability
Use of interpolation and extrapolation on Maddison GDP per capita data
Vegetable supply per person vs. GDP per capita
Wage of craftsmen relative to that of laborers in England
Wealth per capita by asset group
World Bank income groups

Economic Inequality

Annual growth of the income or consumption of the poorest 40%
Annual growth of the income or consumption of the poorest 40% vs. the total population
Distribution of income across richer and poorer groups World Bank
Distribution of income across richer and poorer groups (after tax) LIS
Distribution of income across richer and poorer groups (before tax) WID, bars
Distribution of income across richer and poorer groups (before tax) WID, area
Gini coefficient: World Inequality Database vs. World Bank
Gini index of consumption in 2015 vs. 1990 Consumption & income
Income inequality vs. GDP per capita
Income inequality: Atkinson index
Income inequality: Gini coefficient World Bank
Income inequality: Gini coefficient World Bank, Marimekko
Income inequality: Gini coefficient (after tax) Chartbook of Economic Inequality
Income inequality: Gini coefficient (after tax) LIS
Income inequality: Gini coefficient (before tax) WID
Income inequality: Gini coefficient before and after tax OECD, line chart
Income inequality: Gini coefficient before and after tax LIS, line chart
Income inequality: Gini coefficient before and after tax OECD, scatterplot
Income inequality: Gini coefficient before and after tax World Bank (via UN SDG)
Income inequality: Gini coefficient before and after tax LIS, scatterplot
Income inequality: Gini coefficient before and after tax WID, scatterplot
Income inequality: Gini coefficient before and after tax among working age population OECD, scatterplot
Income inequality: Gini coefficient in Latin America SEDLAC
Income inequality: Palma ratio (after tax) LIS
Income inequality: Palma ratio (before tax) WID
Income or consumption of the poorest 10% World Bank, Marimekko
Income or consumption of the poorest 10% vs. mean income
Income or consumption of the poorest and richest 10%
Income or consumption of the richest 10% World Bank, Marimekko
Income or consumption share of the richest 10% World Bank
Income share of the richest 1% (before tax) WID
Income share of the richest 1% (before tax) WID, with extrapolations
Income share of the richest 1% before and after tax WID, scatterplot
Income share of the richest 1% vs. Gini coefficient (before tax) WID
Income share of the richest 10% (after tax) LIS
Income share of the richest 10% (before tax) WID
Income share of the richest 10% before and after tax WID, scatterplot
Income share of the richest 10% before and after tax LIS, scatterplot
Income share of the richest 10% vs. Gini coefficient (before tax) WID
Mean income or consumption per day Marimekko
Mean income or consumption per day 2017 Int-$
Median and mean income (after tax) LIS
Median income or consumption per day
Population by income level World Bank
Reduction in income inequality before and after tax OECD
Reduction in income inequality before and after tax among total vs. working age population OECD, scatterplot
Tax revenues as a share of GDP vs. income inequality
Three metrics of inequality
Threshold income for each decile (after tax) LIS
Threshold income for each decile (before tax) WID
Threshold income or consumption for each decile World Bank
Wealth share of the richest 1% WID
Wealth share of the richest 10% WID

Economic Inequality by Gender

Average hourly earnings of male and female employees
Borrowing to start or expand business, men vs. women
Countries with gender-equal inheritance
Employment-to-population ratio, men vs. women
Equal rights to land ownership
Female-to-male ratio of time devoted to unpaid care work
Gender Inequality Index
Gender gap in average wages
Gender gap in hourly wages vs. ratio of female-to-male labor force participation
Gender wage gap vs. GDP per capita By continent
Gender wage gap vs. GDP per capita By income group
Historical Gender Equality Index
Land ownership, men vs. women
Law mandates equal remuneration for females and males for work of equal value
Legal frameworks addressing gender equality in employment and economic benefits
Male-to-female ratio of high school courses in math and science
Men and married women have equal ownership rights to property
Participation of women in major purchase decisions
Ratio of female-to-male median earnings by age, US
Share of agricultural population with land rights, by sex
Share of low-pay earners who are female vs. GDP per capita
Share of senior and middle management positions filled by women
Share of women among low pay earners
Share of women in low-wage occupations in the US
Share of women in top income groups
Systems tracking and making public allocations for gender equality and women's empowerment
The gender wage ratio in different income percentiles
The shrinking gender gap in high-level jobs and collective-bargaining coverage
Time spent on unpaid care and domestic work
Unadjusted gender gap in average hourly wages
Unadjusted gender gap in median earnings
Unadjusted gender wage gap including unemployed
What percentage of the US public approves of working wives?
Women's Economic Opportunity Index

Education Spending

Annual salary of primary teachers with 10 years of experience
Average OECD non-tertiary education expenditure by source of funding
Average learning outcomes vs total government expenditure on education
Average learning outcomes vs. government expenditure per primary student
Education expenditure as share of GDP in the United States
Education spending as a share of total government expenditure
Funding sources for public schools
Government expenditure on all education vs. primary education
Government expenditure on pre-primary education as share of GDP
Government expenditure on primary education as share of GDP
Government expenditure on secondary education as share of GDP
Government expenditure on tertiary education as share of GDP
Gross overseas development assistance (ODA) from all donors for scholarships
Public spending on education as a share of GDP
Share of GDP per capita spent by the government on each primary school student vs. GDP per capita
Share of GDP spent on education vs. share of expenditure assigned to education
Share of total public education expenditure allocated to staff compensation
Staff compensation as a share of total expenditure in primary public education vs. GDP per capita

Education and Knowledge

Access to sexual and reproductive health care
Average weekly hours devoted to school by age group, United States

Electricity

Electricity generation
Electricity production by source Line chart
Electricity production by source Absolute area chart
Electricity production from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables
Has a country already reached SDG target on electricity access?
Number of people with and without electricity access
Number of people without access to electricity By world region
Number of people without access to electricity By country
Per capita electricity generation
Per capita electricity generation by source
Per capita electricity generation from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables
Share of electricity generated by low-carbon sources
Share of electricity production by source Individual sources
Share of electricity production by source Faceted
Share of electricity production from coal
Share of electricity production from fossil fuels
Share of electricity production from gas
Share of electricity production from hydropower
Share of electricity production from nuclear
Share of electricity production from renewables
Share of electricity production from solar
Share of electricity production from wind

Electricity Mix

Electricity as a share of primary energy
Electricity production by source Relative area chart
Net electricity imports as a share of electricity demand
Share of electricity production by source Broad types

Employment in Agriculture

Agricultural area over the long-term
Agricultural value added per worker
Agriculture as a share of GDP vs. GDP per capita World Bank
Agriculture as a share of GDP vs. GDP per capita Long-term data
Agriculture value added per worker vs. GDP per capita
Average income of large-scale food producers
Average income of small-scale food producers
Employment by economic sector
Employment in agriculture vs. urban population
Farm machinery per unit of agricultural land
Job search methods
Number of people employed in agriculture
Share of GDP from agriculture
Share of agricultural landowners who are female
Share of agriculture in total employment
Share of employed women working in agriculture vs. GDP per capita
Share of informal employment in agriculture
Share of informal employment in agriculture by sex
Share of male vs. female employment in agriculture
Share of the labor force employed in agriculture
agricultural labor and land use
Absolute annual change in primary energy consumption
Access to clean fuels for cooking vs. per capita energy use
Annual change in coal energy consumption
Annual change in fossil fuel consumption
Annual change in gas consumption
Annual change in hydropower generation
Annual change in low-carbon energy generation
Annual change in nuclear energy generation
Annual change in oil consumption
Annual change in primary energy consumption
Annual change in renewable energy generation
Annual change in solar and wind energy generation
Annual change in solar energy generation
Annual change in wind energy generation
Annual patents filed for carbon capture and storage technologies
Annual patents filed for electric vehicle technologies
Annual patents filed for energy storage technologies
Annual patents filed for renewable energy technologies
Annual patents filed in sustainable energy
Annual percentage change in coal energy consumption
Annual percentage change in fossil fuel consumption
Annual percentage change in gas consumption
Annual percentage change in hydropower generation
Annual percentage change in low-carbon energy generation
Annual percentage change in nuclear energy generation
Annual percentage change in oil consumption
Annual percentage change in renewable energy generation
Annual percentage change in solar and wind energy generation
Annual percentage change in solar energy generation
Annual percentage change in wind energy generation
Carbon intensity of electricity generation
Changes in energy use vs. changes in GDP
Changes in energy use vs. changes in GDP per capita
Coal by end user in the United Kingdom
Coal output from opencast and deepmines in the United Kingdom
Coal output per worker in the United Kingdom
Coal prices
Coal production Long-run series
Coal production Since 1981
Coal production and imports in the United Kingdom Tonnes
Coal production per capita
Coal production per capita over the long-term
Cobalt production
Consumption-based energy intensity per dollar
Consumption-based energy use per person
Crude oil prices
Crude oil spot prices
Death rate from indoor air pollution vs. per capita energy use
Death rates per unit of electricity production
Direct primary energy consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear, and renewables
Electric car stocks
Electricity demand
Electricity generation from coal
Electricity generation from fossil fuels
Electricity generation from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables
Electricity generation from gas
Electricity generation from low-carbon sources
Electricity generation from oil
Electricity generation from renewables
Electricity generation from solar and wind compared to coal
Electricity production in the United Kingdom
Employment in the coal industry in the United Kingdom
Energy consumption by source
Energy embedded in traded goods as a share of domestic energy
Energy imports and exports
Energy intensity World Bank
Energy intensity
Energy intensity by sector
Energy intensity vs. GDP per capita
Energy use per person
Fossil fuel consumption By type
Fossil fuel consumption By country
Fossil fuel consumption per capita
Fossil fuel consumption per capita by source Stacked area chart
Fossil fuel consumption per capita by source Line chart
Fossil fuel price index
Fossil fuel production over the long-term
Fossil fuel production per capita
GDP per capita vs. energy use
Gas consumption
Gas consumption by region
Gas production
Gas production per capita
Gas reserves
Global aviation demand, energy efficiency and CO₂ emissions
Global direct primary energy consumption
Global fossil fuel consumption
Global hydropower consumption
Global installed renewable energy capacity by technology
Global primary energy consumption by source Line chart
Global primary energy consumption by source Stacked area chart
Graphite production
Has country already reached SDG target on clean cooking fuels?
Hubbert's peak prediction vs. actual oil production in the United States
Hydropower generation
Hydropower generation by region
Installed geothermal energy capacity
Installed solar energy capacity
Installed wind energy capacity
Investment in renewable energy, by technology
Levelized cost of energy by technology
Lithium production
Long-term energy transitions
Low-carbon electricity generation per capita
Low-carbon energy consumption
Modern renewable energy generation by source
Natural gas prices
Natural gas production by region
Net electricity imports
Net energy embedded in traded goods
Nuclear power generation
Number of new cars sold, by type
Number of new electric cars sold
Oil consumption
Oil consumption by region
Oil production
Oil production by region
Oil production per capita
Oil reserves
Per capita consumption of low-carbon energy
Per capita consumption of low-carbon energy vs. GDP per capita
Per capita electricity generation from fossil fuels
Per capita electricity generation from gas
Per capita electricity generation from hydropower
Per capita electricity generation from nuclear
Per capita electricity generation from oil
Per capita electricity generation from renewables
Per capita electricity generation from solar
Per capita electricity generation from solar and wind
Per capita electricity generation from wind
Per capita energy consumption from coal
Per capita energy consumption from hydropower
Per capita energy consumption from nuclear
Per capita energy consumption from renewables
Per capita energy consumption from solar
Per capita energy consumption from solar and wind
Per capita energy consumption from wind
Per capita energy from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables
Per capita fossil energy consumption vs. GDP per capita
Per capita gas consumption
Per capita generation of coal electricity
Per capita oil consumption
Per capita primary energy consumption by source
Primary direct energy consumption by source
Primary energy consumption
Primary energy consumption by source Over time
Primary energy consumption by source By country
Primary energy consumption by world region
Primary energy consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables
Primary energy consumption from hydropower
Primary energy consumption from nuclear
Primary energy consumption from renewables
Primary energy consumption from solar
Primary energy consumption from solar and wind
Primary energy consumption from wind
Primary energy mix in the United Kingdom
Production vs. consumption-based carbon intensity of energy
Production- vs. consumption-based energy use per person
Production-based vs. consumption-based energy use
Renewable and nuclear energy: direct vs. substituted energy
Renewable electricity generation Stacked area chart
Renewable energy consumption
Renewable energy generation Line chart
Renewable energy investment
Share of cars currently in use that are electric
Share of direct primary energy consumption by source
Share of electricity generation from fossil fuels, renewables and nuclear
Share of electricity production from oil
Share of electricity production from renewable sources
Share of electricity production from solar and wind
Share of energy consumption by source
Share of final energy use that comes from renewable sources
Share of global primary energy consumption by source
Share of new cars sold that are battery-electric and plug-in hybrid
Share of new cars sold that are electric
Share of new electric cars that are fully battery-electric
Share of primary energy consumption from coal
Share of primary energy consumption from fossil fuels
Share of primary energy consumption from gas
Share of primary energy consumption from hydroelectric power
Share of primary energy consumption from low-carbon sources
Share of primary energy consumption from nuclear
Share of primary energy consumption from oil
Share of primary energy consumption from renewable sources
Share of primary energy consumption from solar
Share of primary energy consumption from solar and wind
Share of primary energy consumption from wind
Share of primary energy consumption that comes from nuclear and renewables
Share of primary energy that is low-carbon vs. GDP per capita
Share of rural vs. urban population with electricity access
Share of schools with access to electricity
Share of the population with access to electricity
Share of the workforce employed in the coal industry, United Kingdom
Share of total energy used in agriculture and forestry
Solar (photovoltaic) panel prices
Solar (photovoltaic) panel prices vs. cumulative capacity
Solar (photovoltaic) panels cumulative capacity
Solar and wind power generation
Solar energy generation by region
Solar energy generation vs. capacity
Solar power generation
The cost of 66 different technologies over time
The long-term energy transition in Europe
Thermal efficiency factor applied to non-fossil energy sources to convert them to primary energy equivalents
Uranium production
When will countries phase out coal power?
Wind energy generation by region
Wind energy generation vs. installed capacity
Wind power generation
World crude oil price vs. oil consumption
Year-to-year change in primary energy consumption by source
Year-to-year change in primary energy consumption from fossil fuels vs. low-carbon energy
Year-to-year percentage change in primary energy consumption
Years of fossil fuel reserves left

Energy Efficiency

Efficiency of lighting in the United Kingdom

Energy Prices

Solar PV system costs

Environmental Impacts of Food Production

Agri-environmental policies weighted by their intensity
Environmental footprints of dairy and plant-based milks
Eutrophying emissions per 100 grams of protein
Eutrophying emissions per 1000 kilocalories
Eutrophying emissions per kilogram of food product
Excess nitrogen from croplands
Excess nitrogen per hectare of cropland
Food loss index
Food waste per capita
Freshwater use per kilogram of farmed seafood
Freshwater withdrawals of foods per 1000 kilocalories
Freshwater withdrawals per 100 grams of protein
Freshwater withdrawals per kilogram of food product
Global food miles by transport method
Greenhouse emissions per unit of food transported
Land use of foods per 1000 kilocalories
Land use per 100 grams of protein
Land use per kilogram of farmed seafood
Land use per kilogram of food product
Nitrogen emissions per tonne of farmed seafood
Number of agri-environmental policies
Number of agri-environmental policies vs. GDP per capita
Phosphorous emissions per tonne of farmed seafood
Scarcity-weighted water use of foods per 1000 kilocalories
Scarcity-weighted water use per 100 grams of protein
Scarcity-weighted water use per kilogram of food product
Share of calories in each food group that are lost or wasted
Share of food lost in post-harvest processes
Share of food lost in post-harvest processes by region
Share of global excess nitrogen from croplands
Share of global excess phosphorus from croplands
Share of global food loss and waste by region
Share of global food miles by transport method

Environmental Protection & Regulation

Forest certified for sustainable use
Global phase-out of leaded petrol in road vehicles
Share of forest with a long-term management plan
Which countries have legally-binding controls on lead paint?

Eradication of Diseases

Current rate of people living with of onchocerciasis
Deaths from infections of currently non-eradicable diseases
Endemicity of yaws
HIV/AIDS deaths by world region
Historical trends across infectious diseases
Incidence and prevalence of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis
Incidence of malaria IHME
Incidence, prevalence and death of rabies
Malaria deaths by age IHME
Malaria deaths by world region WHO
Malaria deaths by world region IHME
Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis cases
New cases, deaths, and people living with HIV/AIDS
Number of biosafety level 4 facilities
Number of new cases of HIV
Number of reported smallpox cases by world region
Onchocerciasis endemicity
Paralytic polio: estimated cases by world region
Pneumococcal vaccine vs. diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine coverage
Progress towards guinea worm disease eradication
Reported cases of guinea worm disease
Share of clinical trials in Europe that report results within a year
Smallpox deaths as a share of all deaths in London 1629 to 1902
Smallpox: when was it eliminated in each country?
The decade of the last recorded wild paralytic polio case
The number of deaths due to tuberculosis by WHO and IHME data
The number of deaths from rabies by world region
Tuberculosis deaths by region
When were countries certified free of guinea worm disease?
Year of the last reported rinderpest case
Birth and death rates in China and how they were affected by the Great Leap Forward famine
Change in Global Hunger Index vs. Global Hunger Index in 1992
Change in Global Hunger Index vs. Population growth
Deaths from protein-energy malnutrition, by age
Global Hunger Index in 2017 vs. population growth 1992-2015
Agricultural land area by farm size
Average farm size vs. GDP per capita
Has the average farm size increased or decreased since 1960?
Number of farms
Number of farms by size
Share of agricultural land operated as smallholder farms
Share of farms operated by smallholders
Share of farms operated by smallholders vs. GDP per capita

Fertility Rate

Average age at marriage, women
Birth rate Mitchell
Birth rate UN
Births per year, by world region
Births, by age of mother
Female labor force participation rates by national per capita income
Fertility rate versus female labor force participation
Fertility rate vs. GDP per capita
Fertility rate vs. Human Development Index
Fertility rate vs. average years of schooling
Fertility rate vs. share living in extreme poverty
Fertility rate vs. share of women with no education
Fertility rate vs. wanted fertility rate Lines
Fertility rate vs. wanted fertility rate Scatterplot
Fertility rate: children per woman Gapminder
Fertility rate: children per woman UN
Fertility rate: children per woman with UN projections
Fertility rate: children per woman Slope chart
Fertility rate: children per woman World Bank
Maternal mortality ratio vs. fertility rate
Modern contraceptive prevalence vs. GDP per capita
Prevalence of modern contraception methods vs. women's educational attainment
Projections of the fertility rate by education scenario
Share of births registered
Share of women using modern contraceptive methods
Share of women whose family planning needs are met
The demographic transition in England and Wales
Unmet need for contraception among married women of reproductive age
Women's educational attainment vs. fertility rate

Fertilizers

Excess phosphorus from croplands
Excess phosphorus per hectare of cropland
Fertilizer application rates over the long-run
Fertilizer consumption
Fertilizer inputs per unit of agricultural land
Fertilizer production by nutrient type
Fertilizer use by nutrient
Fertilizer use per capita
Fertilizer use per hectare of arable land Line chart
Fertilizer use per hectare of cropland Stacked bar chart
Fertilizer use vs. GDP per capita
Global fertilizer exports: how much comes from Russia, Belarus & Ukraine?
Nitrogen fertilizer use per hectare of cropland
Nitrogen inputs per hectare of cropland
Phosphate fertilizer use per hectare of cropland
Potash fertilizer use per hectare of cropland
Total nitrogen inputs to crops
World population supported by synthetic nitrogen fertilizers
World population with and without synthetic nitrogen fertilizers

Financial Inclusion

Financing healthcare.

Adequacy of social insurance programs
Community health workers per 1,000 people
Coverage of essential health services IHME
Coverage of essential health services WHO
Critical care beds per 1,000 people
Cultural and natural heritage expenditure per capita
Development aid received per capita
Development assistance as share of government expense
Expected funding for tuberculosis versus required budget
Government health expenditure as a share of GDP
Health expenditure per capita
Health insurance coverage in the United States
Health insurance coverage vs. GDP per capita
Health spending as a share of total government expenditure
Healthcare Access and Quality Index
Healthcare access and quality by level of healthcare spending
Healthcare expenditure vs. GDP per capita
Healthy life expectancy vs. health expenditure per capita
Hospital beds per 1,000 people
How much we think we spend on healthcare vs. how much we actually do
Inequality in life expectancy vs. health expenditure per capita
International financial support to infrastructure
International health regulations capacities
Life expectancy vs. health expenditure
Life expectancy vs. healthcare expenditure
Money committed to public-private partnerships for infrastructure
Net official development assistance
Net official development assistance and official aid received
Net official development assistance to medical research and basic health sectors
Official development assistance UN
Official development assistance to least-developed countries as a share of donor gross national income
Out-of-pocket expenditure per capita on healthcare
Percentage of people without health insurance in the United States
Percentage of population covered by health insurance
Primary government expenditures as a share of original budget
Private health expenditure per person
Public expenditure on healthcare as percent of total healthcare expenditure
Public health insurance coverage in Western Europe
Public healthcare expenditure as a share of GDP
Share covered by at least one social protection benefit
Share of clinical trials that report results within a year By country
Share of health facilities with essential medicines
Share of indicators drawn from country-led frameworks
Share of out-of-pocket expenditure on healthcare
Share of out-of-pocket expenditure vs. GDP per capita
Share of people at risk of falling into poverty if payment for surgical care is required
Share of population with large expenditures on health
Share of population with very large expenditures on health
Share of the population at risk of catastrophic expenditure when surgical care is required
Tax revenue per capita and public health spending per capita
The Universal Health Coverage (UHC) Service Coverage Index
Total assistance for development disbursed
Total health expenditure per person
Total healthcare expenditure as a share of GDP
Total official development assistance for technical co-operation
US healthcare expenditure

Fish & Overfishing

Combatting illegal fishing
Countries using ecosystem-based management of marine areas
Fish catch by fishing sector
Fish catch per unit of fishing power
Fish landings and discards
Global fish discards by type of fishing gear
Number of people employed in fisheries and aquaculture
Number of people employed in fisheries and fish farms
Protection of the rights of small-scale fisheries
Share of fish catch that is discarded by type of gear used
Share of fish stocks within sustainable levels
Share of marine mammal populations that are increasing or decreasing
Share of the seabed that was trawled at least once

Food Prices

Annual food expenditure vs. total consumer expenditure
Cost of a calorie sufficient diet as a share of average food expenditure
Cost of a healthy diet as a share of average expenditure on food
Cost of a nutrient adequate diet as a share of average food expenditure
Daily cost of a calorie sufficient diet
Daily cost of a healthy diet
Daily cost of a nutrient adequate diet
Food expenditure as a share of family disposable income in the United States
Food expenditure per person
Food expenditure per person in the United States By place of expenditure
Global commodity price index of cereal crops and petroleum
Indicator of food price anomalies
Long-term global prices of food commodities
Number of people that cannot afford a calorie sufficient diet
Number of people that cannot afford a healthy diet
Number of people that cannot afford a nutrient adequate diet
Share of consumer expenditure spent on alcohol and tobacco
Share of consumer expenditure spent on food
Share of countries recording high food prices
Share of expenditure spent on food vs. food expenditure per person
Share of expenditure spent on food vs. total consumer expenditure
Share of population that cannot afford a calorie sufficient diet
Share of population that cannot afford a healthy diet
Share of population that cannot afford a nutrient adequate diet

Food Supply

Cropland per person over the long-term
Daily meat consumption per person
Daily per capita fat supply
Daily per capita fat supply vs. GDP per capita
Daily per capita protein supply
Daily per capita protein supply vs. GDP per capita
Daily per capita supply of calories vs. GDP per capita
Daily protein supply from animal and plant-based foods
Daily protein supply of animal origin vs. plant origin
Daily supply of calories per person
Food supply vs. life expectancy
Labor cost ratio and attainment levels
Meat supply per person
Per capita sources of protein
Prevalence of undernourishment vs. daily supply of calories
Protein supply from animal foods vs. GDP per capita
Share of adults who are obese vs. daily protein supply
Share of the population defined as severely food insecure vs. undernourished

Food and Agriculture

Foreign aid.

Official development assistance to least-developed countries
Total official flows commitments for aid for trade, by donor
Total official flows commitments for aid for trade, by recipient

Foreign Direct Investment

Foreign direct investment, net inflows as share of GDP
Foreign direct investment, net outflows as share of GDP

Forests & Deforestation

Above-ground forest biomass
Annual afforestation
Annual change in forest area in %
Annual change in forest area in hectares
Annual change in forest area as a share of forest area
Annual change in forest area vs. GDP per capita
Annual deforestation
Annual deforestation as a share of forest area
Annual deforestation by region (2010–2014)
Annual forest expansion
Annual tropical deforestation by agricultural product
Change in domestic forest area vs. deforestation embedded in imported goods
Drivers of deforestation in Indonesia
Drivers of forest loss in the Brazilian Amazon
Exported deforestation
Forest area
Forest area by type: naturally regenerating vs. planted
Forest transition phase
Global forestry area
Imported deforestation
Number of trees
Number of trees per capita
Number of trees per km²
Share of CO₂ emissions from tropical deforestation and peatlands
Share of annual global forest expansion
Share of deforestation that is driven by domestic consumption
Share of deforestation that is exported
Share of global annual deforestation
Share of global forest area
Share of land that is degraded
Share of tropical deforestation
Share of tropical deforestation from agricultural products
Who is contributing to deforestation abroad?

Fossil Fuels

Coal consumption
Coal consumption by region
Coal production by region
Coal reserves
Coal reserves by type
Diamond production
Fossil fuel consumption by fuel type
Fossil fuel production
Fossil-fuel subsidies
Fossil-fuel subsidies as a share of GDP
Fossil-fuel subsidies per capita
Gold production
Real commodity price index, metals
Total natural resource rents

Future Population Growth

Births and deaths per year with UN projections
Children per woman vs. Natural population growth
Children under age 5, by world region with UN projections
Natural population growth rate vs. child mortality rate
Population 1950 to 2100, with UN projections
Population 10,000 BCE to 2100, with UN projections
Population growth rate with UN projections
Population, comparison of United Nations projections 1950 to 2100, with UN projections
World population, comparison of UN projections

Gender Ratio

Annual number of missing female births and excess mortality
Gender gap in leisure time
Life expectancy: females versus males UN WPP
Number of 'missing women' in the world
Prevalence of drug use disorders, males vs. females
Prevalence of mental health disorders in males vs. females
Ratio of female to male labor force participation rates Slope chart
Representation of women in the judiciary
Sex ratio at birth
Sex ratio at birth by birth order
Sex ratio at birth vs. at five years old
Sex ratio by age
Sex ratio of five-year-olds
Sex ratio of sixty-year-olds
Share of the population that is female
Share of young women vs. men who are not in education, employment or training
Time spent on unpaid care and domestic work, women vs. men
Unemployment rate of men vs. women

Global Education

Average learning outcomes
Average learning outcomes vs. GDP per capita
Average learning-adjusted years of schooling
Average performance of 15-year-old girls and boys in mathematics
Average performance of 15-year-old girls and boys in reading
Average performance of 15-year-old girls and boys in sciences
Average performance of 15-year-olds in mathematics
Average performance of 15-year-olds in mathematics, reading, and science
Average performance of 15-year-olds in reading
Average performance of 15-year-olds in sciences
Average years of schooling
Average years of schooling UNDP
Average years of schooling for men
Average years of schooling for women
Average years of schooling vs. GDP per capita
Average years of schooling vs. expected years of schooling
Children out of school
Completion rate of lower-secondary education
Completion rate of primary education
Completion rate of upper-secondary education
Duration of compulsory education
Duration of pre-primary education
Expected years of schooling
Expected years of schooling vs. share in extreme poverty
Gender gap in primary, secondary and tertiary education
Gender parity in net enrolment rates in lower-secondary education
Gender parity in net enrolment rates in primary education
Gender parity in primary school life expectancy
Gender ratio for average years of schooling
Girls and boys of primary school age who are out of school
Girls of primary school age who are out of school, by world region
Gross enrolment ratio in pre-primary education
Gross enrolment ratio in primary education
Gross enrolment ratio in secondary education
Gross enrolment ratio in tertiary education
Learning adjusted years of schooling
Learning outcomes, minimum vs. advanced achievement
Literate and illiterate world population
Lower-secondary completion rate, adjusted gender parity index
National average learning outcomes 1985 vs. 2015
Net attendance rate of primary school
Number of adults with no formal education by region
Official entrance age to compulsory education
Official entrance age to pre-primary education
Percentage of primary schools with toilets
Percentage of teachers in lower-secondary education who are qualified
Percentage of teachers in pre-primary education who are qualified
Percentage of teachers in primary education who are qualified
Percentage of teachers in upper-secondary education who are qualified
Population having attained at least some formal education
Primary completion rate
Primary completion rate, adjusted gender parity index
Primary, secondary and tertiary education enrolment and completion rates
Primary-school-age children who are out of school by world region
Projections of share of the population with no formal education IIASA
Proportion of children aged 3-5 years who are developmentally on track
Proportion of male vs. female youth and adults with ICT skills in using presentation software
Pupils per qualified teacher in pre-primary education
Pupils per qualified teacher in primary education
Quality vs. quantity of schooling
Scheduled teaching time that teachers are in the classroom
Share enrolled in private institutions at the pre-primary education level
Share enrolled in private institutions at the primary education level
Share of 15-year-olds in the highest mathematics score level, girls vs. boys
Share of academic staff in tertiary education who are female
Share of adolescents who are not in secondary school
Share of children in primary school age who are in school
Share of female graduates from science and technology programs in tertiary education
Share of population with no formal education
Share of primary school teachers who are female
Share of primary schools with access to drinking water
Share of primary-school-age children who are out of school
Share of primary-school-age children who are out of school vs. GDP per capita
Share of schools with access to computers for teaching
Share of schools with access to single-sex basic sanitation
Share of secondary school teachers who are female
Share of students achieving advanced learning outcomes
Share of students achieving intermediate learning outcomes
Share of students achieving minimum learning outcomes
Share of students at the end of lower-secondary education achieving minimum math proficiency
Share of students at the end of lower-secondary education with minimum reading proficiency
Share of students at the end of primary education achieving minimum math proficiency
Share of students at the end of primary education achieving minimum reading proficiency
Share of students from abroad
Share of students in early primary education achieving minimum reading proficiency
Share of students studying abroad
Share of teachers in primary education who are trained
Share of teachers in secondary education who are qualified
Share of teachers in secondary education who are trained
Share of the population who completed lower-secondary education
Share of the population with post-secondary education
Share of the population with tertiary education
Share of the world's population with formal basic education
Share of women with no formal education
Total net enrollment rate in primary education
Upper-secondary completion rate, adjusted gender parity index
World population by level of education with projections

Global Health

Coverage of underlying data on the prevalence of mental illnesses
Exclusive breastfeeding rate
Global aviation accidents by flight phase
Life expectancy over the long-run
Life expectancy WHO GHO data
Lifespan inequality: Gini coefficient in women
Maternal mortality ratio
Net enrolment rate, pre-primary, both sexes
Number of countries with childhood vaccination policies
Number of one-year-olds who have received different vaccinations
Reported cases of leprosy
Share in multidimensional poverty vs. Multidimensional Poverty Index Current estimates
Share in multidimensional poverty vs. Multidimensional Poverty Index Harmonized over time estimates
Share of mothers receiving at least four antenatal visits during pregnancy
Share of mothers receiving medical care after giving birth
Share of paints with lead levels greater than 10,000 ppm
Share of paints with lead levels greater than 600 ppm
Share of people with HIV who receive antiretroviral therapy
Share of population covered by social protection
Share of population living in extreme poverty 2011 PPPs
Share of population living on less than $2 per day
Tuberculosis case detection rate
Which countries have mandatory childhood vaccination policies?

Government Revenue

Government revenues as a share of GDP World Bank
Government revenues as a share of GDP IMF
Share of government expenditure going to interest payments

Government Spending

Adequacy of social safety net programs
Adequacy of unemployment benefits
Annual budget of NASA
Central government expenditure as share of GDP
Debt service as a share of exports of good and services
Expenditures on general government outsourcing as share of GDP
General government procurement as a percentage of GDP, OECD
Government procurement as share of government expenditure, OECD
Government spending
Military expenditure
Public social spending as a share of GDP
Share of employee compensation in public spending
Share of population satisfied with government services
Share of social protection in government expenditure
Social expenditure as share of GDP
Total government expenditure per capita
Two measures of government expenditure as a share of GDP
Various measures of social expenditure as share of GDP
Annual incidence rate of HIV
Annual number of children newly infected with HIV
Children living with HIV
Children orphaned due to AIDS deaths
Condom use among men who have sex with men
Condom use at last high-risk sex
Condom use during last high-risk sex by age
Death rate from HIV/AIDS IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from HIV/AIDS IHME, crude
Death rate from HIV/AIDS WHO
Deaths from HIV/AIDS by age
Discrimination towards those with HIV by demographic
Discriminatory attitudes towards people living with HIV
Estimated resource needs in low-to-middle income countries to meet HIV targets
Estimated tuberculosis-related deaths among people living with HIV
Gap to reach the target share of people receiving antiretroviral therapy
HIV expenditure on prevention and treatment
HIV funding and estimated future requirements
HIV funding in low- and middle-income countries, by region
HIV incidence by age
HIV incidence per 1,000 uninfected adults
HIV prevalence UNAIDS
HIV/AIDS death rate by age
HIV/AIDS deaths averted by antiretroviral therapy
Incidence of HIV/AIDS IHME data
Incidence of HIV/AIDS
Knowledge about HIV prevention in young men vs. women
New HIV infections averted from prevention of mother-to-child transmission
New HIV infections in children and infections averted by PMTCT
New cases of HIV per 1000 individuals, UNAIDS vs. IHME estimates
Number of HIV deaths averted from antiretroviral therapy (ART)
Number of deaths from HIV/AIDS IHME
Number of deaths from HIV/AIDS WHO GHO
Number of deaths from tuberculosis and other diseases in people with HIV/AIDS
Number of new HIV infections UNAIDS
Number of new HIV infections WHO
Number of people infected with HIV by region
Number of people living with HIV
Prevalence of HIV, UNAIDS vs. IHME estimates
Prevalence of HIV: Share of young males and females infected with HIV
Share of adults aged 15–49 living with HIV IHME
Share of all deaths caused by HIV/AIDS
Share of children under 5 living with HIV
Share of pregnant women with HIV that receive antiretroviral therapy
Share of tuberculosis patients with HIV
Share of young people with knowledge on HIV prevention
Tuberculosis patients living with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy
Tuberculosis patients tested positive for HIV
What share of the population living with HIV are women?

Happiness & Life Satisfaction

Conditional correlation between log income and life satisfaction
Correlation between life satisfaction and mental illness
Country-level estimates of patience
Country-level estimates of positive reciprocity
Depression prevalence vs. self-reported life satisfaction
Happiness inequality during periods of economic growth
Happiness vs. life satisfaction
How Europeans spend their time
How important family is to people in life
How important friends are to people in life
How important leisure is to people in life
How important living in secure surroundings is to people
How important looking after the environment is to people
How important work is to people in life
How much people agree that work is a duty towards society
How worried people are about providing their children with a good education
Is violence against people justifiable?
Life satisfaction vs. life expectancy
Participation time by activity, per day
Participation time in household and family care per day
Participation time in leisure, social, and associative life per day
Participation time in personal care per day
People who report having friends or relatives they can count on
Self-reported life satisfaction
Share of people who say that family is important to them in life
Share of people who say that family is very important to them in life
Share of people who say that friends are important to them in life
Share of people who say that friends are very important to them in life
Share of people who say that leisure is important to them in life
Share of people who say that leisure is very important to them in life
Share of people who say that living in secure surroundings is important to them
Share of people who say that looking after the environment is important to them
Share of people who say that work is important to them in life
Share of people who say that work is very important to them in life
Share of people who say they are happy
Share of people who say they are happy First & last waves
Share of people who say they are satisfied with their life
Share that feel safe walking alone around the area they live at night
Time spent on leisure, social, and associative life per day
Weekly hours dedicated to home production in the USA, by demographic group
Death rate from conflict and terrorism IHME, crude
Death rate from conflict and terrorism IHME, age-standardized
Deaths from conflict and terrorism IHME, GBD

Health Inequality

Inequality in life expectancy

Homelessness

Homeless people per 100,000 population
Homelessness rate
Number of homeless people by shelter status
Number of households and children in temporary accommodation in England
Number of unsheltered homeless people in England
Share of population who have ever been homeless
Unsheltered homeless rate in England
Child homicide rate UNICEF
Child homicide rate WHO Mortality Database
Distribution of homicide rates UNODC
Female homicide rate UNODC
Female homicide victims UNODC
Homicide rate UNODC
Homicide rate IHME
Homicide rate IHME, age-standardized
Homicide rate WHO-GHE
Homicide rate WHO Mortality Database
Homicide rate WHO Mortality Database, Age-standardized
Homicide rate across sources
Homicide rate by age of the victim IHME
Homicide rate by age of the victim WHO Mortality Database
Homicide rate for 15- to 49-year olds
Homicide rate from firearms UNODC
Homicide rate in 1990 vs. 2020 UNODC
Homicide rate vs. GDP per capita UNODC
Homicide rate where the perpetrator is an intimate partner UNODC
Homicide rate, IHME vs. WHO Mortality Database
Homicide rate, UNODC vs. IHME
Homicide rate, WHO vs. UNODC
Homicide rate, by sex of the victim UNODC
Homicide rates over the long term
Homicides IHME
Homicides WHO-GHE
Homicides UNODC
Homicides WHO Mortality Database
Homicides by age of the victim IHME
Homicides by firearm UNODC
Homicides, by sex of the victim UNODC
Male homicide rate UNODC
Male homicide victims UNODC
Share of deaths from homicide WHO Mortality Database
Share of people with disputes using a dispute resolution mechanism
Share of victims who reported crime to the police
Unsentenced detainees as a proportion of overall prison population

Human Development Index (HDI)

Augmented Human Development Index
Augmented Human Development Index (excluding income)
Augmented Human Development Index: with vs. without income metric
Average years of schooling Prados de la Escosura
Average years of schooling, males vs. females
Expected years of schooling, males vs. females
GDP per capita Prados de la Escosura
Gender Development Index
Gender Development Index groups
Gender Development Index vs. GDP per capita
Gender Development Index vs. Human Development Index
Gross national income (GNI) per capita UNDP
Gross national income (GNI) per capita, males vs. females
Human Capital Index
Human Development Index
Human Development Index groups
Human Development Index vs. Augmented Human Development Index
Human Development Index vs. mean male height
Human Development Index: males vs. females
Inequality in education
Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index
Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index vs. GDP per capita
Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index vs. Human Development Index
Life expectancy Prados de la Escosura
Life expectancy UNDP
Life expectancy, males vs. females
Reduction in Human Development Index when adjusting for inequalities

Human Height

Annual change in average female height
Annual change in average male height
Average adult height by year of birth
Average height of men by year of birth University of Tuebingen
Average height of men by year of birth Baten & Blum
Average height of men by year of birth NCD-RisC
Average height of women by year of birth
Height of adult men
Height of adult women
Hours per week spent in home production in the United States, by employment and marital status
Increase in mean heights of females born in 1996 vs. 1896
Increase in mean heights of males born in 1996 vs. 1896
Male-to-female height ratio by year of birth
Mean adult height by year of birth, males vs. females
Percentage increase in mean male vs. female height over a century
Relative increase in mean heights of females born in 1996 vs. 1896
Relative increase in mean heights of men born in 1996 vs. 1896
Total calories from animal protein vs. mean male height

Human Rights

Confirmed killings of human rights defenders, journalists and trade unionists
Countries with accredited independent national human rights institutions
Distribution of human rights index
Distribution of women's political empowerment index
Distribution of women's share in parliament
Equality of civil liberties across social groups index
Equality of civil liberties across social groups index weighted by population
Equality of political power across social groups index
Equality of political power across social groups index weighted by population
Gender marker can be legally changed Velasco
Human rights index
Human rights index weighted by population
Human rights index vs. GDP per capita
Human trafficking victims
Human trafficking victims over 18 years old, male vs. female
Joint adoptions by same-sex partners Velasco
Legal frameworks addressing gender equality overall
Legal frameworks addressing gender equality within marriage and family
Legal frameworks addressing violence against women
Marriage for same-sex partners Velasco
Number of countries protecting core LGBT+ rights
Number of countries where same-sex sexual acts are legal Kenny & Patel
Physical integrity rights index V-Dem
Physical integrity rights index weighted by population
Physical integrity rights score Fariss et al.
Political civil liberties index
Political civil liberties index weighted by population
Press freedom Freedom House
Press freedom index Reporters Sans Frontieres
Private civil liberties index
Private civil liberties index weighted by population
Public opinions about homosexuality
Same-sex sexual acts legal Velasco
Same-sex sexual acts legalized
Share of adults reporting having felt discriminated against
Share of adults who perceive their rights to land as secure
Share of adults with legal documentation of their rights to land
Share of countries with accredited independent national human rights institutions
Share of people saying they do not want homosexual neighbors
Share of people who think homosexuality is never justified
Share of the population victim to physical and sexual harassment
Share of women in parliament weighted by population
Third gender legally recognized Velasco
Women's civil liberties index
Women's civil liberties index weighted by population
Women's political empowerment index
Women, Business and the Law Index

Human Trafficking

Human trafficking victims under 18 years old, male vs. female

Hunger & Undernourishment

Death rate from malnutrition IHME, age-standardized
Global Hunger Index
Global Hunger Index vs. GDP per capita
Inequality in per capita calorie intake
Inequality of food consumption vs. GDP per capita
Malnutrition death rate vs. GDP per capita
Malnutrition: Number of children who are stunted IHME
Malnutrition: Number of children who are stunted United Nations
Malnutrition: Number of children who are wasted United Nations
Malnutrition: Number of children who are wasted IHME
Minimum daily requirement of calories
Number of people who are moderately or severely food insecure
Number of people who are severely food insecure
Number of people who are undernourished By country
Number of severely food insecure people by region
Prevalence of undernourishment in developing countries
Share of population with moderate or severe food insecurity
Share of population with severe food insecurity Bar chart
Share of the population that is undernourished
Share of the population who are undernourished vs. GDP per capita

Illicit Drug Use

Antidepressant drug consumption per 1,000 people
Coverage of treatment interventions for substance use disorders
Inward illicit financial flows from drug trafficking
Mental health and substance use disorders death rate WHO
Mental health and substance use disorders death rate by age group WHO
Mental health and substance use disorders deaths IHME
Mental health and substance use disorders deaths WHO
Mental health as a risk factor for illicit drug dependency or abuse
Number of people with drug use disorders
Number with a drug use disorder by substance
Outward illicit financial flows from drug trafficking
Prevalence of mental health and substance use disorders
Prevalence of substance use disorders across age groups
Share of population with drug use disorders
Share of small arms and light weapons with illicit origin

Indoor Air Pollution

Access to clean fuels for cooking vs. GDP per capita
Death rate from indoor air pollution Age-standardized
Death rate from indoor air pollution vs. GDP per capita
Death rate from indoor air pollution vs. share in extreme poverty
Deaths attributed to household air pollution vs. deaths attributed to ambient air pollution
Deaths from indoor air pollution
Deaths from indoor air pollution, by age
Household air pollution deaths by region
Indoor air pollution death rate vs. access to clean fuels for cooking
Indoor air pollution vs. outdoor air pollution death rate
Number of deaths from indoor air pollution, 1990 vs. 2019
Share of deaths from indoor air pollution
Share of population using solid fuels as the main cooking fuel
Share of the population with access to clean fuels for cooking

Industrialization

Infectious diseases.

Flu vaccination coverage in the over-65's OECD
Availability of flu vaccines
Flu vaccination coverage in older people WHO/UNICEF
H5N1 influenza: monthly reported cases
National policy on flu vaccination for older people
Respiratory death rate from seasonal influenza, age 65+

Informal Sector

Informal employment in non-agricultural workplaces, by sex
Share of workers informally employed in non-agricultural workplaces

Infrastructure Projects

Interest rates, intergovernmental organizations & diplomacy.

Adoption of communication technologies Absolute numbers
Adoption of communication technologies per 100 people
Daily hours spent with digital media in the United States
Landline Internet subscriptions
Landline Internet subscriptions by download speed
Landline Internet subscriptions per 100 people
Landline Internet subscriptions per 100 people, by download speed
Number of people using the Internet
Share of US adults who use the Internet, by age
Share of primary schools with access to the Internet for teaching
Share of the population using the Internet

LGBT+ Rights

Age of consent for same-sex and different-sex partners Equaldex
Age of consent for same-sex and different-sex partners equal Velasco
Age of consent for same-sex and different-sex partners unequal Velasco
Blood donations by men who have sex with men
Censorship of LGBT issues
Civil union for same-sex partners
Constitutional protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity
Conversion therapies Equaldex
Conversion therapies banned Velasco
Countries in which same-sex sexual acts are legal Velasco
Countries in which same-sex sexual acts are punished by death Velasco
Countries in which third gender is recognized
Countries with equal age of consent for same-sex and different-sex partners
Countries with joint adoptions by same-sex partners
Countries with marriage bans for same-sex partners
Countries with marriage for same-sex partners Velasco
Discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity
Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity prohibited Velasco
Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity prohibited Equaldex
Gender assignment surgeries on children banned
Gender marker change Equaldex
Hate crimes based on sexual orientation or gender identity are an aggravating circumstance
Housing discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity prohibited
Inciting crimes based on sexual orientation or gender identity is illegal
Joint adoptions by same-sex partners Equaldex
LGBT+ rights index
Legal status of same-sex sexual acts Equaldex
Lesbian, gay, and bisexual people allowed to openly serve in the military Velasco
Lesbian, gay, and bisexual people banned from the military Velasco
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people serve openly in the military Equaldex
Marriage for same-sex partners Equaldex
Marriage for same-sex partners banned Velasco
Number of countries where same-sex marriage is legal Pew Research Center
People living in countries in which a third gender is recognized
People living in countries in which same-sex sexual acts are legal Velasco
People living in countries in which same-sex sexual acts are punished by death Velasco
People living in countries with equal age of consent for same-sex and different-sex partners
People living in countries with joint adoptions by same-sex partners
People living in countries with marriage bans for same-sex partners
People living in countries with marriage for same-sex partners Pew Research Center
People living in countries with marriage for same-sex partners Velasco
Public morality laws on non-traditional sexual relations
Same-sex sexual acts illegal Velasco
Same-sex sexual acts punished by death Velasco
Third gender legally recognized Equaldex
Transgender people are allowed to openly serve in the military Velasco

Labor Force Participation & Employment

Distribution of job finding methods for employed workers in European countries
Industry jobs as a share of total employment
Percentage of workers who found their current job through personal contacts
Share of service in total exports

Labor Market Policies

Labor supply & employment.

Armed forces personnel as a share of the total labor force
Average annual working hours per worker
Job search methods among unemployed jobseekers
Manufacturing jobs as a share of total employment
Non-fatal occupational injury rates
Unemployed jobseekers relying on contacts for job search
Agricultural land use
Arable land needed to produce a fixed quantity of crops
Coverage of wetlands
Extent of extensive agriculture
Extent of foraging, hunting and gathering
Extent of intensive agriculture
Extent of pastoralism
Global cropland is still increasing
Global land use since 10,000 BCE
Has the world passed peak agricultural land?
How much global land is used as pasture for livestock?
Is agricultural land expanding? Change over the prior decade
Land area in hectares
Land area in square kilometres
Land area per crop type
Land use for palm oil production
Land use over the long-term
Share of land covered by lakes and rivers
Share of land defined as natural habitat
Share of mountain land that is degraded
Share of rural land area where the elevation is 5 meters or less
Share of world regions with land use present
Terrain Ruggedness Index

Land Use & Yields in Agriculture

Lead pollution.

Death rate from lead exposure
Disease burden from lead exposure
Lead concentrations in the blood of children in the United States
Mean lead concentrations in the blood of adults
Mean lead concentrations in the blood of children
Number of children with lead levels in blood greater than 10 µg/dL
Number of children with lead levels in blood greater than 5 µg/dL
Number of premature deaths from lead exposure
Rate of disease burden from lead exposure
Share of paints with lead levels greater than 90 ppm

Life Expectancy

Annual death rate by age group
Annual death rates at different ages in females
Annual death rates at different ages in males
Annual death rates in people of different ages
Annual death rates in people of different ages, by sex
Average number of years living with disability or disease
Healthy life expectancy and years lived with disability or disease
How do death rates in each age group contribute to the overall sex gap in life expectancy?
Life expectancy OECD data
Life expectancy UN WPP data
Life expectancy Marimekko
Life expectancy HMD, UN WPP
Life expectancy at age 15
Life expectancy by sex HMD, UN WPP data
Life expectancy for people of different ages
Life expectancy in males and females
Life expectancy in men
Life expectancy in women
Life expectancy projections
Life expectancy versus lifespan inequality
Life expectancy vs. GDP per capita World Bank
Life expectancy, including the UN projections UN WPP data
Life expectancy, source comparison
Lifespan inequality: Gini coefficient by sex
Lifespan inequality: Gini coefficient in men
Maximum female life expectancy
Modal age at death in adults
Mortality rates at age 25
Mortality rates at age 65
Number of deaths, by world region
Period versus cohort life expectancy
Probability of dying that year, among females
Probability of dying that year, among males
Probability that a male will outlive a female
Remaining life expectancy at different ages
Remaining life expectancy at different ages, in females
Remaining life expectancy at different ages, in males
Sex gap in life expectancy
Sex gap in life expectancy at age 45
Sex gap in life expectancy at different ages
Sex gap in life expectancy versus GDP per capita
Sex gap in life expectancy versus child mortality
Sex gap in life expectancy vs. non-communicable disease death rate
Sex ratio in life expectancy
Sex ratio in life expectancy at different ages
Share in extreme poverty vs. life expectancy
Share of men and women expected to survive to the age of 65
Survival ages across the population
Years lived with disability vs. health expenditure per capita

Light at Night

Efficiency of lighting in the United Kingdom by source
Lighting sources in the United Kingdom
The price for lighting in the United Kingdom
Adult literacy rate
Data instruments used to estimate literacy
Estimated historical literacy rates
Female youth literacy rate
Gender parity in youth literacy rates
Historical literacy in England, by sex
Literacy by years of schooling, United States
Literacy rate
Literacy rate in adult men
Literacy rate in adult women
Literacy rate of young men and women
Literacy rate of young men vs. women Scatterplot
Literacy rate vs. GDP per capita
Literacy rate vs. average years of schooling
Literacy rates of older vs. younger population
Literacy rates, adult female, one-sentence test (DHS) vs. self-reports (UNESCO)
Literacy rates, adult male, one-sentence test (DHS) vs. self-reports (UNESCO)
Literacy rates, survey estimates vs. official UNESCO estimates
Male youth literacy rate
Methodologies used for measuring literacy
Numeracy skills of adults young adults vs adults
Numeracy vs. literacy skills of adults
Share of the population with basic numeracy skills
Students in grade 2 who can't read a single word
UNESCO literacy rate vs. PIAAC literacy proficiency

Living Conditions, Community and Wellbeing

Loneliness & social connections.

Death rate from malaria
Death rate from malaria WHO, GHO data
Death rate from malaria IHME data
Death rate from malaria WHO, Global Health Estimates
Incidence of malaria WHO
Malaria deaths: IHME vs. WHO estimates
Malaria mortality in children
Malaria prevalence vs. GDP per capita
Number of child deaths from malaria
Number of deaths from malaria IHME
Number of deaths from malaria WHO GHO
Number of deaths from malaria WHO GHE
Share of children sleeping under insecticide-treated nets
Share of children with a fever receiving antimalarial drugs
Share of the population with malaria

Marriages & Divorces

Average age of women at marriage
Child care time per day, United States
Cumulative share of marriages in England and Wales ending in divorce
Divorces per 1,000 people
Duration of marriages ending in divorce
Marriages per 1,000 people
Marriages per 1,000 people, 1990 vs. 2010
Share of children who were born outside of marriage
Share of households that are single-parent
Share of marriages in England and Wales that ended in divorce
Share of women married or in a union
Share of women who were married by age 15
Share of women who were married by age 18

Maternal Mortality

Change in maternal mortality
Change in maternal mortality ratio
Has country already reached SDG target on maternal mortality?
MDG5.A: Maternal mortality ratio
Maternal deaths by cause
Maternal deaths by income group
Maternal mortality ratio Slope Chart; World Bank
Maternal mortality ratio IHME
Maternal mortality ratio WHO GHO data
Maternal mortality ratio vs. GDP per capita
Maternal mortality ratio vs. births attended by skilled health staff
Number of maternal deaths WHO
Number of maternal deaths IHME
Number of maternal deaths by region
Preterm birth complication mortality rates vs. income
Reported maternal mortality rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized
Share of births attended by skilled health staff
Share of women who are expected to die from pregnancy-related causes
The maternal mortality ratio in 2000 and 2017 World Bank
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against measles
Rate of cases and deaths from measles in the United States
Reported cases and deaths of measles
Reported cases of measles
Share of children fully vaccinated against measles
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against measles

Meat & Dairy Production

Beef production
Cattle meat per animal
Chicken meat yield per animal
Dietary land use vs. beef consumption
Egg production
Eggs per bird
Energy efficiency of meat and dairy production
Feed required to produce one kilogram of meat or dairy product
Fish and seafood consumption per capita
Fish and seafood consumption vs. GDP per capita
Global fishery catch by sector
Global meat consumption
Global meat demand if everyone ate like the average citizen of...
Global meat production
Livestock counts
Meat production
Meat production by livestock type
Milk per animal
Milk production
Number of cattle
Number of pigs
Number of poultry birds
Per capita egg consumption
Per capita meat consumption by type Stacked area chart
Per capita meat consumption by type Stacked bar chart
Per capita meat consumption in the EU28 OECD, 1990-2018
Per capita meat consumption in the United States USDA
Per capita milk consumption
Pig meat per animal
Pigmeat production
Poultry meat per animal
Poultry production
Protein efficiency of meat and dairy production
Seafood and fish production

Medical & Biotechnologies

Cost of sequencing a full human genome
Cost per billion pairs of DNA sequencing

Mental Health

Age when first had anxiety or depression
Anorexia or bulimia nervosa estimated cases
Anxiety disorders prevalence
Anxiety disorders prevalence vs. GDP per capita
Anxiety disorders prevalence, by age
Anxiety disorders prevalence, males vs. females
Bipolar disorder prevalence
Bipolar disorder prevalence, by age
Bipolar disorder prevalence, males vs. females
Burden of disease from each category of mental illness
Dealt with anxiety or depression by engaging in religious/spiritual activities
Dealt with anxiety or depression by taking prescribed medication
Dealt with anxiety or depression by talking to friends or family
Depressive disorders prevalence
Depressive disorders prevalence vs. GDP per capita
Depressive disorders prevalence, IHME vs. WHO
Depressive disorders prevalence, by age
Depressive disorders prevalence, males vs. females
Depressive symptoms across the US population
Eating disorders prevalence
Eating disorders prevalence, by age
Eating disorders prevalence, males vs. females
Estimated prevalence vs. burden of mental illnesses
Experienced calmness a lot of the day yesterday, by age
Experienced calmness a lot of the day yesterday, by gender
How do people deal with anxiety or depression around the world? Country comparison
How do people deal with anxiety or depression? World
Mental disorders as a share of total disease burden
Mental health units in general hospitals
Mental illness: estimated cases by country
Mental illnesses prevalence
Number of countries with underlying data on the prevalence of mental illnesses
Number of people with autistic spectrum disorder
Number of people with mental disorders, by sex
Perceived comfort speaking about anxiety or depression
Perceived discomfort speaking about anxiety or depression
Perceived discomfort speaking about anxiety or depression, by gender
Perceived importance of government funding for research on anxiety or depression
Perceived importance of national funding for anxiety/depression research vs. GDP per capita
Perceived importance of science in treating anxiety or depression
Perceived importance of science in treating anxiety or depression vs. GDP per capita
Psychiatrists working in the mental health sector
Schizophrenia prevalence
Schizophrenia prevalence, by age
Schizophrenia prevalence, males vs. females
Share of population with mental disorder
Share who know friends or family who have been anxious or depressed
Share who know friends or family who have been anxious or depressed, by gender
Share who report lifetime anxiety or depression
Share who say it's extremely important for the national government to fund research on anxiety/depression
Share who say local people would feel very comfortable speaking about anxiety or depression vs. share who know friends or family with anxiety or depression
Share who say local people would feel very comfortable speaking about anxiety or depression vs. share who spoke to friends or family when they had anxiety or depression
Stand-alone policy or plan for mental health
Treatment gap for clinical anxiety

Metals & Minerals

Micronutrient deficiency.

Hidden Hunger Index in pre-school children
Hidden Hunger Index vs. share in extreme poverty
Hidden Hunger Index vs. share of energy intake from cereals, roots and tubers
Market share of household salt with iodine fortification, Europe
Share of children receiving vitamin A supplementation
Share of children under five who have night blindness
Share of children who have anemia
Share of children who have vitamin A deficiency
Share of households consuming iodized salt
Share of people who have zinc deficiency
Share of pregnant women vs. share of children who have anemia
Share of pregnant women who have anemia
Share of pregnant women who have night blindness
Share of pregnant women who have vitamin A deficiency
Share of women of reproductive age who have anemia
Share of women of reproductive age who have anemia vs. GDP per capita
Migrant recruitment costs
National policies for orderly, safe, regular, and responsible migration
Number of refugees per 100,000 population, by country of origin
Personal remittances and official development assistance received
Population growth rate with and without migration
Proportion of countries with migration policies that facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people
Recorded deaths and disappearances during migration
Refugee population by country or territory of asylum
Refugee population by country or territory of origin
Remittance costs as a proportion of the amount remitted
Share of the population that were born in another country
Total number of international immigrants

Military Personnel & Spending

Armed forces personnel
Armed forces personnel as a share of total population
Military expenditure as a share of GDP SIPRI
Military expenditure as a share of GDP COW & SIPRI
Military expenditure per capita
Military personnel
Military personnel as a share of total population

Multidimensional Poverty

Extreme monetary poverty and multidimensional poverty over time Harmonized over time estimates
How does extreme monetary poverty compare to multidimensional poverty? Current estimates
Intensity of multidimensional poverty Current estimates
Intensity of multidimensional poverty Harmonized over time estimates
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Current estimates
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Harmonized over time estimates
Prevalence vs. intensity of multidimensional poverty Current estimates
Share living on less than $3.65 per day vs. share in multidimensional poverty Current estimates
Share of population in multidimensional poverty Current estimates
Share of population in multidimensional poverty Harmonized over time estimates
Share of population in multidimensional poverty: Urban vs. rural Harmonized over time estimates
Share of population in multidimensional poverty: Urban vs. rural Current estimates
Share of population in multidimensional poverty: Urban vs. rural
Share vs. intensity of multidimensional poverty Harmonized over time estimates

Natural Disasters

Accumulated cyclone energy of North Atlantic hurricanes
Adoption and implementation of policies to reduce disaster risk
Annual Heat Wave Index in the United States
Atlantic hurricane and tropical cyclone track error
Average acres burned per wildfire in the United States
Death rate from natural disasters IHME, crude
Death rate from natural disasters WHO
Death rate from natural disasters IHME, age-standardized
Deaths from earthquakes
Decadal average: Death rates from natural disasters
Decadal average: Number of deaths from natural disasters
Direct disaster economic loss
Direct economic loss attributed to disasters
Direct economic loss from disasters as a share of GDP
Disaster risk reduction progress score
Drought severity index in the United States
Economic damage by natural disaster type
Fatality rates due to lightning in the US
Fatality rates in the US due to weather events
Global damage costs from natural disasters
Global injuries from natural disasters
Global natural disaster death rates
Global precipitation anomaly
Global reported natural disasters by type
Global weather disaster losses as a share of GDP
How many deaths does it take for a disaster in different continents to receive news coverage?
How many deaths does it take for a disaster to receive news coverage?
Hurricane landfalls in the United States
Near-Earth asteroids discovered over time
News coverage of disasters
News coverage of disasters, by continent
Number of deaths from natural disasters EM-DAT
Number of deaths from natural disasters IHME
Number of deaths from natural disasters by type
Number of deaths from volcanic eruptions
Number of local governments with disaster risk reduction strategies
Number of recorded natural disaster events
Number of significant volcanic eruptions
Number of wildfires in the United States
People affected by natural disasters
People displaced internally by natural disasters
People left homeless from natural disasters
Precipitation anomaly in the United States
Rate of deaths and missing persons due to natural disasters
Score of adoption and implementation of national strategies for managing disaster risk
Share of US land area that experienced extreme one-day precipitation
Share of US land area with unusually high annual precipitation
Share of US land area with unusually high summer temperatures
Share of US land area with unusually low winter temperatures
Share of deaths from natural disasters
Share of disaster events with missing data
Share of local governments that adopted and implemented local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national strategies
Significant earthquakes per year
Spending on commercial weather and climate forecasting and information services
The number of North Atlantic hurricanes
Wildfire acres burned in the United States

Neglected Tropical Diseases

Neurodevelopmental disorders.

Alzheimer's prevalence
Number of people with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Number of people with developmental intellectual disability
Number with a mental or neurodevelopmental disorder by type
Parkinson's disease prevalence
Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias
Prevalence of autistic spectrum disorder
Prevalence of developmental intellectual disability in men vs. women
Rate of disease burden from autism spectrum disorders
Share of males vs. females with autistic spectrum disorder
Share of population with Asperger syndrome and other autistic spectrum disorders
Share of population with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Share of population with developmental intellectual disability
Share of the population with down syndrome

Non-communicable Diseases

Nuclear energy.

Public opposition to nuclear energy production

Nuclear Weapons

Country position on nuclear weapons
Country position on the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
Country position on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
Country position on the Partial Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
Country position on the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
Estimated destroyable area by nuclear weapons deliverable in first strike
Estimated explosive power of nuclear weapons deliverable in first strike
Estimated nuclear warhead inventories
Estimated nuclear warhead stockpiles Stacked area
Estimated nuclear warhead stockpiles Line chart
Estimated number of nuclear warheads deliverable in first strike
Nuclear weapons proliferation
Nuclear weapons tests per year
Number of countries that approve of nuclear weapons treaties
Death rate from obesity IHME, age-standardized
Death rate from obesity vs. share of adults who are obese
Mean body mass index (BMI) in men
Mean body mass index (BMI) in women
Obesity in adults Crude rate
Obesity in men vs. women
Share of adult men overweight or obese vs. daily supply of calories
Share of adults who are obese vs. GDP per capita
Share of adults who are overweight or obese
Share of children and adolescents who are overweight or obese
Share of deaths attributed to obesity
Share of men defined as underweight, healthy, overweight and obese
Share of men who are obese
Share of men who are overweight or obese
Share of overweight men vs. women
Share of women defined as underweight, healthy, overweight or obese
Share of women who are obese
Share of women who are overweight or obese
Time spent doing sports Line chart
Global annual average number of oil spills from tankers per decade
Global annual average quantity of oil spilled from tankers per decade
Global number of oil spills from tankers
Global quantity of oil spilled from tankers
Number of tanker spills by operation at time of incident, 1970-2022
Number of tanker spills by primary cause of spill, 1970-2022

Outdoor Air Pollution

Annual PM2.5 emissions from wildfires

Ozone Layer

Antarctic ozone hole area
Change in the consumption of ozone-depleting substances
Concentration of ozone in the stratosphere
Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
Countries subscribed to the Montreal Protocol
Emissions of ozone-depleting substances
Excess skin cancer cases due to ozone depletion
Ozone-depleting substance emissions
Stratospheric chlorine concentrations projections
Stratospheric ozone concentration projections
Antibiotic usage in livestock
COVID-19 vaccination coverage worldwide Marimekko
Imports of personal protective equipment (PPE)
Imports of personal protective equipment per capita
Smallpox cases reported worldwide
Smallpox death rate Until 1900

Peacekeeping

Insecticide use
Pesticide breakdown by type
Pesticide use
Pesticide use per hectare of cropland

Plastic Pollution

Amount of plastic waste exported by air
Amount of plastic waste that is imported by air
Annual global plastic waste generation by industrial sector
Annual plastic waste by disposal method
Beach litter
Cumulative displaced plastic waste as a result of Chinese import ban
Cumulative global production of plastics
Cumulative plastic exports by top ten exporters
Cumulative recycled plastic export value by top ten exporters
Decomposition rates of marine debris
Environmental impacts of different types of grocery bags
Global plastic production with projections
Global plastics production
Global primary plastic production by industrial sector
Global primary plastic production by polymer
Global primary plastic waste generation by polymer
Global share of plastic waste by disposal method with projections Geyer et al. (2017)
Grocery bag comparisons for greenhouse gas emissions
How much plastic waste did China import?
Macroplastics in the surface ocean
Mean product lifetime of plastic uses
Microplastics in the surface ocean
Mismanaged plastic waste
Mismanaged plastic waste per capita
Mismanaged plastic waste per capita vs. GDP per capita
Most common items of waste in the ocean by region
Per capita plastic waste exports and imports by income group
Per capita plastic waste vs. GDP per capita
Plastic exports to China by top 10 exporting countries
Plastic waste accumulated in aquatic environments
Plastic waste accumulated in rivers and lakes
Plastic waste accumulated in the oceans
Plastic waste by disposal method with projections OECD
Plastic waste emitted to the ocean
Plastic waste emitted to the ocean per capita
Plastic waste emitted to the ocean per capita vs. GDP per capita
Plastic waste generation
Plastic waste generation by region and industrial sector
Plastic waste generation by region and polymer
Plastic waste generation per capita
Plastic waste per capita imports vs. exports
Plastics collected in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Probability of mismanaged plastic waste being emitted to the ocean
Projections of plastic waste by disposal method
Rivers that contribute the most to ocean plastic pollution
Share of cumulative plastic exports by top ten exporters
Share of global mismanaged plastic waste
Share of global plastic waste emitted to the ocean
Share of global plastic waste imports
Share of plastic waste exports
Share of plastic waste that is incinerated
Share of plastic waste that is mismanaged
Share of plastic waste that is recycled
Share of plastic waste that is recycled, landfilled, incinerated and mismanaged
Share of plastic waste that is sent to landfill
Surface plastic mass across the world's oceans
Surface plastic particles across the world's oceans
What are the most common items of waste found in rivers and oceans?
What items of waste do we find in rivers and the ocean?
Estimated annual deaths that could be averted by pneumococcal vaccination
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against Streptococcus pneumoniae
Number of pneumonia deaths in elderly by risk factor
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against Streptococcus pneumoniae
Polio case and death rates in the United States
Progress towards polio eradication
Rate of acute flaccid paralysis from non-polio causes
Reported cases of paralytic polio
Reported cases of paralytic polio by world region
Reported cases of paralytic polio from vaccine-derived viruses Line chart
Reported cases of paralytic polio from vaccine-derived viruses Map
Reported cases of paralytic polio from wild polioviruses
Reported paralytic polio cases and deaths
Reported paralytic polio cases per million
Reported versus estimated cases of polio
Share of one-year-olds who are vaccinated against polio
Share of potential polio cases with adequate stool collection
Where are we falling behind on screening and testing for polio?

Political Asylum & Refugees

Population growth.

Annual population growth with UN projections
Birth rate vs. death rate
Births per year with UN projections
Child deaths per year
Children under age 5
Deaths per year with UN projections
Deaths per year, by age group
Historical national accounts estimates of the share of the world's population living on less than $5 per day, by region
Natural population growth with UN projections
Population since 10,000 BCE
Population since 10,000 BCE, Marimekko
Population by world region 10,000 BCE to 2100, with UN projections
Population growth rate by level of development with UN projections
Population of England over history
Share of population living on less than $5 per day
The demographic transition in Sweden
Time for the world population to double
World population, comparison of different historical sources

Population and Demographic Change

Cereal yield vs. share in extreme poverty
Death rate from unsafe water sources vs. share of population living in extreme poverty
Distribution of population between different poverty thresholds fewer thresholds
Distribution of population between different poverty thresholds more thresholds
Distribution of population between different poverty thresholds
Distribution of population between different poverty thresholds Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021)
Distribution of population between different poverty thresholds 2011 PPPs
Distribution of population between different poverty thresholds fewer thresholds, 2011 PPPs
How does extreme poverty compare to multidimensional poverty? Current estimates, 2011 PPPs
National poverty line vs. GDP per capita By income group
National poverty line vs. mean daily income or consumption
National poverty line vs. median income or consumption per day
Number of income/consumption surveys in the past decade available via the World Bank
Number of people living in extreme poverty Stacked area chart
Number of people living in extreme poverty Line chart
Number of people living in extreme poverty by region Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021)
Number of people living in extreme poverty by region 'Cost of basic needs' approach, Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021)
Poverty gap index at $2.15 per day
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $1 a day
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $10 a day Line chart
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $10 a day Marimekko
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $3.65 a day
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $30 a day
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $30 a day 2011 PPPs
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $40 a day
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $6.85 a day
Relative poverty: Share of people below 40% of median income
Relative poverty: Share of people below 50% of median income
Relative poverty: Share of people below 60% of median income
Share in extreme poverty vs. poverty gap index
Share in extreme poverty: Cost of basic needs approach vs. living on less than $1.90 a day Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021)
Share in multidimensional poverty according to national definitions
Share in poverty relative to different poverty thresholds
Share in poverty relative to different poverty thresholds Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021)
Share in poverty vs. educational attainment
Share in poverty vs. life expectancy
Share living on less than $6.85 a day vs. mean income or consumption
Share of global population living in extreme poverty including and excluding China
Share of government consumption in GDP vs. share of population living in extreme poverty
Share of gross national income donated toward poverty reduction
Share of gross national income from poverty reduction grants
Share of population below and above $30 per day Stacked bar: Above/below $30 per day
Share of population living below national poverty lines
Share of population living in extreme poverty Line chart
Share of population living in extreme poverty Marimekko
Share of population living in extreme poverty Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021), Line chart
Share of population living in extreme poverty Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021), Stacked area chart
Share of population living in extreme poverty 'Cost of basic needs' approach, Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021), Stacked area chart
Share of population living in extreme poverty 'Cost of basic needs' approach, Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021), Line chart
Share of population living in extreme poverty vs. mean income or consumption per day
Share of population living with less than $2.15 and $3.65 per day
The share and number of people living in extreme poverty
Total population living in extreme poverty by world region
Total shortfall from extreme poverty
Vaccination coverage vs. share in extreme poverty
World population living in extreme poverty World Bank & Bourguignon and Morrisson

Pre-Primary Education

Net enrolment rate of boys vs. girls in pre-primary education

Press Freedom

Primary & secondary education, productivity.

Productivity vs. educational attainment

Property Rights

Quality of education, quality of life.

Hours per week spent in leisure, by sex, United States
Participation time in employment per day
Participation time in travel per day
Time spent in employment per day
Time spent on activities in an average day
Time spent on activities in an average day, females
Time spent on activities in an average day, males

Remittances

Renewable energy.

Biofuel energy production
Biofuel production by region
International finance received for clean energy
Renewable electricity-generating capacity per person

Research & Development

Annual articles published in scientific and technical journals
Annual articles published in scientific and technical journals per million people
Annual patent applications
Annual patent applications per million people
Annual patents granted in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution
Cumulative RCTs published in high-ranked medical journals
Invention patents granted annually in the United States since 1790
Invention patents granted annually in the United States since 1840 By category
Number of R&D researchers per million people
Ocean science and research funding
R&D researchers per million people vs. GDP per capita
Research & development spending as a share of GDP

Respiratory Diseases

Returns to education, rights of marginalized ethnic groups, sdg tracker, science & research.

Share of people who trust science
Number of reported smallpox cases
Smallpox death rate versus life expectancy in Sweden
The discrepancy between the reported and revised numbers of global smallpox cases
Affordability of cigarettes
Daily cigarette consumption per smoker
Death rate from smoking IHME, age-standardized
Deaths from secondhand smoke
Deaths from secondhand smoke, by age
Deaths from smoking and secondhand smoke
Deaths from smoking, by age
Enforcement of bans on tobacco advertising
Number of cigarettes smoked per smoker per day
Number of current smokers
Number of daily smokers
Number of daily smokers, men and women
Number of deaths from smoking in 1990 vs. 2019
Number of deaths from tobacco smoking
Prevalence of daily smoking in populations
Share of adults who smoke in 2000 vs. 2018
Share of adults who smoke vs. GDP per capita
Share of cancer deaths attributed to tobacco use
Share of deaths attributed to smoking
Share of men who smoke
Share of people who smoke every day
Share of taxes in tobacco retail price
Share of tobacco in total household consumption
Share of women who smoke
Share who use tobacco
Smoking death rate in 1990 vs. 2019
Smoking in men vs. women
Support to help quit smoking
Taxes as a share of cigarette price

Social Spending

Space exploration & satellites.

Annual number of objects launched into space
Cost of space launches to low Earth orbit
Cumulative number of exoplanets discovered, by method
Cumulative number of gravitational wave observations
Cumulative number of human visits to space
Cumulative number of objects launched into space
Cumulative number of people who have been to space
Human visits to space per year
Payloads and rocket bodies in space, by orbit
Tracked objects in low Earth orbit, by type

State Capacity

Census based on population register recently completed
Countries with statistical legislation in line with UN Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics
Country has a civil register
Country has a population register
Country has a statistical agency
Domestic policy free from interference of other states index
European overseas colonies and their colonizers over time
European overseas colonies and their last colonizer
European overseas colonies by colonizer
Foreign policy free from interference of other states index
Number of European overseas colonies
Number of European overseas colonies and colonizers
Number of European overseas colonies by region
Number of United Nations member states
Number of countries
Number of countries by region
Number of countries with a national statistical plan fully funded and under implementation, by source of funding
Number of countries with basic statistical institutions
People living in European overseas colonies and colonizers
People living in United Nations member states
Percentage of territory effectively controlled by government
Police officers per 1,000 people
Population census recently completed World Bank
Population census recently completed Brambor et al.
Public sector employment as a share of total employment
Rigorous and impartial public administration index
Sovereign state Butcher and Griffiths
Sovereign state Gleditsch and Ward
Sovereign state Correlates of War
State capacity index
Statistical capacity indicator
Tax revenues as a share of GDP UNU-WIDER
United Nations membership status
Years a country was colonized

Substance Use

Male vs. female suicide rate IHME data
Male vs. female suicide rate WHO data
Male-to-female ratio of suicide rate IHME data
Male-to-female ratio of suicide rate WHO data
Number of suicides IHME data
Number of suicides WHO data
Number of suicides from firearms
Number of suicides from pesticide poisoning
Number of suicides, by age IHME data, since 1990
Reported suicide rates among young people WHO Mortality Database
Share of countries that have reported suicide data to the World Health Organization
Share of deaths from suicide
Share of suicides from pesticide poisoning
Suicide death rate IHME data
Suicide rate IHME data, age-standardized
Suicide rate WHO data
Suicide rate WHO data, age-standardized
Suicide rate by firearm
Suicide rate in 1990 vs. 2019 IHME data
Suicide rate in 2000 vs. 2019 WHO data
Suicide rate vs. death rate from violence IHME
Suicide rate vs. income inequality
Suicide rate, by age IHME data
Suicide rate, by age WHO data
Suicide rate, by age
Suicide rate, by sex WHO data
Suicide rates among young people
Composition of tax revenues
Government revenues as a share of national income
Number of countries having implemented value added taxes
Relative weight of two forms of consumption taxation
Revenue from income taxes in Europe
Share of central government expenditures funded by taxes
Statutory corporate income tax rate
Tax revenue
Tax revenue as share of GDP
Tax revenues as a share of GDP UN-SDG
Tax revenues by source
Taxes on goods and services
Taxes on income vs. taxes on goods and services
Taxes on incomes of individuals and corporations
Top marginal income tax rate
Top marginal income tax rates
Top marginal income tax rates, selected countries
Two sources of data on tax revenue as share of GDP

Teachers & Schools

Actual teaching time as share of scheduled teaching time
Percentage of teachers absent from class
Percentage of teachers absent from school
SABER rating of education policies aimed at preparing teachers with training
Share of teachers who are female in primary vs. tertiary education

Technological Change

Active mobile money accounts
Computational capacity of the fastest supercomputers
Historical cost of computer memory and storage
Landline phone subscriptions
Landline phone subscriptions per 100 people
Mobile and landline phone subscriptions per 100 people
Mobile phone subscriptions
Mobile phone subscriptions per 100 people
Moore's law: The number of transistors per microprocessor
Non-commercial flight distance records
Price changes in consumer goods and services in the United States
Proportion of youth and adults with ICT skills in using presentation software
Record number of quantum bits per processor
Registered vehicles per 1,000 people
Share of United States households using specific technologies
Technology and infrastructure diffusion in the United Kingdom
Technology and infrastructure diffusion in the United States

Teenage Pregnancy

Airliner hijackings and deaths in them
Deaths from suicide and non-suicide terrorist attacks
Deaths from terrorism, by target
Deaths from terrorist attacks by method Bar chart
Deaths from terrorist attacks, by method of attack Stacked bar chart
Distribution of terrorism deaths
Distribution of terrorist attacks
Fatal airliner accidents and hijacking incidents
Fatalities from airliner accidents and hijackings
Injuries from terrorist attacks
Is terrorism justifiable as a political, ideological, or religious mean? 2022
Number of terrorist attacks
Share of deaths from terrorism
Share of people worried about terrorism
Share who are worried about vs. share of deaths from terrorism
Suicide and non-suicide terrorist attacks
Terrorism deaths
Terrorism deaths by region
Terrorism deaths rate
Terrorist attacks by method Stacked bar chart
Terrorist attacks by method Bar chart
Terrorist attacks by region
Terrorist attacks by severity
Terrorist attacks, by target
Terrorist attacks, deaths and injuries
Annual new cases of neonatal tetanus per million people
Deaths from tetanus, by age
New tetanus infection rate
Number of confirmed cases of tetanus
Number of confirmed neonatal tetanus cases
Number of deaths from tetanus
Number of deaths from tetanus by region
Number of new tetanus infections by world region
Number of tetanus deaths in children under 5
Tetanus cases vs. tetanus vaccination coverage
Tetanus death rate
WHO vs. IHME incidence of tetanus
Year of maternal neonatal tetanus elimination
Participation time in study per day
Time spent in study per day
Air passengers
Air passengers per fatality
Average length of stay of international visitors
Employment in food and beverage serving activities per 1,000 people
Employment in tourism-related industries per 1,000 people
Fatal airliner accidents per million commercial flights
Foreign guests in hotels and similar establishments
Global aviation fatalities per million passengers
International one-day trips
International one-day trips per 1,000 people
International tourist departures
International tourist departures per 1,000 people
International tourist departures per 1,000 people vs. GDP per capita
International tourist expenditure abroad
International tourist expenditure within the country they visit
International tourist trips
International tourist trips by destination region
International tourist trips by region of origin
International tourist trips per 1,000 people
International trips for business and professional reasons
International trips for personal reasons
International trips for personal vs. business and professional reasons
Local guests in hotels and similar establishments
Local vs. foreign guests in hotels and similar establishments
Monitoring of sustainable tourism
Ratio of business trips to trips for personal reasons
Ratio of inbound to outbound tourist trips
Ratio of same-day trips to tourist trips
Share of global services exports
Share of tourism in total GDP
Trips by domestic tourists per 1,000 people

Trade & Globalization

Countries with an in-force bilateral investment treaty
Difference in the value of goods exported to and imported by the US
Distribution of global merchandise exports, by region of origin
Exports between rich and non-rich countries
Globalization over 5 centuries 3 sources
Growth of global exports
Human Capital Index in males vs. females
Imports of goods and services
Intercontinental trade per capita, selected countries
Merchandise exports by continent of destination
Merchandise exports by destination
Share of bilateral and unilateral trade partnerships around the world
Share of food products in total merchandise exports
Share of global exports by income level of the trade partners
Share of manufactures in total merchandise exports
Share of services in total exports
Share of tariffs on imports from least-developed countries with a 0% rate
Tariff rate across all products
Tariff rate for primary and manufactured products
The decline of transport and communication costs relative to 1930
Tonne-kilometers of air freight
Trade as a share of GDP
Trade in services (exports plus imports) as share of GDP
Trade openness in Europe
Value of exported goods as a share of GDP
Value of exported of goods and services
Value of imported goods as a share of GDP
Various sources of merchandise trade as a share of GDP
Average carbon intensity of new passenger vehicles
Energy intensity of transport per passenger-kilometer
Fuel economy of new passenger vehicles
Global airline passenger capacity and traffic
Global airline passengers per year
New passenger vehicle registrations by type
New passenger vehicles by type
Number of air travel trips per capita
Number of air travel trips vs. GDP per capita
Number of new passenger vehicles by type
Passenger-kilometers by air
Passenger-kilometers by rail
Per capita domestic aviation passenger kilometers
Per capita international aviation passenger kilometers
Per capita passenger kilometers from air travel
Share of airline seats filled by passengers
Share of global domestic aviation passenger kilometers
Share of global passenger kilometers from air travel
Share of global passenger kilometers from international aviation
Share of new passenger vehicles that are battery electric
Share of new passenger vehicles that are electric or plug-in hybrid
Share of urban populations with convenient access to public transport
Total domestic aviation passenger kilometers
Total passenger kilometers from air travel
Total passenger kilometers from international aviation
Confidence in the United Nations
Country-level estimates of altruism
Interpersonal trust in Europe
Interpersonal trust in the United States
Interpersonal trust measured in different surveys
Interpersonal trust vs. GDP per capita
Interpersonal trust vs. income inequality
Share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted"
Share of people that think others can be trusted vs. taken advantage of
Share of people who trust journalists in their country
Share of people who trust others in their neighborhood
Trust attitudes towards specific groups
Trust in government in the United States
Trust in institutions
Trust in organizations
Trust in others vs. trust in police, Europe

Tuberculosis

Average cost of multi drug-resistant tuberculosis treatment
Average cost of tuberculosis treatment by type
Confirmed tuberculosis cases that are drug-resistant versus drug-susceptible
Global tuberculosis incidence rate, by age
Number of deaths from tuberculosis IHME
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against tuberculosis
Number of people with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis
Prevalence of extensively drug resistant tuberculosis
Rate of new tuberculosis cases
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against tuberculosis
Sites providing rapid tuberculosis diagnostics per million people
The share of tuberculosis tests that are positive
Tuberculosis case fatality rate
Tuberculosis cases
Tuberculosis cases tested versus confirmed to be rifampicin resistant
Tuberculosis death rate IHME, age-standardized
Tuberculosis death rate IHME, crude
Tuberculosis death rate WHO
Tuberculosis death rate in people without HIV WHO, crude rate
Tuberculosis death rate, by age IHME, by age group
Tuberculosis deaths by HIV status
Tuberculosis deaths in children under five
Tuberculosis deaths, by age
Tuberculosis treatment success rate
Tuberculosis treatment success rate by type

Unemployment

Share of young people not in education, employment or training

Urbanization

Access to electricity, urban vs. rural
Annual growth rate of urban agglomerations with 300,00 inhabitants or more
Annual growth rate of urban population share
Do more people live in urban or rural areas?
Minimum number of inhabitants for a settlement to qualify as an urban area
Number of cities, towns and suburbs, and rural areas
Number of countries with a given minimum urban population threshold
Number of people living in the capital city
Number of people living in urban and rural areas UN
Number of people living in urban slum households
Population density
Population density by city
Population density vs. GDP per capita
Population in urban agglomerations of more than 1 million
Population living in urban and rural areas HYDE
Population of cities, towns and suburbs, and rural areas
Population the world's largest cities
Share of children who are stunted in urban and rural areas
Share of people living in urban agglomerations of more than 1 million
Share of people living in urban and rural areas UN
Share of people living in urban areas European Commission
Share of population living in cities, towns and suburbs, and rural areas
Share of the population living in urban areas UN
Share of the population living in urban areas UN and HYDE projections
Share of the population living in urbanized areas HYDE
Share of the population living in urbanized areas vs. GDP per capita
Share of the rural and urban population with access to clean fuels for cooking
Share of the rural population living near a road
Share of the urban and rural population using safely managed drinking water services
Share of the urban and rural population using safely managed sanitation services
Share of the urban population living in slums
Share of the urban population who live in the largest city
Share of urban population by agglomeration size
Share of urban population by source
Share of urban population with convenient access to an open public space
Urban and rural population projected to 2050 HYDE & UN projections
Urban area over the long-term HYDE
Urban land area
Urban policies that respond to population dynamics
Urban population vs. female labor force participation rate

Vaccination

Confidence in the effectiveness of vaccines vs. perception of importance
Deaths caused by vaccine-preventable diseases
GAVI supported countries
Measles vaccine coverage vs. measles cases worldwide
Number of one-year-olds
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against Haemophilus influenzae type B
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against hepatitis B
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against polio
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against rubella
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against yellow fever
Number of one-year-olds who have not received the inactivated polio vaccine
Prevalence of measles in children vs. share of people who disagree vaccines are effective
Share of adolescent girls vaccinated against the human papillomavirus
Share of children vaccinated against measles vs. against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against Haemophilus influenzae type B
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against hepatitis B
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against rubella
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against yellow fever
Share of one-year-olds who received the inactivated polio vaccine
Share that agrees that vaccines are important for children to have Wellcome Trust
Share that agrees that vaccines are safe Wellcome Trust
Share that disagrees that vaccines are compatible with their religious beliefs
Share that disagrees that vaccines are effective
Share that disagrees that vaccines are effective Wellcome Trust
Share that disagrees that vaccines are important for children to have
Share that disagrees that vaccines are important for children to have Wellcome Trust
Share that disagrees that vaccines are safe
Share that disagrees that vaccines are safe Wellcome Trust
Share that neither agrees nor disagrees that vaccines are effective Wellcome Trust
Share that neither agrees nor disagrees that vaccines are important for children to have Wellcome Trust
Share that neither agrees nor disagrees vaccines are safe Wellcome Trust
Share that strongly agree that vaccines are effective
Share that strongly agree that vaccines are important
Share that strongly agree that vaccines are safe
Share that strongly disagree that vaccines are effective
Share that strongly disagree that vaccines are important
Share that strongly disagree that vaccines are safe
Vaccination against DTP vs. perception of the safety of vaccines
Vaccination against measles vs. share who think vaccines are unsafe
Vaccination coverage
Vaccination coverage against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTP3) vs. GDP per capita
Vaccination coverage by income
Which countries include Haemophilus influenzae B (Hib) vaccines in their vaccination schedules?
Which countries include MCV2 vaccines in their vaccination schedules?
Which countries include hepatitis B birth dose vaccines in their vaccination schedules?
Which countries include hepatitis B vaccines in their vaccination schedules?
Which countries include human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines in their vaccination schedules?
Which countries include inactivated poliovirus (IPV) vaccines in their vaccination schedules?
Which countries include mumps vaccines in their vaccination schedules?
Which countries include pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV) in their vaccination schedules?
Which countries include rubella vaccines in their vaccination schedules?

Violence Against Children & Children's Rights

Child marriage prohibited or invalidated
Children (age 15) who report physical punishment by teachers
Children (age 8) who report physical punishment by teachers
Children who experience violent discipline vs. GDP per capita
Children who experience violent discipline, boys vs. girls
Girls who report having been victims of sexual abuse
Legal provisions for child marriage
Parents who agree with spanking to discipline a child
Percentage of children who experience violent discipline at home
Prevalence of female genital mutilation
Rate of violent victimizations at school in the United States
Share of children who experienced violence
Share of children who report being bullied
Share of children who report being in a school fight
Share of men who report having been victims of forced sex as children
Share of women aged 20-24 who were married before 18
Share of women who report having been victims of forced sex as children
Share of young men who experienced sexual violence as children
Share of young women who experienced sexual violence as children
Earnings of tertiary-educated workers relative to workers with upper-secondary education

War & Peace

Countries where armed conflicts took place
Death rate in armed conflicts based on where they occurred
Death rates from violence in non-state societies
Death rates from violence in state societies
Deaths in armed conflicts Regional data
Deaths in armed conflicts based on where they occurred Country-level data
Deaths in armed conflicts by region
Deaths in interstate conflicts
Deaths in interstate conflicts based on where they occurred
Deaths in interstate conflicts by region
Deaths in state-based conflicts by region
Deaths in wars
Deaths in wars by region Project Mars
Global death rate in violent political conflicts over the long run
Global deaths in violent political conflicts over the long run
Number of countries where armed conflicts took place
Number of interstate conflicts
Peaceful and hostile relationships between states
Peaceful and hostile relationships between states country-pairs without relationships included
Rate of interstate conflicts
Share of deaths from violence at prehistoric archaeological sites
Share of deaths from violence in non-state societies
Share of deaths from violence in state societies
States involved in interstate conflicts
States involved in wars

Waste Management

Electronic waste recycling rate
Hazardous waste generated per capita
Municipal waste recycled
Municipal waste recycling rate
Proportion of population served by municipal waste collection
Recycling rates of glass
Recycling rates of paper and cardboard
Total waste generation
Treatment of hazardous waste

Water Pollution

Water use & stress.

Agricultural water as a share of total water withdrawals
Agricultural water withdrawals
Agricultural water withdrawals vs. GDP per capita
Annual freshwater withdrawals
Average annual precipitation
Average annual precipitation by region
Freshwater use by aggregated region
Freshwater withdrawals as a share of internal resources
Global freshwater use over the long-run
Industrial water as a share of total water withdrawals
Industrial water withdrawal
Internal renewable freshwater resources by region
Municipal water as a share of total water withdrawals
Municipal water withdrawal
Per capita renewable freshwater resources
Renewable freshwater resources per capita
Share of countries with procedures for community participation in water and sanitation management
Share of domestic wastewater that is safely treated
Share of industrial wastewater flows that are treated
Status of the development and implementation of integrated national water resource management plans
Water productivity, GDP per cubic meter of freshwater withdrawal
Water withdrawals per capita
Annual CO₂ emissions from wildfires
Annual area burnt by wildfires
Annual area burnt by wildfires by region 2002-2022
Annual area burnt per wildfire vs. number of fires
Annual number of wildfires
Area burned by wildfires by land cover type
Average area burnt per wildfire
Cumulative CO₂ emissions released by wildfires by week
Cumulative area burnt by wildfires by week
Cumulative share of the land area burnt by wildfires by week
Share of the total land area burnt by wildfires each year
Weekly area burnt by wildfires
Wildfire area burned by land cover type

Women in Politics

Countries by share of women in parliament
Gender of the chief executive
Gender of the head of government
Gender of the head of state
People living in countries in which a woman is government's chief executive
People living in countries in which a woman is head of government
People living in countries in which a woman is head of state
Representation of women in the lower chamber of parliament
Representation of women in the upper chamber of parliament
Share of countries by gender of the chief executive
Share of countries by gender of the head of government
Share of countries by gender of the head of state
Share of women in local government
Share of women in ministerial positions
Share of women in parliament IPU
Share of women in parliament V-Dem
Women's civil society participation index
Women's civil society participation index weighted by population
Women's political empowerment index weighted by population
Women's political participation index
Women's political participation index weighted by population

Women's Employment

Average daily time spent by women on domestic work (paid and unpaid)
Average usual weekly hours worked, women 15 years and older
Female employment vs. public spending on family benefits
Female employment-to-population ratio National estimates
Female employment-to-population ratio Modeled estimates
Female employment-to-population ratio, 2020 vs. 1980
Female labor force by age
Female labor force participation rate (15-64)
Female labor force participation rate vs. GDP per capita
Female labor force participation rates OECD & Long
Female labor force participation rates ILO
Female labor force participation rates 1980 vs. 2020
Female labor force participation rates by family benefits public spending
Index of US maternal mortality and female labor force participation (FLFP)
Labor force participation rates for women ages 15-24, 2020 vs. 1980
Labor force participation, younger vs. older women
Male vs. female informal employment as share of total employment
Maternal mortality vs. female labor force participation, United States
Proportion of female employees by economic sector
Proportion of labor force who are women
Proportion of women participating in the labor force
Ratio of female to male labor force participation rates Line chart
Share of day women spend on unpaid domestic and care work
Share of male vs. female employment in industry
Share of male vs. female employment in services
Share who agree with the statement 'when jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women'
Unemployment rate by gender
Unemployment rate, women
Weekly working hours
Women can take the same jobs as men
Women in informal employment as share of female employment

Women's Rights

A woman has the same rights to remarry as a man
Criminal penalties or civil remedies exist for sexual harassment in employment
Days of paid leave for childbirth and early childcare for the father
Days of paid leave for childbirth and early childcare for the mother
Days of paid maternity, paternity, and parental leave
Dismissal of pregnant workers prohibited
Employment discrimination based on gender prohibited
Exceptions to the legal age of marriage
Gender discrimination in credit access prohibited
Legal age of marriage for girls
Legislation addressing domestic violence specifically
Legislation establishes clear criminal penalties for domestic violence
Legislation on sexual harassment in employment
Legislation that specifically addresses sexual harassment
Male and female surviving spouses have equal rights to inherit assets
Married couples jointly share legal responsibility for financially maintaining the family’s expenses
Married women are required by law to obey their husbands
Married women can legally confer citizenship to their children in the same way as married men
Married women can legally confer their citizenship to a non-national spouse in the same way as married men
Paid leave is available to fathers
Paid leave of at least 14 weeks available to mothers
Paid parental leave
Penalties for authorizing or entering into child or early marriage
Pension benefits account for periods of absence due to childcare
Presence of a specialized court or procedure for cases of domestic violence
Retirement age with full pension benefits same for women and men
Retirement age with partial pension benefits same for women and men
Share of population subjected to sexual violence, male vs. female
Share of the population subjected to physical violence, male vs. female
Share of women who believe a husband is justified in beating his wife
Share of women who experienced violence by an intimate partner IHME
Share of women who experienced violence from an intimate partner United Nations
Share of women who make their own informed health care decisions
Sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their parents
Spouses have equal legal administrative authority over assets during marriage
Unmarried women can legally confer citizenship to their children in the same way as married men
Women and men's testimony carries the same evidentiary weight in court
Women can apply for a passport in the same way as men
Women can be head of household in the same way as men
Women can choose where to live in the same way as men
Women can obtain a judgment of divorce in the same way as men
Women can obtain a national identity card in the same way as married men
Women can open a bank account in the same way as men
Women can sign a contract in the same way as men
Women can travel outside the country in the same way as men
Women can travel outside their home in the same way as men
Women can work at night in the same way as men
Women can work in a job deemed dangerous in the same way as men
Women can work in an industrial job in the same way as men
Women participating in decision-making vs. children per woman

Work Conditions & Safety

Working hours.

Annual working hours per worker
Annual working hours per worker, various sources
Annual working hours vs. labor productivity
Average daily hours of work in summer, by industry
Average daily hours of work in winter, by industry
Average daily hours of work, by occupation, United States
Average daily hours worked, by industry, United States
Average daily work hours, by industry
Average effective age of retirement for women
Average hours of work per week, by industry
Average hours worked per person employed
Days off from work for vacations and holidays
Hours of work vs. GDP per capita
Hours spent in market and non-market work per week, by sex, United States
Weekly hours dedicated to home production in US, by gender
Weekly hours worked by age group, United States
Weekly working hours vs. hourly wage, by wage decile Paid and self-employment
Weekly working hours vs. hourly wage, by wage decile Paid employment only

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Learning Space

Teachable Moments

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Classroom Activity

Graphing global temperature trends.

Graph of global temperature anomaly from 1880 to 2015

This activity is related to a Teachable Moment from April 12, 2017. See " Celebrate Earth Day with NASA Science Data "

› Explore more on the Teachable Moments Blog

In this activity, students will use global temperature data to create models and compare short-term trends to long-term trends. They will then determine whether global temperature is rising based on the data.

Note: This activity is aligned to education standards for fifth grade and high school grade bands. As such, we have provided two sets of procedures, one for grade five and one for high school. Other variations for each grade band are indicated throughout the activity.

Global annual mean temperature data – text file | CSV file

Global monthly mean temperature data – text file | CSV file

(Grade 5) Quadrille-ruled graph paper, four squares per inch OR Graphing Worksheet – Download PDF

(Grade 5) Tape

(Optional, for grade 5) Scissors

(High School) Spreadsheet software, e.g., Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets

The data file for this activity contains 137 years of average global annual temperature measurements. Depending on class size, the steps in “Procedures” can be done by individuals or groups of students.
Divide the data so that each group or individual has approximately the same number of data points.
For students just learning to graph points, use the pre-labeled graphing worksheet. Help more advanced students determine an appropriate vertical scale to use on quadrille-ruled graph paper. Determine the range of data by subtracting the maximum and minimum temperature values (e.g., 14.87-13.54=1.33). Placing the graph paper in portrait orientation allows for approximately 40 lined intervals. Determine scale by asking which place value (ones, tenths, hundredths, etc.) should be used. Demonstrate that counting by ones on each line will not allow for accurate resolution of data. Have students determine how many lines they will need if they count by tenths and if they count by hundredths.
Have beginning graphing students label the horizontal axis of the graphing worksheet with the years their data encompasses. Help advanced students determine an appropriate horizontal scale to use on the quadrille-ruled graph paper. It is important to evenly space the years. The group that has the most years of data to graph will determine the scale that all groups will use.
Monitor students closely while they are plotting data points to be sure they are using a consistent scale. A consistent scale allows data to be combined seamlessly and accurately.
When combining individual graphs into the class graph, be sure to fold back or cut off extra paper so that the year spacing remains constant throughout the graph.

Grade 8 and High School

The data set for this activity contains 1,644 monthly data points presented in a single file that students can use to make and manipulate their own graphs. If students are unfamiliar with spreadsheet software, have them create their own graphs while following along as the instructor shows them the steps.
After accurate graphs have been constructed and the discussion has concluded, give students some time to explore how the graphs could be manipulated and therefore misconstrued by a casual observer.

Scientists have concluded that our climate is changing, that global temperatures are on the rise, and that there are serious consequences to these rising temperatures. But in an age of plentiful yet opposing information, how do students separate fact from fiction? Simple: Examine the source data and do the math.

Weather and climate are two frequently confused terms that refer to events with broadly different spatial and time scales. Weather refers to atmospheric conditions that occur locally over short periods of time – from minutes to hours or days. Familiar examples include rain, snow, clouds, winds, floods or thunderstorms. Remember, weather is local and short-term. Climate , on the other hand, refers to the long-term regional or even global average of temperature, humidity and rainfall patterns over seasons, years or decades. Climate is regional or global and long-term; weather is local and short-term. Erratic weather in your neighborhood – whether rain or drought – may or may not be a symptom of global climate change. To know, we must monitor weather patterns over many years.

Two other terms that are often incorrectly used interchangeably are “global warming” and “climate change.”

Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena created predominantly by burning fossil fuels, which add heat-trapping gases to Earth’s atmosphere. These phenomena include the increased temperature trends described by global warming, but also encompass changes such as sea-level rise; ice-mass loss in Greenland, Antarctica, the Arctic and mountain glaciers worldwide; shifts in flower and plant blooming; and extreme weather events.

Climate change is driven by an increase in global temperature. But how do we know global temperatures are on the rise? We analyze temperature data, including daily temperature readings and monthly or annual average temperatures. The longest running record of directly measured temperature is the Central England temperature data series starting in 1659. The longest-running global record starts in 1880. Data are obtained from land stations and ships around the globe. More recently, satellites are used to measure temperature in the troposphere – the lowest level in our atmosphere. It is possible to derive temperatures prior to the dates of these modern records by studying polar region ice cores and ocean sediment cores. Ice cores store records of millennia of climate data. Using ice cores, scientists have reconstructed climate data for the last 750,000 years, showing seven ice ages, each interspersed with a warm interglacial climate like our climate today. (The difference between those interglacial periods and today is the increased rate at which the climate is changing – a rate that is directly related to the presence of humans and increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.) Ocean sediment cores add more data to the puzzle by way of marine fossils and sedimentary layers. Isotopic oxygen in marine fossils gives us information about ocean temperatures when the fossils were formed, and sedimentary layers provide data about historical events such as volcanic eruptions.

This activity allows students to examine real science data and draw their own conclusions about trends in global mean temperature.

Note: Global temperature data are reported as anomalies, the measure of the amount of departure from a reference value or long-term average. A positive anomaly indicates that the observed temperature was warmer than the reference value. A negative anomaly indicates that the observed temperature was cooler than the reference value. Anomalies more accurately describe climate variability over larger areas (that may have very different absolute temperatures) than absolute temperatures do. They also give a frame of reference that allows for more meaningful comparisons between locations and more accurate calculations of temperature trends. For better conceptual understanding, students may calculate absolute temperature from anomalies by adding the reference value to each anomaly. For elementary school students, the global annual mean temperature data set is reported as absolute temperature for simplicity.

Explain to students that they will be analyzing average temperatures measured on Earth for the past 136 years, but each group will only be looking at a portion of that data.
Distribute the global temperature data, either as a whole set or pre-divided for individuals or groups.
Distribute graph paper or graphing worksheet.
Explain to students that this is a large data set so, to streamline the activity, each group will graph a subset of the points. Then, the class will combine all the graphs into one to represent the entire 136-year trend.
Call out each of the date ranges to verify that each one is assigned to a group of students.
Tell students that because their graphs will be combined with the graphs from the rest of the class, everyone must use the same horizontal and vertical scale.
Ask students to examine the data and determine which value, year or annual mean temperature, should go on the vertical axis. Although it can be done either way, annual mean temperature should go on the vertical axis for ease of viewing.
Lead the students through the process of determining appropriate vertical and horizontal scales for their graph. Include a discussion of whether to orient their graph paper in a portrait or landscape manner. Portrait will provide more room for a precise vertical scale and allow for plenty of room for equally-spaced years on the horizontal axis. See the “Management” section for teaching suggestions.
When all graph axes are labeled and teacher-approved, have students proceed with plotting their data points. Instruct students to make their data point dots large and dark so they will be visible when their graph is held up for the class.
When individual graphs are complete, have students determine if they see an increase or decrease in mean global temperature for their group’s time frame. Discuss the risk of making climate assumptions and projections when looking at a small data set.
Have students tape their graphs to the whiteboard and line them up horizontally, by year, maintaining equal spacing between all the years. (Fold or cut the graph paper as needed to remove empty spaces and align the data).
Have students stand back and assess the trend. Is there a trend of global temperature increase or decrease?

graph showing all 136 years of global temperature data

Ask students if this trend has always been the case over the past 136 years? If not, when did the trend shift?
Have students guess why the trend shifted, then have them research the years when the trend shifted.
Have students predict global temperature means for the subsequent year. Research this data on the Internet to compare.
Ask students what they know about global temperature trends. Expect to hear differing opinions and perhaps the beginning of a heated debate, depending on the knowledge base of your students.
Ask if any students have ever looked at global temperature source data (data measurements from science institutions) themselves. Expect that some students will say they have seen graphs. If they do, ask them if they know whether the graphs represent all available data and what the source of that data is.
Discuss with students the importance of analyzing data, carefully scrutinizing graphs themselves and drawing their own conclusions rather than relying on sources that may not be factual.
Tell students they are going to be looking at data sets that show monthly measurements of the average global land and ocean temperature over approximately 136 years. They will make a determination about what they think is happening to the global temperature over time.

188001= Jan 1880 188002 = Feb 1880 . . . 188012 = Dec 1880

Explain to students the concept of anomaly, why scientists often use this instead of actual temperature readings, and how to compute the actual temperature from the anomaly.
There are several options for importing text data into spreadsheet software. If students will be using the data already in a CSV file, skip to Step 9. Otherwise, students can copy and paste data from the text file into the spreadsheet software. Depending on which software is used, the data may automatically be separated into columns. If it is not, use the Text to Columns (Microsoft Excel) or Split text to columns (Google Sheets) tool to separate the text into separate columns, divided by tabs. Alternatively, students can use the Import tool to locate the text file. Again, the software may automatically separate the data into columns, but if not, separate the text into columns using the tool(s) mentioned above.
With the data in an open spreadsheet, create a third column labeled “actual temperature.” Create a formula that will fill the third column with actual temperature data as computed by adding 13.9°C to the corresponding anomaly for each month.

screen grabs of Excel and Google Sheets showing step 9

Google Sheets or Microsoft Excel:
Type a header for column C. Click in Cell C5 and enter “=13.9+”.
Then click Cell B5 and click enter or return.
Click in Cell C5, grab the fill handle (tiny box in the bottom right corner of the cell) and drag to fill data into all the cells, C6 through C1648.
Give students the option of graphing the anomalies or the actual temperatures. Having half the class graph anomalies and half the class graph actual temperatures will allow for discussion about the visible differences between the trends and representations thereof. Those who will be graphing actual temperatures in Google Sheets will need to relocate Column B while graphing (by cutting and pasting to another column after C, or dragging from the column label).
With the data in an open spreadsheet, there are two methods for graphing the data, depending on which software program students are using.

screen grabs of Excel and Google Sheets showing step 11

Google Sheets:
Highlight all of the data in both columns that you want to graph.
Click the Insert menu and select Chart .
In the Chart Editor window, click the Chart types tab. If not already selected, click Use row 4 as headers and Use column A as labels .
Then select Line chart and click the Insert button.
Microsoft Excel:
Click to select a blank cell.
From the Insert menu, click Chart and select Line . (Alternatively, select Line chart from within the Insert ribbon).
In the blank chart area that appears, right click and select Choose Data .
Click in the Chart data range box and select all of the temperature data in Column C, from Cell C5 to Cell C1648.
Click in the Horizontal (Category) axis labels box and select all of the year data in Column A, from Cell A5 to Cell A1648, and click OK .
Note: Selecting data and creating a line chart by default will not display the data correctly. If students want to select data and make a chart, they should select the data and choose scatter plot . Data will be displayed correctly and can then be turned into a line chart.
With the line chart displayed, ask students to determine if they think the overall trend of the data shows global temperature rising, falling or staying the same.
Once a group has considered what the temperature is doing, they will add a trendline to the chart to better display what the data is showing.

screen grabs of Excel and Google Sheets showing step 13

Right click on the line chart and select Advanced Edit .
Within the Customization tab, find the Trendline option.
Select Polynomial and Degree 2 (or higher) and click Update .
Add a nonlinear trendline. There are different ways to add trendlines, depending on which version of Excel is being used. Generally, clicking on the line chart and selecting the Chart Design or Chart Layout tab will provide options to add a trendline directly, or add chart elements, including trendlines.
Use the Trendline Options feature to select your preferred regression type. Have students play with regression options to select a best-fit polynomial.
Have students compare the trendline with their original determination of whether global temperature is rising, falling or remaining steady.
Ask students why the graph zigzags.
Ask students to predict global temperatures for 2017. (For an easier data set to analyze, download the Global Annual Mean Temperature Data and create a graph and trendline.)
Show students this graph and explain that the same monthly data were used to create it. Ask students why the data look different and what an indiscriminate viewer might conclude from looking at this graph.

Here's an example of how manipulating the scale of a graph could give casual observers an inaccurate view of the data

Discuss with students the importance of choosing a relevant scale for any data set they analyze. Choosing a scale range far outside the reasonable possibility for the data set will flatten any graph. Scale is a commonly manipulated graphical parameter, either for convenience or for purposeful misleading.
Have students find other examples of manipulated graphs on the Internet.
What is the difference between weather and climate? The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time and area. Weather “describes” the conditions of the atmosphere over a short period of time in a local area. Climate is how the atmosphere “behaves” over relatively long periods of time, regionally or globally.
How can we separate fact from fiction in science? Consult reliable sources, such as those at research institutions, especially those involved in data collection, and preferably numerous reliable sources that can corroborate information.
Compare the class graph with a historical timeline of events in the United States and the world. What associations do you see? As industrialization rose, so did global temperature averages.
What steps can you take to reduce your impact on global temperature rise? Learn how to lower your carbon footprint .
(High school) How can we learn about global temperatures prior to 1880? Study isotopic ratios of oxygen in ice cores .
Assess graphs for accurately placed data points.
Determine whether students are making progress on their ability to determine how to properly scale data when making a graph.
Determine whether students are able to indicate trends of increase or decrease on the graph.

High School

Assess student ability to use spreadsheet software to analyze data.
Assess student ability to identify trends in graphically represented data.
Assess student ability to associate human activity with global temperature trends.
Climate Time Machine
US Climate Resilience Toolkit
NASA Climate Vital Signs
Video: NASA's Earth Minute: Gas Problem
Infographic: Earth's Carbon Cycle Is Off Balance
NASA's Climate Kids

EO Explorer

Global Maps

Earth Matters

Four graphics (and a book) that help explain climate change.

( Image by NASA Earth Observatory)

Though blizzards and cold snaps may have made you forget the news from last week, 2015 was the warmest year in NASA’s global temperature record, which dates back to 1880. During a January 2016 press conference (see the slides here ), Gavin Schmidt, director of NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies, explained that 2015 was 0.87 degrees C (1.57°F) above the 1951-80 average in the GISS surface temperature analysis (GISTEMP), one of four widely-cited global temperature analyses.

The statistical record is notable, but keep in mind that this year is just part of a much longer story about the climate. If you want to learn more about climate science as a whole rather than just the latest headlines, here are a few resources that you may find informative. The list is not comprehensive (and we are open to more suggestions), but it is a useful starting point for understanding climate science.

(Image by Eric Roston and Blacki Migliozzi for Bloomberg Business )

The plot above comes from an interactive graphic called “What’s Really Warming the World?” Put together by Eric Roston and Blacki Migliozzi of Bloomberg News (with assistance from NASA climatologists Gavin Schmidt and Kate Marvel), the chart does an excellent job of breaking down the various factors (greenhouse gases, aerosols, solar activity, orbital variations, etc.) that affect climate. It parses out visually how much each factor contributes. The bottom line: greenhouse gases are absolutely central to explaining global temperature trends since 1880. The screenshot above hints at what the interactive looks like, but I highly recommend heading over to Bloomberg to see the full graphic.

Another invaluable graphic for understanding climate change is the “radiative forcing bar chart” below. (You can read an interesting post by Schmidt that explains how these charts have evolved over the decades). At first glance, the chart from the fifth assessment report by the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change may seem technical and difficult to understand. It is. But it is well worth looking up the technical terms.

(Image by the IPCC for the WG1AR5 Summary for Policy Makers )

In short, you are looking at a balance sheet of the major types of emissions that have either a warming or cooling effect on climate. Bars that extend to the left of the 0 signify a cooling effect; bars that extend to the right signify warming. The longer the bar, the more warming or cooling a given type of emissions contributes. What becomes immediately obvious is that carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and methane (CH 4 ) have the biggest warming influence by far. The other well-mixed greenhouse gases — halocarbons, nitrous oxide (N 2 0), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) play a much smaller role.

The situation gets messy when you look at the role that short-lived gases and aerosols play. Some gases like carbon monoxide (CO) and the non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) — such as benzene, ethanol, formaldehyde — contribute to warming, but not much. Others like NO x actually slightly cool the climate overall if you consider how these gases interact with other substances in the atmosphere. Things get even messier if you look at aerosols. Mineral dust, sulfate, nitrate, and organic carbon have a cooling effect. On the other hand, black carbon causes warming. Albedo changes due to land use and changes in solar irradiance are minor in comparison to the other factors.

That’s a lot of variables, but one reason I like this chart is the error bars and the “level of confidence” column. The error bars give you a sense of how much uncertainty there is when it comes to the effects of various emissions. Look at the aerosol section, for instance, and you will see that the error bars are quite large and there is still some uncertainty about how aerosols affect clouds. The level of confidence column offers further clues to what scientists understand well and which areas they are less confident about. VH stands for very high confidence; H stands for high confidence; M stands for medium confidence; and L stands for low confidence.

What is striking is that even when you account for the error bars, there is little doubt that carbon dioxide and methane are warming the climate.

( Image by the NASA Global Climate Change website)

A third graphic, produced by NASA but based on data described here , is particularly compelling. Based on atmospheric information preserved in air bubbles in ancient ice cores, the plot offers a view of carbon dioxide levels in Earth’s atmosphere for the past 400,000 years. As this graph makes obvious, it has been a long time since carbon dioxide levels have been anywhere near where they are now.

For a much more recent view of carbon dioxide levels, the animation above is useful. P roduced by NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio , the video shows a time-series of the distribution and concentration of carbon dioxide in the mid-troposphere, as observed by the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) on the Aqua spacecraft. For comparison, the fluctuations in AIRS data is overlain by a graph of the seasonal variation and interannual increase of carbon dioxide observed at the Mauna Loa observatory in Hawaii. You can clearly see seasonal variations in carbon dioxide levels, but notice also that the mid-tropospheric carbon dioxide shows a steady increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over time. That increase is because of human activity.

( Image by Harvard University Press)

My last recommendation will take longer for you to get through, but it is an invaluable resource. Physicist Spencer Weart offers a detailed but understandable account of the history of climate science research in his book The Discovery of Global Warming . You can read an extended version of book online on the American Institute of Physics’ website. If you make it all the way through, you will know far more than most people about the climate.

This entry was posted on Monday, January 25th, 2016 at 6:34 pm and is filed under Climate , NASA News . You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. Both comments and pings are currently closed.

14 Responses to “Four Graphics (and a Book) that Help Explain Climate Change”

How can you be sure the way you measure carbon is accurate ? Is it based on your theories ? Are your theories developed to prove that mankind is affecting the climate Do you know what “hubris” means ?

No, I believe you’re referring to science, the rigorously challenged, accumulated knowledge of the species. It’s what has prevented you and yours from succumbing to many horrible diseases. It’s what makes your cell phone work. In assuming that the underpinning work hasn’t been confirmed by numerous skeptical scientists hoping to disprove it and thereby make a name for themselves, and that you can imagine personal beliefs have any influence, only serves to demonstrate that you have no idea how it works. This is especially sad in the age of information, where your comment here shows that you have ready access to the means to apprehend this basic and transformative concept.

I believe you mean ‘comprehend’, not ‘apprehend’. It does make a difference…

No actually, I meant exactly what I wrote. Definition 2 in the two dictionaries I just checked (in case I had actually made a mistake) are both “to understand, perceive”. Also to recognize, appreciate.

Strange how it happens that true and legitimate discussion get side track by human insecurities….. would be curios to hear your best possible theorems you both have to offer, if you can…

Do you mean measurement of current CO2 concentration in the air, or CO2 emitted by people? The first one is very accurate, and if you doubt the results, hire a lab to do it for you. If you don’t like the result they come up with, hire another one. Soon you’ll be broke, and all their measurements will confirm the current CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. CO2 emitted by people is calculated very accurately (at least for the purpose of our discussion) from knowing how much fuel is used. If you know how many times a year you refuel your car, and you know exactly how much CO2 is released from burning a gallon of fuel, then you know exactly how much CO2 your car releases in a year. The same applies to all users of fuels, such as factories, power plants, etc. In addition, we know very accurately how much CO2 is released by other than man, such as volcanoes, plants, etc. As it turns out, man releases 100 times more than volcanoes (300 million ton compared to 30 billion).

How can we be sure? because we can (and do) TEST our measurements by physically measuring CO2 emissions and comparing them to the estimates. They match. If you’ve had your car’s emissions tested, you know exactly how much CO2 it releases. Power plants and factories have CO2 sensors on (a representative sample of) their smokestacks.

Any other questions?

How about all the CO2 that is exhaled by all humans and animals on the planet?

Why is that conveniently ignored?

if you have a bucket of water and you pump water out and then immediately back in … How much has the amount of water in the bucket changed?

I trust you see how silly your comment was? Also scientists can test the source of CO2 in the atmosphere isotopically. CO2 from living biomass, volcanism, fossil fuels, etc all have distinc chemical signatures. Guess which we observe today?

Deniers seem to have a handbook of goofy questions. They also don’t understand that polls and opinions of uneducated parrots are not equivalent to the scientific method. What your neighbor thinks, what Rush Limbaugh thinks is irrelevant to the reality as demonstrated by actual climate scientists. Just because your favorite politician thinks global warming is a hoax perpetrated by China doesn’t make it true, it just proves that he’s reading from the same goofy handbook.

Here’s one of the best representations of CO2 levels I’ve seen. It covers 800,000 BCE to 2014 and therefore covers a number of glacial and interglacial periods: https://youtu.be/UatUDnFmNTY

Even if the numbers are close, no one can prove that is what is making it get warmer. The fact that the sun is getting warmer is rarely mentioned. How they can accurately measure volcanic Co2 activity below the ocean or even above the ocean is complete speculation. Besides, now that the Pacific ocean is full of very bad radiation, we are all SOL anyway.

Based on your post, I am forced to conclude that you either have NO idea what you are talking about or you are trolling. If you are trolling, disregard the following…

YES, it has been proven that CO2 traps heat in the lower atmosphere that would otherwise radiate into space, and YES, there is far more C)2 now than there has been in half a million years. YES, ocean levels of CO2 can be accurately measured (and are rising dramatically too), and YES, volcanic emissions are studied not only to help understand warming but also to help understand and forecast eruptions. This is information you can learn if you choose to – if you choose not to, quit posting your ignorance for all to see…

Quite interesting

http://i.imgur.com/xqOt9mP.png

Correlation: 0998

The plot of ice core CO2 and recently measured CO2. Remarkable how exactly the two disparate data sets match up. Or was the ice core set allowed to “float” relative to the other to obtain such a perfect match?

In the days of old I could see how one could be led to believe in the supernatural as well as many other forms of mass hallucination that said you do need to be somewhat judicial in what and where information is found on the internet or anywhere for that matter. These days you need not look at a graphic rather step outside in the region where I live and have a decent memory to know its warmer as well as seeing the changes. It’s my very humble opinion that Americans as a whole are just slightly more retarded for the lack or want to put it in other terms.

I also know what is common political, social, beliefs in the US and our western influenced cohorts is far less accurate than the truth. Both problems stem from a lack of education, fear and a serious lack of the rule of law for the elites and ruling classes. If you have any doubts to the validity to what I wrote simply open up Noam Chomskys book “Manufacturing Consent” and example after example are given and can be looked up independent of the book. If it weren’t for the beauty I see at any turn of the head and an incredible urge to see the human species not just live but to thrive. I would have asked NASA to build me a spacecraft and shoot me out on a brief but scenic veiw of the solar system on my way to interstellar space so I could report back for as long as I could as to the affects of long term space travel on the body. Lol

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Vital Signs

Global temperature, key takeaway:.

The 10 most recent years are the warmest years on record.

This graph shows the change in global surface temperature compared to the long-term average from 1951 to 1980. Earth’s average surface temperature in 2023 was the warmest on record since recordkeeping began in 1880 (source: NASA/GISS ). NASA’s analysis generally matches independent analyses prepared by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and other research groups. Overall, Earth was about 2.45 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 1.36 degrees Celsius) warmer in 2023 than in the late 19th-century (1850-1900) preindustrial average. The 10 most recent years are the warmest on record.

The animation on the right shows the change in global surface temperatures. Dark blue shows areas cooler than average. Dark red shows areas warmer than average. Short-term variations are smoothed out using a 5-year running average to make trends more visible in this map.

The data shown are the latest available, updated annually.

GLOBAL LAND-OCEAN TEMPERATURE INDEX

Time series: 1884 to 2022.

Australia edition
International edition
Europe edition

The climate disaster is here

Earth is already becoming unlivable. Will governments act to stop this disaster from getting worse?

by Oliver Milman , Andrew Witherspoon , Rita Liu , and Alvin Chang

Thu 14 Oct 2021 05.00 EDT

The enormous, unprecedented pain and turmoil caused by the climate crisis is often discussed alongside what can seem like surprisingly small temperature increases – 1.5C or 2C hotter than it was in the era just before the car replaced the horse and cart.

These temperature thresholds will again be the focus of upcoming UN climate talks at the COP26 summit in Scotland as countries variously dawdle or scramble to avert climate catastrophe. But the single digit numbers obscure huge ramifications at stake. “We have built a civilization based on a world that doesn’t exist anymore,” as Katharine Hayhoe, a climate scientist at Texas Tech University and chief scientist at the Nature Conservancy, puts it.

The world has already heated up by around 1.2C, on average, since the preindustrial era, pushing humanity beyond almost all historical boundaries. Cranking up the temperature of the entire globe this much within little more than a century is, in fact, extraordinary, with the oceans alone absorbing the heat equivalent of five Hiroshima atomic bombs dropping into the water every second.

When global temperatures are projected to hit key benchmarksthis century

Average global surface temperature relative to a 1850-1900 baseline.

Worst-case scenario

An unlikely pathway where emissions

are not mitigated

Intermediate

A pathway where emissions start declining

around 2040

An unlikely pathway where emissions start

declining now and global temperatures

peak at +1.8C

to increase

to 31 years

In 43 years

at the earliest

An unlikely pathway where emissions are not mitigated

A pathway where emissions start declining around 2040

An unlikely pathway where emissions start declining now

and global temperatures peak at +1.8C

An unlikely pathway where emissions start declining now and

global temperatures peak at +1.8C

An unlikely pathway

where emissions

A pathway where

emissions start

declining around 2040

An unlikely pathway where

emissions start declining now and

Guardian graphic. Source: IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers. Note: The IPCC scenarios used for best-case, intermediate and worst-case scenarios are SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5.

Until now, human civilization has operated within a narrow, stable band of temperature. Through the burning of fossil fuels, we have now unmoored ourselves from our past, as if we have transplanted ourselves onto another planet. The last time it was hotter than now was at least 125,000 years ago, while the atmosphere has more heat-trapping carbon dioxide in it than any time in the past two million years, perhaps more.

Since 1970, the Earth’s temperature has raced upwards faster than in any comparable period. The oceans have heated up at a rate not seen in at least 11,000 years. “We are conducting an unprecedented experiment with our planet,” said Hayhoe. “The temperature has only moved a few tenths of a degree for us until now, just small wiggles in the road. But now we are hitting a curve we’ve never seen before.”

No one is entirely sure how this horrifying experiment will end but humans like defined goals and so, in the 2015 Paris climate agreement , nearly 200 countries agreed to limit the global temperature rise to “well below” 2C, with an aspirational goal to keep it to 1.5C. The latter target was fought for by smaller, poorer nations, aware that an existential threat of unlivable heatwaves, floods and drought hinged upon this ostensibly small increment. “The difference between 1.5C and 2C is a death sentence for the Maldives,” said Ibrahim Mohamed Solih, president of the country, to world leaders at the United Nations in September.

There is no huge chasm after a 1.49C rise, we are tumbling down a painful, worsening rocky slope rather than about to suddenly hit a sheer cliff edge – but by most standards the world’s governments are currently failing to avert a grim fate. “We are on a catastrophic path,” said António Guterres, secretary general of the UN. “We can either save our world or condemn humanity to a hellish future.”

Earth’s atmosphere, now saturated with emissions from human activity, is trapping warmth and leading to more frequent periods of extreme heat

Oregon, US June 2021: A cooling shelter
Yokohama, Japan July 2021: Staff sprinkles water to cool down patrons
Seville, Spain August 2021: A billboard shows 47C (117F)
Karachi, Pakistan September 2021: A zookeeper bathes an elephant

Photographs: Clockwise from top-left, Maranie Staab/Reuters, Yuichi Yamazaki/Getty Images, Rizwan Tabassum/AFP via Getty Images, Cristina Quicler/AFP via Getty Images

This year has provided bitter evidence that even current levels of warming are disastrous, with astounding floods in Germany and China , Hades-like fires from Canada to California to Greece and rain, rather than snow, falling for the first time at the summit of a rapidly melting Greenland. “No amount of global warming can be considered safe and people are already dying from climate change,” said Amanda Maycock, an expert in climate dynamics at the University of Leeds.

A “heat dome” that pulverized previous temperature records in the US’s Pacific northwest and Canada's west coast in June, killing hundreds of people as well as a billion sea creatures roasted alive in their shells off the coast , would’ve been “virtually impossible” if human activity hadn’t heated the planet, scientists have calculated, while the German floods were made nine times more likely by the climate crisis. “The fingerprint of climate change on recent extreme weather is quite clear,” said Michael Wehner, who specializes in climate attribution at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. “But even I am surprised by the number and scale of weather disasters in 2021.”

Frequency and intensity of once-a-decade heatwave events

Increase in

temperature

A once-a-decade event ...

... now happens

2.8x a decade

In 6-11 years

About 30 years

Unlikely this

... now happens 2.8x a decade

Guardian graphic. Source: IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers. Note: The projected year ranges for +1.5C scenario is using the mean projections for SSPI2.6 and SSP5-8.5. The +2C and +4C scenarios use the mean projection for SSP2-4.5.

After a Covid-induced blip last year, greenhouse gas emissions have roared back in 2021, further dampening slim hopes that the world will keep within the 1.5C limit. “There’s a high chance we will get to 1.5C in the next decade,” said Joeri Rogelj, a climate scientist at Imperial College London.

For humans, a comfortably livable planet starts to spiral away the more it heats up. At 1.5C, about 14% of the world’s population will be hit by severe heatwaves once every five years . with this number jumping to more than a third of the global population at 2C.

Beyond 1.5C, the heat in tropical regions of the world will push societies to the limits , with stifling humidity preventing sweat from evaporating and making it difficult for people to cool down. Extreme heatwaves could make parts of the Middle East too hot for humans to endure, scientists have found, with rising temperatures also posing enormous risks for China and India .

A severe heatwave historically expected once a decade will happen every other year at 2C . “Something our great-grandparents maybe experienced once a lifetime will become a regular event,” said Rogelj. Globally, an extra 4.9 million people will die each year from extreme heat should the average temperature race beyond this point, scientists have estimated .

At 2C warming , 99% of the world’s coral reefs also start to dissolve away, essentially ending warm-water corals. Nearly one in 10 vertebrate animals and almost one in five plants will lose half of their habitat. Ecosystems spanning corals, wetlands, alpine areas and the Arctic “are set to die off” at this level of heating, according to Rogelj.

Change in fraction of land annually exposed to heatwaves: Selected continent Globally Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

With our current policies

Around 2030s

Change from 1986-2006

Guardian graphic. Source: Climate Impact Explorer by Climate Analytics. Note: In the data, a heatwave is when a relative indicator based on air temperature and an absolute indicator based on the air temperature and relative humidity are projected to exceed exceptionally high values, according to an analysis of four climate models. When the two of the four models don’t agree, they are not visualized. The projected year ranges are the Climate Action Tracker current policies scenario.

Earth’s hotter climate is causing the atmosphere to hold more water, then releasing the water in the form of extreme precipitation events

Kolkata, India September 2021: A woman exits a bus onto a flooded street
Agen, France September 2021: Firefighters inspect a flooded street
Al Khaburah, Oman October 2021: Flooded streets after Cyclone Shaheen
Ayutthaya, Thailand October 2021: A boy walks through floodwaters

Photographs: Clockwise from top-left, Indranil Aditya/NurPhoto via Getty Images, Philippe Lopez/AFP via Getty Images, Jack Taylor/AFP via Getty Images, Oman News Agency via AP

Across the planet, people are set to be strafed by cascading storms, heatwaves, flooding and drought. Around 216 million people, mostly from developing countries, will be forced to flee these impacts by 2050 unless radical action is taken, the World Bank has estimated . As much as $23tn is on track to be wiped from the global economy , potentially upending many more.

Some of the most dire impacts revolve around water – both the lack of it and inundation by it. Enormous floods, often fueled by abnormally heavy rainfall, have become a regular occurrence recently, not only in Germany and China but also from the US, where the Mississippi River spent most of 2019 in a state of flood, to the UK, which was hit by floods in 2020 after storms delivered the equivalent of one month of rain in 48 hours, to Sudan, where flooding wiped out more than 110,000 homes last year.

Frequency and intensity of once-a-decade heavy precipitation events

precipitation

1.3x a decade

Heavy precipitation

... now happens 1.3x a decade

Meanwhile, in the past 20 years the aggregated level of terrestrial water available to humanity has dropped at a rate of 1cm per year, with more than five billion people expected to have an inadequate water supply within the next three decades .

At 3C of warming, sea level rise from melting glaciers and ocean heat will also provide torrents of unwelcome water to coastal cities, with places such as Miami, Shanghai and Bangladesh in danger of becoming largely marine environments. The frequency of heavy precipitation events, the sort that soaked Germany and China, will start to climb, nearly doubling the historical norm once it heats up by 2C.

Change in the mass of precipitation: Selected continent Globally Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

Guardian graphic. Source: Climate Impact Explorer by Climate Analytics. Note: The data shows where rainfall and snowfall are projected to change compared to the 1986-2006 average, according to an analysis of four climate models. When the two of the four models don’t agree, they are not visualized. The projected year ranges are the Climate Action Tracker current policies scenario.

Earth’s hotter atmosphere soaks up water from the earth, drying out trees and tinder that amplify the severity of wildfires

Wooroloo, Australia February 2021: A wildfire destroyed over 30 homes
Ogan Ilir, Indonesia August 2021: Indonesian firefighters try to extiguish a peatland fire
Chefchaouen, Morocco August 2021: A woman looks at wildfires tearing through a forest
California, US September 2021: Flames consume a house in the Fawn Fire

Photographs: Clockwise from top-left, Greg Bell/DFES via AP, Muhammad A.F/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images, Ethan Swope/AP, Fadel Senna/AFP via Getty Images

Virtually all of North America and Europe will be at heightened risk of wildfires at 3C of heating, with places like California already stuck in a debilitating cycle of “heat, drought and fire”, according to scientists. The magnitude of the disastrous “Black Summer” bushfire season in Australia in 2019-20 will be four times more likely to reoccur at 2C of heating , and will be fairly commonplace at 3C.

A disquieting unknown for climate scientists is the knock-on impacts as epochal norms continue to fall. Record wildfires in California last year, for example, resulted in a million children missing a significant amount of time in school. What if permafrost melting or flooding cuts off critical roads used by supply chains? What if storms knock out the world’s leading computer chip factory? What happens once half of the world is exposed to disease-carrying mosquitos?

“We’ve never seen the climate change this fast so we don’t understand the non-linear effects,” said Hayhoe. “There are tipping points in our human-built systems that we don’t think about enough. More carbon means worse impacts which means more unpleasant surprises.”

Change in fraction of land annually exposed to wildfires: Selected continent Globally Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

Guardian graphic. Source: Climate Impact Explorer by Climate Analytics. Note: The data shows where the annual aggregated of areas burned by wildfires is projected to change, according to an analysis of four climate models. When the two of the four models don’t agree, they are not visualized. The projected year ranges are the Climate Action Tracker current policies scenario.

Crop failure

Unpredictable weather, like too much or too little rainfall, decreases the quantity and quality of crop yields

La Ceiba Talquezal, Guatemala May 2017: Crops on a hillside damaged by deforestation, pests and prolonged droughts
New South Wales, Australia October 2019: A farmer stands in a paddock of failed wheat crop
Lusaka, Zambia January 2020: Poor crops after the lack of normal summer rainfall
Badghis, Afghanistan September 2021: A farmer holds a handful of failed wheat from his crop

Photographs: Clockwise from top-left, Marvin Recinos/AFP via Getty Images, David Gray/Getty Images, String/EPA, World Food Program/Reuters

There are few less pleasant impacts in life than famine and the climate crisis is beginning to take a toll on food production. In August, the UN said that Madagascar was on the brink of the world’s first “climate change famine”, with tens of thousands of people at risk following four years with barely any rain. Globally, extreme crop drought events that previously occurred once a decade on average will more than double in their frequency at 2C of temperature rise.

Heat the world a bit more than this and a third of all the world’s food production will be at risk by the end of the century as crops start to wilt and fail in the heat.

Frequency of once-a-decade crop drought events

Crop drought

... now happens 1.7x a decade

In 6-8 years

Many different aspects of the climate crisis will destabilize food production, such as dropping levels of groundwater and shrinking snowpacks, another critical source of irrigation, in places such as the Himalayas. Crop yields decline the hotter it gets, while more extreme floods and storms risk ruining vast tracts of farmland.

Change in fraction of land annually exposed to crop failure: Selected continent Globally Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

Guardian graphic. Source: Climate Impact Explorer by Climate Analytics. Note: The data shows where the annual yield of four crops (maize, wheat, soybean, and rice) is projected to fall short of the 2.5th percentile of pre-industrial levels, according to an analysis of four climate models. When the two of the four models don’t agree, they are not visualized. The projected year ranges are the Climate Action Tracker current policies scenario.

Despite the rapid advance of renewable energy and, more recently, electric vehicles, countries still remain umbilically connected to fossil fuels, subsidizing oil, coal and gas to the tune of around $11m every single minute . The air pollution alone from burning these fuels kills nearly nine million people each year globally. Decades of time has been squandered – US president Lyndon Johnson was warned of the climate crisis by scientists when Joe Biden was still in college and yet industry denial and government inertia means the world is set for a 2.7C increase in temperature this century, even if all emissions reduction pledges are met.

By the end of this year the world will have burned through 86% of the carbon “budget” that would allow us just a coin flip’s chance of staying below 1.5C. The Glasgow COP talks will somehow have to bridge this yawning gap, with scientists warning the world will have to cut emissions in half this decade before zeroing them out by 2050.

“2.7C would be very bad,” said Wehner, who explained that extreme rainfall would be up to a quarter heavier than now, and heatwaves potentially 6C hotter in many countries. Maycock added that much of the planet will become “uninhabitable” at this level of heating. “We would not want to live in that world,” she said.

A scenario approaching some sort of apocalypse would comfortably arrive should the world heat up by 4C or more, and although this is considered unlikely due to the belated action by governments, it should provide little comfort.

Every decision – every oil drilling lease, every acre of the Amazon rainforest torched for livestock pasture, every new gas-guzzling SUV that rolls onto the road – will decide how far we tumble down the hill. In Glasgow, governments will be challenged to show they will fight every fraction of temperature rise, or else, in the words of Greta Thunberg , this pivotal gathering is at risk of being dismissed as “blah, blah, blah”.

“We’ve run down the clock but it’s never too late,” said Rogelj. “1.7C is better than 1.9C which is better than 3C. Cutting emissions tomorrow is better than the day after, because we can always avoid worse happening. The action is far too slow at the moment, but we can still act.”

This article was amended on 15 October 2021 with the correct IPCC projections for when global temperatures are expected to reach each threshold and to correct the spelling of Wooroloo. The time ranges in each map have also been amended to show time range projections from the Climate Action Tracker's current policies pathway. It was further amended on 25 October 2021 to add the west coast of Canada to the areas affected by the "heat dome" in June.

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Data Descriptor
Open access
Published: 11 March 2022

Global monthly gridded atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations under the historical and future scenarios

Wei Cheng ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6499-0213 1 , 2 ,
Xiangzheng Deng ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7993-5540 1 , 2 , 4 ,
Jinming Feng 3 ,
Yongli Wang 3 ,
Jing Peng 3 ,
Jing Tian 1 ,
Zhu Liu ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8968-7050 6 ,
Xinqi Zheng 7 , 8 ,
Demin Zhou 9 , 10 ,
Sijian Jiang 1 , 2 ,
Haipeng Zhao 7 , 8 &
Xiaoyu Wang 9 , 10

Scientific Data volume 9 , Article number: 83 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Atmospheric chemistry
Atmospheric dynamics

Increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations is the main driver of global warming due to fossil fuel combustion. Satellite observations provide continuous global CO 2 retrieval products, that reveal the nonuniform distributions of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations. However, climate simulation studies are almost based on a globally uniform mean or latitudinally resolved CO 2 concentrations assumption. In this study, we reconstructed the historical global monthly distributions of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations with 1° resolution from 1850 to 2013 which are based on the historical monthly and latitudinally resolved CO 2 concentrations accounting longitudinal features retrieved from fossil-fuel CO 2 emissions from Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. And the spatial distributions of nonuniform CO 2 under Shared Socio-economic Pathways and Representative Concentration Pathways scenarios were generated based on the spatial, seasonal and interannual scales of the current CO 2 concentrations from 2015 to 2150. Including the heterogenous CO 2 distributions could enhance the realism of global climate modeling, to better anticipate the potential socio-economic implications, adaptation practices, and mitigation of climate change.

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Background & Summary

Recent satellite retrievals provide a continuous global spatial products of both column CO 2 , e.g., from the Chinese Global Carbon Dioxide Monitoring Scientific Experimental Satellite (TanSat), the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) and the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT); and also mid-tropospheric CO 2 , e.g., the atmospheric infrared sounder (AIRS), those reveal the nonuniform distributions of mid-tropospheric CO 2 concentrations 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 . The satellite-derived distributions of tropospheric CO 2 are generally consistent with each other, though some regional discrepancies between the satellite products have been attributed to lack of independent reference observations constraints 5 , 7 . The areas with low atmospheric CO 2 concentrations are in the high latitudes and the lack of any large CO 2 emissions areas 1 . The areas with relatively high CO 2 concentrations (30°S-60°N) are formed due to high CO 2 emissions from ground sources, and the horizontal and vertical movements of winds 1 , 8 . These satellite CO 2 concentrations retrievals provide a potential opportunity to investigate atmospheric CO 2 variability at the planetary scale.

Few climate simulation studies have been based on a globally non-uniform mean CO 2 distribution patterns 9 , 10 , 11 . Those produce a bias reduction in estimated mean temperatures, and consequently some understanding of the response of Earth’s system to the actual nonuniform CO 2 concentrations. In the Beijing Normal University Earth System Model (BNU-ESM), the inhomogeneous CO 2 simulations are driven by annual CO 2 concentrations with spatial and seasonal changes derived from satellite observation 10 . While in the Community Earth System Model (CESM), spatially inhomogeneous CO 2 runs use prescribed gridded national-level monthly or annual CO 2 emissions weighted by the grid’s population density 9 , 11 . Both BNU-ESM and CESM simulations with spatially inhomogeneous CO 2 reproduce the progressive increases in temperature with better agreement with spatially distributed global surface air temperature observations than using spatially homogeneous simulations 10 , 11 . The heterogenous CO 2 distributions could enhance the realism of global climate modeling.

Climate modeling taking into account the CO 2 distribution could address some of the known biases in temperature in the control simulations 11 . Including the heterogenous CO 2 distribution could enhance the realism of global climate modeling. Using BNU-ESM, global mean surface air temperature is in the inhomogeneous CO 2 simulations is approximately 0.3 °C lower than that in spatially uniform runs over the period 1986–2005, reducing the warming bias seen in the uniform runs compared with the HadCRUT4 observations 10 . In CESM, spatially homogeneous CO 2 simulations overestimated climate warming over the Arctic, tropical Pacific, while underestimated warming in the mid-latitudes, over most land areas 9 . The inhomogeneous runs simulated by CESM during 1950–2000 produces lower temperatures at both poles than the homogeneous runs, by up to 1.5 °C including statistically significant cooling over the Barents Sea area 11 .

The surface air temperature responses to spatially inhomogeneous atmospheric CO 2 concentrations are mainly controlled by changes in large scale atmospheric circulations, e.g., the Hadley cell, westerly jet, Arctic Oscillation and Rossby waves 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 . Local surface air temperature anomalies under nonuniform CO 2 simulations are affected by the CO 2 physiological response over vegetated areas. The land plants adjust to changes in atmospheric CO 2 by altering their stomatal conductance, which consequently affects the water evapotranspiration from plant leaf to atmosphere 12 . This affects environmental temperature through evaporative cooling, and the evaporated moisture alters the air humidity and influences low cloud amounts by the water vapor diffusion, which is especially obvious in summer when the plants grow vigorously. In the polar areas, the degree of warming amplification depends strongly on the locally distribution of CO 2 radiative forcing, specifically through positive local lapse-rate feedback, with ice-albedo and Planck feedbacks playing subsidiary roles, also suggesting that inhomogeneous spatial distributions of CO 2 concentrations is consistent with significant climatic effects 13 . In marine ecosystems, non-uniform atmospheric CO 2 and temperature biases could affect the uptake and storage of CO 2 in the ocean, which will change regional atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, ocean pH, ocean oxygen concentrations and primary production 14 .

Existing studies with spatially homogeneous atmospheric CO 2 concentrations may have underestimated the temperature gradient from mid-latitudes to high latitudes. Some atmospheric circulation patterns, e.g., the Hadley cell, westerly jet and Arctic Oscillation are theoretically related to the mid- to high-latitude temperature gradients, and are hence potentially incorrectly simulated 9 . Spatially homogeneous atmospheric CO 2 simulations underestimate interannual variability in regional temperature and precipitation relative to the inhomogeneous simulations 9 and so can result in underrating magnitudes and frequencies of extreme event such as droughts, heat waves, floods, and hurricanes 12 . The upper 3 m of Arctic permafrost holding twice as much carbon as the atmosphere is accelerating its thaw due to the intensification of Arctic warming, leading to Greenhouse gases release and accelerating global warming 15 . Biases of temperature from spatially uniform CO 2 responses to ice-albedo-temperature feedbacks would lead to overestimated polar warming relative to inhomogeneously distributed CO 2 in the historical period 13 .

However, climate simulation studies are almost based on a globally uniform mean CO 2 or latitudinally resolved CO 2 datasets for the historical and future scenarios in the Climate Model Intercomparison Project 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 . In the models including representation of the carbon cycle, the CMIP simulations can be driven by prescribed CO 2 emissions accounting explicitly for fossil fuel combustion 19 . Feng et al . 20 provided spatially distributed anthropogenic emissions historical data with annual resolution and future scenario data in 10-year intervals for CMIP6. There is near-real-time daily CO 2 emission dataset monitoring the variations in CO 2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production since January 1, 2019 at the national level 21 . Shan et al . 22 constructed the time-series of CO 2 emission inventories for China and its 30 provinces following the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emissions accounting method with a territorial administrative scope. The other CMIP simulations can be driven by prescribed CO 2 concentrations, which enables these more complex models to be evaluated fairly against those models without representation of carbon cycle processes 19 . Meinshausen et al . 17 provided a prescribed global-mean greenhouse gases (GHGs) concentrations using atmospheric concentration observations and emissions estimates in the historical period (1750–2005) and using four different Integrated Assessment Models in the future scenario, with some models constraining internally generated fields of GHG concentrations to match those global-mean values. For CMIP6, Meinshausen et al . 18 updated those global-mean and latitudinal monthly-resolved GHG concentration dataset in the historical period. In the future period, there are global annual mean GHG concentration dataset in some alternative scenarios of future emissions and land use changes produced with integrated assessment models 19 .

Here, we provide global monthly distributions of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations with 1° resolution under historical (1850–2013) and future (2015–2150) scenarios in CMIP6, which have equal global annual mean values in the CMIP6 standard CO 2 dataset. The monthly CO 2 distributions dataset can be accessed by the Zenodo data repository 23 ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5021361 ). Climate modeling taking into account heterogenous CO 2 distributions could reduce some of the known biases in the control simulations 9 , 10 , 11 , to better anticipate the potential socio-economic implications, adaptation practices, and mitigation of climate change.

The historical CO 2 concentrations follows CMIP6 monthly and latitudinally resolved CO 2 concentrations accounting longitudinal features retrieved from fossil-fuel CO 2 emissions from Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. And the spatial distributions of CO 2 under SSP-RCPs scenarios were generated based on the spatial, seasonal and interannual features of the current CO 2 concentrations distributions.

Historical CO 2 concentrations spatial reconstruction

Since lack of observational evidence of both seasonality and latitudinal gradients of CO 2 concentrations in pre-industrial times, CMIP6 project provides consolidated dataset of historical atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 based on the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) networks, firn and ice core data, and archived air data, and a large set of published studies for the earth system modeling experiments 18 . The dataset provides best-guess estimates of historical forcings with latitudinal and seasonal features (available at https://www.climatecollege.unimelb.edu.au/cmip6 ).

The atmospheric CO 2 concentrations from CMIP6 has only spatial distributions in latitude but not in longitude. We reconstructed the CMIP6 historical CO 2 concentration data with global 1° resolution based on the fossil-fuel CO 2 emissions data from Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre (CDIAC). The CDIAC fossil-fuel CO 2 emissions used here are based on fossil-fuel consumption estimates, which distributes spatially on a 1° latitude by 1° longitude grid from 1751 to 2013 24 . (available at https://cdiac.ess-dive.lbl.gov/trends/emis/meth_reg.html ). However, there is no value of the CDIAC CO 2 emissions over land without human activity and ocean, where CO 2 emissions values are filled with the average values of their latitudes of CO 2 emissions. The processed global carbon emissions data from CDIAC is used as features of CO 2 distributions and seasonal cycle for downscaling historical atmospheric CO 2 concentrations in each month (Fig. 1 ). The ratio of CDIAC CO 2 emissions in each grid to its latitude averaged is calculated as:

where C i represents CO 2 emission in each grid, and C LAT is the corresponding latitude average CO 2 emissions.

The processes for CO 2 concentrations distributions reconstruction in the historical period and future scenarios.

The ratio RLAT i is normalized as,

where $RNLA{T}_{i}$ represents the normalized ratio RLAT i , $RLA{T}_{max}$ is the maximum value of RLAT i , and $RLA{T}_{min}$ is the minimum value of RLAT i .

The maximum difference of latitude averaged CO 2 concentrations ( PD ) for CMIP6 data is calculated as,

where $C{O}_{2,max}$ is the maximum latitude CO 2 concentration, $C{O}_{2,min}$ represents the minimum latitude CO 2 concentration.

The difference factor ${W}_{i}$ in each grid is calculated as,

The reconstructed CO 2 concentrations $C{O}_{2,i}^{grid}$ equals to original CO 2 concentrations and the difference factor in each grid, as

where $C{O}_{2,i}^{origin}$ is the CO 2 concentrations in CMIP6.

SSP-RCPs CO 2 concentrations spatial reconstruction

In the future time period, CO 2 concentration data for CMIP6 from 2015 were derived from the eight shared socioeconomic pathway (SSP) and representative concentration pathways (RCP) scenarios (Table 1 ) using the reduced-complexity climate–carbon-cycle model MAGICC7.0 25 . The five SSP scenarios SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5 that are used as priority scenarios highlighted in ScenarioMIP for the IPCC sixth assessment report 19 . The SSP1-1.9 and SSP1-2.6 are both in the “sustainability” SSP1 socio-economic pathway but with about 1.9 and 2.6 W m −2 radiative forcing level in 2100, reflecting ways for 1.5°C and 2°C targets under the Paris Agreement, respectively. The SSP2-4.5 follows “middle of the road” socio-economic pathway with a nominal 4.5 W m −2 radiative forcing level by 2100. The SSP3-7.0 is in the “regional rivalry” socio-economic pathway and a medium-high radiative forcing scenario. SSP5-8.5 marks the upper edge of the SSP scenario spectrum with a high reference scenario in a high fossil fuel development world throughout the 21st century. SSP5-3.4 follows SSP5-8.5, an unmitigated baseline scenario, through 2040, at which point aggressive mitigation is undertaken to rapidly reduce emissions to zero by about 2070 and to net negative levels thereafter. In addition, the SSP4-6.0 and SSP4-3.4 scenarios update the RCP6.0 pathway and fill a gap at the low end of the range of future forcing pathways, respectively. CMIP6 CO 2 concentration data in each SSP-RCP scenario is available at https://esgf-node.llnl.gov/search/input4mips/ .

The global annual mean atmospheric CO 2 in the CMIP6 future scenarios are interpolated temporally and spatially based on the features of CO 2 distributions and seasonal cycle of the current monthly atmospheric CO 2 concentrations distributions from 2015 to 2024 (the geotif2nc_2015_2024.nc file is contained within “Code.zip” archive accessed via the Zenodo data repository 23 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5021361 ) simulated based on the monthly reconstructed historical CO 2 concentrations using autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) method 26 , 27 (Fig. 1 ).

The ratio ( ${S}_{i}^{m}$ ) of the monthly CO 2 concentrations in each grid to the global mean averaged during 2015–2024 is calculated as

where $C{O}_{2,i}^{m}$ is the monthly CO 2 concentrations in each month m ( m = 1, 2…12) and in each grid i . $C{O}_{2,mean}^{m}$ is the global mean CO 2 concentrations in each month m .

The ratio ( ${R}^{m}$ ) of the global mean CO 2 concentrations in each month to the global annual mean averaged during 2015–2024 is calculated as,

where $C{O}_{2,mean}^{annual}$ is the global annual mean CO 2 concentration averaged during 2015–2024.

The CO 2 concentrations distributions $C{O}_{i}^{grid,m}$ in each year are obtained by

where $C{O}_{2,year}^{annual}$ is the global annual mean CO 2 concentrations in the CMIP6 future scenarios.

Data Records

All atmospheric CO 2 output grids can be accessed via the Zenodo data repository 23 ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5021361 ). The data records include 1 file Network Common Data Form (NetCDF) format for CO 2 distributions in historical period named CO2_1deg_month_1850–2013.nc, and 8 files NetCDF format with the naming convention CO2_SSP{XYY}_2015_2150.nc, where X and YY are the shared socioeconomic pathway and radiative forcing level at 2100, respectively, for CO 2 distributions in the future scenarios. Each NetCDF file includes 3 dimensions: time (month of the year expressed as days since the first day of 1850, n = 1968 and 1632 for the historical and the future, respectively); latitude (Degrees North of the equator [cell centres], n = 180); longitude (Degrees East of the Prime Meridian [cell centres], n = 360). Each NetCDF file contains a monthly variable representing mole fraction of carbon dioxide in air (variable name: values in the historical file and in the future scenario files) with the unit ppm and the 1° × 1° resolution. There are 127,526,400 and 105, 753,600 unique data points for the historical file and each future scenario file. All grids are bottom-left arranged with coordinates referenced to the prime meridian and the equator.

The spatial distributions of historical CO 2 concentrations averaged during 1890–1989 shows that the high CO 2 concentrations appears in the developed regions, e.g., Europe and Eastern part of the United States (Fig. 2 ). CO 2 concentrations in the United Kingdom and the United States are 290.90 ppm and 287.83 ppm, respectively, during 1861–1880 (Table 2 ). During 2004–2013, the average CO 2 concentrations in the United Kingdom and the United States increase to 391.65 ppm and 389.99 ppm, respectively (Table 2 ), which are associated with regional CO 2 emissions. In addition, the CO 2 concentration 391.16 ppm in China is slightly less than that in the United Kingdom, which is associated with the low CO 2 concentrations in the west of China (Fig. 2 ). Fig. 3 shows the distributions of seasonal atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (ppm) in these seasons March-April-May (MAM), June-July-August (JJA), September-October-November (SON), and December-January-February (DJF).

The maps of global historical atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (ppm) averaged during 1890–1989 (Top) and averaged during 2004–2013 (Bottom).

The maps of seasonal atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (ppm) averaged during 1890–1989 ( a ) and averaged during 2004–2013 ( b ) in these March-April-May (MAM), June-July-August (JJA), September-October-November (SON), and December-January-February (DJF).

CO2_SSP{XYY}_2015_2150.nc files are generated based on the eight SSP and RCP scenarios, including SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP4-3.4, SSP4-6.0, SSP5-3.4 and SSP5-8.5 which provide global distributions of CO 2 concentrations under different socio-economic development pathway associated radiative forcing levels. In these eight scenarios, the average CO 2 concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) is higher than that in the Southern Hemisphere (SH). High CO 2 concentrations relative to the global average is mainly distributed in Europe, Eastern United States, and East Asia. Under each scenario, global CO 2 concentrations averaged in 2041-2060 ranges 420–590 ppm, and the CO 2 concentrations averaged during 2081–2100 is between 380–1030 ppm (Figs. 4 , 5 ). Under SSP5-8.5, the average CO 2 concentrations in China and the United Kingdom are 1020.70 ppm and 1021.51 ppm, respectively, during 2081–2100, while the CO 2 concentration is 998.28 ppm in Australia (Table 3 ).

The maps of global atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (ppm) averaged during 2041–2060 in the SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP4-3.4, SSP4-6.0, SSP5-3.4 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios. The period of 2041–2060 selected is for the average state in the middle of this century, the key time for carbon neutrality.

The maps of global atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (ppm) averaged during 2081–2100 in the SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP4-3.4, SSP4-6.0, SSP5-3.4 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios. The period of 2081–2100 in the Fig. 5 chosen is for the average state at the end of this century.

Technical Validation

In this validation section, GOSAT surface CO 2 concentrations and AIRS mid-tropospheric CO 2 concentrations products were used for comparison with the reconstructed distributions of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations. The GOSAT launched in January 2009 observing infrared light reflected and emitted from the earth’s surface and the atmosphere provides three-dimensional distributions of CO 2 products calculated from the Level 4 A data product using a global atmospheric transport model from 2009 28 , 29 , 30 . The data product has a horizontal resolution of 2.5° × 2.5° and a time step of six hours. The satellite Aqua was launched in May 2002 and operates in a near polar sun-synchronous orbit, and its mission is to observe the global water and energy cycle, climate change trend, and response of the climate system to the increase in greenhouse gases 1 , 31 . It retrieves the global daily or monthly CO 2 concentrations over land, ocean and polar regions 6 . AIRS mid-tropospheric CO 2 concentrations product is retrieved using the Vanishing Partial Derivative method 32 , with the 90 km × 90 km spatial resolution covering 90°N–60°S. The AIRS CO 2 retrieval product provides a continuous global nonuniform distributions of mid-tropospheric CO 2 concentrations from 2003 to 2016.

The multi-year mean reconstructed atmospheric CO 2 concentrations are slightly higher than that of the AIRS mid-tropospheric CO 2 concentrations product in the NH high latitudes and mid-latitudes of the SH, but lower in the mid-latitudes of the SH. In the 45°S-60°S latitude band, about 10 ppm (3%) increase in the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations is statistically significant relative to the AIRS averaged during 2003–2016 (Fig. 6a ). The reconstructed CO 2 concentrations are about 4 ppm (1%) higher and lower than the GOSAT surface CO 2 concentrations in the 30°S-60°S latitude band and in the East Asia and its adjacent sea areas, respectively, however, the biases are both not statistically significant at the 5% level using the Student’s t test (Fig. 6b ).

Changes in CO 2 concentrations (ppm) between the reconstructed and AIRS ( a ) averaged during 2003–2016 (excluding 2014), and between the reconstructed and GOSAT ( b ) averaged during 2010–2018 (excluding 2014). The time periods selected are decided by data available. Hatched areas are regions where changes are statistically significant at the 5% level using the Student’s t test.

Relative to the AIRS, there are some statistically significant seasonal overestimations of the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations with over 12 ppm averaged during 2003–2016 mainly located in the 45°S–60°S latitude band in DJF (Fig. 7 ). In MAM, the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations are 2-6 ppm lower in the NH and 2-6 ppm higher in the SH than that in the AIRS. In JJA, the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations are 2-6 ppm lower at the latitude bands of 30°N–60°N, 15°S–30°S, and 45°S–60°S, and 2-6 ppm higher in the 60°N–90°N latitude band than that in the AIRS. In SON, the bias of the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations is from −2 to 2 ppm in most regions of the world, except in 45°S-60°S latitude band relative to the AIRS.

Changes in the seasonal ( a , MAM; b , JJA; c , SON; d , DJF) CO 2 concentrations (ppm) between the reconstructed and the AIRS product averaged during 2003–2016 (excluding 2014). The time period selected is decided by data available. Hatched areas are regions where changes are statistically significant at the 5% level using the Student’s t test.

Relative to the GOSAT, there are some statistically significant seasonal overestimations of the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations between 8 to 10 ppm averaged during 2010–2018 mainly at the 45°S-70°S latitude bands in DJF (Fig. 8 ). In JJA, the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations are over 10 ppm higher than the GOSAT data in the Far eastern and North-western federal districts of Russia, and Eastern Canada. In MAM, the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations are 2-8 ppm lower in the NH and 2-6 ppm higher in the SH than that in the GOSAT. In SON, the overestimations of the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations are from 2 to 6 ppm, and the underestimations of the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations is from −6 to −2 ppm in some areas of South America, South Africa and Eastern China relative to the GOSAT.

Changes in the seasonal ( a , MAM; b , JJA; c , SON; d , DJF) CO 2 concentrations (ppm) between the reconstructed and the GOSAT product averaged during 2010–2018 (excluding 2014). The time period selected is decided by data available. Hatched areas are regions where changes are statistically significant at the 5% level using the Student’s t test.

Compared with the GOSAT surface atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, there is similar trend and seasonal cycles with the monthly global mean reconstructed CO 2 concentrations (Fig. 9a ). The seasonal cycle with high CO 2 concentrations in MAM and low CO 2 concentrations in JJA is closely related to the seasonal cycle of plant growth 33 . The monthly global mean AIRS mid-tropospheric CO 2 concentrations have a similar trend and the peak feature of each seasonal cycle with the reconstructed and GOSAT CO 2 concentrations, but the valley feature of seasonal cycles, which is associated with the transport of atmospheric CO 2 and less impacts from plant CO 2 absorption 34 , 35 . The R-squared correlation (R 2 ) is 0.95 between the monthly global mean reconstructed CO 2 and the AIRS CO 2 product, and the R 2 between the reconstructed and the GOSAT product is 0.99 (Fig. 9b ).

Monthly global mean time evolution of CO 2 concentrations (ppm) for the AIRS (red, from Jan 2003 to Feb 2017), the GOSAT (blue, from Jun 2009 to oct 2017), and the reconstructed data (cyan) from 2003 to 2017 ( a ); and scatter plot between the monthly global mean reconstructed data, and the AIRS (red) and the GOSAT (blue), respectively averaged during 2010–2016 ( b ). The reconstructed CO 2 data from 2010–2013 and 2015–2017 compared here is from the historical and the SSP5-8.5 reconstructions, respectively.

Figure 10 shows the zonal mean CO 2 concentrations (ppm) for the AIRS, the GOSAT, and the reconstructed data during 2010 to 2013 averaged over land and averaged over ocean, separately. The zonal mean CO 2 concentrations for the reconstructed data averaged over land and over ocean both have a similar distribution pattern with the surface CO 2 concentrations in GOSAT, with higher CO 2 values in the Northern Hemisphere than that in the Southern Hemisphere, though there are some overestimates in the middle latitudes for the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations, which is consistent with the high CO 2 emissions in the middle latitude bands (Fig. 10 ). In the low and middle latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, the reconstructed CO 2 concentrations over land and over ocean are both between the AIRS and the GOSAT range of CO 2 concentrations, respectively (Fig. 10 ). We also note that our historical CO 2 concentrations distributions should be regarded as highly uncertain. However, some plausibility of the CO 2 concentrations distributions is obtained by comparison with satellite observations (e.g., ARIS, GOSAT satellite CO 2 concentrations products) at the zonal mean and grid scales.

Zonal mean CO 2 concentrations (ppm) averaged over land ( a ) and over ocean ( b ) for the AIRS, the GOSAT, and the reconstructed data during 2010 to 2013. Zonal sum fossil-fuel CO 2 emissions (Tg C yr −1 ) are also showed using the right y axis in each panel from Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) averaged during 2010 to 2013.

Usage Notes

This data is intended for use as a prior in global climate modeling, potential socio-economic implications and mitigation of climate change, and adaptation practices. The historical global monthly distributions of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations with 1° resolution from 1850 to 2013, including 1 file NetCDF format file named CO2_1deg_month_1850-2013.nc And the spatial distributions of nonuniform CO 2 under SSP-RCP scenarios are from 2015 to 2150, including 8 files NetCDF format with the naming convention CO2_SSP{XYY}_2015_2150.nc, where X and YY are the shared socioeconomic pathway and radiative forcing level at 2100, respectively. Each NetCDF file contains a monthly variable representing mole fraction of carbon dioxide in air (ppm). including 3 dimensions: time (month of the year expressed as days since the first day of 1850, n = 1968 and 1632 for the historical and the future, respectively); latitude (Degrees North of the equator [cell centres], n = 180); longitude (Degrees East of the Prime Meridian [cell centres], n = 360). We anticipate that the dataset will be widely used by Earth system modeling, agriculture management, and socio-economic analysis, to assess the climate, environmental and socio-economic implications of considering past and on-going inhomogeneous CO 2 distributions, and for formulating strategies of spatial, as well as global carbon reduction.

Code availability

The code used to perform all steps described here and shown in Fig. 1 is contained within a.zip archive named “Code.zip”. The code can be accessed via the Zenodo data repository 23 ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5021361 ).

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFA0602500). Data production and technical validation were partially funded by the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDA23070400) and the state key program of National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 91425303; Grant No. 71533004).

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Wei Cheng, Xiangzheng Deng, Jing Tian & Sijian Jiang

Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China

Wei Cheng, Xiangzheng Deng & Sijian Jiang

Key Lab of Regional Climate-Environment for Temperate East Asia, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029, China

Li Dan, Jinming Feng, Yongli Wang & Jing Peng

University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China

Xiangzheng Deng

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Xinqi Zheng & Haipeng Zhao

Technology Innovation Center of Territory Spatial Big-data, MNR of China, Beijing, 100036, China

College of Resource, Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing, 100048, China

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X.D. and L.D. led the project, W.C., Y.W., J.P., J.T., S.J., H.Z. and X.W. drafted the manuscript, X.D., L.D., J.F., Z.L., X.Z., D.Z. and W.Q. revised the manuscript.

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Cheng, W., Dan, L., Deng, X. et al. Global monthly gridded atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations under the historical and future scenarios. Sci Data 9 , 83 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-022-01196-7

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Climate Matters • June 14, 2023

Warming Stripes: Local to Global

Key concepts.

June 21 is #ShowYourStripes day—a time to spread awareness about climate change using the iconic ‘warming stripes’ graphics showing temperature trends over the last 100+ years.

Download and share warming stripes for 178 cities, 49 states, the U.S., and the globe.

Each colored stripe represents the annual average temperature relative to a long-term average.

Red stripes are years that were hotter than average; blue stripes are years that were cooler.

Show up for #ShowYourStripes on June 21

#ShowYourStripes is a global campaign to spread awareness about climate change using warming stripes graphics. The iconic blue and red barcode will appear on landmarks , TV screens , magazines , and hopefully you , as the world unites to show their stripes on June 21.

Global Warming Stripes

Created by Professor Ed Hawkins , a climate scientist at the University of Reading, the global warming stripes are a simple visual representation of the long-term rise in global temperatures due to human-caused climate change.

Each stripe represents the global temperature averaged over one year, from 1850 to 2022. Red stripes are years that were hotter than the 1971-2000 average; blue stripes are years that were cooler.

The global warming stripes graphic shows a rapid shift from blue to red stripes in recent decades as carbon pollution has warmed the planet.

In 2022, the planet was 2.0°F (1.1°C) warmer than the 1881-1910 baseline—dangerously close to the internationally-agreed goal of limiting global warming to 2.7°F (1.5°C) above pre-industrial levels.

U.S. Warming Stripes

Climate Central analyzed historical temperature data through 2022 to produce warming stripes graphics for 178 U.S. cities, 49 states (excluding Hawaii), and the entire U.S.

Each graphic shows 100+ years of temperature change relative to the long-term (1901-2000) average at the city, state, or national level. See Methodology below for details.

Most locations show a strong warming trend, especially in fast-warming regions like the Southwest, Northeast, and Alaska. Last year was especially warm relative to the long-term average in cities like Burlington, Vt., Fresno, Calif., Reno, Nev., Salt Lake City, Utah, and Tampa, Fla.

Four ways to #ShowYourStripes

Here are a few ways to #ShowYourStripes on June 21st—or on any day of the year—to communicate about climate change.

Visit Climate Central’s new Show Up for Stripes Day page for more free graphics, examples of warming stripes in action, and to locate the 16 landmarks across the U.S. (and in Toronto) that will light up for #ShowYourStripes day.

Share your local warming stripes on social media, TV broadcasts, and in local climate reporting to communicate about warming in your city, state, or across the U.S.

Explore Climate Central’s resource library for hundreds of graphics and reporting resources that explain the local effects of global climate change—from local impacts (such as warming summers , more frequent fire weather , and more mosquito days ) to local solutions (such as solar and wind energy generation and leading ways to cut carbon pollution in each state, and the cooling power of trees in 242 U.S. cities).

Update your social accounts with warming stripes images—including a Zoom background and filters for Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn.

Check out warming stripes in action:

Climate Central's Bernadette Woods Placky explains warming stripes

The Weather Channel meteorologists Jim Cantore, Stephanie Abrams, and Jordan Steele show their stripes.

The International Weather and Climate Forum shared a collage of worldwide stripes coverage

CM: Past Warming Across Generations 2023 (EN)

We’re seeing red, but don’t feel blue.

Our actions today determine what color stripes future generations will live through.

Climate Central recently analyzed how much warming younger generations could experience during their lifetimes if carbon pollution either continues, or is cut rapidly.

The analysis shows that younger generations (Millennials, Gen Z, and Gen Alpha) across the U.S. could experience between 6 to 7°F of warming over their lifetimes if high levels of emissions continue. These levels of warming would bring rapid change and more extreme events such as heat waves.

The same Climate Central analysis also shows the powerful effects of the choices we make now.

The data show that keeping global warming under 2°C (3.6°F) with rapid cuts in carbon pollution would set younger generations on a radically different path—toward a far safer future with less warming and fewer risky extreme events.

Climate solutions in every state

The tools we need to choose this safer, cooler future are already available. For example:

The U.S. produced enough wind and solar energy in 2022 to power the equivalent of 64 million homes —reflecting a surge in the country’s wind and solar capacity that’s projected to continue.

And heat-trapping emissions have already decreased in most U.S. states since 2005 .

The solutions needed to accelerate these recent trends by cutting carbon from transportation, electricity, agriculture, and industry already exist —and are expanding across the country.

Learn more in Climate Central’s Solutions Series .

CONTACT EXPERTS

Ed Hawkins, PhD Professor of Climate Science University of Reading Related expertise: historical and projected climate change; warming stripes and data visualization Contact: [email protected]

Juan Pérez Arango, PhD * Available for interviews in Spanish Data and Climate Scientist at GHD Related expertise : Climate science, teleconnections, data, and risk assessment Contac t: [email protected]

FIND EXPERTS

Submit a request to SciLine from the American Association for the Advancement of Science or to the Climate Data Concierge from Columbia University. These free services rapidly connect journalists to relevant scientific experts.

Browse maps of climate experts and services at regional NOAA, USDA, and Department of the Interior offices.

Explore databases such as 500 Women Scientists , BIPOC Climate and Energy Justice PhDs , and Diverse Sources to find and amplify diverse expert voices.

Reach out to your State Climate Office or the nearest Land-Grant University to connect with scientists, educators, and extension staff in your local area.

METHODOLOGY

The warming stripes design was conceived by Ed Hawkins, as described here . Stripes for U.S. states and stations are based on the anomaly from the 20th century average. For a subset of locations where there was no data until after 1901, the anomaly is based on the oldest 100-year average available for that city. Stations with less than 100 years of data were not included. For U.S. warming stripes (national, states, and cities), the 20th century (1901-2000) average temperature is set as the boundary between blue and red color scales. The color scale ranges from 5°F below the 20th century average (darkest blue; #004F7E) to 5°F above the 20th century average (darkest red; #56000E) in 1-degree increments. Station data is from Applied Climate Information System and state data is from NCEI Climate at a Glance .

How Generative AI is Empowering Climate Tech with NVIDIA Earth-2

One image of the sun next to another of a weather satellite photo.

In the context of global warming, NVIDIA Earth-2 has emerged as a pivotal platform for climate tech, generating actionable insights in the face of increasingly disastrous extreme weather impacts amplified by climate change.

With Earth-2, accessible insights into weather and climate are no longer confined to experts in atmospheric physics or oceanic dynamics. You can now harness advanced technologies to navigate the complexities of our changing climate with foresight and precision—guiding companies, organizations, and nations to anticipate unprecedented extreme weather-related risks and mitigate the impacts thereof.

This post spotlights the comprehensive NVIDIA Earth-2 suite of tools designed for AI model training and inference, with an emphasis on downscaling using generative AI.

Downscaling, akin to the concept of super-resolution in image processing, involves generating higher-resolution data or predictions from lower-resolution input data. Our focus extends to generative AI for kilometer-scale (km-scale) weather predictions, encompassing everything from training global AI weather models to inferencing and generating km-scale predictions.

Finally, this post highlights the software tools driving this Earth digital twin revolution, helping you leverage generative AI techniques to realize accurate and cost-effective weather forecasts using Earth-2 AI tools.

Solving the need for cost-effective, km-scale weather predictions

With the AI-driven advancement of NVIDIA Earth-2, the landscape of climate simulation has shifted dramatically, democratizing access to weather and climate information.

Earth-2 will catalyze proactive decision-making, guiding companies, organizations, and nations in answering what-if scenarios, and anticipating unprecedented weather to enable actionable outcomes, spanning policy formulation, urban development, and infrastructure planning.

Predicting impending weather hazards accurately requires costly simulations at km-scale resolutions. The same is true of predicting future climate hazards.

Using traditional simulation methods to reach km-scale makes models too large, complex, and computationally expensive. Furthermore, weather and climate are chaotic systems that are inherently uncertain and require a large set of forecasts, called ensembles , to predict probabilities of future outcomes.

Simulation resolution trades off against ensemble size. This limits the range of hazards that can be sampled to inform planning. However, a cost-effective solution lies in stochastic AI downscaling models.

At the heart of the Earth-2 platform, NVIDIA offers a novel, two-step, generative AI, diffusion modeling–based approach for downscaling weather data with high fidelity called CorrDiff .

Predicting fine-scale weather details with CorrDiff

Developed by pioneering NVIDIA research and developer technology teams, CorrDiff introduces a corrector diffusion model approach that promises to redefine weather prediction at km-scale resolutions.

At its core, CorrDiff harnesses the power of generative learning to address the challenge of predicting fine-scale details of extreme weather phenomena with unprecedented accuracy and efficiency.

The CorrDiff method effectively isolates generative learning to shorter length scales, enabling skillful predictions of fine-scale details of extreme weather phenomena. For instance, you might start with forecasts at a 25-km resolution and want to generate forecasts at a 2-km resolution.

The key challenge is to predict the details missing in the coarse-resolution forecasts to make them more accurate and detailed, resembling the finer-resolution data and including the coherent spatial structure of weather extremes.

CorrDiff works in two main steps. First, a regression model predicts the mean of the fine-resolution field. Then, in the second step, CorrDiff refines this guess by adding in the missing details that weren’t captured in the initial prediction, enabling it to better match reality.

Crucially, because this is a generative AI approach, CorrDiff can synthesize new fine-resolution fields that are not present in the coarse-resolution input data. The inherently stochastic sampling of diffusion models also enables the generation of many possible fine-resolution states corresponding to a single coarse-resolution input, providing a distribution of outcomes and a measure of uncertainty.

The idea behind CorrDiff is that it’s easier to learn the corrections needed to improve an initial guess than to directly learn the fine-resolution details from scratch. By breaking down the problem into the regression and diffusion steps, CorrDiff can effectively leverage the information available in the coarse-resolution forecasts to generate more accurate and detailed predictions at the finer resolution.

Overall, CorrDiff offers a practical approach to improving the resolution of weather forecasts, synthesizing new variables, and providing an ensemble of states by leveraging existing coarse-resolution data and models to produce more detailed and accurate predictions for specific regions, in this case, Taiwan. This practicality is underscored by its remarkable efficiency, being orders of magnitude faster and more energy-efficient than conventional methods.

CorrDiff can also synthesize outputs that may not be available in the input vector but are hypothesized to correlate with inputs. This means that users with their own datasets can train customized CorrDiff equivalents for their own use cases, expanding the applicability and utility of CorrDiff across diverse datasets and scenarios.

NVIDIA Earth-2 software toolkits for AI weather models

NVIDIA Earth-2 offers a suite of powerful climate tech tools for training and inference of AI weather models, including NVIDIA Modulus and Earth2Studio.

Training AI weather models in NVIDIA Modulus

To train AI weather models, you can use NVIDIA Modulus , an open-source physics-informed machine learning (physics-ML) platform.

NVIDIA Modulus empowers engineers to construct AI surrogate models that make realistic predictions rivaling and able to surpass those of physics-based prediction models. Modulus provides trainable architectures of the leading global AI-weather forecasting models, diagnostic models to derive further variables from a forecast, and CorrDiff for downscaling.

Modulus also includes functionality for building training pipelines, like data loaders for the most common data types. These features are combined in example workflows for training AI models for the atmosphere. The components of Modulus are designed from the ground up to optimally leverage GPUs and scale to large training settings.

For each atmospheric AI model, Modulus includes an example of a workflow to train the respective model on a suitable data set. Currently, Modulus implements several forecasting models:

FourCastNet (FCN), our in-house AI-based global weather model based on the Spherical Fourier Neural Operator architecture.
A hierarchical, icosahedral graph neural network (GNN) analogous to GraphCast .
DLWP-HEALPix , a physically inspired AI prediction method with an equal-area grid, based on DLWP, which was the first global forecast model to demonstrate competitive sub-seasonal to seasonal prediction skill .
Other models like Pangu-Weather , FengWu , and SwinVRNN , built on vision transformer architectures, will follow.

For more information and access, see the /NVIDIA/modulus GitHub repo.

Such global weather forecast models predict a set of variables on surface and pressure levels that are required to progress the atmospheric state in time.

Often, you might be interested in variables that are not included in the global model, such as precipitation or other variables from custom data streams hypothesized to be predictable from the global weather model backbone.

Diagnostic models do not advance the atmospheric state in time but derive desired quantities based on existing ones at the same time. By combining a diagnostic and a forecast model, you can forecast additional variables without retraining the latter.

Modulus also includes methods to train diagnostic models on the set of variables required for your use case. To try out diagnostic models, see the checkpoint for a model predicting precipitation .

AI-weather model inference through Earth2Studio

To better enable developers and researchers to experiment, build, and customize AI weather and climate inference workflows, NVIDIA Earth-2 has developed an open-source Python package Earth2Studio . This package is going to be available in the NVIDIA Modulus 24.04 release.

Earth2Studio is aimed to serve commonly used models, data sources, perturbation methods, IO modules, and more that are required for a wide variety of inference workflows, all while making extension and customization easy.

You will have access to common public online data source API out-of-the-box, including the following:

Global Forecast System (GFS)
Integrated Forecasting System

A collection of pretrained models is accessible in Earth2Studio, with more to follow, as a starting point for the integration of AI weather models for your use case:

FourCastNet
Modulus GraphCast
Pangu-Weather

Checkpoints are readily available in the NGC Catalog , such as FCN, and Earth2Studio includes routines for automatically downloading and caching them to your device. Some models are instead loaded from external sources, such as the PanguWeather checkpoints hosted at ECMWF.

Earth2Studio aims to enable you to build your own custom workflows for inferencing forecasting and diagnostic models with little effort. It includes a set of common workflows for deterministic and ensemble-based prediction and validation out of the box with just a few lines of code.

The following code example shows how to produce a deterministic forecast with just eight lines of code leveraging the FourCastNet model through Earth2Studio.

Figure 1 shows the total column water vapor field produced at the last timestep of the forecast.

Image shows a globe with green water vapor indicators and a timestamp.

Training CorrDiff in NVIDIA Modulus

This example demonstrates super-resolution and new channel synthesis, training CorrDiff to convert ERA5 data at 25 km to 2-km data around Taiwan.

The data was generated by the Central Weather Administration (CWA) in Taiwan using a high-resolution regional numerical weather prediction model. The dataset is available for non-commercial use under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license and can be downloaded from NGC . For more information about specific instructions to train the model, see the Getting Started section in the /NVIDIA/modulus GitHub repo.

A key benefit of NVIDIA Modulus, besides the ease of use, is performance optimization. Training CorrDiff currently requires 2–3K GPU hours on NVIDIA A100 or NVIDIA H100 GPUs, and the CorrDiff team is working on optimizing the training procedure further. One super-resolution sample can be generated on similar hardware in a matter of seconds.

Inferencing CorrDiff through Modulus

The schematic shows the 25-km resolution going through UNet regression and EDM diffusion to produce the 2-km resolution image.

The same CorrDiff example also contains inference scripts to generate conditional samples of high-resolution weather based on low-resolution ERA5 conditioning (inputs at 25 km).

For more information about instructions to generate samples and save them to a NetCDF file, see the /NVIDIA/modulus GitHub repo. Running inference requires having Modulus checkpoints for both the regression and the diffusion model. These checkpoints are saved as a part of the training pipeline.

For more information and access, see the CorrDiff inference package in the NGC Catalog.

Storm tracking over Taiwan

As an example of CorrDiff’s use cases for extreme weather problems, we present the challenges of storm tracking over Taiwan.

Although global AI forecast models excel in predicting storm tracks, their effectiveness is hindered by their limited resolution of 25 km, which cannot capture the fine-scale details that often contain the strongest winds and precipitation critical to storm-related damage.

At a resolution of 25 km, the structure of typhoons in ERA5 input data is often poorly resolved, resulting in inaccurate representations of their size and intensity. It is also missing key spatial details in the eyewall and rainbands related to physical hazards.

Taiwan, renowned as one of the wettest locations globally with an annual rainfall of 2,600 mm—approximately 3x the worldwide average—faces an average annual disaster cost of $650M. This financial burden is caused by seasonal typhoons depositing substantial rainfall on the island, resulting in extensive flooding that damages life and property and requires large-scale evacuation efforts.

Disaster risk is considered as the combination of the severity and frequency of a hazard, the number of people and assets exposed to the hazard, and their vulnerability to damage. Figure 3 shows an IPCC schematic in their 2022 sixth assessment report on impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability.

Diagram shows the bi-directional, uni-directional, or aggregate risk relationships between a hazard, a population’s vulnerability, exposure, and response.

The Taiwanese National Science and Technology Center for Disaster Reduction (NCDR) outlines a four-phase approach for typhoon response (Figure 4).

Image of a typhoon path next to Taiwan with phases and focuses defined by typhoon stages.

The first two phases, Initiation and Preparation, concentrate on analyzing risks and issuing disaster alerts. Phases 3 and 4, Response and Recovery, are dedicated to monitoring the disaster and implementing response measures.

NVIDIA technology can address these challenges.

Enhancements from AI weather forecasting have the potential to improve the risk analysis during phases 1 and 2. By improving weather forecasting technology, specifically through higher resolution and larger ensembles, we can more comprehensively assess exposure risks.

CorrDiff, the groundbreaking NVIDIA generative AI diffusion model, is trained on high-resolution, radar-incorporated WRF data provided by the Taiwan CWA and ERA5 reanalysis data sourced from the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts.

Through CorrDiff, predictions of extreme weather phenomena such as typhoons can be significantly enhanced from a 25-km resolution to a 2-km resolution.

Two images of a typhoon, one from the Global AI Forecast at 25 km resolution and the other from CorrDiff at a 2 km resolution.

In this post, we’ve demonstrated that, by downscaling from ERA5 25 km to 2 km, we can explore many more local forecast scenarios aiming at providing a clear picture of the best-case, worst-case, and most-likely impacts of a storm.

Image of a typhoon track with multiple predictions at a 2 km resolution superimposed on the sides.

Assessing uncertainty is crucial. Yet, there’s a compromise between the number of ensemble forecast members and their resolution, given finite computational resources. NCDR produces forecasts that comprise approximately 200 ensemble members with varying resolutions.

The introduction of cutting-edge AI technologies, like CorrDiff, marks a significant transformation. It offers the ability to scale up to thousands of members for ensemble forecasting in near real-time on just a single GPU node.

Citing the transformative potential of the NVIDIA generative AI CorrDiff model, Chia-Ping Cheng, administrator of the Taiwan CWA, emphasizes its ability to revolutionize weather forecasting. Cheng highlighted how CorrDiff enables the generation of kilometer-scale weather forecasts, empowering society to anticipate detailed features of extreme weather events with unprecedented accuracy, thus aiding in disaster mitigation efforts.

Echoing this, Hongey Chen, director of the National Science and Technology Center for Disaster Reduction in Taiwan, underscores CorrDiff’s significance in addressing the diverse and unprecedented impacts of natural disasters. Chen highlights CorrDiff as a creative solution for ensuring public safety.

Democratizing AI-weather and enabling climate tech

In summary, NVIDIA Earth-2 democratizes access to weather information and embodies a modern initiative to extend the reach of climate science beyond academia, making it easily accessible to policymakers, businesses, journalists, and the general public.

CorrDiff, the cutting-edge NVIDIA generative AI-based downscaling model, holds promise for various sectors:

In financial services , CorrDiff can empower users to make informed decisions regarding risk assessment and asset management.
In the energy sector , CorrDiff’s precise downscaling capabilities can enable better resource allocation and infrastructure planning, crucial for optimizing energy production and distribution.
Government agencies can benefit from CorrDiff to enhance disaster preparedness and response efforts.
Individual users can feel CorrDiff’s impact through more accurate and localized weather forecasts for everyday planning and safety.

With its remarkable adaptability and efficiency, CorrDiff can assist actionable insights and precise forecasts to empower us all in building a more resilient world.

Related resources

GTC session: Earth-2: Updates on kilometer-scale visualization, simulation, digital twinning, and AI super-resolution
GTC session: Balancing Power, Planet and Innovation: How to Credibly Address Sustainability and Ethics for Generative AI innovations (Presented by Taiga Cloud, a Northern Data Group division)
GTC session: Sustainable Futures Startup Showcase with Extreme Tech Challenge
Webinar: Building Generative AI Applications for Enterprise Demands
Webinar: Fast-Track to Generative AI With NVIDIA
Webinar: What AI Teams Need to Know About Generative AI

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BRIEF RESEARCH REPORT article

How social background and interest in science are linked to junior high school students’ perceptions of the ecological transition.

1 Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Apprentissages en Contexte (LaRAC), Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
2 Laboratoire de Psychologie: Cognition, Comportement, Communication (LP3C), Psychology, Rennes 2 University, Rennes, France
3 Laboratoire Inter-Universitaire de Psychologie, Personnalité, Cognition, Changement Social (LIP/PC2S), Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, Grenoble, France

Junior high school students are tomorrow’s key protagonists in the ecological transition. They need enlightened education to face the uncertainty and challenges of climate change. The development of climate change education programs requires a clear understanding of how young people perceive the issue. This study deals with social representations. Its aim was to understand how social background and interest in science are linked to the way young people perceive the concept of the ecological transition. Four hundred twenty-nine junior high school students took part in this study. Data were collected and subjected to prototypical analysis and factorial correspondence analysis. Three main findings emerged from the analysis: (1) the participants had significant knowledge of the ecological transition, (2) their awareness of the social aspects of climate change was limited, and (3) their representations of the ecological transition were linked to their interest in science and their parents’ social background. To conclude, these results underline the importance of educating all social classes about effective solutions for the ecological transition. Our findings also highlight the need to consider existing representations and prior knowledge when designing educational programs on climate change issues.

1 Introduction

Climate change is defined “ as the shift in climate patterns mainly caused by greenhouse gas emissions” ( Fawzy et al., 2020 , p. 2,070). There are multiple consequences for humans and our ecosystems: extreme weather events, species extinction, food shortages, population displacement, and increased health risks, etc. (e.g., Pachauri et al., 2014 ; Haines and Ebi, 2019 ). To tackle these consequences, governments have repeatedly pledged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., Kyoto Protocol; 21st Conference of the Parties), undertaking to keep temperature rises below 2°C. These commitments have led to the choice of an ecological transition which, although based on ecological, economic, regulatory and social issues ( Geels, 2011 ), has mainly focused on scientific and technological solutions in favor of ecology in Europe (e.g., Kemp et al., 2007 ; Kreinin, 2020 ). This choice necessarily involves developing scientific knowledge in order to encourage individual commitment to climate change (e.g., Fouad and Smith, 1996 ; Ojala, 2021 ), especially as 2,100, the impacts of climate change will have profoundly altered the health of the planet ( Whitmee et al., 2015 ). Children born today will suffer the consequences of climate change throughout their lives ( Watts et al., 2019 ), so they need to be given the scientific and technological tools that will enable them to adapt to tomorrow’s world ( Lopoukhine et al., 2014 ).

The young people of today will be the main actors of tomorrow’s ecological transition (e.g., Kagawa and Selby, 2012 ; Burke et al., 2018 ; O’Brien et al., 2018 ; Cianconi et al., 2020 ). A study of 10,000 young people aged 16 to 25 in 10 countries (i.e., Australia, Brazil, Finland, France, India, Nigeria, Philippines, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States) found that they questioned the consequences of climate change and seemed particularly uncertain about the future ( Hickman et al., 2021 ). To overcome the inaction of previous generations and tackle the problem of climate change ( Lee, 2013 ), they will need to be well informed ( United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2015 ). Karsgaard and Davidson (2023) suggest that school is the place for the “ development of youth knowledge, creativity, efficacy and collective action skills in the face of climate change ” (p. 4). Educating young people about the challenges of climate change can give them the skills to cope with the forthcoming disruption and the power to act ( Schreiner et al., 2005 ; Cambers and Diamond, 2010 ). However, as pointed out by Rousell and Cutter-Mackenzie-Knowles (2020) , climate change education is a field that is in its infancy. While it is clear that young people today have strong feelings and considerable knowledge of climate change ( Lee et al., 2020 ), little is known about how they perceive the ecological transition. According to the National Research Council (2012) , developing climate change education “ begins with a clear picture of how students currently understand the issue ” (2012, p. 11).

Social Representation Theory (SRT; Moscovici, 1961 ) can help us to analyze the social construction of perceptions. This theory explains how individuals and groups give meaning to an issue, a risk or a social object ( Höijer, 2011 ). In other words, how people build naive theories about their social environment ( Jodelet, 1984 ), in order to attribute meaning to their world. These naïve theories are constructed around opinions, attitudes, beliefs and information related to an object or situation ( Rateau et al., 2011 ), and their representations are linked to people’s social affiliations ( Doise, 1990 ; Wagner et al., 1999 ; Joffe, 2003 ; Rateau et al., 2012 ). As social agents ( Beauvois, 1984 ; Dubois and Pansu, 2021 ), individuals have a relationship with objects according to their cultural values ( Howarth, 2006 ). This in turn gives them their social anchorage ( Palmonari and Emiliani, 2016 ). These socially constructed representations can be studied according to their internal structures, in particular using the structural approach to social representations ( Abric, 1994 , 2003 ). According to this approach, social representations are made up of peripheral elements (i.e., dependent on the social contexts in which the individual evolves) organized around central elements (i.e., stable elements resulting from the history and ideology of the collective). Central elements have three functions: (1) signifying (i.e., the meaning given collectively by the group); (2) organizing (i.e., by repercussion on all the contents of the representation) and (3) stabilizing (subject to a strong consensus). Peripheral elements are based on the core consensus elements and express the variability of individual experiences in different social contexts. SRT therefore provides an understanding of how communication conveying scientific knowledge is transformed into common sense ( Moscovici and Hewstone, 1984 ). SRT is an interpretative framework which may help to understand the representations of young people ( Parrott et al., 2023 ) especially when it comes to environmental issues ( Buijs et al., 2012 ).

The objective of this study was to: (1) analyze the representations of junior high school students (14–15 years old) in France with regard to the ecological transition; (2) understand how social and psychological filters structure the way they perceive the ecological transition. As socioeconomic status is a predictor of educational achievement ( von Stumm et al., 2020 ), it has been hypothesized that the structuring of representations may depends on social determinants: such as parents’ socio-professional categories. Since scientific knowledge plays a central role in the ecological transition ( Kreinin, 2020 ), it is also hypothesized that the participants’ interest in science contributes to the structuring of representations ( Fouad and Smith, 1996 ). Finally, this paper aims to provide a stronger understanding of how young people’s representations of the ecological transition are structured.

2.1 Participants and procedure

The study proposal was reviewed and approved by the “Research Ethics Committee, Grenoble Alpes” (CERGA) of the University of Grenoble Alpes – Ethical approval number: Grenoble CERGA-Avis-2023-09. The study was carried out in partnership with the territorial services of the French Ministry of Education and conducted between May 2023 and October 2023. Four Hundred Thirty-nine junior high school students from 11 schools in the Auvergne Rhone Alpes region took part in the study (M age = 14.1, SD age = 0.619, range = 12–16, 53% female). Students were divided into three categories based on the socio-professional categories (SPC) of the first parent mentioned in the questionnaire. If the parents belonged to two different categories, participants were placed in the category corresponding to the higher SPC: SPC+ (self-employed trades professions; engineers; teachers; managers – 52.6%); SPC- (agricultural, factory and office workers – 37.8%); Inactive (students; retirees; unemployed – 6.4%). The three categories were based on information from the INSEE, which is the French Office for National Statistics and Economic Studies (see Supplementary materials for further details).

A few weeks before the study was carried out, the parents were asked to read an information leaflet and fill in the consent form to authorize (or not) their children’s participation. The researcher then visited the schools volunteering to carry out the study. The study took place in a computer room at predefined time slots. After presenting the study, the first author asked each pupil to go to a computer to complete an online ecological transition questionnaire on the Limesurvey © platform.

2.2 Measures

2.2.1 perceptions of ecological transition.

A free association task was used to collect perceptions of the ecological transition (e.g., Lo Monaco et al., 2016 ; Moliner and Lo Monaco, 2017 ). In this task, the junior high school students were presented with the stimulus words: “ecological transition.” On the basis of this induction, participants were free to associate four words or phrases that came to mind. This methodology yielded spontaneous associations from the participants.

2.2.2 Interest in science

Fourteen items were used to measure interest in science adapted from Fouad and Smith (1996) . This scale was originally developed for secondary school students to assess their interest in mathematics and science. Here, the mathematics items have been removed. Students were asked how much they liked to do certain things (e.g., Visit a science museum), rated from 0 (“I do not like it at all”) to 10 (“I like it very much”). The scores were aggregated. Internal consistency was satisfactory (α = 0.93).

2.3 Results

The corpus was composed of productions from 439 participants. A total of 1,578 verbal associations were collected from all participants, some of whom did not provide the expected 4 words. The corpus was cleaned up by the use of Excel ® (version 16.74) and Python ® (version 3.11), and then categorized by the authors, independently, using standard content analysis rules ( Jones and Rosenberg, 1974 ; Dl Giacomo, 1980 ). 288 different words were obtained (167 are hapax, 57.98% of this corpus). Data were analyzed using JAMOVI ® (version 2.3.18), R ® (version 4.1.3), FactoshinySR (version 1.1 – Brosset and Delouvée, 2022 ) and two analyses were carried out.

Firstly, a prototypical analysis ( Lo Monaco et al., 2016 ; Moliner and Lo Monaco, 2017 ; Delouvée et al., 2021 ), traditionally used in the structural approach to social representations, was conducted on the words given by the participants. This analysis was used to highlight the salience of elements in the representation by producing a table cross-referencing word frequency (i.e., below and above 10% of the number of evocations excluding hapaxes) and the order in which the word was produced, i.e., average occurrence rank (i.e., based on 2.5, the median of the four numbers of ranks – see Table 1 ).

Table 1 . Prototypical analysis: results in terms of frequency and average importance associated with the categories of words reported by the participants for the stimulus words “ecological transition.”

Cross-referencing the evocations with the highest frequency and rank of appearance revealed three sub-categories (i.e., top left cell). The first category describes the causes and consequences of climate change (i.e., pollution, global warming). The second category describes the idea of moving toward a more ecological model (i.e., ecology, change, transition). Finally, the third sub-category expresses some of the best-known responses to the problem of climate change that have already been widely implemented (i.e., recycling, waste sorting, wind turbines). Moreover, for these young people, the main challenge of the ecological transition is to respond to climate change issues for the “planet” and its “flora.” These descriptive elements constitute the core representations of the ecological transition (e.g., Abric, 2003 ; Galli and Fasanelli, 2020 ). This suggests that young people are aware of the issues at stake in the ecological transition, both in terms of the problems it seeks to solve and the ways of achieving it.

The top right cell (peripheral; Abric, 2003 ) contains the frequent words, which do not appear quickly in the associative chain. Elements in this cell clarify the content evoked for the core. In fact, 2 categories can be identified. The first one concerns elements which refer to the idea of preserving natural environments for the future (i.e., nature, future, good for the planet, preserving the environment). The second category mentions solutions that are harder to implement in response to the consequences of climate change (i.e., water management, alternative transport, dams). Finally, it seems that for these young people, the “economy” is fundamental to the ecological transition.

The bottom left cell represents the contrasting elements that may not reach a consensus, but appear quickly in the associative chain, and are therefore considered very important by certain minority groups ( Pianelli et al., 2010 ). Also, some individuals will emphasize the idea of turning to more virtuous models (i.e., transformation, evolution, consuming less and better). Participants also mentioned alternative solutions (e.g., tidal turbines, electric cars or solar energy, etc.). Finally, for the words in the second periphery (i.e., bottom right cell), i.e., the least salient of the peripheral system of representation that could be described as contextual (e.g., Delouvée et al., 2021 ), participants mention energy sources that produce greenhouse gasses (fossil fuels), and nuclear power, and their associated uses (i.e., plastics). Finally, participants express the idea of a better world as a possible consequence of the ecological transition. Although these elements are infrequent and unimportant, they seem to emerge in the content of the representation and are linked to the social context in which these young people evolve.

Secondly, a correspondence factor analysis (CFA; Benzécri, 1976 ) was carried out on participants’ evocations. This descriptive analysis was conducted to study how the words given by young people are associated with the parents’ socio-professional categories and the participants’ interest in science ( Mouret et al., 2013 ; Nadarajah et al., 2022 ). In accordance with the work of Piermattéo et al. (2014) and the recommendations of Deschamps (2003) , evocations whose frequency was greater than or equal to 6 were selected ( n = 42 categories, 89.50% of the corpus without hapax). The relationship of these evocations with two variables was studied: (1) Interest in science was divided into two categories (“weak” and “strong”), which were defined with a distribution by the median 5; and (2) parents’ socio-professional categories were separated into 3 categories in accordance with the SPC groupings used for economic analyses by the French Office for National Statistics: SPC +, SPC −, and Inactive.

The CORR. F. A. highlights two factors that explain 75.70% of the table’s inertia (Factor 1 = 43.29%; Factor 2 = 32.41%). Factor 1 has a contribution from the terms of the variables “Socio-Professional Category”: CF (SPC+) = 0.07, CF (SPC−) = 0.10 “Science Interest”: CF (Science.Interest.Strong) = 0.37 + CF (Science.Interest.Weak) = 0.45, i.e., a contribution of 99%, to the formation of the factor. Factor 2 has a contribution from the terms of the variables “Socio-Professional Category”: CF (SPC+) = 0.36, CF (SPC-) = 0.47 “Science Interest”: CF (Science.Interest.Strong) = 0.07 + CF (Science.Interest.Weak) = 0.08, i.e., a contribution of 99%, to the formation of the factor. Figure 1 illustrates this configuration.

Figure 1 . Graphical representation of the results produced by the factorial correspondence analysis for Factor 1 (Solid line block) and 2 (Dotted line block) concerning the “ecological transition” stimulus term. Shaded blocks refer to experimental conditions. The “Socio-Professional Category and Interest in Science variables” contribute to the formation of Factor 1; the “ Socio-Professional Category and Sciences Interest variables ” refer to the variables and measures that contribute to the formation of Factor 2; the “Socio-Professional Category and Interest in Science variables” refer to the variables and measures that contribute to the formation of Factors 1 and 2. “Perceptions” refers to perceptions that contribute to the formation of Factor 1; “ Perceptions ” refers to perceptions that contribute to the formation of Factor 2; “ Perceptions ” refers to perceptions that contribute to the formation of both Factors 1 and 2.

The vertical axis (factor 1) draws a distinction between young people according to their interest in science. Factor 1 indicates that the perceptions of participants with a strong interest in science differ from those of young people with a weak interest in science. Participants with a strong interest in science associate the ecological transition with the idea of evolution and the preservation of the environment. They also mention the changes in habits that are needed in order to achieve this (e.g., alternative transport). Finally, they mention “nuclear power,” probably because of its resurgence in the media as a “clean” energy that could enable the ecological transition. At the bottom of the vertical axis, the participants with a weak interest in science refer to individual actions to talk about the ecological transition (e.g., sorting waste). They are aware of the problem of climate change (e.g., planet) through the issue of fossil fuel scarcity. They also mention the “solar panel” as a technology that could play a part in the energy mix. However, they remain rather vague and descriptive when it comes to characterizing types of energy (e.g., electricity). Finally, they mention “ecologists” as being a category of the population that does not include themselves.

The horizontal axis (factor 2) shows young people according to their parents’ socio-professional category. Factor 2 indicates that the perceptions of participants whose parents belong to a high socio-professional category differ from those of young people whose parents belong to a low socio-professional category. Thus, participants whose parents belong to a high socio-professional category associate the ecological transition and the resolution of climate change with strategies or technologies to be implemented (i.e., water management, wind turbines, dams), or specific energy sources (i.e., renewable energy). Finally, these participants also refer to the idea of cutting through the old system of over-consumption to move toward more environmentally-friendly consumption (i.e., consuming less and better). On the other side of the axis, participants whose parents are in lower socio-professional categories use more general terms to refer to the ecological transition (i.e., change, nature, transformation, good for the planet). Furthermore, the “economy” takes on a predominant character for these participants when they think of the ecological transition.

3 Discussion

The aim of this study was to clarify the way the junior high school students perceive the ecological transition and to analyze their representations. Three mains’ results were obtained: the participants (1) have significant knowledge of the ecological transition and its underlying principles, (2) have little awareness of the social aspects linked to climate change, and (3) their representations of the ecological transition are structured by their interest in science and the socio-professional categories to which their parents belong.

Young people perceive the causes and consequences of climate change and link them to the need to switch to a more ecological model, through individual behaviors and technological solutions in favor of ecology ( Kemp et al., 2007 ; Kreinin, 2020 ). Some research has shown that young people have misconceptions about climate change that persist despite the emphasis placed on climate change education ( Jeffries et al., 2001 ). In this study, no misconceptions were observed. On the contrary, their representations of the ecological transition provide the foundations upon which learning in the classroom can be built. These results support the findings of Corner et al. (2015) showing that today’s 18-25-year-olds are probably the most well-informed age group. Nevertheless, in the corpus of this study, the social aspects inherent to climate change are barely mentioned. Indeed, the representations of the participants are oriented toward causes and consequences and have a technocentric vision of the ecological transition. For example, factors such as social justice, inclusion, citizen participation do not feature in the participants’ responses (e.g., Favreau, 2017 ; Huntjens, 2021 ). Another explanation for this technocentric vision could come from the chosen inductor term. The term “ecological transition” immediately implies thinking about the methods and technologies that could make this transition possible. However, other terms such as “sustainable development,” anchored in the three pillars: economic, environmental and social, could have enabled students to produce words related to social aspects ( Mensah, 2019 ). Nevertheless, these factors should be considered when designing education programs for the ecological transition. As such, the concept of socio-ecological transition could provide an interesting theoretical foundation, while opening up a research program to study how it is perceived in non-scientific contexts ( Larocque, 2023 ). Additionally, our results show that differences in the representational content are mainly linked to interest in science and the parents’ socio-professional category. Indeed, participants with a strong interest in science tend to describe the ecological transition by placing it in the broader context of environment preservation, while those whose interest in science is weaker only evoke solutions. Similarly, young people whose parents are in the low socio-professional category contrast with those whose parents are in the high socio-professional category. The former mentions a change for a better world, but remains relatively vague, whereas the latter develops strategic orientations and suggests technologies to break with an old system rooted in over-consumption. In both groups, the principles of objectification (transforming an abstract object to make it concrete), and anchoring (integrating the object into a pre-existing thought system), do not seem to have operated identically ( Doise, 1990 ; Moliner, 2015 ). It is as if the objectifying and anchoring processes rely on psychological and social affiliations to elaborate the content of their representations of the ecological transition.

These results must be interpreted with the limitations in mind. First, the fact that there was only one time point of measurement calls for caution. Second, only 11 schools agreed to take part (out of 389). As a result, there may have been a sampling bias due to the school selection. To reduce this bias, we made sure that the schools were located in both urban and rural areas. Future studies could endeavor to recruit a greater number of schools in a wider geographical area.

To conclude, the ecological transition is a major issue for junior high school students, even if it manifests itself differently depending on their interest in science and the social group to which their parents belong. These results are important because new knowledge is embedded in a pre-existing system of representations. They can help us build a new way of designing educational programs by taking account of young people’s representations and prior knowledge of climate change issues. Today, young people do not need to be convinced of the reality of climate change, but it is essential to educate all social classes toward the development of a common knowledge base that will foster the implementation of solutions for the ecological transition. The ultimate goal is to educate all young people so that they are able to debate climate change issues in an organized and structured way, which would mean that they can (1) listen to each other’s differing viewpoints, and (2) work together constructively to develop strategies for the ecological transition. The principles of cooperative learning could be applied in order to facilitate productive ecological transition debates, thereby improving the knowledge acquisition process.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Research Ethics Committee, Grenoble Alpes. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardians/next of kin. Written informed consent was obtained from the minor(s)’ legal guardian/next of kin for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

KN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AS: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. CB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. PP: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Research supported by the French government as part of the “Territoires d’Innovation Pédagogique” program of the “Programme d’investissements d’avenir,” operated by Caisse des Dépôts (La Banque des Territoires).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the partners in this project for their collaboration: la caisse des dépôts; la banque des territoires; l’académie de Grenoble; l’académie de Lyon; L’Université Grenoble Alpes; Le Campus des Métiers et des Qualifications d’excellence Smart Energy Systems; La Région Auvergne Rhône Alpes; and Engie. The authors would also thank, the colleges and young people who volunteered to take part in this study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1360166/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: climate change, ecological transition perceptions, social representation, interest in science, social background, junior high school

Citation: Nadarajah K, Somat A, Baeyens C and Pansu P (2024) How social background and interest in science are linked to junior high school students’ perceptions of the ecological transition. Front. Psychol . 15:1360166. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1360166

Received: 28 December 2023; Accepted: 12 March 2024; Published: 12 April 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Nadarajah, Somat, Baeyens and Pansu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Kévin Nadarajah, [email protected] ; Céline Baeyens, [email protected] ; Pascal Pansu, [email protected]

† These authors share senior authorship

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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