what does a senior thesis consist of

What Is a Senior Thesis?

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A senior thesis is a large, independent research project that students take on during their senior year of high school or college to fulfill their graduation requirement. It is the culminating work of their studies at a particular institution, and it represents their ability to conduct research and write effectively. For some students, a senior thesis is a requirement for graduating with honors.

Students typically work closely with an advisor and choose a question or topic to explore before carrying out an extensive research plan.

Style Manuals and the Paper's Organization

The structure of your research paper will depend, in part, on the style manual that is required by your instructor. Different disciplines, such as history, science, or education, have different rules to abide by when it comes to research paper construction, organization, and modes of citation. The styles for different types of assignment include:

Modern Language Association (MLA): The disciplines that tend to prefer the MLA style guide include literature, arts, and the humanities, such as linguistics, religion, and philosophy. To follow this style, you will use parenthetical citations to indicate your sources and a works cited page to show the list of books and articles you consulted.

American Psychological Association (APA): The APA style manual tends to be used in psychology, education, and some of the social sciences. This type of report may require the following:

• Introduction

Chicago style: "The Chicago Manual of Style" is used in most college-level history courses as well as professional publications that contain scholarly articles. Chicago style may call for endnotes or footnotes corresponding to a bibliography page at the back or the author-date style of in-text citation, which uses parenthetical citations and a references page at the end.

Turabian style: Turabian is a student version of Chicago style. It requires some of the same formatting techniques as Chicago, but it includes special rules for writing college-level papers, such as book reports. A Turabian research paper may call for endnotes or footnotes and a bibliography.

Science style: Science instructors may require students to use a format that is similar to the structure used in publishing papers in scientific journals. The elements you would include in this sort of paper include:

• List of materials and methods used
• Results of your methods and experiments
• Acknowledgments

American Medical Association (AMA): The AMA style book might be required for students in medical or premedical degree programs in college. Parts of an AMA research paper might include:

• Proper headings and lists
• Tables and figures
• In-text citations
• Reference list

Choose Your Topic Carefully

Starting off with a bad, difficult, or narrow topic likely won't lead to a positive result. Don't choose a question or statement that's so broad that it's overwhelming and could comprise a lifetime of research or a topic that's so narrow you'll struggle to compose 10 pages. Consider a topic that has a lot of recent research so you won't struggle to put your hands on current or adequate sources.

Select a topic that interests you. Putting in long hours on a subject that bores you will be arduous—and ripe for procrastination. If a professor recommends an area of interest, make sure it excites you.

Also, consider expanding a paper you've already written; you'll hit the ground running because you've already done some research and know the topic. Last, consult with your advisor before finalizing your topic. You don't want to put in a lot of hours on a subject that is rejected by your instructor.

Organize Your Time

Plan to spend half of your time researching and the other half writing. Often, students spend too much time researching and then find themselves in a crunch, madly writing in the final hours. Give yourself goals to reach along certain "signposts," such as the number of hours you want to have invested each week or by a certain date or how much you want to have completed in those same timeframes.

Organize Your Research

Compose your works cited or bibliography entries as you work on your paper. This is especially important if your style manual requires you to use access dates for any online sources that you review or requires page numbers be included in the citations. You don't want to end up at the very end of the project and not know what day you looked at a particular website or have to search through a hard-copy book looking for a quote that you included in the paper. Save PDFs of online sites, too, as you wouldn't want to need to look back at something and not be able to get online or find that the article has been removed since you read it.

Choose an Advisor You Trust

This may be your first opportunity to work with direct supervision. Choose an advisor who's familiar with the field, and ideally select someone you like and whose classes you've already taken. That way you'll have a rapport from the start. 

Consult Your Instructor

Remember that your instructor is the final authority on the details and requirements of your paper. Read through all instructions, and have a conversation with your instructor at the start of the project to determine his or her preferences and requirements. Have a cheat sheet or checklist of this information; don't expect yourself to remember all year every question you asked or instruction you were given. 

• What Is a Bibliography?
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• Tips for Typing an Academic Paper on a Computer
• How to Organize Research Notes
• MLA Style Parenthetical Citations
• What's the Preferred Way to Write the Abbreviation for United States?
• How to Write a Research Paper That Earns an A
• Definition and Examples of Analysis in Composition
• Formatting APA Headings and Subheadings
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• Writing an Annotated Bibliography for a Paper

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Doing a senior thesis is an exciting enterprise. It’s often the first time students are engaging in truly original research and trying to develop a significant contribution to a field of inquiry. But as joyful as an independent research process can be, you don’t have to go it alone. It’s important to have support as you navigate such a large endeavor, and the ARC is here to offer one of those layers of support.

Whether or not to write a senior thesis is just the first in a long line of questions thesis writers need to consider. In addition to questions about the topic and scope of your thesis, there are questions about timing, schedule, and support. For example, if you are collecting data, when should data collection start and when should it be completed? What kind of schedule will you write on? How will you work with your adviser? Do you want to meet with your adviser about your progress once a month? Once a week? What other resources can you turn to for information, feedback, and support?

Even though there is a lot to think about and a lot to do, doing a thesis really can be an enjoyable experience! Keep reminding yourself why you chose this topic and why you care about it.

Tips for Tackling Big Projects:

Break the process down into manageable chunks.

• When you’re approaching a big project, it can seem overwhelming to look at the whole thing at once, so it’s essential to identify the smaller steps that will move you towards the completed project.
• Your adviser is best suited to help you break down the thesis process with field-specific advice.
• If you need to refine the breakdown further so it makes sense for you, schedule an appointment with an  Academic Coach . An academic coach can help you think through the steps in a way that works for you.

Schedule brief writing sessions at regular times.

• Pre-determine the time, place, and duration.
• Keep it short (15 to 60 minutes).
• Have a clear and reasonable goal for each writing session.
• Make it a regular event (every day, every other day, MWF).
• time is not wasted deciding to write if it’s already in your calendar;
• keeping sessions short reduces the competition from other tasks that are not getting done;
• having an achievable goal for each session provides a sense of accomplishment (a reward for your work);
• writing regularly can turn into a productive habit.

Create accountability structures.

• In addition to having a clear goal for each writing session, it's important to have clear goals for each week and to find someone to communicate these goals to, such as your adviser, a “thesis buddy,” your roommate, etc. Communicating your goals and progress to someone else creates a useful sense of accountability.
• If your adviser is not the person you are communicating your progress to on a weekly basis, then request to set up a structure with your adviser that requires you to check in at less frequent but regular intervals.
• Commit to attending Accountability Hours  at the ARC on the same day every week. Making that commitment will add both social support and structure to your week. Use the ARC Scheduler to register for Accountability Hours.
• Set up an accountability group in your department or with thesis writers from different departments.

Create feedback structures.

• It’s important to have a means for getting consistent feedback on your work and to get that feedback early. Work on large projects often lacks the feeling of completeness, so don’t wait for a whole section (and certainly not the whole thesis) to feel “done” before you get feedback on it!
• Your thesis adviser is typically the person best positioned to give you feedback on your research and writing, so communicate with your adviser about how and how often you would like to get feedback.
• If your adviser isn’t able to give you feedback with the frequency you’d like, then fill in the gaps by creating a thesis writing group or exploring if there is already a writing group in your department or lab.
• The Harvard College Writing Center is a great resource for thesis feedback. Writing Center Senior Thesis Tutors can provide feedback on the structure, argument, and clarity of your writing and help with mapping out your writing plan. Visit the Writing Center website to schedule an appointment with a thesis tutor .

Accept that there will be some anxious moments.

• To reduce this source of anxiety, try keeping a separate document where you jot down ideas on how your research questions or central argument might be clarifying or changing as you research and write. Doing this will enable you to stay focused on the section you are working on and to stop worrying about forgetting the new ideas that are emerging.
• You might feel anxious when you realize that you need to update your argument in response to the evidence you have gathered or the new thinking your writing has unleashed. Know that that is OK. Research and writing are iterative processes – new ideas and new ways of thinking are what makes progress possible.
• Breaking down big projects into manageable chunks and mapping out a schedule for working through each chunk is one way to reduce this source of anxiety. It’s reassuring to know you are working towards the end even if you cannot quite see how it will turn out.
• It may be that your thesis or dissertation never truly feels “done” to you, but that’s okay. Academic inquiry is an ongoing endeavor.

Focus on what works for you.

• Just because your roommate wrote 10 pages in a day doesn’t mean that’s the right pace or strategy for you.
• If you are having trouble figuring out what works for you, use the  ARC Scheduler  to make an appointment with an  Academic Coach , who can help you come up with daily, weekly, and semester-long plans.

Use your resources.

• There’s a lot of the thesis writing process that has to be done independently, but there are also a lot of free resources at Harvard to help you do the work.
• If you’re having trouble finding a source, email your question or set up a research consult via Ask a Librarian .
• If you’re looking for additional feedback or help with any aspect of writing, contact the Harvard College Writing Center . The Writing Center has Senior Thesis Tutors who will read drafts of your thesis (more typically, parts of your thesis) in advance and meet with you individually to talk about structure, argument, clear writing, and mapping out your writing plan.
• If you need help with breaking down your project or setting up a schedule for the week, the semester, or until the deadline, use the  ARC Scheduler  to make an appointment with an  Academic Coach .
• If you would like an accountability structure for social support and to keep yourself on track, come to Accountability Hours at the ARC.

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The senior thesis is typically the most challenging writing project undertaken by undergraduate students. The writing guides below aim to introduce students both to the specific methods and conventions of writing original research in their area of concentration and to effective writing process.

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Search the site, search suggestions, preparing for a senior thesis.

Every year, a little over half of Harvard’s senior class chooses to pursue a senior thesis. While the senior thesis looks a little different from field to field, one thing remains the same: completion of a senior thesis is a serious and challenging endeavor that requires the student to make a genuine intellectual contribution to their field of interest.

The senior thesis is a significant task for students to undertake, but there is a variety of support resources available here at Harvard to ensure that seniors can make the best of their senior thesis experience.

Wandering the library stacks at Widener.

I do most of my research in Widener Library. Hannah Martinez

As a rising senior in the History department, I am planning on pursuing a senior thesis on the history and use of the SAT in college admissions, and I am using the following support systems and resources to research and write my thesis:

• Staff at the History department. Every student within the department is assigned an academic advisor, who is a graduate student studying History at Harvard and knows the support available within the department. My academic advisor has helped me throughout the thesis process by connecting me with potential faculty members to advise my thesis and pick classes with a lighter course load so I can focus on completing my thesis. The Director of Undergraduate Studies in History (the History DUS) has also been pivotal in making sure that I attended a lot of information sessions about what the thesis looks like and how much of a commitment it is.
• History faculty at Harvard! All of my professors in History have been incredibly helpful in teaching me how to write like a historian, how to use primary sources in my essays, and how to undertake a serious research project over the course of a semester. Of course, while the thesis will require me to go far beyond what I’ve ever done before, I feel prepared to take on such a task because of the unwavering support from the History faculty. My mentor, Emma Rothschild, is one of the members of the faculty who has been invaluable in encouraging me to go as far as I am able.
• And last but certainly not least: funding. Funding, whether in term-time of the summer before senior year, is crucial towards making the senior thesis possible. Harvard’s Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships is dedicated to connecting Harvard students to funding sources across the university so they can pursue their research and get paid for it. This summer, I received a grant from the university of almost $2,000 so I am able to travel to libraries, buy books, and potentially take time off of work and do my research. Without such a grant, it would be incredibly difficult for me to do enough research so I can write a thesis this upcoming fall.

As you can see, there are multiple avenues for support and resources here at Harvard so your senior thesis is as easy as possible. While the senior thesis is still a challenging project that will take up a lot of time, Harvard’s resources make it possible for senior students to do their very best in all of their theses. I’m excited to start writing this fall!

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Writing a senior thesis: is it worth it.

Before coming to Yale, I thought a thesis was the main argument of a paper. I quickly learned that an undergraduate thesis is about fifty times harder and fifty pages longer than any thesis arguments I wrote in high school. At Yale, every senior has some sort of senior requirement, but thesis projects vary by department. Some departments require students to do a semester-long project, where you write a longer paper (25-35 pages) or expand, through writing, the research you’ve been working on (mostly applies to STEM majors). In some departments you can take two senior seminars and complete a longer project at the end of the semester. And other departments have an option to complete a year-long thesis: you spend your senior year (and in some cases your junior year), intensely researching and writing about a topic you choose or create yourself.

Both my departments––English and Ethnicity, Race, and Migration––offer all three of these options, and each student decides what they think is best for them. As a double major, I had the additional option to write an even longer thesis combining both my majors, but that seemed like way too much work––especially since I would have to take two senior thesis classes at the same time. Instead, I chose a year-long thesis for ER&M that combined my literary interests with various theoretical frameworks and the two senior seminars for English. This spring I’m taking my second seminar. Really, I chose the option to torture myself for a whole year, the end result being a minimum of 50 pages of innovative thinking and writing. I wanted to rise to the challenge, proving to myself I could do it. But there also seemed to be the pressure of “this is what everyone in the major does,” and a “thesis is proof that you actually learned.” Although these sentiments influenced my decision to complete a thesis, I know a long research paper does not validate my education or work as a scholar the last four years. It is not the end all be all.

My senior thesis focuses on Caribbean literature - specifically, two novels written by Caribbean women that really look at what it means to come from an immigrant family, to move, and to find yourself in completely new spaces. These experiences are all too relatable to my own life as a second-generation woman of color with immigrant parents enrolled at Yale. In my writing, I focus on how these women make sense of “home” (a very broad and complicated topic, I know), and what their stories tell us about the diasporic experience in general. The project is very personal to me, and I chose it because I wanted to understand my family’s history and their task in making “home” in the U.S., whatever that means. But because it’s so personal, it’s also been really difficult. I’ve experienced a lot of writer’s block or often felt unmotivated and judgmental towards my work. I’ve realized how difficult it is to devote your time and energy to such a long process––not only is it research heavy, but you have to write and rewrite drafts, constantly adjusting to make sure you’re being as clear as possible. Really, writing a thesis is like writing a portion of a book. And that’s crazy! You’re writing two or three whole chapters of academic work as an undergraduate student.

The process is definitely not for everyone, and I’ve certainly thought “Why did I want to do this again?” But what’s really kept me going is the support from my advisors and friends. The ER&M department faculty does an amazing job of providing us mentorship, revisions, and support throughout the process; my advisor has served as my editor but also the person who reminds me most that this work is important, as I often forget that. It also helps to have many friends and people in the major also writing their theses. I’ve found different spaces to just have a thesis study hall or working time, with other people also struggling through. Recently, I submitted my first full draft (note: it was kind of unfinished but it’s okay because it’s a draft!), and it was crazy to think that I wrote 50+ pages, most of which are just my own original thoughts and analysis on two books that have almost no scholarship written about them. It was a relief for sure. This week I will be taking a full break from it, but it reminded me of why I began this journey. It reminded me of all the people who’ve supported me along the way, and how I really couldn’t have done it without them. And now, I’m really looking forward to how good it will feel to turn in my fully written thesis mid-April. I’ve realized that this project shouldn’t be about making it good for Yale’s standard, but for myself, for my family, and for the people who believe in this work as much as I do.

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Honors Theses

What this handout is about.

Writing a senior honors thesis, or any major research essay, can seem daunting at first. A thesis requires a reflective, multi-stage writing process. This handout will walk you through those stages. It is targeted at students in the humanities and social sciences, since their theses tend to involve more writing than projects in the hard sciences. Yet all thesis writers may find the organizational strategies helpful.

Introduction

What is an honors thesis.

That depends quite a bit on your field of study. However, all honors theses have at least two things in common:

• They are based on students’ original research.
• They take the form of a written manuscript, which presents the findings of that research. In the humanities, theses average 50-75 pages in length and consist of two or more chapters. In the social sciences, the manuscript may be shorter, depending on whether the project involves more quantitative than qualitative research. In the hard sciences, the manuscript may be shorter still, often taking the form of a sophisticated laboratory report.

Who can write an honors thesis?

In general, students who are at the end of their junior year, have an overall 3.2 GPA, and meet their departmental requirements can write a senior thesis. For information about your eligibility, contact:

• UNC Honors Program
• Your departmental administrators of undergraduate studies/honors

Why write an honors thesis?

Satisfy your intellectual curiosity This is the most compelling reason to write a thesis. Whether it’s the short stories of Flannery O’Connor or the challenges of urban poverty, you’ve studied topics in college that really piqued your interest. Now’s your chance to follow your passions, explore further, and contribute some original ideas and research in your field.

Develop transferable skills Whether you choose to stay in your field of study or not, the process of developing and crafting a feasible research project will hone skills that will serve you well in almost any future job. After all, most jobs require some form of problem solving and oral and written communication. Writing an honors thesis requires that you:

• ask smart questions
• acquire the investigative instincts needed to find answers
• navigate libraries, laboratories, archives, databases, and other research venues
• develop the flexibility to redirect your research if your initial plan flops
• master the art of time management
• hone your argumentation skills
• organize a lengthy piece of writing
• polish your oral communication skills by presenting and defending your project to faculty and peers

Work closely with faculty mentors At large research universities like Carolina, you’ve likely taken classes where you barely got to know your instructor. Writing a thesis offers the opportunity to work one-on-one with a with faculty adviser. Such mentors can enrich your intellectual development and later serve as invaluable references for graduate school and employment.

Open windows into future professions An honors thesis will give you a taste of what it’s like to do research in your field. Even if you’re a sociology major, you may not really know what it’s like to be a sociologist. Writing a sociology thesis would open a window into that world. It also might help you decide whether to pursue that field in graduate school or in your future career.

How do you write an honors thesis?

Get an idea of what’s expected.

It’s a good idea to review some of the honors theses other students have submitted to get a sense of what an honors thesis might look like and what kinds of things might be appropriate topics. Look for examples from the previous year in the Carolina Digital Repository. You may also be able to find past theses collected in your major department or at the North Carolina Collection in Wilson Library. Pay special attention to theses written by students who share your major.

Choose a topic

Ideally, you should start thinking about topics early in your junior year, so you can begin your research and writing quickly during your senior year. (Many departments require that you submit a proposal for an honors thesis project during the spring of your junior year.)

How should you choose a topic?

• Read widely in the fields that interest you. Make a habit of browsing professional journals to survey the “hot” areas of research and to familiarize yourself with your field’s stylistic conventions. (You’ll find the most recent issues of the major professional journals in the periodicals reading room on the first floor of Davis Library).
• Set up appointments to talk with faculty in your field. This is a good idea, since you’ll eventually need to select an advisor and a second reader. Faculty also can help you start narrowing down potential topics.
• Look at honors theses from the past. The North Carolina Collection in Wilson Library holds UNC honors theses. To get a sense of the typical scope of a thesis, take a look at a sampling from your field.

What makes a good topic?

• It’s fascinating. Above all, choose something that grips your imagination. If you don’t, the chances are good that you’ll struggle to finish.
• It’s doable. Even if a topic interests you, it won’t work out unless you have access to the materials you need to research it. Also be sure that your topic is narrow enough. Let’s take an example: Say you’re interested in the efforts to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment in the 1970s and early 1980s. That’s a big topic that probably can’t be adequately covered in a single thesis. You need to find a case study within that larger topic. For example, maybe you’re particularly interested in the states that did not ratify the ERA. Of those states, perhaps you’ll select North Carolina, since you’ll have ready access to local research materials. And maybe you want to focus primarily on the ERA’s opponents. Beyond that, maybe you’re particularly interested in female opponents of the ERA. Now you’ve got a much more manageable topic: Women in North Carolina Who Opposed the ERA in the 1970s and 1980s.
• It contains a question. There’s a big difference between having a topic and having a guiding research question. Taking the above topic, perhaps your main question is: Why did some women in North Carolina oppose the ERA? You will, of course, generate other questions: Who were the most outspoken opponents? White women? Middle-class women? How did they oppose the ERA? Public protests? Legislative petitions? etc. etc. Yet it’s good to start with a guiding question that will focus your research.

Goal-setting and time management

The senior year is an exceptionally busy time for college students. In addition to the usual load of courses and jobs, seniors have the daunting task of applying for jobs and/or graduate school. These demands are angst producing and time consuming If that scenario sounds familiar, don’t panic! Do start strategizing about how to make a time for your thesis. You may need to take a lighter course load or eliminate extracurricular activities. Even if the thesis is the only thing on your plate, you still need to make a systematic schedule for yourself. Most departments require that you take a class that guides you through the honors project, so deadlines likely will be set for you. Still, you should set your own goals for meeting those deadlines. Here are a few suggestions for goal setting and time management:

Start early. Keep in mind that many departments will require that you turn in your thesis sometime in early April, so don’t count on having the entire spring semester to finish your work. Ideally, you’ll start the research process the semester or summer before your senior year so that the writing process can begin early in the fall. Some goal-setting will be done for you if you are taking a required class that guides you through the honors project. But any substantive research project requires a clear timetable.

Set clear goals in making a timetable. Find out the final deadline for turning in your project to your department. Working backwards from that deadline, figure out how much time you can allow for the various stages of production.

Here is a sample timetable. Use it, however, with two caveats in mind:

• The timetable for your thesis might look very different depending on your departmental requirements.
• You may not wish to proceed through these stages in a linear fashion. You may want to revise chapter one before you write chapter two. Or you might want to write your introduction last, not first. This sample is designed simply to help you start thinking about how to customize your own schedule.

Sample timetable

Avoid falling into the trap of procrastination. Once you’ve set goals for yourself, stick to them! For some tips on how to do this, see our handout on procrastination .

Consistent production

It’s a good idea to try to squeeze in a bit of thesis work every day—even if it’s just fifteen minutes of journaling or brainstorming about your topic. Or maybe you’ll spend that fifteen minutes taking notes on a book. The important thing is to accomplish a bit of active production (i.e., putting words on paper) for your thesis every day. That way, you develop good writing habits that will help you keep your project moving forward.

Make yourself accountable to someone other than yourself

Since most of you will be taking a required thesis seminar, you will have deadlines. Yet you might want to form a writing group or enlist a peer reader, some person or people who can help you stick to your goals. Moreover, if your advisor encourages you to work mostly independently, don’t be afraid to ask them to set up periodic meetings at which you’ll turn in installments of your project.

Brainstorming and freewriting

One of the biggest challenges of a lengthy writing project is keeping the creative juices flowing. Here’s where freewriting can help. Try keeping a small notebook handy where you jot down stray ideas that pop into your head. Or schedule time to freewrite. You may find that such exercises “free” you up to articulate your argument and generate new ideas. Here are some questions to stimulate freewriting.

Questions for basic brainstorming at the beginning of your project:

• What do I already know about this topic?
• Why do I care about this topic?
• Why is this topic important to people other than myself
• What more do I want to learn about this topic?
• What is the main question that I am trying to answer?
• Where can I look for additional information?
• Who is my audience and how can I reach them?
• How will my work inform my larger field of study?
• What’s the main goal of my research project?

Questions for reflection throughout your project:

• What’s my main argument? How has it changed since I began the project?
• What’s the most important evidence that I have in support of my “big point”?
• What questions do my sources not answer?
• How does my case study inform or challenge my field writ large?
• Does my project reinforce or contradict noted scholars in my field? How?
• What is the most surprising finding of my research?
• What is the most frustrating part of this project?
• What is the most rewarding part of this project?
• What will be my work’s most important contribution?

Research and note-taking

In conducting research, you will need to find both primary sources (“firsthand” sources that come directly from the period/events/people you are studying) and secondary sources (“secondhand” sources that are filtered through the interpretations of experts in your field.) The nature of your research will vary tremendously, depending on what field you’re in. For some general suggestions on finding sources, consult the UNC Libraries tutorials . Whatever the exact nature of the research you’re conducting, you’ll be taking lots of notes and should reflect critically on how you do that. Too often it’s assumed that the research phase of a project involves very little substantive writing (i.e., writing that involves thinking). We sit down with our research materials and plunder them for basic facts and useful quotations. That mechanical type of information-recording is important. But a more thoughtful type of writing and analytical thinking is also essential at this stage. Some general guidelines for note-taking:

First of all, develop a research system. There are lots of ways to take and organize your notes. Whether you choose to use note cards, computer databases, or notebooks, follow two cardinal rules:

• Make careful distinctions between direct quotations and your paraphrasing! This is critical if you want to be sure to avoid accidentally plagiarizing someone else’s work. For more on this, see our handout on plagiarism .
• Record full citations for each source. Don’t get lazy here! It will be far more difficult to find the proper citation later than to write it down now.

Keeping those rules in mind, here’s a template for the types of information that your note cards/legal pad sheets/computer files should include for each of your sources:

Abbreviated subject heading: Include two or three words to remind you of what this sources is about (this shorthand categorization is essential for the later sorting of your sources).

Complete bibliographic citation:

• author, title, publisher, copyright date, and page numbers for published works
• box and folder numbers and document descriptions for archival sources
• complete web page title, author, address, and date accessed for online sources

Notes on facts, quotations, and arguments: Depending on the type of source you’re using, the content of your notes will vary. If, for example, you’re using US Census data, then you’ll mainly be writing down statistics and numbers. If you’re looking at someone else’s diary, you might jot down a number of quotations that illustrate the subject’s feelings and perspectives. If you’re looking at a secondary source, you’ll want to make note not just of factual information provided by the author but also of their key arguments.

Your interpretation of the source: This is the most important part of note-taking. Don’t just record facts. Go ahead and take a stab at interpreting them. As historians Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff insist, “A note is a thought.” So what do these thoughts entail? Ask yourself questions about the context and significance of each source.

Interpreting the context of a source:

• Who wrote/created the source?
• When, and under what circumstances, was it written/created?
• Why was it written/created? What was the agenda behind the source?
• How was it written/created?
• If using a secondary source: How does it speak to other scholarship in the field?

Interpreting the significance of a source:

• How does this source answer (or complicate) my guiding research questions?
• Does it pose new questions for my project? What are they?
• Does it challenge my fundamental argument? If so, how?
• Given the source’s context, how reliable is it?

You don’t need to answer all of these questions for each source, but you should set a goal of engaging in at least one or two sentences of thoughtful, interpretative writing for each source. If you do so, you’ll make much easier the next task that awaits you: drafting.

The dread of drafting

Why do we often dread drafting? We dread drafting because it requires synthesis, one of the more difficult forms of thinking and interpretation. If you’ve been free-writing and taking thoughtful notes during the research phase of your project, then the drafting should be far less painful. Here are some tips on how to get started:

Sort your “evidence” or research into analytical categories:

• Some people file note cards into categories.
• The technologically-oriented among us take notes using computer database programs that have built-in sorting mechanisms.
• Others cut and paste evidence into detailed outlines on their computer.
• Still others stack books, notes, and photocopies into topically-arranged piles.There is not a single right way, but this step—in some form or fashion—is essential!

If you’ve been forcing yourself to put subject headings on your notes as you go along, you’ll have generated a number of important analytical categories. Now, you need to refine those categories and sort your evidence. Everyone has a different “sorting style.”

Formulate working arguments for your entire thesis and individual chapters. Once you’ve sorted your evidence, you need to spend some time thinking about your project’s “big picture.” You need to be able to answer two questions in specific terms:

• What is the overall argument of my thesis?
• What are the sub-arguments of each chapter and how do they relate to my main argument?

Keep in mind that “working arguments” may change after you start writing. But a senior thesis is big and potentially unwieldy. If you leave this business of argument to chance, you may end up with a tangle of ideas. See our handout on arguments and handout on thesis statements for some general advice on formulating arguments.

Divide your thesis into manageable chunks. The surest road to frustration at this stage is getting obsessed with the big picture. What? Didn’t we just say that you needed to focus on the big picture? Yes, by all means, yes. You do need to focus on the big picture in order to get a conceptual handle on your project, but you also need to break your thesis down into manageable chunks of writing. For example, take a small stack of note cards and flesh them out on paper. Or write through one point on a chapter outline. Those small bits of prose will add up quickly.

Just start! Even if it’s not at the beginning. Are you having trouble writing those first few pages of your chapter? Sometimes the introduction is the toughest place to start. You should have a rough idea of your overall argument before you begin writing one of the main chapters, but you might find it easier to start writing in the middle of a chapter of somewhere other than word one. Grab hold where you evidence is strongest and your ideas are clearest.

Keep up the momentum! Assuming the first draft won’t be your last draft, try to get your thoughts on paper without spending too much time fussing over minor stylistic concerns. At the drafting stage, it’s all about getting those ideas on paper. Once that task is done, you can turn your attention to revising.

Peter Elbow, in Writing With Power, suggests that writing is difficult because it requires two conflicting tasks: creating and criticizing. While these two tasks are intimately intertwined, the drafting stage focuses on creating, while revising requires criticizing. If you leave your revising to the last minute, then you’ve left out a crucial stage of the writing process. See our handout for some general tips on revising . The challenges of revising an honors thesis may include:

Juggling feedback from multiple readers

A senior thesis may mark the first time that you have had to juggle feedback from a wide range of readers:

• your adviser
• a second (and sometimes third) faculty reader
• the professor and students in your honors thesis seminar

You may feel overwhelmed by the prospect of incorporating all this advice. Keep in mind that some advice is better than others. You will probably want to take most seriously the advice of your adviser since they carry the most weight in giving your project a stamp of approval. But sometimes your adviser may give you more advice than you can digest. If so, don’t be afraid to approach them—in a polite and cooperative spirit, of course—and ask for some help in prioritizing that advice. See our handout for some tips on getting and receiving feedback .

Refining your argument

It’s especially easy in writing a lengthy work to lose sight of your main ideas. So spend some time after you’ve drafted to go back and clarify your overall argument and the individual chapter arguments and make sure they match the evidence you present.

Organizing and reorganizing

Again, in writing a 50-75 page thesis, things can get jumbled. You may find it particularly helpful to make a “reverse outline” of each of your chapters. That will help you to see the big sections in your work and move things around so there’s a logical flow of ideas. See our handout on  organization  for more organizational suggestions and tips on making a reverse outline

Plugging in holes in your evidence

It’s unlikely that you anticipated everything you needed to look up before you drafted your thesis. Save some time at the revising stage to plug in the holes in your research. Make sure that you have both primary and secondary evidence to support and contextualize your main ideas.

Saving time for the small stuff

Even though your argument, evidence, and organization are most important, leave plenty of time to polish your prose. At this point, you’ve spent a very long time on your thesis. Don’t let minor blemishes (misspellings and incorrect grammar) distract your readers!

Formatting and final touches

You’re almost done! You’ve researched, drafted, and revised your thesis; now you need to take care of those pesky little formatting matters. An honors thesis should replicate—on a smaller scale—the appearance of a dissertation or master’s thesis. So, you need to include the “trappings” of a formal piece of academic work. For specific questions on formatting matters, check with your department to see if it has a style guide that you should use. For general formatting guidelines, consult the Graduate School’s Guide to Dissertations and Theses . Keeping in mind the caveat that you should always check with your department first about its stylistic guidelines, here’s a brief overview of the final “finishing touches” that you’ll need to put on your honors thesis:

• Honors Thesis
• Name of Department
• University of North Carolina
• These parts of the thesis will vary in format depending on whether your discipline uses MLA, APA, CBE, or Chicago (also known in its shortened version as Turabian) style. Whichever style you’re using, stick to the rules and be consistent. It might be helpful to buy an appropriate style guide. Or consult the UNC LibrariesYear Citations/footnotes and works cited/reference pages  citation tutorial
• In addition, in the bottom left corner, you need to leave space for your adviser and faculty readers to sign their names. For example:

Approved by: _____________________

Adviser: Prof. Jane Doe

• This is not a required component of an honors thesis. However, if you want to thank particular librarians, archivists, interviewees, and advisers, here’s the place to do it. You should include an acknowledgments page if you received a grant from the university or an outside agency that supported your research. It’s a good idea to acknowledge folks who helped you with a major project, but do not feel the need to go overboard with copious and flowery expressions of gratitude. You can—and should—always write additional thank-you notes to people who gave you assistance.
• Formatted much like the table of contents.
• You’ll need to save this until the end, because it needs to reflect your final pagination. Once you’ve made all changes to the body of the thesis, then type up your table of contents with the titles of each section aligned on the left and the page numbers on which those sections begin flush right.
• Each page of your thesis needs a number, although not all page numbers are displayed. All pages that precede the first page of the main text (i.e., your introduction or chapter one) are numbered with small roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, v, etc.). All pages thereafter use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.).
• Your text should be double spaced (except, in some cases, long excerpts of quoted material), in a 12 point font and a standard font style (e.g., Times New Roman). An honors thesis isn’t the place to experiment with funky fonts—they won’t enhance your work, they’ll only distract your readers.
• In general, leave a one-inch inch margin on all sides. However, for the copy of your thesis that will be bound by the library, you need to leave a 1.25-inch margin on the left.

How do I defend my honors thesis?

Graciously, enthusiastically, and confidently. The term defense is scary and misleading—it conjures up images of a military exercise or an athletic maneuver. An academic defense ideally shouldn’t be a combative scene but a congenial conversation about the work’s merits and weaknesses. That said, the defense probably won’t be like the average conversation that you have with your friends. You’ll be the center of attention. And you may get some challenging questions. Thus, it’s a good idea to spend some time preparing yourself. First of all, you’ll want to prepare 5-10 minutes of opening comments. Here’s a good time to preempt some criticisms by frankly acknowledging what you think your work’s greatest strengths and weaknesses are. Then you may be asked some typical questions:

• What is the main argument of your thesis?
• How does it fit in with the work of Ms. Famous Scholar?
• Have you read the work of Mr. Important Author?

NOTE: Don’t get too flustered if you haven’t! Most scholars have their favorite authors and books and may bring one or more of them up, even if the person or book is only tangentially related to the topic at hand. Should you get this question, answer honestly and simply jot down the title or the author’s name for future reference. No one expects you to have read everything that’s out there.

• Why did you choose this particular case study to explore your topic?
• If you were to expand this project in graduate school, how would you do so?

Should you get some biting criticism of your work, try not to get defensive. Yes, this is a defense, but you’ll probably only fan the flames if you lose your cool. Keep in mind that all academic work has flaws or weaknesses, and you can be sure that your professors have received criticisms of their own work. It’s part of the academic enterprise. Accept criticism graciously and learn from it. If you receive criticism that is unfair, stand up for yourself confidently, but in a good spirit. Above all, try to have fun! A defense is a rare opportunity to have eminent scholars in your field focus on YOU and your ideas and work. And the defense marks the end of a long and arduous journey. You have every right to be proud of your accomplishments!

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Atchity, Kenneth. 1986. A Writer’s Time: A Guide to the Creative Process from Vision Through Revision . New York: W.W. Norton.

Barzun, Jacques, and Henry F. Graff. 2012. The Modern Researcher , 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Elbow, Peter. 1998. Writing With Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing Process . New York: Oxford University Press.

Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. 2014. “They Say/I Say”: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing , 3rd ed. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.

Lamott, Anne. 1994. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life . New York: Pantheon.

Lasch, Christopher. 2002. Plain Style: A Guide to Written English. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Turabian, Kate. 2018. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, Dissertations , 9th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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The Senior Thesis

From the outset of their time at Princeton, students are encouraged and challenged to develop their scholarly interests and to evolve as independent thinkers.

The culmination of this process is the senior thesis, which provides a unique opportunity for students to pursue original research and scholarship in a field of their choosing. At Princeton, every senior writes a thesis or, in the case of some engineering departments, undertakes a substantial independent project.

Integral to the senior thesis process is the opportunity to work one-on-one with a faculty member who guides the development of the project. Thesis writers and advisers agree that the most valuable outcome of the senior thesis is the chance for students to enhance skills that are the foundation of future success, including creativity, intellectual engagement, mental discipline and the ability to meet new challenges.

Many students develop projects from ideas sparked in the classes they’ve taken; others fashion their topics on the basis of long-standing personal passions. Most thesis writers encounter the intellectual twists and turns of any good research project, where the questions emerge as they proceed, often taking them in unexpected directions.

Planning for the senior thesis starts in earnest in the junior year, when students complete a significant research project known as the junior paper. Students who plan ahead can make good use of the University's considerable resources, such as receiving University funds to do research in the United States or abroad. Other students use summer internships as a launching pad for their thesis. For some science and engineering projects, students stay on campus the summer before their senior year to get a head start on lab work.

Writing a thesis encourages the self-confidence and high ambitions that come from mastering a difficult challenge. It fosters the development of specific skills and habits of mind that augur well for future success. No wonder generations of graduates look back on the senior thesis as the most valuable academic component of their Princeton experience.

Navigating Colombia’s Magdalena River, One Story At A Time

For his senior thesis, Jordan Salama, a Spanish and Portuguese major, produced a nonfiction book of travel writing about the people and places along Colombia’s main river, the Magdalena.

Embracing the Classics to Inform Policymaking for Public Education

For her senior thesis, Emma Treadwayconsiders how the basic tenets of Stoicism — a school of philosophy that dates from 300 BCE — can teach students to engage empathetically with the world and address inequities in the classroom.

Creating A Faster, Cheaper and Greener Chemical Reaction

One way to make drugs more affordable is to make them cheaper to produce. For her senior thesis research, Cassidy Humphreys, a chemistry major with a passion for medicine, took on the challenge of taking a century-old formula at the core of many modern medications — and improving it.

The Humanity of Improvisational Dance

Esin Yunusoglu investigated how humans move together and exist in a space — both on the dance floor and in real life — for the choreography she created as her senior thesis in dance, advised by Professor of Dance Susan Marshall.

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The infamous senior thesis, revisiting wwii: my senior thesis, independent work in its full glory, advisers, independent work and beyond.

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Elements of a Senior Thesis

The particulars will vary from project to project, but a Politics thesis typically includes the following elements.

Choosing the Thesis Topic

The topic is the general subject matter for your thesis. This includes the geographic area you want to study, the particular phenomenon you wish to study or the theoretical questions you wish to explore. We strongly recommend that you choose a topic that builds on work you have done earlier in your academic career. Perhaps you want to study the Polish electoral system, and you know something about Poland but nothing about the theoretical literature on electoral systems, or perhaps you know the literature on electoral systems but nothing about Poland. That’s ok. If you know nothing about either Poland or the literature on electoral systems, we encourage you to choose another topic. In your introduction, you might introduce your topic, discuss why it is important and how you came to be interested in it.

The Research Question

Coming up with a good research question is one of the most difficult steps in writing a good thesis. The question must be focused enough such that you can hope to answer it in a semester’s work. Also, the question must be placed in the context of existing literature. You cannot ask the same question that others have done without exploring first what these others have argued before you. Then you might find an issue they didn’t discover, or you may wish to see if their conclusions extend to different cases. For example, a question that seeks to explain why the countries in the European Union approach multilateral institutions differently than the United States does is probably too broad. A question that seeks to explore particular hypotheses, such that the differentials in US and European power explain these different positions, is much more workable. You might also frame a research question to address a debate among scholars within the literature. Above all, the answer to the question should be of interest to other scholars and you should be able to articulate its significance.

The Literature Review

Your question often comes out of an understanding of the scholarly literature. The literature review section of your thesis is where you consider existing literature on a particular topic and analyze how the authors came to the conclusion they did. What were their assumptions? What did they decide to examine and how did they examine it? What are their central findings or conclusions that inform your research question and theoretical framework? What questions or evidence did they leave out? The literature review helps you explain how and why your question contributes to existing knowledge on the topic. A literature review is a critical assessment of scholarship, but one that is focused. The critiques you raise about the work of other scholars ought to be ones you can address or resolve in your study.

Your Approach to Evidence

This is a statement and justification of how you will seek to answer your question. What cases will you be studying and why? What texts will you consider, and with what lens will you analyze them? What kind of evidence will you be using and how will you use it? What questions will you ask in interviews? How will you analyze roll call votes and why? What are the variables you will examine when you look at historical literature, and why do you think those variables are useful? Make sure your research strategy is linked to your question. If you engage in hypothesis testing, then be clear about how you derive your hypotheses from your theoretical framework and how you will then test them. Your thesis may also include creative work, in addition to evidence, such as your own fiction, poetry, dance or visual art.

Evidence and Analysis

These sections present your analysis of the evidence and whatever tentative conclusions you reach on the basis of this evidence. How you organize these sections, and how many sections you have, will depend on the nature of your question and your research strategy.

A short section of about eight pages or so that restates your question and summarizes your conclusions. Then the conclusion should outline the implications of your findings both for the existing literature on the topic and possibly also for policy. If the analysis is positive in nature – that is, identifying and testing hypotheses about political phenomena – then this is also a good occasion to consider the normative implications of your findings. Finally, you should discuss issues that arose that you could not answer do to a lack of resources or time, or even interest, and what further research could be done.

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Senior Thesis Formatting Guidelines

Contents and form.

Length : The required length is between 10,000 and 20,000 words, not counting notes, bibliography, and appendices. The precise length of the main body text must be indicated on the word count page  immediately following the title page . If a student expects the thesis to exceed 20,000 words, the student’s tutor should consult the Director of Studies. Please note that students’ requests to exceed 20,000 words must go through their tutors and that these requests must be made in early February. Any extension of the thesis beyond the maximum must be justified by the nature of the topic, or sustained excellence in the treatment of the subject, or both. Theses that receive permission to exceed 20,000 words can still be penalized if readers do not think that the excess length is warranted.

Acknowledgments : Please do not include acknowledgments in your final copy of the thesis. If you wish, you can add acknowledgments after your thesis has been read. Readers prefer not to know who directed your thesis, lest they be somehow swayed by that knowledge.

Illustrations : Illustrations, also called figures, might include anything from a photograph to a printed advertisement to a map to a chart. Illustrations may be inserted in the body of your thesis or included in an appendix at the end. Writers often choose to reference an illustration in the body of text, signaling to readers to refer to a particular figure that’s being discussed by turning to a nearby page or to an appendix (e.g., “See Figure 1.”) The inclusion of illustrations in a senior thesis, which has a fairly circumscribed audience, falls under fair use, so you do not need permissions to reproduce illustrations in your thesis. However, all images should be accompanied by a caption that identifies the image and may include brief explanatory text. You may also use the caption to attribute the source where you found the illustration (e.g., a url or the name of the archive where you photographed the item), or you can cite the illustration in a footnote or endnote. You do not need to cite your images in your bibliography. For more detailed guidelines on including illustrations in your thesis, see The Chicago Manual of Style or the MLA Style Manual .

Format : Pages should be 8 1/2" x 11". Margins should be 1 inch, and pages should be numbered. Do not right-justify. The lines of type must be double-spaced, except for quotations of five lines or more, which should be indented and single-spaced.

Style : If you have questions beyond those covered on this page, consult the University of Chicago's A Manual of Style or the Modern Language Association's Style Manual . Kate L. Turabian's A Manual for Writers is a good, inexpensive, brief guide to Chicago style. The Expository Writing Program guide, Writing with Sources , is very useful.

Table of Contents : Every thesis requires a Table of Contents to guide the reader.

Quotations : Quotations of four lines or fewer, surrounded by quotation marks, may be incorporated into the body of the text. Longer extracts should be indented and single-spaced; they should not be included in quotation marks. Each full quotation should be accompanied by a reference. Follow the general practice in the best periodicals in your field, and be consistent. Foreign words that are not quotations should be underlined or italicized.

Appendices : An appendix provides additional material that helps support your argument and is too lengthy to be included as a footnote or endnote. Appendices might include images, passages from primary texts in a non-English language or in your translation, or archival material that is difficult to access. It is rare but perfectly acceptable for theses to include appendices, so make sure to discuss with your tutor whether an appendix makes sense for your project.

Notes : You may use either footnotes (at bottom of page), endnotes (at end of the thesis) or MLA style parenthetical notes. However, for a History & Literature thesis, Chicago style is generally better. Footnote or endnotes are properly used:

• To state precisely the source or other authority for a statement in the text, or to acknowledge indebtedness for insights or arguments taken from other writers. Quotations should be given when necessary.
• To make minor qualifications, to prevent misunderstanding, or otherwise to clarify the text when such statements, if put in the text, would interrupt the flow.
• To carry further some topic discussed in the text, when such discussion is needed but does not fit into the text.

Bibliography : You must append a list of works cited to your thesis. It's a good idea to compile your bibliography as you write, rather than try to put it together all at once at the end (there are very powerful bibliography programs available, such as Zotero and Endnote, that generate bibliographies automatically). The purpose of the bibliography is to be a convenience to your reader. In the works cited list, primary and secondary sources should be listed under separate headings.

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Classical Studies

Senior Thesis & Senior Essay

A successful Senior Thesis or Essay will deal directly with primary sources (in the original language to the extent possible), show knowledge of and critical engagement with current scholarship on the subject, and present an original argument developed in response to these sources.  The topic might grow out of an oral presentation given in a class, a visit to a monument or site during an overseas study program, or a desire to study in greater depth a set of texts already encountered in a classroom setting.  Students thinking about a thesis may wish to look at the past theses in Downey House 115; see a  list of recent thesis titles.

While the Senior Thesis is a two-semester project, the Senior Essay is a substantial one-semester research project undertaken in the context of an individual tutorial. It may be completed in either the fall or the spring semester of the senior year.  Both should be considered serious academic undertakings and students should plan to begin research in the semester or summer which precedes it. While there is no prescribed minimum length, 30-40 pages is the typical range for an Essay and 70-80 pages for a Thesis.  In order to write a thesis or essay, one must first secure the agreement of a departmental faculty member to serve as an advisor.  In consultation with the advisor, the student should then outline the topic and compile a basic bibliography. 

All students who intend to write a Senior Thesis are required to submit a thesis proposal to the Department by April 15 of the junior year. Students who wish to write a Senior Essay should submit their proposal to the Department by the end of the previous semester (April 15 for an essay to be written in the fall semester, November 15 for the spring). 

The Proposal

The Senior Thesis or Essay proposal should be a clear and concise statement of the aims and scope of the project. It should include a description of the central topic or the question to be explored, the main primary sources to be considered, and a bibliography of major secondary sources that will be consulted.  The student should also outline the analytical method to be used and any theoretical approaches that may be brought to bear on the topic under consideration.  The proposal should be no more than 2-3pp. in length.  The student must also include in the proposal the name of the faculty member who has agreed to serve as advisor for the thesis.  Students on foreign study programs in the spring of the junior year should identify an advisor as soon as possible to ensure timely submission of their proposal.

Proposals will be considered by the departmental faculty.  If the project is deemed appropriate in scope, depth and sophistication for a senior thesis, it will be approved.  The student will be informed of the faculty's decision by May 1 (or Dec 1 for fall essay submissions).  Appeals of that decision will not be considered, so it is extremely important that students work with a faculty member well in advance of the deadline to develop a suitable project. 

Junior Spring (or Senior Fall for Spring Essay-writers):  After consultation with the advisor, students submit proposals to the Department for approval. Submission dates are April 15 or November 15. 

Summer before Senior Year :  Research. This might include broad secondary reading, gathering of data or of bibliography, or a first reading of a text in the original Greek or Latin.  Students may wish to look into summer seminars, language programs, or archaeological excavations that will provide skills, ideas, or data sets for a senior thesis.

Senior Fall:   Register for the thesis/essay tutorial (For thesis: GRK,LAT, or CCIV 409; for the Essay:  GRK, LAT, or CCIV 403).  During regular meetings the advisor, in consultation with the student, will establish expectations for the completion of the project in stages.  After discussion with the advisor, a student may wish to consult other members of the department whose expertise may be relevant to the thesis topic.  Work in progress reports are due in January.

Senior Spring: Submit completed thesis in mid-April. The Honors College provides information about formatting theses for submission, including standards for paper, printing and binding.  Students may not use departmental printers or copy machines for theses, but may seek the help or advice of the department for printing Greek or using illustrations.  ITS provides a printing service.

Evaluation and Honors

In most cases, the faculty advisor alone reads the Senior Essay and assigns a grade for the tutorial. Students should not enter upon a Senior Essay project with the expectation of being considered for honors.  Departmental Honors are normally reserved for students who write a thesis, although in extraordinary circumstances the department may elect to consider a senior essay for honors.  For the Thesis, the evaluating committee will consist of the advisor, one additional faculty member within the department, and one faculty member from within or outside the department.  The advisor and the student will discuss and choose the other readers in the spring, with the advisor responsible for contacting readers in other departments (unless both advisor and student agree that the student shall make the contact).  Promptness is recommended in speaking to possible readers in departments like English and History, which typically have many theses to read within their own departments.  

Committee members will receive the thesis soon after it is submitted to the Honors College in April.  They will forward to the departmental chair written evaluations, including a recommendation for a grade, and a recommendation for Honors or High Honors, or a recommendation that Honors not be awarded.  Sufficient time must be allowed for the chair to forward a recommendation about grade and Honors to the Honors College by the deadline.  Each reader has the option of forwarding evaluations, or an edited (shortened or expanded) version of the evaluations, directly to the student, but the student should not be told the recommendation for Honors or grade.  A thesis must receive a grade of B+ or better to receive departmental Honors, and A or better to receive departmental High Honors.  If the readers' recommendations differ, the chair will discuss with them possibilities for compromise or, more rarely, use of an additional reader.  A student who does not receive departmental Honors may and ordinarily will still receive credit for the thesis tutorials, if the advisor feels this is appropriate.  When all decisions have been made about departmental Honors, the department chair or (with the chair's approval) the advisor shall inform the student about the decision regarding Honors and grade.   The advisor shall give the student a course grade for the two terms of work on the thesis; this grade need not be the same as that awarded to the thesis.  Often a grade of "X" will be recorded for work on a thesis in the fall, and grades for both 409 and 410 will be determined in the spring.

Students who have been awarded departmental High Honors for the thesis and who have completed all General Education expectations are eligible to be nominated by the department for University Honors.  A very small number of Wesleyan students compete for University Honors each year; only a handful receives the prize.  This recommendation should accompany the grade and recommendation for High Honors sent to the Honors College on the deadline mentioned above.  Selected nominees for University Honors must qualify in an oral examination administered by the Honors Committee, which includes discussion of the thesis but which focuses on other areas of questioning designed to show the students' breadth of knowledge in all areas of the curriculum.

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What Is A Senior Thesis And How To Write It?

First, what is senior thesis? A senior thesis is a written project where you use different hypotheses, theory, argument, or creative thinking. It is usual practice for most students to take this project work in the senior year of college or high school.

A senior thesis tends to be more demanding than a research paper in terms of the amount of work and the length of the write-up. However, it is less than the work required for any Master’s thesis.

Is a Senior Thesis Required?

It is understandable to want to know if a senior thesis is required. I mean, anyone would want to know just how important it is before choosing to dedicate much time to it.

Well, a senior thesis is not compulsory in every college/university, and neither is it compulsory for every course of study.

In general, you can write a senior thesis if you have an overall GPA of 3.2, are ending your junior year, and meet your departmental requirements. If a senior thesis is not a requirement for completing your degree, you may decide to write one for several reasons. Some benefits are:

• It will look good on your resume
• It will give you an opportunity for some independent research
• You get some experience managing your project, etc.

If you cannot commit to finishing a senior thesis, then you shouldn’t start it. But if you would like to write one, then we’ve got lots of senior thesis topics and ideas for you! You will also get to learn how to write a senior thesis in this article!

How To Write a Senior Thesis

Writing a senior thesis can be a lot easier if you know what to do. First, you need to choose the right adviser, select a topic you would like to work on, write a proposal, and get approved. Here are some things you need to know about writing your senior thesis.

A thesis proposal is a short overview of what your senior thesis papers will look like. This document carries detailed descriptions of your senior thesis topic. Your thesis proposal can be between 1 to 5 pages long and should carry any relevant information. The proposal will also carry a list of books you’ve used or that you intend to use during the writing of your senior thesis.

The length of a senior thesis may vary depending on several reasons. The senior thesis length can be dependent on strict specifications by the college. Your senior thesis may be between 10,000 to 20,000 words long.

The senior honors thesis is a 6-credit final thesis that you must present as a written formal document. The senior thesis title page, also known as the cover page, is the page that carries, at first glance, details of the project. The information on this page includes the thesis title, name of the student, name of college, name of supervisor, etc.

The senior thesis defense is an avenue created for faculty and examiners to ask you about your research work. You are to tell them the outcome of the research to the point when you’re asked. The questions center around what you have in your senior thesis paper, so ensure you have remarkable up-to-date information at every point.

Senior Thesis Topic

It is essential that you find excellent senior thesis topics. Finding these excellent topics is the pain point for many students. Well, we are here to help you with some senior thesis topics.

Checking out past senior thesis topics can also set you on the right path earlier in your research. For example, if you are a student writing a CMC senior thesis, senior thesis UF, senior thesis Princeton, or yale senior thesis, you can search for award-winning senior thesis topics. These topics can give you an idea of topics that may best suit your purposes. Never forget that you should always choose topics that you find interesting. Here are some history senior thesis topics that you can choose from:

• Yankees of the East: 20th Century America
• History of the German Ford Motor Company
• How women saw themselves in the Jazz Age
• The Emergence of Great Societies
• The roles of women post WWII

Get A Senior Thesis Example

Looking through some senior thesis examples can help you easily get the hang of what a senior thesis looks like. You can also request past projects from senior friends and colleagues, as this can significantly reduce the stress on you.

Senior Thesis Format

Now, I’ll give you a working senior thesis format. If you want an excellent and well-written thesis, you can follow the senior thesis outline given below. Here is an outline according to the guidelines for writing UF senior thesis or Princeton senior thesis.

In this chapter, you have to discuss the significance and purpose of the thesis. Also, you should state what you hope to achieve by the work.

Here, you will discuss the theory behind your research work. This chapter discusses past theoretical works that are related to your research.

This chapter explains how you intend to gather your data. Here, you state the method and experiments you followed to arrive at your results. It would help if you also described the analysis of your data. This must be done conscientiously.

This chapter addresses the findings from your experiments and data analysis only. You begin by listing out the types of tests taken and the outcome. You can use tables and charts to illustrate numeric results as the case may be.

Here you don’t just restate your findings, but you expatiate on the deductions you made from your findings. This chapter answers the “so what?” question. This is not a section to mince words when you explain what the results mean to the theory.

Include all references at the end of work.

Senior Thesis Ideas

There are many fields and sources to get senior thesis topic ideas from. These fields include health, technology, social media, education, religion, music, environment, etc. If you want to do a UF psychology senior thesis research, for example, these are some senior thesis psychology topics you can explore.

• The deep-seated reasons for discrimination and prejudice
• Personal perception and social cognition
• Marketing, propaganda, and persuasion
• Eating behaviors and outlook about life
• Phobias and antisocial behaviors
• Group therapy profile
• False memories and dreams.

Graphic Design Senior Thesis

When you become a senior in the Graphic Design Program at your institution, you can choose a social or personal problem to address through a design problem-solving technique or process. It may take you a semester or session to complete this work, so you have to start early enough. After completing the thesis, you can showcase your work and experience an exhibition. Don’t forget to put in your best effort.

High School Senior Thesis

The high school senior thesis is a document of at least 2,000 words written by high school seniors. This exercise usually strengthens research capabilities. Some high school senior thesis topics may include:

• A documentary on a place
• Learning about programming
• Research about the nature of colors and lots more.

In conclusion, when you’ve decided to write a senior thesis, the best thing to do is segment your work into small doable bits. Also, you need to schedule your time so that you can complete the thesis in due time or contact professional thesis writers . We wish you good luck!

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Department of Anthropology

What is the honors program.

The honors program is a two-semester sequence (ANTH 99a, "Senior Research" in fall, followed by ANTH 99b, "Senior Thesis" in spring) during which select senior anthropology majors carry out independent research and writing of a senior thesis. Only majors in the honors program can graduate with Honors, High Honors, or Highest Honors in anthropology. To earn honors, candidates must complete ten (not nine) semester courses toward their anthropology major, including ANTH 99a and ANTH 99b. Completing an honors thesis can be one of the most rewarding undergraduate experiences at Brandeis.

What happens during the program, and what does a thesis consist of?

Honors students, under the supervision of the faculty advisor, carry out independent research and writing of the thesis. Students in the program enroll in ANTH 99a in fall and ANTH 99b in spring. ANTH 99a can be used for course credit toward their major requirement of nine courses; ANTH 99b after that fulfills the honors program requirements of ten courses. Students and advisors will establish a clear understanding about the number of meetings and the schedule for completing various stages of the project.

The honors thesis itself is a polished piece of writing that describes the project undertaken, details the research carried out, addresses well-conceived questions with well-substantiated and analytically sophisticated answers, and articulates with relevant anthropological literature. Suitable projects can involve ethnographic or archaeological fieldwork, library research, laboratory analysis, or a combination of these three. Some exciting honors theses have applied new theoretical perspectives to existing bodies of data. Theses are usually between 60 and 100 double-spaced printed pages and are prepared in the format of professional anthropological writing (as stipulated by the advisor). Toward the end of the spring semester the advisor will schedule an oral defense of the thesis before a three-member defense committee ( see "What do I need to know about the oral defense?" below ).

The student's level of honors in anthropology will be based on the committee's evaluation of the student's written thesis and oral defense, in conjunction with the student's GPA in anthropology ( see " Can I receive honors in more than one department, and can I use my thesis to fulfill requirements in other departments or programs?"  below ).

Who is eligible?

At the end of their junior year, students must have a grade point average of 3.5 or better in anthropology courses to be considered for admission to the program. Students also ordinarily complete the two introductory-level required anthropology courses, ANTH 1a plus either ANTH 5a or ANTH 7a, before beginning the honors program. Eligible students then must apply to the honors program in the fall of their senior year ( see "How do I apply to the honors program?" below ). A student may undertake only one honors thesis , although honors students may have more than one major.

What do I need to know in my junior year that might help me to write a thesis in my senior year?

Get started early in formulating your project and seeking a potential advisor.

It is in your interest to conceive of a research project and seek out a potential advisor by the end of your junior year so that you can conduct preliminary work before the beginning of your senior year. Please note, however, that the entire anthropology faculty will decide collectively whether or not to accept you to the honors program at the beginning of your senior year ( see "How do I apply to the honors program?" below ). If your proposal is not accepted you have the option of writing up your research and ideas in a one-semester independent study (ANTH 98a/98b) under the guidance of a faculty advisor. Some students decide that an independent study is a preferable option for them.

Be sure to apply for IRB permission (where required) well in advance so that you can use your data toward a thesis.

A thesis is a "public document" so the research described in it must comply with Institutional Review Board (IRB) guidelines. If you plan to use data collected during study abroad in your junior year or during the summer between your junior and senior year, and if that data involves research with human subjects (such as interviewing or participant observation), you need to apply for and receive IRB permission in advance of conducting the research to use it toward a senior thesis. You should submit your application as soon as possible, since it can take 1-2 months to complete the process and the board frequently asks students for revisions. Some students apply for IRB permission in or at the end of their junior year; others apply first thing in their senior year. Please consult carefully with your advisor on this matter. You can find information and instructions on the human subjects research page of the website .

How do I apply to the honors program?

Eligible students must, on their own initiative, conceive of a research project and seek out an anthropology faculty supervisor who agrees to advise the project.  In approaching a faculty member to be the advisor, students should already have formulated a topic, research questions, and a methodology. A student may contact the Undergraduate Advising Head for help in selecting and approaching a possible faculty advisor.

Students must submit a 2-3 page thesis proposal to the anthropology department by one week after the first day of classes during the fall term of your senior year.

The proposal should include:

what your thesis topic is

why the topic is interesting and important

what the central question(s) to be examined are

how your topic speaks to anthropological literature

your methodology/sources of data (e.g. library research, fieldwork, laboratory analysis)

a preliminary bibliography

The proposal will be reviewed by the departmental faculty , and students will be notified within one week whether or not they have been admitted to the Senior Honors Program in Anthropology.

If you are admitted to the program, you will register with your advisor's signature for ANTH 99a (Senior Research) in fall.  In spring, provided you are progressing according to plan, you will register for ANTH 99b (Senior Thesis).

What is a typical timeline for senior thesis progress over the year?

First Semester

In September the Undergraduate Advising Head will hold an informational meeting for all seniors who have been accepted to the honors program to introduce you to one another and discuss some logistics.

By the end of the first semester, you should have completed:

the bulk of your research for your thesis (note: this means IRB approval will need to have been obtained early in the fall semester, at the latest)

a table of contents

a piece of written work (such as a thesis chapter, the thesis introduction, or a detailed thesis prospectus, to be decided in consultation with your advisor) at least 20 pages long. This and the table of contents will be submitted to the student’s advisor and to the Undergraduate Advising Head (UAH) for evaluation; on the basis of this submitted work the advisor will assign a grade for 99a and the advisor and UAH will determine whether the student is eligible to continue in the thesis program. The signatures of both the advisor and UAH are required to move forward in the program.

Second Semester

During the second semester, the student and advisor will establish a clear schedule for submitting thesis chapters .

By the middle of the second semester you should have a discussion with your advisor about the other members of your defense committee ; the defense committee of three readers will consist of your advisor and two additional Brandeis faculty members, one from the anthropology department and one from a different department. While you and your advisor will collaborate on choosing possible readers, your advisor will approach these faculty members to extend a formal invitation to serve on your committee. It is generally advisable that you be in touch with your other committee members about the intellectual content of the thesis prior to the oral defense.

The due date for the complete thesis will be arranged in discussion with the advisor and will be at least one week before the scheduled oral defense . You must provide copies of the complete thesis to each of your readers.

Toward the end of the spring semester the advisor will schedule an oral defense of the thesis. Defenses are generally held during the last week of classes or during the final examination period.

Finally, before you depart campus: the student is required to deposit one copy of the thesis at the University library and another copy in the departmental archive , for future students and scholars to read! View instructions for submitting your thesis to the library. 

What do I need to know about the oral defense?

The oral defense, usually lasting about one hour, is confined to the honors research and is not a test of anthropological knowledge in general. It is typical for students to open the oral defense with a brief summary of the central argument(s) of the thesis, along with a discussion of anything they wish the committee to know. Students may comment, for instance, on the discovery process that led them to write the thesis to begin with; on certain field-related or theoretical difficulties they encountered along the way; or on unresolved issues or questions that they did not discuss in the written document. The discussion that follows will allow your defense committee members a chance to ask you questions about your research and to converse with you about the contents of the thesis. The defense can be a wonderful opportunity to showcase the depth of thinking that went into your project. Oral defenses are not open to other members of the Brandeis community or to the public.

How will the work be evaluated and by whom?

There are several points in the honors thesis process when evaluations are made:

Grades for ANTH 99a and ANTH 99b . The student's advisor (not the entire committee or the UAH) will assign grades for 99a and 99b. These grades reflect evaluations of the process of researching and writing the senior honors thesis, and the 99a grade will also be based on the approximately 20 pages worth of writing produced by the end of the fall semester. If, at the end of the fall semester, the advisor and UAH decide that the project is not being successfully carried out, a grade will be assigned for ANTH 99a, and the student will not continue in the honors program. In such cases the student is not precluded from graduating with Latin honors, which is based on the university-wide grade point average. The award of summa cum laude, however, requires not only a cumulative grade point average of 3.8, but also the achievement of "honors" or above on the thesis.

Honors thesis/oral defense. The defense committee, made up of the advisor, a second reader from the anthropology department, and a third reader from another department, determines a recommendation for honors at the time of the defense. The committee will base this recommendation upon both the written thesis and the oral defense.

Departmental honors are based on the level of honors recommended by the committee and the departmental grade point average. For this reason, the final decision regarding departmental honors cannot be made until the grades for the final semester have been turned in and the anthropology department holds its last faculty meeting of the year, just a few days before commencement. Students should therefore be aware that the level of departmental honors recommended by the committee might not be the same as the final level awarded at graduation (the level could go up OR down, depending on the student's departmental GPA). The possible levels of honors are: no honors, honors, high honors, and highest honors.

Can I receive honors in more than one department, and can I use my thesis to fulfill requirements in other departments or programs?

The anthropology department does not allow seniors to work on two different honors theses or to enroll in two 99-level courses at the same time. Furthermore, the anthropology department will not award anthropology honors for a thesis written in another department. If another department decides to award a student honors in that department on the basis of a thesis written for the anthropology honors program, the decision is up to that other department. Students are free to submit anthropology theses for requirements in various interdepartmental programs (such as Women's, Gender and Sexuality Studies, Religious Studies, or Health: Science, Society, and Policy).

As you think about whether to apply for the honors program and write a senior thesis, keep in mind that most students do not write theses. The senior thesis program is for the student particularly motivated to work in depth for a year or more on a specific topic. The student must be highly disciplined, organized, motivated, and self-directed. The project is the student's own.

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Find the best tips and advice to improve your writing. Or, have a top expert write your paper.

How to Write a Senior Thesis? Student’s Manual

If you’re an undergraduate student, you might know that you will be required to write a senior thesis to graduate. You may also know that this will be the most challenging project that you might have to undertake during your academic career. But, what is a senior thesis? And, how do you write it successfully within the provided timeframe?

Well, a senior thesis is an independent, large research project that learners are required to undertake during their college or high school senior year as a graduation requirement. It is also called a senior honors thesis. This project marks the culmination of the study work of students at a learning institution. It represents the ability of the leaders to conduct independent research and present their findings in writing effectively. In most cases, undertaking this project successfully is a requirement for learners to graduate with honors.

On joining high school or college, many students ask, “Is a senior thesis required for my program?” Knowing whether you will be required to write this paper early is important because it enables you to prepare for it. Thus, you avoid struggling to learn how to write a senior thesis at the last minute. Nevertheless, this project shouldn’t give you sleepless nights. Just follow these steps when writing a senior thesis.

Choose a Senior Thesis Topic you’re Passionate About

Writing senior thesis papers gives most students the first opportunity to choose their preferred topics to write about. This provides incredible autonomy. But, if you choose a topic that you aren’t passionate about, dedicating hours or days exploring it in detail will be difficult.

Completing college and high school senior thesis entails writing in an unscripted world. This converts dreaming into praxis while enabling learners to expand academic horizons past what they are accustomed to.

This project presents an outlet for converting the imaginary world into something tangible and real that mentors and peers can read, understand, and challenge. These possibilities make it possible for students to get senior thesis topics that invoke feelings of zeal.

If unsure of what to write about, explore senior thesis topic ideas online. These can be a good place to start the process of choosing a topic for your thesis. The internet has many sources where you can find great ideas for history senior thesis topics and senior thesis topic psychology experts and students would like to read about. Explore these sources to find a topic you will find interesting to write about.

Write a Senior Thesis Outline

Once you’ve chosen a topic, conduct some research to know the main topics to include in your paper. Come up with an outline that will enable you to present your main topics and their supporting evidence. An outline is a structure that shows how you will present the information gathered through in-depth research.

Your outline can include the senior thesis title page, the introduction , the body section with the chapters to be included, and the conclusion. How you outline your paper should depend on the information you wish to include and the instructions provided by your professor.

The outline should solve tasks like:

• Reveal your topic and thesis statement
• Show the expediency and relevance of the project
• Show the chosen methodological base
• Expound your senior thesis ideas or thoughts consistently and logically
• Draw conclusions objectively

To avoid missing important information, your outline should include a senior thesis cover page, the introduction, theoretical part, practical part, scientific novelty evidence, conclusions, bibliography, and applications. These sections should be logically completed and detailed.

Each senior thesis format may vary but it should reflect the main ideas of the entire project. It should also show the essence of every subparagraph and chapter if they are parts of the work.

Define the Objectives and Goals of Your Thesis

There are many college and high school senior thesis topics you may have chosen. So, why did you choose this particular topic for your paper? What do you want to accomplish by the end of your project? Whether you’re writing a CMC senior thesis or a UF senior thesis, you should have clear goals and objectives of your project.

When writing this paper, a goal can be to consolidate and systemize a theory in a specialty within the course of solving a practical problem and identifying independent work’s abilities. Tasks should also be formulated. For instance, a task can be to formulate literature on a topic after studying it, researching, and learning its basic concepts and terms. You can use a senior thesis example in your field to see how the author has defined their goals and objectives in the paper.

Make and Stick to a Schedule for Writing Your Senior Thesis Paper

Perhaps, the question that’s lingering in your mind now is, “how long is a senior thesis?” Well, most professors expect students to write between 70 and 89-page magnum opus. However, some would rather have learners write a strong article-sized thesis of between 25 and 40 pages. Thus, most professors look for quality rather than quantity.

But, regardless of your senior thesis length, have a schedule for writing it and stick to it. You can have something like a to-do list. This will make you feel like you have accomplished something whenever you cross off something from the list. You can have a weekly checklist or schedule that coincides with your writing process.

Procrastination may have plagued your past in academics. Nevertheless, bear in mind the fact that you might not succeed with your senior thesis defense if you keep procrastinating. Therefore, come up with a schedule and stick to it throughout or ask thesis services to help you.

Your schedule should highlight when to submit your senior thesis proposal, as well as when to write certain sections, when to complete the first draft and when your final draft will be due. The schedule should enable you to visualize both the short-term and long-term objectives of your writing project.

Start Writing

Whether you’re writing a Princeton senior thesis or Yale senior thesis, the structure is almost the same. You have to include certain parts and focus on writing each section at a time.

Your paper should include the following sections, according to the normal academic standards:

• The title page
• Table of contents
• The abstract
• A five-page introduction
• The main part
• A conclusion with two to three pages
• Bibliographic list
• Applications

To know the content to include in each of these sections, find and read good senior thesis examples. Most schools and faculties have samples that can guide students in writing these papers. Therefore, talk to your professor to see if they can get you a sample thesis.

Proofread Your Work

This is the last step in the process of writing this paper. Whether you have written a UF psychology senior thesis or a graphic design senior thesis, make sure that you proofread your work to remove all errors.

Focus on the following when proofreading your work:

• Logical or smooth development of the content of your thesis
• Work structure
• Flow of your thought and sentence structure
• All errors, including contextual, stylistic, punctuation, spelling, and grammatical.
• Thesis formatting

Make sure that you have presented your senior thesis psychology or senior thesis UF work in a clear and easy to understand manner.

You no longer have to ask, ‘what is senior thesis?’ That’s because this article has explained everything you need to know about this paper. Follow the guidelines and tips provided here to complete your project successfully whether you’re writing a senior thesis Princeton or Yale paper.

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The Senior Essay or Senior Thesis

Every student who completes the major in Comparative Studies writes a senior essay or a thesis.  The essay or the thesis is completed in CS 4990, “Senior Seminar,” a writing workshop offered every Spring in which students share drafts, present their work orally, and receive detailed feedback from their peers. 

You may choose between two options:

• The Senior Essay , usually between 12 to 15 pages, written largely during the semester you take CS 4990, though often building on earlier class work.
• The Senior Thesis , which requires a semester of CS 4999 or 4999H (usually taken autumn of senior year; that is, ideally before the spring term you plan to graduate), “Undergraduate Thesis” or “Honors Thesis,” working closely with a professor who you select to serve as advisor to your thesis. This option is usually between 25 to 40 pages. Students who choose to write a Senior Thesis may plan to fulfill the requirements for either “Research Distinction” or “Honors Research Distinction" . Details on these options are offered below.

Whichever is chosen, the senior research project serves as a capstone experience for students in the major, and results in a piece of original work that can be shared with the Comparative Studies community.  The essay or thesis may also be valuable as a writing sample if students apply to graduate or professional schools, or pursue a wide range of careers that value individual initiative and effective communication.

The Process: What You Need to Know to Get Started

Both the senior essay and the thesis require some advance planning, though the timeline for the thesis is typically longer.  If you choose to write the senior essay, you should have selected a paper to revise and expand, or else identified a topic for a new research paper, no later than the semester  before  you enroll in COMPSTD 4990.  You will need to submit your draft or proposal for a first round of peer review early in Spring semester. 

If you choose to write the thesis, you should have identified a topic and an advisor by the start of Autumn term of your senior year (some students choose a topic in the Spring of junior year and begin work in the summer) so you can enroll in COMPSTD 4999/4999H and begin your research.

In either case, take note that prior to enrolling in COMPSTD 4990, you'll have already taken the required 4000-level course (all of which require the completion of a research paper). The research paper written for that course often provides / may provide the paper that you choose to use for the senior essay or the senior thesis option.

Whether you write the senior essay or the thesis, nothing is more important than the choice of a topic.  It should be something that engages you, that sparks your curiosity or imagination, and that has stakes that matter to you.   But it should also be a topic of manageable scale, one that can adequately be explored in the time available to you.  Your faculty advisor can help you to shape your project at the outset, and to make any necessary adjustments along the way.

No formal advisor is required for the senior essay.  If you choose to revise and expand an earlier paper (such as the one you would have written for your 4000-level research course), you may want to reconnect with the instructor for whom you wrote the original.  They may be willing to serve as an informal advisor as you undertake your revisions.  If choosing a new topic, you may wish to speak with a professor in the department or on our affiliated faculty with expertise in the subject matter.  Each of you also has your own faculty advisor with whom you can confer, as well as the professor who will be teaching COMPSTD 4990.

If you write a thesis you must have a formal thesis advisor; you may also elect to have a co-advisor. They will supervise any thesis research courses you take (COMPSTD 4999), the writing of the thesis itself, and the oral exam at the end of the process. This might be the same person as your faculty advisor but it need not be. You should choose someone with whom you are comfortable (usually because you have been in a class together before) and who has enough knowledge of the subject matter to guide your work. You may wish to speak informally with more than one professor before making a final decision.

Senior Essay or Thesis?

If you choose to write the senior essay you will complete most of the work of research and writing during the Spring semester of your senior year, while enrolled in CS 4990, “Senior Seminar.”  You may either revise and expand a paper you wrote for another course (usually, but not always, a course in Comparative Studies), or begin and complete a research paper on a new topic.  Senior essays vary in length, but are typically around 12–15 pages (and sometimes longer if they are expanded versions of earlier essays).

If you who choose to write a thesis you will typically begin working on it during the Autumn semester of senior year (and sometimes during the preceding summer) by enrolling in CS 4999 or 4999H (“Undergraduate Thesis” or “Honors Thesis”).  You will then complete the writing while enrolled in CS 4990, “Senior Seminar.”  Theses vary considerably in length, but are typically between 25 and 40 pages.  The thesis process also includes an oral "defense" (really more like a conversation about the completed work with your advisor and one or more other faculty members).  If you choose the thesis option you may be eligible to graduate with “Research Distinction” or “Honors Research Distinction.”

To graduate with Research Distinction in Comparative Studies or with Research Distinction (if the thesis is completed in another discipline), you must meet the following requirements:

• Complete a minimum of 60 graded credit hours at Ohio State
• Graduate with minimum GPA of 3.0
• Students intending to graduate at the end of Autumn term: Application due no later than the first Friday of the previous February
• Students intending to graduate at the end of the Spring term: Application due no later than the first Friday of the previous October
• Students intending to graduate at the end of the Summer term: Application due by the first Friday of December
• Complete at least 4 credit hours of COMPSTD 4999 (these may be spread over more than one term)
• Complete and successfully defend the thesis during an oral examination

For a more detailed list of instructions, see:  https://artsandsciences.osu.edu/academics/current-students/advising-academics/graduation

If you are in the Honors Program you may graduate with Honors Research Distinction in Comparative Studies or with Honors Research Distinction (if the thesis is completed in another discipline) by meeting the following requirements:

• Be enrolled in the ASC Honors Program and complete an approved Honors Contract
• Graduate with minimum GPA of 3.4
• Submit “Undergraduate Thesis Application” to the ASC Honors Office upon enrolling in COMPSTD 4999H, or no later than the 3rd Friday of the semester you intend to graduate
• Complete at least 4 credit hours of COMPSTD 4999H (may be spread over more than one term)

For a more detailed list of instructions, see:  https://aschonors.osu.edu/honors/research-thesis

Other Useful Information

There are several sources of funding for undergraduate research.  Arts and Sciences awards two kinds of scholarships on a competitive basis each academic year; each requires a letter of support from an academic advisor, and preference is given to students planning to write a thesis. Undergraduate Research Scholarships range from $500 to $12,000.  Applications for a given academic year are due in early February of the preceding year.  International Research Grants provide up to $4,000 for research-related travel abroad for students in Arts and Sciences.  There are two application cycles per academic year.  For more information, see:  http://aschonors.osu.edu/opportunities/scholarships/undergrad .

The Division of Arts and Humanities provides Undergraduate Research Small Grants (up to $500) to help fund travel to things like conferences, research collections, and exhibitions and to purchase materials for research or creative activity.  The Aida Cannarsa Endowment Fund offers grants of $500 to $3,000 to students in arts and humanities, with priority given to those with demonstrated financial need.  Applications for both are reviewed twice a year.

See:  https://artsandsciences.osu.edu/academics/current-students/scholarships-grants/research .

There may be additional sources of funding, on and off campus, for particular kinds of projects.  You should consult with your advisor and the Office of Undergraduate Research.

Please note that research funding involving human subjects may require prior IRB approval .

Every Spring, there are opportunities for Comparative Studies students to present the results of their research, whether they choose to write the senior essay or the thesis.  The Richard J. and Martha D. Denman Undergraduate Research Forum is a university-wide showcase of undergraduate work that awards prizes by areas of interest (for example, Humanities).  There is a competitive abstract submission process in January, and a day devoted to presentations in late March.  Though most of the forum involves poster presentations, Humanities majors give brief oral presentations (8-10 minutes) on their work to faculty judges.

In April, the Department of Comparative Studies hosts its own Undergraduate Research Colloquium.  Working closely with their advisor, students prepare and submit paper abstracts in February—300 words or fewer that describe the project’s central questions, methodologies, theoretical framework, and (tentative) conclusions.  Students may choose to give a 10-minute presentation on work in progress or a 20-minute presentation on completed work (by April everyone enrolled in 4990 should be ready to give a presentation).  This is a more relaxed atmosphere, with an audience of your peers and friends, as well as faculty and graduate students in the department.

Autumn of senior year

• Choose a topic

Spring of senior year

• Enroll in COMPSTD 4990, “Senior Seminar”

Spring of junior year

• Identify an advisor

Summer between junior and senior years (optional)

• Enroll in COMPSTD 4998 or 4998H, “Undergraduate Research in Comparative Studies” (2 credits)
• Submit “Application for Graduation with Research Distinction” or “Undergraduate Thesis Application”
• Enroll in COMPSTD 4999, “Undergraduate Thesis” or 4999H, “Honors Thesis” (2 credits)
• Enroll in Enroll in COMPSTD 4999, “Undergraduate Thesis” or 4999H, “Honors Thesis” (2 credits)

Additional Information

• You can find copies of undergraduate theses online at the OSU Knowledge Bank:  https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/handle/1811/134 .
• Further information on undergraduate research opportunities is available at:  http://www.undergraduateresearch.osu.edu/ .

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• School of Arts and Sciences
• Penn Calendar

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Guidelines for Senior the Thesis, by Walter McDougall

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS PROGRAM

Guidelines for the Senior Thesis (INTR 390/391)

Walter A. McDougall

Not For Reprint Without Permission. Copyright: University of Pennsylvania, January 2000, revised September 2015

N.B.: Your assignment for the first meeting of your INTR 390 seminar is to read, mark, and inwardly digest this document!!

1.      Introduction

The INTR 390/391 senior seminar sequence is meant to be the "capstone experience" for I.R. majors at Penn. This is your chance (a) to use the theoretical tools you have acquired in the core courses and electives; (b) to exploit and expand the specialized knowledge you have acquired about a particular subject or geographical region; and (c) to satisfy your own desire to study intensively some issue of particular interest to yourself. Ideally, therefore, the senior seminar should satisfy the intellectual appetites that drew you to major in I.R. in the first place.

The focus of INTR 390/391 is in every case the senior thesis. Seminar leaders may spend several weeks reviewing with you the major theoretical approaches to I.R., but the principal requirement of the seminar is the conception, researching, and writing of a thesis. Now, the word "thesis" conjures up images of Masters or Doctoral dissertations. Certainly we do not expect undergraduates to approach that level of length and sophistication. On the other hand, the senior thesis should be more than a glorified term paper. It should (a) be much longer than the usual 15 to 20 page term paper; (b) make an argument of your own conception rather than just summarize facts and conclusions found in books on the topic; (c) use primary source material and data to the extent possible; and (d) conform to the format and style of good academic writing and documentation.

You may not think that you are capable of all this. I assure you that you are. The senior seminar is not a simple exercise by which you demonstrate to us what you already know—but neither is it meant to induce terminal anxiety. Rather, it is designed to push you beyond what you already know you can do so that—with hard work and the help of faculty and staff—you can realize your own highest potential at this level of your education and maturity.

2.      Selecting the Topic

You should begin to think about topics for your senior thesis as soon as possible. Some students waste a month or more at the start just finding a topic that is appropriate and feasible. We suggest, therefore, that you begin to think about topics at the end of your junior year, or at least a month or two before the start of your 390 semester. The criteria for selecting a topic are as follows.

First, it should be a problem you will enjoy solving. It could be an issue about which you have always been curious, or which you encountered in a lecture course and want to know more about, or are interested in for reasons of professional or personal commitment. But whatever the case, you should be motivated to do the thesis for its own sake, and not just because you have to do it to graduate!

Second, the topic should in some way relate to your own area of concentration within I.R. and/or grow out of coursework you have already taken. In other words, you do not want to choose a topic “out of the blue" that will require you to do an exorbitant amount of background reading just to learn the basics. (You will have enough reading to do anyway even on a subject familiar to you.) What is more, a topic derived from courses you have already taken automatically means that there is a professor or two on campus to whom you can go for advice on your thesis.

Third, your topic must truly be one in "International Relations" and not merely one that happens to concern a foreign country. The essence of I.R. is the study of relations among nations, hence analysis of relationships is the key. For instance, if you are interested in Third World development you might study "the politics of foreign investment in Mexico"—but not merely "Mexican development policy." If you are interested in security you might study "U.S.-European debates over NATO strategy," but not merely "defense policy in the Bush Administration." In sum, it is O.K. to study one country's foreign policy or the internal factors driving a state's foreign relations, but only if those internal factors are understood as independent variables affecting the main problem which remains the international relationships of your chosen country. Your seminar leader can help you judge whether a topic is sufficiently "international" on a case by case basis.

Fourth, your topic must give rise to specific questions, the answers to which can be pursued through the application of theories, models, or techniques drawn from political science, economics, business, or diplomatic history. Do not say simply, "I want to do something on the terrorism" or "I want to study the European Union." Rather, formulate precise questions you hope to answer and the methods by which to answer them.

Fifth, your topic must be feasible—that is, narrow enough to complete over two semesters with sources and data readily available in the Penn Library or other archives in Washington or New York. Don't bite off more than you can chew.

Finally, be aware that the phrase "international relations" is broadly conceived in terms of relations among peoples and organizations as well as governments. Topics concerning transnational cultural contacts, global problems such as the environment, global commons such as the oceans, or non-state actors such as business firms, NGOs, and IOs are encouraged.

Come to your first INTL 390 meeting with at least three possible topics (related or unrelated) that you think will meet these criteria, and review the theoretical literature (from the I.R. Theory course or other courses) appropriate to your topics.

3. Requirements

No set limits on length are possible, but senior theses are expected to reach the range of 60 to 75 double-spaced pages. This is the standard length of an article in an academic journal. Some students produce as many as 80 or 100 pages, but in many cases this is the result of poor planning (too large a topic) or poor editing (throwing in everything but the kitchen sink). If your first draft seems too short, ask yourself what you have ignored in your research or what arguments need more evidence to back them up. If your first draft seems too long, ask yourself where you can cut without damaging the main argument.

As stated in the introduction, the senior thesis is meant to be original to the extent possible. Now, there are few topics of any importance that have not already been written about by scholars, and few readily available sources and data that have not already been examined by researchers. So try to find an “angle" on your topic that has not been done to death or has not received the attention you think it deserves. As soon as possible, identify primary source material and data to support your study. You do not want to write an essay that simply regurgitates what other authors have to say.

Normally, seminar leaders will pace you throughout the process by issuing deadlines for topics, bibliography, outlines, and drafts. The deadline for the final copy will be posted at the beginning of the spring semester. The precise date changes slightly from year-to-year according to the dictates of the academic calendar, but the final deadline is around March 25.

N.B.: Seminar participation represents a distinct portion of the thesis research endeavor and students may receive different grades on their thesis product and the seminar itself.

4. Theoretical Framework

Perhaps the aspect of the senior thesis most worrisome to students is the theoretical framework. You may have learned various models and theories about balance of power, multipolarity, functionalism, dependence, etc., for exams in your coursework, but don't feel comfortable about formulating and applying such theories on your own. This is where your seminar leader can be of significant help.

A "thesis" is not merely descriptive or narrative—it must employ some sort of theoretical or interpretive methodology. Most students in I.R. tend to specialize, in terms of methodology, in one or another branch of political science. Hence, a standard senior thesis will involve testing the applicability of a given theory to a case study. For instance, you might apply the “voice-exit" or "bandwagon-balancing" models of alliance behavior to help you analyze likely futures for NATO in light of the prospect of German unification. You begin by reading and understanding thoroughly the theory you wish to test, proceed to empirical research on the subject itself (in this case, German and European policies and proposals for the reform of NATO and European public opinion on the question), then draw conclusions that either confirm or call into question the theory with which you began. If your facts do not fit the theory at all points, you may wish to suggest alternative theories that would better help us analyze reality, or else junk existing theory as inadequate. What you must not do in a modest thesis of this sort is to move from one case study to a general theory—you cannot prove anything by one case—or choose your case study because you already know that it will conform neatly to your theory—in that case you are "proving" nothing.

Remember that the I.R. major at Penn is multi-disciplinary. You need not choose an approach drawn from political science, but can just as well apply economic theory or business models to your topic. If you have an historical bent, or wish to study an aspect of a past problem (say, the effects of the Marshall Plan, origins of the Vietnam War, or Gaullist policies on decolonization), you are encouraged to do so. In this case, you may take a wholly empirical approach, but must meet, of course, the critical standards of the historical discipline on sources and interpretation.

To sum up, you have extraordinary flexibility in deciding what to study and how to study it. You may wear the hat of a political scientist, military strategist, economist, sociologist, or historian. And you may study the foreign relations of the U.S., Europe, the USSR, China, Japan, India, the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, or the global environment, the high seas, or outer space! But whatever methodology you choose, you must aspire to the highest standards of that discipline.

How can our seminar leaders direct theses on such a broad range of topics? The answer is: they cannot. They will help you in any way they can, and will supervise the conception, writing, and revision of the essay. But no one—faculty or graduate instructor—is expert on everything. That is why it is critical for you to seek out and consult professors around campus who are knowledgeable about the topic you choose. If you have already taken a course with such a professor, so much the better. But even if the professor is a stranger, you can still drop in during office hours. If you are in doubt about which professors are expert on your topic, ask us and we will do our best to help you find them.

5. Research

Whatever help you get, however, the senior thesis is yours to do. We cannot do your research, or your writing, for you. To be sure, the prospect of disappearing into the library for days on end, not being sure of what you are doing, and wasting a good deal of time pursuing false leads is daunting. The academic researcher is always on the horns of a dilemma: to find a rich collection of sources only means that you will have to spend hours and hours ploughing through it; to find meager sources may mean you have no thesis at all. But such is the scholar's life. Just think of yourself as a detective rooting out clues and solving a mystery.

There are two sorts of sources: secondary and primary. Secondary sources consist of books and articles written by scholars about your topic. Primary sources consist of information generated by your topic and the people involved, such as government documents, memoirs by participants, interviews, published data, minutes of meetings, and so forth. Newspaper and magazine articles are ambiguous. They are reports of current events and contain many original facts, but are also filtered through "spectators": reporters, columnists, and editors. Obviously, such articles are often indicators of opinion as well as facts.

You should begin your research with a thorough survey of existing secondary sources: all the books and articles that have appeared on your topic. Make yourself an expert on your topic, the relevant history of the issue, and the political or economic context in which the issue emerges. For instance, if you are studying British policy toward Europe 1992 you should read up on the history of British relations with the Common Market, some books on British politics and foreign policy in general, and a book or two on the history of the Thatcher government. That way you can avoid rehashing what has already been done and also get some ideas about the dynamics that drive your topic. (Do British electoral politics or agricultural prices help explain British policy toward Europe? If you don't do your background reading, you will never know.)

Next you should tackle the primary sources and use all that are available to you. Some may be obvious, like government publications. Others might be found by "raiding the footnotes" of a secondary source. This is fine so long as you don't claim in your own footnotes to have examined the documents consulted by another author. For instance, an author might cite the "British White Paper on Europe" of March 1987. Wow! Get your hands on that document, study it, and cite it yourself. If you cannot lay hands on it, you may still refer to it but must say in your footnote "as cited by (the author)". You can also follow leads derived from articles. For instance, if the Economist suggests that the Thatcher cabinet fears high protective tariffs in a post-1992 Europe, then look up the figures and see how much British exports might be hurt by Britain merging with a protectionist Europe. The mental process of doing research is not mysterious, but does require intelligence. Any legal assistant can drudge through casebooks looking up precedents and facts—it is the lawyer who applies brains to those data and builds a case. And that process is essentially one of moving back and forth between "inductive" and "deductive" reasoning. Induction means the derivation of theory or interpretation from data. Deduction is the application of theory to data. Neither is sufficient by itself—they work together as you read up on a topic, induce theories to explain your facts, then do more research further to see whether your theory is borne out.

Research takes time and thought. It is not something to be left until the last minute. You will go through tough periods when you make little progress, then race ahead. That is why you should get started as soon as possible, and judge—as best you can—which primary sources are likely to be most valuable. Do those first. If they prove disappointing, you will still have time to look elsewhere.

Remember also that you will eventually be turning the information gleaned from your research into an academic essay with footnotes. Therefore, be sure to take down complete references for every book, article, or document you consult. Nothing is more vexing than finding out in the writing stage that you failed to record the full author, title, and publication data on a source you looked at two months before. It means an extra boring trip to the library just to finish a single footnote.

A final exhortation. Students in I.R. are obviously interested in foreign countries. Why, then, do so few of them learn foreign languages, or, if they have, do not use those languages in their research? Perhaps it is a lack of confidence. Or perhaps many students can read a language, but slowly, and fear getting bogged down in large amounts of foreign sources.

But the fact remains that someone who claims to be researching, say, Latin American relations ought to be able to handle some Spanish language sources. We urge all students to use whatever foreign tongues they have in their thesis research, even if it is just translating one book or a couple of articles. It vastly increases the sources at your disposal—and magnifies your credibility.

6. Evaluation

How will you be graded on your thesis? What are the methods of evaluation? Needless to say, your grade for the INTR 390/391 seminars will be determined by your seminar leader. He or she may factor in your performance on assignments along the way such as outlines or class presentations. But the largest factor in your grade will be the thesis itself—judged in terms of its content and its writing style and presentation.

Evaluating the content of a senior thesis can be likened to the judging of a diver or gymnast: how difficult is the dive or routine attempted? How well is it performed? Thus, your topic should be challenging (and therefore interesting to both you and your audience), but not so difficult that you cannot do an elegant job. The A paper, not to mention a Palmer Prize competitor, is one that requires imaginative formulation and research, presents its evidence in a clear and compelling fashion, and is well-organized, well-written, and buttressed with the proper academic apparatus (footnotes, bibliography, etc.). Of course, you cannot know for certain how difficult a given topic will prove to be. So do not be afraid to make adjustments in mid-semester. If you find that your chosen subject is too broad or complicated, narrow it down as you go. If you find that your subject is proving to be too easy, or you discover a more relevant or sophisticated approach to your topic, then change or expand your focus. In every case, aim at realizing your full potential. The goal is a senior thesis of which you—and we—can be proud.

Prior senior theses and Palmer Prize winners are available in the I.R. common room for your perusal. The titles and topics of the theses available in the I.R. Common Room is available as an Excel spreadsheet from the I.R. Program Webpage. The theses themselves are currently being compiled for online access.

The senior thesis is ultimately an exercise in expression. Some students have the idea that writing is something to be taken seriously in English classes, but not in other humanities or social science courses. Nothing could be further from the truth. Writing (or speaking) is not one academic subject among many: it is the medium of communication through which almost all knowledge is conveyed. It does not matter how brilliant your ideas may be if you cannot express those ideas to another person in clear and effective language. Imagine the frustration of losing a case in court because your dumb lawyer is incapable of getting your point across to the judge or jury. In academic writing you are your own "lawyer"—you must build a strong case, but also find the best means of communicating that case to your audience.

Like it or not, that means you must take your writing seriously. State your argument clearly, marshal your evidence in a rational way, employ good English grammar and correct spelling and punctuation. Above all, revise your first draft carefully and proofread at every step.

There is no way to summarize here all the elements of good English style, nor can we turn you into an excellent writer overnight. But here are some standard tips:

• Strive for crisp, clear, punchy sentences rather than long-winded, run-on sentences.
• Read over your sentences and ask yourself: "Did I say what I mean, and did I do it in the most economical, elegant way?"
• Try to use vivid verbs and nouns instead of adjectives and adverbs: "Gorbachev procrastinated" is much punchier than "Gorbachev was apparently not able to make up his mind".
• Avoid the passive voice whenever possible.
• Avoid all colloquial words or phrases (including contractions). Don't use "don't". "Very" is very bad form.
•   Avoid split infinitives: "to boldly go" is not good English.
• Avoid repetition or redundancy.
• If you open a subordinate clause with a comma, close it with a comma.
• Use semi-colons sparingly: a hyphen, full colon, or even a new sentence is usually better.
• Make sure your pronouns have clear and correct antecedents. If you refer to "the French government" in one sentence, you cannot use the plural "they" in the next.
• Be alert for dangling modifiers. "Having strong trade relations with her Commonwealth partners, the E.E.C. did not appeal to Britain" is wrong!
• Learn your plurals and possessives! "the Contra's M-16" is the possessive singular; “the Contras have M-16s" is plural; "the Contras' M-16s were defective" is possessive plural.

One of the toughest lessons to learn is when to quote. Students tend to over-quote because they are concerned with "proving" their point. But too many quotations—especially long, indented ones—break up the flow of the text and put the reader to sleep. In most cases, therefore, paraphrase your source and footnote it just as if it were a quotation. By summarizing in your own words, you are doing the reader a favor.

When should you quote? First, when the point you are making is controversial or not generally known so that the reader might not believe you unless your information comes "from the horse's mouth." Second, when the person you are quoting has said something so perfectly, so powerfully that you would really damage the point by paraphrasing. Third, when the way in which something was expressed—for instance, the precise language used—is part of the point you want to make. Fourth, for dramatic effect.

There is another reason why students tend to overquote: paranoia about plagiarism. But if you footnote your source for an idea or interpretation you are covered, whether or not you quote. Plagiarism is not a complicated, technical concept—it is a simple, ethical one. It means misrepresenting the ideas or labor of someone else as your own. Your conscience, not some elaborate set of rules, tells you that you are cheating. If you get an idea from a secondary source, cite that source. It may seem to undercut the originality of what you are saying, but in fact it will only strengthen your credibility.

Of course it is disappointing to find that someone else has had the same idea as you—especially if you came to your conclusion independently. But if you fail to mention the "someone else" in your notes, you only arouse suspicion. If you do mention the other author, and perhaps have found additional evidence to support the idea you share, you make a real and honest contribution.

(Needless to say, plagiarism of a blatant variety will be investigated and punished. Do not let momentary desperation about the thesis even to tempt you to buy an essay, copy sections out of a published book or article, submit a paper or large sections of a paper you have done for another class, or substitute an essay written by another student. At best, you will flunk the seminar. At worst, you will be subject to university discipline.)

Do not get hung up on rules of style when you write your first draft—it will be enough just to get your ideas and information down on paper. But when you revise, keep the stylistic tips in mind and play the role of a tough editor of your own work. For there is no piece of writing that cannot be cut, no sentence that cannot be improved.

All senior theses should conform to the same "stylesheet" regarding format. Theses should be printed, double-spaced, with a left margin of 1 1/2 inches and a right margin of 1 inch. Use a 10 or 12 point font on your printer. Standard academic form should be employed for footnotes and bibliography. Sections within the essay should be set off by bold faced or underlined subtitles centered on the page. Do not use "chapters" or Roman numerals.

Submit a single copy of your final draft—unbound, unstapled and secured by alligator clips. Submit a second copy electronically as an Adobe PDF document. This allows us to copy papers for review by the prize committee and to bind prize-winning essays ourselves.

Examples of the thesis title page form, footnote form, and bibliography form follow.

The Effects of Climate Change

The effects of human-caused global warming are happening now, are irreversible for people alive today, and will worsen as long as humans add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

• We already see effects scientists predicted, such as the loss of sea ice, melting glaciers and ice sheets, sea level rise, and more intense heat waves.
• Scientists predict global temperature increases from human-made greenhouse gases will continue. Severe weather damage will also increase and intensify.

Earth Will Continue to Warm and the Effects Will Be Profound

Global climate change is not a future problem. Changes to Earth’s climate driven by increased human emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases are already having widespread effects on the environment: glaciers and ice sheets are shrinking, river and lake ice is breaking up earlier, plant and animal geographic ranges are shifting, and plants and trees are blooming sooner.

Effects that scientists had long predicted would result from global climate change are now occurring, such as sea ice loss, accelerated sea level rise, and longer, more intense heat waves.

The magnitude and rate of climate change and associated risks depend strongly on near-term mitigation and adaptation actions, and projected adverse impacts and related losses and damages escalate with every increment of global warming.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Some changes (such as droughts, wildfires, and extreme rainfall) are happening faster than scientists previously assessed. In fact, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) — the United Nations body established to assess the science related to climate change — modern humans have never before seen the observed changes in our global climate, and some of these changes are irreversible over the next hundreds to thousands of years.

Scientists have high confidence that global temperatures will continue to rise for many decades, mainly due to greenhouse gases produced by human activities.

The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment report, published in 2021, found that human emissions of heat-trapping gases have already warmed the climate by nearly 2 degrees Fahrenheit (1.1 degrees Celsius) since 1850-1900. 1 The global average temperature is expected to reach or exceed 1.5 degrees C (about 3 degrees F) within the next few decades. These changes will affect all regions of Earth.

The severity of effects caused by climate change will depend on the path of future human activities. More greenhouse gas emissions will lead to more climate extremes and widespread damaging effects across our planet. However, those future effects depend on the total amount of carbon dioxide we emit. So, if we can reduce emissions, we may avoid some of the worst effects.

The scientific evidence is unequivocal: climate change is a threat to human wellbeing and the health of the planet. Any further delay in concerted global action will miss the brief, rapidly closing window to secure a liveable future.

Here are some of the expected effects of global climate change on the United States, according to the Third and Fourth National Climate Assessment Reports:

Future effects of global climate change in the United States:

U.S. Sea Level Likely to Rise 1 to 6.6 Feet by 2100

Global sea level has risen about 8 inches (0.2 meters) since reliable record-keeping began in 1880. By 2100, scientists project that it will rise at least another foot (0.3 meters), but possibly as high as 6.6 feet (2 meters) in a high-emissions scenario. Sea level is rising because of added water from melting land ice and the expansion of seawater as it warms. Image credit: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0

Climate Changes Will Continue Through This Century and Beyond

Global climate is projected to continue warming over this century and beyond. Image credit: Khagani Hasanov, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Hurricanes Will Become Stronger and More Intense

Scientists project that hurricane-associated storm intensity and rainfall rates will increase as the climate continues to warm. Image credit: NASA

More Droughts and Heat Waves

Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves (periods of abnormally hot weather lasting days to weeks) are projected to become more intense, and cold waves less intense and less frequent. Image credit: NOAA

Longer Wildfire Season

Warming temperatures have extended and intensified wildfire season in the West, where long-term drought in the region has heightened the risk of fires. Scientists estimate that human-caused climate change has already doubled the area of forest burned in recent decades. By around 2050, the amount of land consumed by wildfires in Western states is projected to further increase by two to six times. Even in traditionally rainy regions like the Southeast, wildfires are projected to increase by about 30%.

Changes in Precipitation Patterns

Climate change is having an uneven effect on precipitation (rain and snow) in the United States, with some locations experiencing increased precipitation and flooding, while others suffer from drought. On average, more winter and spring precipitation is projected for the northern United States, and less for the Southwest, over this century. Image credit: Marvin Nauman/FEMA

Frost-Free Season (and Growing Season) will Lengthen

The length of the frost-free season, and the corresponding growing season, has been increasing since the 1980s, with the largest increases occurring in the western United States. Across the United States, the growing season is projected to continue to lengthen, which will affect ecosystems and agriculture.

Global Temperatures Will Continue to Rise

Summer of 2023 was Earth's hottest summer on record, 0.41 degrees Fahrenheit (F) (0.23 degrees Celsius (C)) warmer than any other summer in NASA’s record and 2.1 degrees F (1.2 C) warmer than the average summer between 1951 and 1980. Image credit: NASA

Arctic Is Very Likely to Become Ice-Free

Sea ice cover in the Arctic Ocean is expected to continue decreasing, and the Arctic Ocean will very likely become essentially ice-free in late summer if current projections hold. This change is expected to occur before mid-century.

U.S. Regional Effects

Climate change is bringing different types of challenges to each region of the country. Some of the current and future impacts are summarized below. These findings are from the Third 3 and Fourth 4 National Climate Assessment Reports, released by the U.S. Global Change Research Program .

• Northeast. Heat waves, heavy downpours, and sea level rise pose increasing challenges to many aspects of life in the Northeast. Infrastructure, agriculture, fisheries, and ecosystems will be increasingly compromised. Farmers can explore new crop options, but these adaptations are not cost- or risk-free. Moreover, adaptive capacity , which varies throughout the region, could be overwhelmed by a changing climate. Many states and cities are beginning to incorporate climate change into their planning.
• Northwest. Changes in the timing of peak flows in rivers and streams are reducing water supplies and worsening competing demands for water. Sea level rise, erosion, flooding, risks to infrastructure, and increasing ocean acidity pose major threats. Increasing wildfire incidence and severity, heat waves, insect outbreaks, and tree diseases are causing widespread forest die-off.
• Southeast. Sea level rise poses widespread and continuing threats to the region’s economy and environment. Extreme heat will affect health, energy, agriculture, and more. Decreased water availability will have economic and environmental impacts.
• Midwest. Extreme heat, heavy downpours, and flooding will affect infrastructure, health, agriculture, forestry, transportation, air and water quality, and more. Climate change will also worsen a range of risks to the Great Lakes.
• Southwest. Climate change has caused increased heat, drought, and insect outbreaks. In turn, these changes have made wildfires more numerous and severe. The warming climate has also caused a decline in water supplies, reduced agricultural yields, and triggered heat-related health impacts in cities. In coastal areas, flooding and erosion are additional concerns.

1. IPCC 2021, Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis , the Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

2. IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

3. USGCRP 2014, Third Climate Assessment .

4. USGCRP 2017, Fourth Climate Assessment .

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A Degree of Difference

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What’s the difference between climate change and global warming?

“Global warming” refers to the long-term warming of the planet. “Climate change” encompasses global warming, but refers to the broader range of changes that are happening to our planet, including rising sea levels; shrinking mountain glaciers; accelerating ice melt in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic; and shifts in flower/plant blooming times.

Is it too late to prevent climate change?

Humans have caused major climate changes to happen already, and we have set in motion more changes still. However, if we stopped emitting greenhouse gases today, the rise in global temperatures would begin to flatten within a few years. Temperatures would then plateau but remain well-elevated for many, many centuries.

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