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Distinctive Competence and Organizational Performance

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Effects of ICT on Teaching and Learning Process in the 21st Century

A proposal on ministerial experiences in divorce. a case study of some selected clergy, data security using firewall, artificial neural networks, neuromorphic computing, impact of entrepreneurial orientation on smes survival potential in lagos state, user’s perceptions of social media coverage of sports activities: a case study of facebook, critical study of real estate returns in nigeria, the impacts of typescripts on the performance of secretaries in akanu ibiam federal polytechnic unwana, factors associated with substance abuse among youths in anambra east lga. anambra state, evaluating the effect of administrative planning processes on teaching and learning outcomes outcome in selected faculties in university of ilorin, an assessment of the use of social media in the campaign against the spread of corona virus disease in portharcourt city lga, effect of reference and information services in selected academic libraries in adamawa state, the impact of electricity to business and national development (a case study of sokoto state), assessment of environmental practice among citizens of konduga local government area, borno state, nigeria, automation of library services for users’ satisfaction. a case study of american university yola and adamawa state polytechnic libraries., client satisfaction among attendees of general hospitals in lagos state, impact of celebrity endorsement on consumer buying behavior a case of adonko company limited, introduction to animal production, an assessment of environmental sanitation in the control of mosquito breeding site in jos north, commercialization of plantain business in porthacourt, pregnancy induced hypertension in women in lagos state, factors militating against anti corruption war under president muhammad buhari administration 2015-2021, design and implementation of operating system teaching website, impact of advertising on sales performance of a brewery company, impact of exchange rate on the volume of import in nigeria (1986-2020), the impact of advertising in the development of the mass media in nigeria, assessment of the level of technology adoption in construction industry in nigeria, the factors responsible for poor infrastructural development of local churches in nigeria, attitude of university students towards examination malpractice and its implication on effective learning, assessment of online covid 19 vaccine educational messages on youth behavior, knowledge, risk and challenges of waste handlers in selected tertiary health institutions in ekiti state, the influence of mtv base musical programme on the dressing pattern of absu students, strategies for managing industrial conflicts in an organization, the study of greenkapital energy gwarinpa fct, evaluation of the level of awareness of the dangers associated with anemia in pregnancy, assessment of the performance of the state security network in selected states of southwest nigeria case study of amotekun in lagos state, academic repository as means for successful students research work, midwives attitude and its effect towards the clients at the antenatal clinic unit, determination of copper concentration in pond water in delta state ozoro, effect of agriculture waste and inorganic fertilizer on polluted soil, examination of the duties of the employer and employee under the nigerian employment law, factors militating against the practice of aseptic technique at the ward level, the role of radio broadcast in rural development, effect of ethical practices on the financial reporting of deposit money banks in nigeria, impact of students access to career guidance and counseling on career choice of senior secondary school students, assessment of health care workers compliance on covid19 protocols at specialist hospital bauchi, roles of local government and community development in enugu state, analysis cost-estimating methods, effect of co-operative learning on secondary school students’ achievement and interest in chemistry, impact of coronavirus pandemic on small and medium enterprises in anambara state, impact of teacher’s qualification and suitability on student’s achievements in physics, the effect of unemployment on the mental health of youths in nigeria, impact of cyber security and forensic accounting techniques on fraud detection in nigeria, political leadership and infrastructural development in nigeria. a study case of buhari’s administration 2015-2019, impact of human resources management on local performance, advertisement and consumer brand preference of deposit money banks, a proposal on dutch disease and resource curse in nigeria a case of capital inflow, improvement needs of practical skills acquisition in kano state technical colleges, a legal opinion on regulatory review or legislative in the nigeria electricity supply industry, evaluation of vocational rehabilitation services for persons with physical disabilities in beautiful gate handicap people’s centre jos, determination of stature from arm span among students of benue state university, an assessment of electronic waste management disposal in onitsha main market, the use of innovative ict facilities for effective teaching of business education in michael okpara university of agriculture, historical analysis of academic programmer of department of fine and applied arts in umar suleiman college of education gashuar 1987-2017.

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CIVIL SOCIETY AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN BENIN CITY

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Factors Affecting The Choice Of Language In A Multilingual Society

Role of entrepreneurship education in solving unemployment in nigeria (a case stud of ijebu-ode local government, willingness to practice agriculture as a career among agricultural undergraduates in kebbi state, effect of pollution to the society it’s causes and effects (a case study of enugu metropolis).

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Investigating The Impact Of Internet Advertising On A Success Of A Brand

Knowledge attitude and practice of youths towards drug abuse, impact of government spending on agricultural sector in nigeria, life stressors as the risk factor of suicidal behavior among adolescent and counseling implications, determinant of the spread of hiv/aids among youth in north, impact of electricity to business and national development, assessment of crescent university management communication strategies against drug abuse, economic effect of cheating petrol pump attendant to motorists, an examination of leadership styles and their effectiveness in the organization performance ( a case study of birnin kebbi local government), influence of loss of social clubs in schools on students involvement in anti-social group, water hygiene and enhancement strategies among pregnant women attending antenatal care, the role of the united states in world affairs after september 9/11: a case study of african politics, assessment of privatization policy of public companies in nigeria, “interest rate deregulation and the impact on profitability of commercial banks”., effective internal control system as a means of fraud prevention and detection in hospital management, assets valuation and its effect on the financial statements of manufacturing companies a study of obajana cement industry, kogi state, partnership business and its control button to the economics development and growth of nigeria, problems and prospect of marketing petroleum products in nigeria, changing the trend of voters apathy through political communication, loan granting and its recovery problems on commercial banks, the effect of leadership style on organizational performance, study on public relation as a veritable tools for eradicating cultism in nigeria tertiary institution, the effect of social media on practice of public relation, effect of retirement on psychosocial and physical well being of the elderly in ibadan, psychosocial effect of single parenthood on adolescent self concept, a legal examination of the role of taxation in revenue generation and economic development in nigeria, a critical analysis of the cybercrime law in nigeria, assessment of the status, challenges and prospects of campus radio in nigeria, the review of challenges and prospect of public procurement act 2007 in the execution of construction projects in nigeria, an assessment of the effect of organizational culture on the performance of quantity surveying firms in nigeria, alcoholism and drug abuse in nigeria and the role of christianity in curbing this menace, an investigation into the effectiveness of faith in the life of a christian in nigeria, church planting in nigeria: issues and prospects, consequences of polygamous marriage on christian home, corruption in church its consequences and wayforward, sheikh adamd lemu contribution to the development of islam activities in nigeria, his dawal activities as a case study., history of religious violence in nigeria (a case study of kaduna and plateau states), healing through deliverance, impacts of christianity in nnewi anambra state, influence of religious belief on political participation in south west, marketing of church services in a contemporary, the biblical examination of factors responsible for divisions in the churches, the christian life in the society: a case study of the early believers, ammeliorative properties of methanol leaf extract of mucuna pruriens on the kidney markers of malaria infected mice, comparative assessment of lubricant produce from palm kernel oil and tonimas lubricating oil, comparative determination of protein contents of breadfruit, brown beans and soybeans, determination of the presence and concentration of some phytochemicals in avocado pear (persea americana mill) seed, determination of the level of ethanol in alcoholic beverages produced in nigeria as an indication for safety standard, design and construction of an eletronic digital display system (moving message display), construction of a simple dynamo, construction of 12 volts battery charger, ethanol production from yam (discorea spp) peels, examine the presence and concentration of some phytochemicals in avocado pear (persea americana mill) seed, incidence of urinary schistosomiasis and the contributory risk factors among school children in agulu., production of mosquito repellent using orange peels, biocontrol potential of bacillus thuringiensis isolaled from soil samples against larva of mosquito, design and implementation of electronic billboard, the use of computer in civil engineering.

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The Extraction Of Managanese (Iv) Ion From Aqueous Media Using 1-Phethyl-3-Methyl Pyrazolone-5

Renal protective effect of ginger on wistar albino rat fed with drinking water containing nitrate, isolation and preliminary characterisation of column eluates from the leaf of vernonia amygdalina, effect of contact time on the adsorption of methylene blue onto almond shell, comparative physico-chemical analysis of sealed and road side engine oils sold within port harcourt, rivers state, nigeria, bioremediation of oil-contaminated soil using emulsifier (liquid soap), npk fertilizer and microbial (bacillus sp) treatment, refining of palm kernel oil, enhancement of cellulosic ethanol production through aspergillus niger modification, effect of particle size on oil yield using scent bean seed (‘ozaki’), assessment of carbon monoxide (co) level in enugu metropolis monitoring industrial and residential area.

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• v.7(9); 2021 Sep

Systematic review of climate change impact research in Nigeria: implication for sustainable development

a Department of Animal Science, College of Agricultural Sciences, Landmark University, P.M.B. 1001 Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria

d Institute of Aquaculture, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Stirlingshire FK9 4LA, UK

B.M. Falana

h Landmark University SDG 14 (Life Below Water Research Group), Nigeria

S.O. Solaja

b Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, College of Agricultural Sciences, Landmark University, P.M.B. 1001 Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria

g Landmark University SDG 13 (Climate Action Research Group), Nigeria

S.O. Yakubu

f Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Federal University Gashua, PMB 1005, Yobe State, Nigeria

B.T. Okikiola

B.t. adesina, b.e. tokula.

c Department of Chemistry, College of Pure and Applied Sciences, Landmark University, P.M.B. 1001 Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria

A.K. Kipchumba

e Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Stirlingshire FK9 4LA, UK

Associated Data

Data included in article/supplementary material/referenced in article.

There is evidence that Nigeria is already experiencing environmental challenges attributed to climate change (CC) and its impacts. This has clearly highlighted the need for knowledge-based strategies to help plan adequate mitigation and adaptation measures for the country. One of the basic requirements to ensure such strategies is the development of a database of national CC research. This will aid in the assessment of past and present scientific publications from which directions for future study can be mapped. The present study used standard, systematic, and bibliographic literature reviews to analyse the trend, focus, spatial variability, and effectiveness of published research on CC impacts in Nigeria. Four thematic areas of CC impact research were defined: Agriculture, Environment, Human and Multi-disciplinary study. A total of 701 articles were found to be relevant and the review shows that CC impacts and adaptations in the literature vary across research categories and locations. The period between 2011 (68 studies) and 2015 (80 studies) showed a tremendous rise in CC impact research with a peak in 2014 (84 studies). Studies in the agriculture category had the highest publications in 23 States of Nigeria. The review revealed three research gaps: (1) lack of research that investigated the magnitude of present and potential future impacts in the aquatic environment (2) little attention on CC impacts and adaptation in the Northern regions of Nigeria (3) absence of study investigating the effects of multiple variables of CC at the same time. The findings suggest that it would be useful to advance CC research in Nigeria beyond perceptive approaches to more quantitative ones. This is particularly important for highly vulnerable animals, crops, locations, and for better planning of adaptation strategies.

Adaptive capacity, Climate actions, Coping strategy, Mitigation, Resilience, Socio-ecological systems.

1. Introduction

The impacts of climate change (CC) have been experienced globally, especially in the tropics ( Idowu et al., 2011 ; Williams et al., 2018 ). These have triggered a wide variety of physical and biological changes across the world with negative effects on agriculture, humans, and the environment ( IPCC, 2014 ). It is important to note that while the vulnerability to CC impacts is higher in lower-middle- and low-income countries, particularly Africa, the readiness to improve resilience ranks very low in such countries ( ND-GAIN, 2021 ). A recent report, for example, shows that Nigeria is one of the top ten of the most exposed countries to the effects of CC, with about 6% of its land area estimated to be exposed to extreme weather events ( World Bank, 2019 ). A significant increase in rural-urban migration ( Cattaneo and Massetti, 2019 ) and reduced streamflow ( Akinwumi et al., 2020 ), among other impacts of CC in Nigeria, have also been documented.

Several incidences of environmental change in Nigeria include drought, flood, irregular rainfall pattern, deforestation ( Audu et al., 2013 ; Elias and Omojola, 2015 ; Onyekuru and Marchant, 2016 ), desert encroachment, and housing problems ( Olaniyi et al., 2019 ). And just like in India, Sudan, and other top vulnerable countries, these have significantly influenced land use and land cover, human health, and livelihoods in the country with little or no indication of appropriate adaptation plans ( Jibrillah et al., 2018 ; Pandey et al., 2018 ; Olaniyi et al., 2019 ; Omerkhil et al., 2020 ; Giri et al., 2021 ).

In the Southern areas of Nigeria (predominantly known for high rainfall), vegetation is currently grappling with fluctuations in the sequence of rainfall. In the savanna vegetation zone, severe heat waves are seriously confronting the area. Similarly in the Sahel region, there is a risk of losing about 30 ha of cropland per year to desertification ( Obioha, 2008 ; Ragatoa et al., 2019 ). In the same vein, it is evident that Nigeria's water and wetland supplies have been impacted by climate fluctuations. Many large water bodies are experiencing marked reductions in flow rate and network length in reaction to decreased rainfall and higher evapotranspiration ( Obioha, 2008 ). These have in turn impacted crop and animal productivity both directly and indirectly ( Fitton et al., 2019 ).

Crop production occupies approximately 94% of Nigeria's agricultural sector. CC impact is significant in this category as some regions of the country already suffer about a 20% decline in the cycle of growing days ( Ebele and Emodi, 2016 ). Moreover, many forest resources are also gradually going extinct due to CC impacts ( Onyekuru and Marchant, 2016 ). By 2050, Jones and Thornton (2003) predicted that crop harvests in Africa will be as low as 50% due to CC impacts. Consequently, increased risk of low output, crop loss, and death of livestock are also expected ( Morton, 2007 ; Harvey et al., 2014 ). In animal production, the soaring temperature has affected productivity, especially poultry, swine, cattle sheep, and goats. About 15% reduction in production has been reported per annum ( Idowu et al., 2011 ; Gbenga et al., 2020 ).

Apart from agriculture and environmental impacts, CC constitutes a threat to humans with diverse negative social and health impacts ( Pittock, 2005 ). In coastal areas of the world, sea-level rise at 2m could result in ‘ forced displacement ’ of about 187 million people by 2100, and up to 430 million at 6m rise ( Rowley et al., 2007 ; Nicholls et al., 2011 ). In Africa, about 75 to 50 million individuals will be prone to increased effects caused by weather extremes by 2022 ( IPCC, 2007 ). In Nigeria, available literature shows that about 27–53 million people in the coastal area have been displaced due to sea-level rise ( USAID, 2012 ).

On human health, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that at least 150,000 deaths each year could be traced to the outcome of CC. Moreover, this figure is expected to double by 2030 with connections to flooding and water-related diseases ( WHO, 2021 ). Studies have claimed that climate change-related torrential flooding has led to disease outbreaks in various regions of the globe ( Lisle, 1995 ; Rose et al., 2000 ). Consequently, the Nigerian population could be exposed to such threats.

The impacts of CC experienced in the developed countries are less serious compared to the developing countries ( Maikasuwa, 2013 ). Although the developed countries are the key contributors, they have over the years developed advanced adaptation technologies, productive research, and working institutional policies. This has enabled adequate adaptive responses and reduced the outcomes of CC effects ( Jagtap, 2007 ; Enete and Amusa, 2010 ; Ebele and Emodi, 2016 ; Elum and Momodu, 2017 ). In developing nations like Nigeria, these modern adaptation technologies are limited. This informed this study to further investigate CC adaptation strategies, their effectiveness, and implications.

Considering the fact that the impacts of CC are not uniform throughout the globe, it is imperative to understand the situation at different spatial scales. Although several studies have assessed CC impacts across Nigeria, it is as important to assess how the research evolved and whether it reflects the level of preparedness towards projected future trends. Our aim, therefore, is to assess the status of research on the impact of CC in Nigeria. We also analyze the trend, focus, spatial variability, and effectiveness of CC research and adaptation strategies in Nigeria. Through this analysis, we aim to identify the current research gap, and the findings are expected to present a baseline from which further research should be considered. It is hoped that such contributions will help to better guide research towards boosting the resilience of food and environmental systems for sustainable development.

This study is organized thus: In section 1 , we introduce the research topic and gave an overview of the CC Impact research in Nigeria. Next, we explain the methodology and criteria for study inclusion and exclusion. Section 3 reports the results: the trend of publications, the geographical distribution of research, most published theme/categories, analysis of selected documents, methods employed for CC research, adaptation strategies, and constraints reported. Section 4 discusses the underlying trends, what the methodology mostly employed implies, and implications for projected threats. We also reflect on the local impacts and discuss the adaptation strategies, their effectiveness, and implications on sustainable development.

2. Methodology

2.1. study design.

A mixed methods research design ( Robson and McCartan, 2016 ) was used in this study. This included a literature search, systematic and bibliographic review of literature, literature assessment, and analysis of secondary data from published studies on CC impacts in Nigeria.

2.2. Literature search methodology

An electronic literature search was conducted using ISI Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. To establish the state of knowledge on the impacts of CC in Nigeria, a systematic review of the literature was conducted. This was with reference to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) procedures ( Moher et al., 2009 ).

The search period was set to 1960–2019 in an attempt to capture all possible articles (book chapters, encyclopedia, conference abstracts, and info, likewise editorials were not included). To identify the trend, distribution, and focus of published studies, a literature assessment was conducted. This was then used in data categorization and analysis of relevant studies obtained during the study period.

The terms “climate change AND Nigeria”, “global warming AND Nigeria”, were used to obtain primary publications from the search databases between January 1960 and December 2019. The literature search was conducted in “Topics” for ISI Web of Science and in “Article title, Abstract, and Keywords” for the Scopus database; set at “All years” with no language restriction.

Scopus database search revealed 1132 items, while the ISI Web of Science database revealed 592 items. Additional search from Google Scholar revealed 1371 items. A step-by-step overview of the procedure followed for data search and collection is presented in Figure 1 .

A step-by-step overview of the procedure followed for data search and collection.

2.3. Eligibility criteria

For a study to be included as relevant, it was expected that the report would have examined the effects or impacts of CC. Such studies could be in any part of the country, regardless of the study characteristics. Studies considered for inclusion were required to address a specific impact posed by CC within and across all sectors in Nigeria. For a study to be excluded, there were absence of a concrete connection to CC or “No connection with climate change”. Another reason for study exclusion was having a “false positive” result. This criterion included studies conducted on CC that did not have any connection to impacts of CC. Such excluded studies focussed solely on the general subject of CC. Studies found in other sources such as; books, book chapters, conference abstracts and info, as well as editorials, classified here as “Others”, were also excluded from this study. Table 1 showed an overview of the criteria for study exclusion.

Table 1

Overview of criteria for inclusion and exclusion of studies.

2.4. Study selection

Study selection was conducted after duplicate reference items (793) were removed. Manual screening was then conducted for the remaining 2302 reference items by reading the titles and abstracts alone or after full-text assessment. After screening and full text assessment, reference items that did not meet the study inclusion eligibility requirements (1207 items) were rejected. Any discordance on the eligibility of studies was resolved by an external expert. Full-text copies of studies that met the eligibility criteria (701 reference items) were then assessed accordingly.

2.5. Data collection and categorization

Relevant articles used were original research and review articles. Only original articles were considered for analysis of research efforts from states and regions. Four (4) CC impact research categories were defined in this study; Agriculture, Environment, Human, and Multi.

“Agriculture” category included studies of impacts of CC on animal and crop production. The “Environment” category comprised studies of impacts of CC on land and resources, water, and resources, built environment, etc. “Human” category included impacts of CC resulting to human disease, migration, conflicts, poverty, etc. Relevant studies were independently extracted and categorized accordingly. The detailed description of data according to category of study, research method, and impact reported can be found in the supplementary material.

2.6. Data analysis

Data collected was subjected to descriptive analysis using RStudio (version 3.5.2) open software, Microsoft Excel (2016), and ArcGIS 10.3.1. Quantitative data collected from the search databases were processed in Microsoft Excel (2016). This also involved manual data entry into the spreadsheet and data graphing accordingly. Analyses of most published research categories and distribution of research effort across the country were done using ArcGIS 10.3.1. For mapping of spatial distribution and most published research categories, values from each State were categorized. The values were entered for the different States and marked with different colours based on the categories. Administrative boundary of Nigeria was obtained from IGISMAP ( www.igismap.com ).

This section presents the results of the trend of publications, the geographical distribution of research, most published themes/categories, analysis of selected documents, methods employed for CC research, adaptation strategies, and constraints reported. The results below clearly indicated that CC has impacted agriculture, the environment, and humans. Vulnerable areas particularly the Northern regions of the country lacked adequate research efforts relative to understanding CC impacts. Further details are presented in the sections below.

3.1. Trend of publications on CC impacts research in Nigeria

The first publication obtained on CC impact during this study was in 1962 and was a multi-location study. However, no publication was obtained from 1963 to 1993 ( Figure 2 ). In 1994, only four studies on CC impact (reviews) were found, which stood as the highest number of publications until the early 2000s. The number of publications increased significantly from 2011 (68 studies) to a peak of 84 publications in 2014. This was a period that marked tremendous CC impact research in Nigeria, as observed in this study.

Trend of relevant publications on CC impacts in Nigeria from 1965 to 2019.

3.2. Spatial variation of CC impact research publications in Nigeria

Generally, the number of research publications on CC impact in different states increased from the Northern to the Southern region of Nigeria, with greater numbers found in the South-Western part. The least number of published studies (0–5) were obtained in 14 States. Of these States, the majority were from the North with 10 States, one each from the South-East (Ebonyi) and South-South, and two from the Middle belt ( Figure 3 ).

Distribution of research publications (original articles) on CC impacts in the 36 States and the FCT from 1962 to 2019.

Studies on CC impact in agriculture were the highest published research category in 23 States, including the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). This was followed by studies on more than one category, which was the highest published research category in 8 States ( Figure 4 ).

Most published research categories on CC impacts in Nigeria (1962–2019).

Also, 6 states had the Environment category with the highest publication. Articles on agriculture were the most published research category in Zamfara State, although this was the only publication obtained for the State. Agriculture was also the most published research category in all the South-Western States except for Lagos and Ogun States, which focused more on the environmental aspect of CC impact.

In Lagos, 18 out of 25 studies (72%) were on the aspect of environmental impact. Similarly, in Ogun State, 8 out of 13 (62%) were on the aspect of environmental impact. Further, 4 out of 7 (57%) studies in Plateau State were on the aspect of the environmental impact of CC. In Enugu State, 16 out of 19 (84%) were studies on the impact of CC on agriculture. Furthermore, 5 out of 11 (45%) were obtained in Anambra State, 11 out of 19 (58%) studies were obtained in Kwara State, and 6 out of 11 (55%) studies in Rivers State. 4 studies out of 6 (67%) were obtained in Niger State, and 10 out of 11 (91%) in Ekiti State were on the impacts of CC on agriculture. Summary of results obtained based on the number of original studies on CC impact and most published categories are presented in Table 2 .

Table 2

Summary of original research obtained for studies published in Nigeria (1962–2019).

3.3. Number of publications by geopolitical zones

Contributions from the geopolitical zones were conducted under the CC impact research categories defined in this study. Only research articles were considered here, and review articles were excluded from the geopolitical contributions. The results indicated that the South-West geopolitical zone had the highest contribution in all categories (agriculture, environment, and human impact studies) with 34%, 33%, and 35% respectively. This is presented in Figure 5 .

Contributions to CC impact research publications in Nigeria by Geopolitical zone (1962–2019).

In the agricultural impact category, South-East and North-Central geopolitical zones had 19% each of the total research contributions. The South-South had 13%, North-East had 9%, and the least was from the North-West, with 6%.

Studies on the impacts on the environment had 21% from the South-South, 18% from the North-Central, 12% from the South-East, 10% from the North-West, and 6% from the North-East. For studies on human impacts, the results were 21% for the South-South geopolitical zone, 16% for North-Central, and 9% each for South-East, North-East, and North-West. In total, 33% of the studies were from the South-West zone, followed by the North-Central zone (18%). South-South zone had (17%), South-East (16%), and the least was from the North-East and North-West zones with 8% each.

3.4. Most published research categories and trend of publication per category

Out of the 701 articles, studies on agriculture were the highest with 355 studies (51%). This was closely followed by studies on the environment with 236 studies (34%). In the Human impact category, a total number of 79 studies (11%) were obtained. The least was in the Multi category with 31 studies (4%) as shown in Figure 6 .

Number of CC impact research publications in Nigeria based on defined categories from original and review articles between 1962 and 2019.

There was a general fluctuation of the result for the trend of studies in the four categories of CC impact research and publications in Nigeria ( Figure 7 ).

Trend of CC research publications in Nigeria for each defined category between 1962 and 2019.

For the Agriculture impact category, there were fluctuations in the number of studies with peak publication in 2012 (53 studies in total). This was closely followed by 50 studies (2014), then 35 studies (2015). The first study obtained for this category was in 1999. Between 2010 and 2019, 329 out of the 355 articles were published (93%) compared to studies between 1999 and 2009 (7%).

In the Environment impact category, the first study was obtained in 1962 which is also recorded as the first study obtained in this research. 209 articles (89%) were published between 2010 and 2019 while 22 articles (9%) were published between 2000 and 2009. Peak publication for the Environment impact category was 2015 with 36 studies, followed by 31 studies in 2013 and 26 studies in 2011.

In the Human impact category, the first study was obtained in 2006. Peak publication was in 2013 and 2014 (12 studies), followed by 2016 and 2017 (8 studies). Between 2000 and 2009, 4 out of the 79 articles were published (5%), while 75 articles (95%) were published between 2010 and 2019. The summary of the result obtained for review articles is presented in Figure 8 .

Summary of review articles for each of the defined categories between 1962 and 2019.

The results showed that studies on the environment category had the highest reviews with 43 articles (39%). This was followed by reviews in the agriculture category with 36 articles (33%). Reviews in the Human impact category had 17 articles (16%), while reviews in the multi-disciplinary category were 13 (12%).

Results for studies under agriculture impact studies categories showed that 44 studies (12%) were on animal impacts, 218 Studies (61%) were on crops, while 78 studies (22%) were on both crops and animals. The remaining proportions were not available. This is presented in Figure 9 .

Summary of CC impact publications (1962–2019) in the agriculture category.

Under the “animal impact” category, most of the studies (43%) were on impacts on aquaculture and fisheries. Studies on the impacts of CC on poultry and livestock were 9% each. Multi studies and bees made up 7% and 5% respectively.

Results for studies under “crop impact” categories indicated that maize had 14% of the studies under crops. Cassava, rice, yam, cowpea, and sorghum had 14%, 13%, 8%, 5%, and 4% respectively. Groundnut and tomato had 3% each, while millet, ‘multi (more than one crop)’, and ‘others’ were 3%, 8%, and 25% respectively ( Figure 10 ).

Summary of CC impact publications (1962–2019) in environment and human impact categories.

Under the environmental impact category, 36% were studies on impacts on water and resources, 26% were on “Multi”, 18% were on “Built environment”, 11% were on “Land and resources”, while 9% were on “Others”. Results for the Human impact category showed that most of the studies (43%) were on impacts related to “Health and disease”. Studies on “Poverty” made up 30%, while “Conflict”, “Migration and settlement”, and “Multi” were 8%, 6%, and 13% respectively. The results of this study also showed that CC impact on crops, animals, water and resources, built environment, land and resources were the top 5 most researched CC sub-fields respectively in Nigeria.

3.5. Analysis of selected documents in detail

The study further examined CC impacts reported in the included studies. The result showed that most of the researchers used interviews, focus group discussions, assessments of meteorological time series, and questionnaires.

The two studies in the livestock category, each in the North and South of Nigeria, used survey methods for data collection (details found in the supplementary). Bidoli et al. (2012) collected responses from 105 participants, while Chah et al. (2018) reported 80 participants. Their findings were however similar, with impacts on reproduction being reported by participants in each study. In addition to the reported impacts, Bidoli et al. (2012) further ranked effects with reduced feed intake as uppermost and ranked increased mortality as the least important. Other notable impacts include pests and vectors ( Nwosu and Ogbu, 2011 ) and rearing changes ( Etim et al., 2013 ).

For the poultry category, two of the three studies used surveys, and both found significant changes in egg production. In the other ( Jeff-Agboola, 2015 ), an experiment was conducted by aqueous acetone and chloroform extraction method. It was found that climate change causes aflatoxin contamination through variations in location and seasons. Further significant impacts reported were reduced eggs and meat production, distribution and development of diseases ( Issa et al., 2008 ; Adesiji et al., 2013 ), and heat-related losses ( Liverpool-Tasie et al., 2019 ). Studies that focused on physiology such as impacts on metabolism (see Lee et al., 2021 ) and modelling in a typical commercial poultry house (see Izar-Tenorio et al., 2020 ), were unavailable.

In fish production, Obia et al. (2015) indicated late changes in fishing occupation. This report, however, was connected to unprecedented flooding attributed mainly to climate change. Highlights of other studies were changes in seasonality in fishing, loss of fishing input ( Adewale et al., 2017 ), increased access/distance to fishing grounds ( Ikehi et al., 2014 ), and low fish productivity ( Adebo and Ayelari, 2011 ).

In agriculture, Akomolafe et al. (2018) used Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Bound test approach to co-integrate and analyse the effects of climate change on agricultural productivity. The study projected an outbreak of heat-related diseases and water stress due to increased temperature. Given the predicted early cessation of rainfall, planting seasons were reported to be short; a situation that could lead to the possibility of food scarcity.

In maize production, a significant impact was observed to reduce maize productivity ( Obasi and Uwanekwu, 2015 ). Delayed onset of rainfall and unpredictable dry spells after planting, as well as early cessation, have also reduced maize yield ( Edem et al., 2016 ). Further, Craufurd and Wheeler (2009) reported late initiation of tassel due to an increase in temperature and temperature variability in maize and sorghum.

In cowpea, Oyerinde et al. (2013) observed that the population of insects associated with cowpea production increased on the field in a cropping season in response to changing climate. For rice, Ayinde et al. (2013) reported that a 1% increase in humidity reduced rice production by 17%, while a 1% increase in minimum temperature increased production by 52.3%. In cassava production, the number of roots, plant height, and fresh root yields varied among the seasons in response to climate change ( Eke-Okoro et al., 2009 ).

For cocoa, Lawal and Omonona (2014) reported a decrease in yield due to excessive rainfall. However, some physiological processes for pod production in cocoa improved as relative humidity and temperature increased. These studies were mostly conducted through surveys or modelling exercises. The general findings revealed that reduced cocoa yield and increased incidence of black pod disease were the most reported impact, while other impact domains were directly connected to rainfall distribution patterns relative to climate change. Other studies revealed a reduction in the yield of fluted pumpkin ( Ifeanyi-Obi et al., 2012 ) and oil palm ( Okoro et al., 2017 ). In another study, Ezihe et al. (2017) reported that a 1% increase in temperature would significantly decrease groundnut output in the long run.

Under the environment category, there were cases of desert encroachment, loss of wetlands, loss of biota resources, and rapid reduction in the amount of surface water ( Ebele and Emodi, 2016 ; Akande et al., 2017 ; Abdulkadir 2017 ). Other forms of impacts on the environment reported were; effects on infrastructures ( Adegoke and Sojobi, 2015 ), built environment ( Ede et al., 2013 ; Ezeabasili and Okonkwo, 2013 ), flooding ( Adeoye et al., 2009 ), coastal erosion and vegetation change ( Akinro et al., 2008 ). Climate change also resulted in freshwater scarcity ( Audu et al., 2013 ) and affected rural water supply ( Adebo and Sekumade, 2013 ), as well as soil degradation in the country ( Usman et al., 2013 ).

Studies under the ‘Human’ impact category showed that some parts of the Nigerian population have been impacted in the form of forced migration, and conflicts ( Dillon et al., 2011 ; Abbas, 2017 ). Specifically, conflicts encountered were connected to the Fulani herdsmen and host communities ( Folami and Akoko, 2010 ). The summary of the contents is presented in Table 3 . Detailed analysis of selected documents is available as a supplementary article of this study.

Table 3

Summary of CC impacts in animal, crop, environment, and human subcategories.

3.6. Methods employed for CC impact research in Nigeria

The study found that different research methods have been applied by authors to investigate the impacts of CC across the different categories. The results revealed that authors are highly motivated to implement survey methods than experimental and modelling research methods. A total of 20% applied secondary data and only 4% applied experiments (both laboratory and field) as shown in Table 4 .

Table 4

Summary of research methods employed in the included studies.

Study results further showed that secondary data were majorly sourced from government agencies and meteorological stations. The majority of studies that employed meteorological data were for periods of more than 20 years (e.g., Enete 2014 ; Nwaiwu et al., 2014 ; Akinbile et al., 2015 ; Mijinyawa and Akpenpuun, 2015 ; Nwagbara and Ibe, 2015 ; Obasi and Uwanekwu, 2015 ; Oluwole, 2015 ; Edem et al., 2016 ; Olayide and Tetteh, 2017 ; Adeagbo et al., 2019 ). A few studies employed meteorological data for 10–19 years (e.g., Ayinde et al., 2011 ; Ibitoye and Shaibu, 2014 ; Zakari et al., 2014 ); and less than 10 years (e.g., Ayinde et al., 2013 ; Olabiyi et al., 2017 ). Studies that employed climate variable data were similar in one way or the other except Ayanlade et al. (2017) . The study used ethnographic analysis, Rainfall Anomaly Index analysis, Cumulative Departure Index analysis, and correlation analysis to compare perceived impacts from farmers with meteorological data.

3.7. Adaptation strategies and constraints

Further analysis of included studies was conducted on adaptation strategies and associated constraints. The results show that many socio-economic, institutional, and geographic constraints limited adaptation capacity. Adaptation strategies mostly employed by fish farmers include; seeking early warning information, saving for the future, alternative businesses, and avoidance of areas susceptible to flooding ( Arimi, 2014 ; Adewale et al., 2017 ). However, Magawata and Ipinjolu (2013) recognized that mitigation measures in fisheries are limited and called for proper integration of fisheries and aquaculture into the national policy.

Other than the above, destocking, use of nutrient-dense diets, improved management practices, use of shade, use of drinking water, and water immersion/sprinkling was used in livestock production. Such strategies not only help in reducing certain environmental constraints but also improved physiological adaptation ( Esiobu and Onubuogu, 2014 ; Smiles et al., 2018 ). In poultry production, adaptation strategies employed include; stocking of local breeds, use of low energy bulbs, as well as air and water ventilation ( Liverpool-Tasie et al., 2019 ).

Other forms of adaptation strategies observed in this research were insurance, soil fertility improvement measures, mulching, use of improved varieties of crops, and change in planting/harvesting dates. Farmers also engaged in diversification, use of cover crops, change in planting date, and increase in farm size. Planting of cover crops, tree planting, drainage/flood barrier construction, application of agricultural chemicals, irrigation facilities, and irrigation of crops were also reported ( Ifeanyi-Obi, 2016 ; Iheke and Agodike, 2016 ). Figure 11 shows the links between CC and sustainable development, while a summary of the results of adaptation/coping strategies and constraints is presented in Table 5 . The detailed analysis is available as a supplementary article of this study.

Conceptual diagram showing links between CC and sustainable development through effective adaptation by addressing the identified constraints (After Bizikova et al., 2007 ).

Table 5

Summary of adaptation constraints reported across the categories.

4. Discussion

4.1. trend of cc impacts research publications in nigeria.

One way of disseminating knowledge for public awareness and government actions is through scientific research and publication of findings. It is a valuable tool for the development of any nation ( Khan, 2015 ; Okokpujie et al., 2018 ). On a global scale, academic research at varying degrees has tremendously contributed towards better policies, strategies, performance, and current innovations ( Hassan and Muazzam, 2013 ; Merigó and González, 2018 ).

Research and publications, being a significant source of key information for development do not only stand as a base for understanding CC impacts in context but are also applicable for future efforts and directions. Understanding trends in research is vital as it provides the basis for future orientation based on past and present efforts. Hence, the trend of research and publications in our study reflects academic institutional efforts geared towards the subject of discussion in Nigeria. However, our results may be subject to a number of factors that could influence why more, or fewer efforts are being directed towards research in CC impacts in Nigeria. Such factors include, but are not limited to, researchers’ interest and motivation, availability of grants and funding, and institutional platform ( Zain et al., 2011 ; Ghabban et al., 2019 ). These factors have been shown to impact scholarly publishing. Besides, the presence and number of the research institution(s) in a State, as well as the researchers in the subject field, also influence research and publication outcomes as outlined by Carayol and Matt (2004) .

The beginning of climate research and its impacts in Nigeria differs from those of other countries. It has been reported that late onsets of rains occurred in only a few areas between 1941 and 1970 ( Haider, 2019 ). Temperatures were significantly higher than normal since the 1980s, with relatively higher figures in 1973, 1987, and 1998 ( Enete, 2014 ; Federal Ministry of Environment, 2014 ). Further report of Haider (2019) indicated that late onsets of rains spread to most parts of the country from 1971 to 2000. This was in line with the results of our study where an extremely limited study on actual impacts was conducted. As impacts of CC were not pronounced, the interests of researchers might have been low. Besides, 1980 has been reported as the time when CC emerged as a new research field ( Haunschild et al., 2016 ). Between 2000 and 2017 however, several studies reported that Nigeria experienced climate extremes during this period ( Federal Government of Nigeria, 2013 ; Akande et al., 2017 ; Amanchukwu et al., 2015 ; Urama et al., 2019 ; Anabaraonye et al., 2019 ).

Within this period, our observed trend follows the global trend and corresponds with the increased number of publications. The literature growth during this period also agrees with the report of Grieneisen and Zhang (2011) , where the number of publications on CC tremendously increased. The tremendous growth of CC literature within the period (similarly reported on a global scale), is possibly induced by the increasing influence of the IPCC Assessment Reports, which ultimately made CC research a hot topic. These reports revealed a strong need for further research to ensure a better insight into the climate system and future impacts ( Haunschild et al., 2016 ).

On a global scale, our results did not compare with the growth rate of CC impact publications. Between 1980 – 2012, over 30,000 papers were published (0.01% from Nigeria). Similarly, our results did not compare with the growth rate of the overall CC science, which is extremely high ( Bornmann and Mutz, 2015 ; Haunschild et al., 2016 ). The total number of publications in Nigeria was exceptionally low compared to those obtained in the United States, UK, and China, etc. on the overall CC science. These countries have a long history of climate research, showed great interest, and have invested hugely in CC research. For instance, CC research is quantitatively dominated by the USA, followed by the UK. Also, between 2001 and 2005, over 2.5 billion RMB was invested in CC research in China through various technology development programs ( Li et al., 2011 ; Haunschild et al., 2016 ). This has comparatively put Nigeria on a lower cadre in relations to investments, findings, and preparedness towards future trends. Thus, the recent decline in research and publications could be alarming in comparison with how adequate the country is prepared for future impacts. This study also observed that the recent declines (particularly in the last ten years) were not connected with adequate research findings, programmes, and implemented strategies to mitigate future occurrences. The result, however, may be connected to personal and institutional factors earlier highlighted, which might significantly impact scientific publications.

It is well known that research and publication objectives are not a direct representation of demand-driven efforts to tackle specific issues. Nevertheless, they are vital as most players and stakeholders required to combat the issue of CC impacts are in the academia. Therefore, there is a need to intensify research in this direction, particularly in regions highly prone to impacts. This will adequately complement the national CC policy response and strategy. To achieve this, considerations should be taken on the factors earlier highlighted for more effectiveness.

4.2. CC impacts publications and contributions between states in Nigeria

There is no doubt that the variation in our results could be a function of the availability of research institutions, the population size of researchers, and other factors which do stimulate and influence research culture ( Tang et al., 2016 ). Our research confirmed that the years of institutional existence in the various States had a positive impact on the results of this study. For instance, more studies were obtained from relatively older institutions (e.g., the University of Ibadan, established in 1948) compared to the newly established ones.

In the Northern states, publications were relatively lower compared to the southern states. The result could probably be due to the higher number of academic institutions in the southern states (particularly the South-Western states). This would relatively mean more human resources, access to research facilities, and fundings.

4.3. CC impact publications and contributions between geopolitical zones in Nigeria

CC impact research, which is among the top 5 most researched CC subfields, is of high relevance and requires good attention, particularly in vulnerable regions ( Haunschild et al., 2016 ). Consequently, the relatively low level of research in the Northern part of the country could be alarming. In particular, the least research effort among the geopolitical zones was the North-East zone. This zone is already identified as a “hot spot” of CC impacts ( Diffenbaugh and Giorgi, 2012 ; Abdussalam, 2015 ). As earlier highlighted, most parts of the Northern states have already experienced significant impacts of CC ( Federal Ministry of Environment, 2014 ; Madu, 2016 ) and studies have indicated that the region (particularly, the North-East and the North-West) are the most vulnerable ( Busby et al., 2014 ; Haider, 2019 ). Therefore, these regions would require more attention and research investments to mitigate the likelihood of projected threats and vulnerability of livelihoods.

Factors earlier outlined for the Northern part explains why some parts of the Southern region had relatively sparse research in this study. However, this does not exempt the vulnerability of the region. Studies have shown that the South-East and South-West region are also vulnerable, although relatively less vulnerable compared to other regions of the country ( Haider, 2019 ; Merem et al., 2019 ). Comparatively, the South-South region remains the most vulnerable within Southern Nigeria ( Sayne, 2011 ; Federal Ministry of Environment, 2014 ; Matemilola et al., 2019 ). The Niger Delta region had been faced with myriads of environmental issues resulting from oil exploration activities ( Ite et al., 2013 ; Nwaichi et al., 2016 ). Thus, the current level of scientific research and publications in the entire Southern region does not reflect the required inputs for adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Moreover, the most significant CC impact identified in this study varied across the geopolitical zones. In the South-West, the most significant CC impact was coastal inundation, reduced crop yield, increased flooding, increased incidence of pests and diseases, and damage to building infrastructure. In the South-East, the most significant CC impacts were increased flooding, widespread erosion, low crop yield, and high incidence of pests and diseases. The South-South geopolitical region also experienced increased flooding, reduced crop yield, increased pests and diseases, and coastal inundation as the predominant impacts.

In the North-West, the most significant CC impacts were drought and water shortages, a decline in vegetation cover, decreased soil fertility, increased thermal sensation, and change in soil properties. There were limited studies across the North-East zone. However, significant among the impacts were low crop yield, increased thermal sensation, and forced migration. In the North-Central zone, low crop yield, drought, and increased thermal sensation were identified as prevalent.

4.4. Most published categories across states and regions

This study has observed that CC has adversely and diversely affected different sectors of the Nigerian society (notably agriculture, environment, and in some cases human). High attention on climate impacts on the agricultural sector could possibly be connected to its importance in sustaining livelihoods in the country. The sector affected determines the focus of impacts and this varies across states and regions, depending on the perceived sector of high vulnerability by researchers. From this study, the focus from the Northern and middle belt regions were on the impacts of CC on agriculture. This could be quite understandable as studies have shown that over 70% of the nation's population is directly involved in agricultural activities as their primary means of livelihood ( Shiru et al., 2019 ; Onwutuebe, 2019 ). Moreover, agriculture in the Northern and middle belt regions is highly susceptible, due to the predominance of rain-nourished agriculture as demonstrated by Atedhor (2015) . This observation, in addition to the substantial number of agricultural activities in the North, explained why most research and publications focused on this sector. Few notable exceptions in the North were Plateau and Sokoto states, which published more on the environmental aspect. This could be connected to high industrial activities and related environmental susceptibility of the states.

In the Southern region, notably Lagos, Edo, and Ogun states, industrial activities in these states could be a driving force for researchers. According to Shiru et al. 2019 , rapid population growth, and its commercial hub has caused insurmountable environmental challenges, including CC impacts on the built environment ( Ede et al., 2013 ). Other than these states, agriculture and other cottage activities form a major part of activities engaged by the population. In Oyo state, for example, agriculture has been described as the major occupation in most parts of the State ( Fasasi, 2007 ; Adebayo and Adeola, 2008 ). Hence, it was not surprising why research and publications tend to focus on this direction as impacts would relatively affect livelihoods more through agriculture. Similar motivations may be the drive of other states which were more inclined towards impacts on agriculture.

The top 5 most researched CC sub-fields in Nigeria are CC impact on crops, followed by impacts on animals, water and resources, built environment, and then land and resources. Multiple stressors on plants have increased as a result of climatic variability and environmental extremes. This has greatly affected crop production directly or indirectly in a number of ways. Direct impacts include morphological, physiological, and phenotypic changes, as well as plant productivity. Indirect impacts include soil fertility, drought, flood, heat, pests, and irrigation availability ( Thornton et al., 2014 ). Water deficit and temperature extremes also influence the reproductive phase of plant growth. It was discovered that CC suppressed crop development, resulted in crop withering during heatwave episodes, and decreased productivity ( Enete, 2014 ; Eludoyin et al., 2017 ). Ezihe et al. (2017) which had a significant effect on crop output, while Iloh et al. (2014) indicated decreased germination rate and root length of plantlets.

It is obvious that CC has negatively impacted the health and welfare of animals in Nigeria. A significant number of studies has previously shown that the projected CC will continue with negative effects on poultry, livestock, and aquatic species in Nigeria. These effects are suggested to be both direct and indirect on animals’ health and welfare. As highlighted in Lacetera (2019) , the primary direct effects may be due to increased temperatures and frequency and intensity of heatwaves, resulting in heat stress. Consequently, heat stress affects the health of animals by disrupting metabolism, generating oxidative stress, and suppressing the immune system, resulting in diseases and death. The indirect effects are mostly related to the quantity and quality of drinking water and feedstuffs, the distribution of pathogens and/or their vectors and their survival.

As earlier highlighted, CC can directly result in metabolic disorders and immune suppression. In order to avoid increased body temperature, homeothermic animals increase heat loss and reduce heat production in response to high temperatures. Such responses contribute to increased metabolic activities, decreased feed intake and subsequent metabolic disorders in heat-stressed animals. The function of the immune system may also be suppressed or impaired when animals are heat-stressed. Immune suppression exposes animals to infections, which reduces reproductive and production efficiency ( Belhadj Slimen et al., 2016 ). Bidoli et al. (2012) and Chah et al. (2018) indicated that CC reduced growth rate, increased incidence of parasites, reduced feed intake, reduced birth rate, and increased mortality rate of animals.

CC impacts on water and resources were the third most researched CC sub-fields in Nigeria. The key CC impacts on water and resources were alterations in precipitation patterns, increases in the frequency of flooding and droughts, and increases in temperature ( Lacetera 2019 ). As in animals, the impacts vary widely depending on the region in Nigeria. In higher temperatures, the hydrological cycle is intensified. The characteristics and severity of these impacts varied from region to region. For example, water shortages were observed in different areas across the country ( Oloruntade et al., 2017 ; Shiru et al., 2019 ). When this is combined with rising demand, the number of people at risk of water scarcity is likely to increase. CC also have significant impacts on seasonal variations in groundwater levels ( Ashaolu, 2015 ). Moreover, climate variation has also resulted in a significant impact on water yields in surface reservoirs. As a result, water availability becomes challenging. As CC increases the intensity and frequency of rainfall, there has been an increase in the incidence of flooding, increased water temperature, and coastal inundation which affects coastal aquatic life. In some regions, groundwater recharge has been affected by a decline in the availability of groundwater for drinking water.

The fourth most researched CC sub-field in Nigeria is CC impact on the built environment. Studies show that CC has not only had a significant impact on natural resources but also on human settlement and infrastructures. The reported effects of CC on the built environment included increasing thermal discomfort, flooding/urban drainage, and damage to infrastructures. In the future, buildings with reduced carbon dioxide emissions, improved ventilation, and those that provide a high-quality indoor environment, are imperative towards a sustainable built environment ( Celadyn, 2018 ; Sojobi and Zayed, 2021 ). In addition, weather data is also required to evaluate how water delivery systems and urban drainage would function in future ( Ezeabasili and Okonkwo, 2013 ).

Moreover, CC impact on land and resources completed the top 5 most researched CC sub-fields in Nigeria. In the forest zones, CC strongly influences species composition, frequency, the magnitude of disturbances, and forest productivity. The effects are mostly observed in the form of a decrease in diversity and forest productivity such as vegetation cover ( Ammer, 2019 ). In addition to the direct impact of CC on diversity and vegetation, the frequency and intensity of forest disturbances are also influenced by CC. Hence, timber production, species composition, carbon storage, and water yield are all affected ( Backlund et al., 2008 ). In Nigeria, Jibrilah et al. (2019) reported a gradual but persistent decline in vegetation cover driven by changing climatic conditions. Although the study employed modelling techniques, it suggests how CC would drive changes in land cover, associated resources, and soil/soil properties as reported by Usman et al. (2013) .

4.5. Methods employed for CC impact research in Nigeria

Methods employed for CC impact research could influence the outcome. In line with Maharjan and Maharjan, (2018) , our study has shown that various research methods, tools, and models have been utilized for CC impact studies in Nigeria. The criteria for such selections however depend largely on the research contexts. In agreement with Maharjan and Maharjan, (2018) , each research method has its own unique implications for climate impact research, whether utilized singly or in combination. For instance, a report by Hinkel and Bisaro (2015) showed that multiple research methods are associated with complexities and complications. However, such complexities seem complicated and challenging to compare and exchange arguments from findings ( Maharjan and Maharjan, 2018 ).

With the current global issue of CC, both qualitative and quantitative data have formed the centre of CC research. This includes CC impact studies over the years. Some researchers ( Näslund, 2002 ; Petticrew et al., 2008 ) have argued that quantitative research is better and more scientific compared with qualitative research. However, other researchers are of the opinion that both methodologies are the same and neither is better than the other ( Dawson, 2009 ). For studies that assess CC impacts, the reliance on data collection on “perceptions from respondents” could be limited to respondents' level of knowledge and awareness. As obtained in this study, this may present low validity and reliability. Due to the peculiarity of this area of research, surveys may not present a real-life scenario, mechanism, or processes associated with CC impacts. The same scenario could apply for methods such as; the use of secondary data, co-integration, and error correction model, given the country's poor investment in data generation ( Ohiri et al., 2016 ). This calls for a need for more empirical data to allow for a clear distinction between the perceptions and realities of CC impacts ( Fagariba et al., 2018 ).

Methods such as field experiments have been employed to complement model projections of future impacts. Notably, challenges associated with these assessments include the means by which such effects could be detected. In reality, they are hampered by multiple, often interconnected non-climatic forces that simultaneously interfere with the systems. An attempt to overcome such challenges is the use of indicator species to detect such responses, particularly, on natural systems. This allows researchers to infer a more general impact compared to the use of surveys ( Ahmad et al., 2001 ).

Studies have also employed climatic variables to ascertain the impact relative to changes. According to Smith et al. (2001) , there is a strong connection between CC and environmental responses over a span of temporal scales. Such connection requires long periods of study to allow for a more precise conclusion when compared with observed impacts. As observed in this study, the application of long study periods by authors for CC impacts was in line with the recommendation of Smith et al. (2001) . Nevertheless, long temporal studies with a larger spatial dimension in the future will make the results more vigorous.

Based on the current context in Nigeria, the combination of scientific and local knowledge would facilitate real-life understanding of experiences, risks, and adaptation strategies. In particular, such a combination could be applied to methodology and approaches that complement each other ( Sterrett 2011 ; Devkota 2014 ; IUCN, 2015 ; Lockwood et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, an improvement on impact modelling such as process-oriented models is important, instead of models based only on correlations of climatic limits ( Ahmad et al., 2001 ). This has been applied in China ( Saddique et al., 2020 ), the United States of America ( Chien et al., 2013 ), and other countries. On the global scale, Haunschild et al. (2016) showed that studies that employed modelling techniques for CC research ranked the second largest with over 47, 000 papers between 1980 and 2012.

4.6. Local impacts of CC in Nigeria

The nature and sensitivity of agriculture to CC impacts is well known globally ( von Braun, 2020 ). This relates to why a lot of studies have been conducted to investigate how CC has impacted this sector including Nigeria. This study has shown that CC has already impacted agriculture in Nigeria. Taking the varied environmental vulnerability into considerations, the reported impacts vary in scale comparatively. These were similar to observations in other developing countries like Afghanistan ( Omerkhil et al., 2020 ) and Iran ( Karimi et al., 2018 ; Balkanlou et al., 2020 ); ranging from low yield to ecosystem services.

Impacts reported in this study from deforestation pose a great risk to the potential of key ecosystem services such as supply of freshwater, stability to the hydrological system, and water cycling in the country ( Leal Filho et al., 2021 ). Chakravarty et al. (2012) , showed that Nigeria has been ranked among the five countries with the biggest annual loss (−3.7%) of wooded land areas. This has implications on ecosystem services such as provision of habitats for fauna and flora, balancing of hydrological regime, and protection against weather extremes. In other countries including the Indian Himalayan, farmers have been well informed of the provisioning (financial) function of agroforestry such that they utilize it as a coping strategy. This coping strategy has allowed the farmers to benefit from various agricultural products directly and at a little cost ( Pandey et al., 2017 ).

Besides local impacts on agriculture, CC has been shown to expose humans to disease and other health disorders. Climatic variations influence the distribution of many disease vectors such as Anopheles mosquitoes (malaria vector). It could also interact with accumulated stresses and other vulnerabilities such as immune status. Moreover, it could also directly affect the transmission and virulence of diseases. These could be connected to the increased malaria and other disease prevalence reported in the studies included. Specifically, the various diseases reported in this study are potentially important components of CC impacts. However, such impacts may not be used as practical indicators of the direct impacts of CC, as causes of human disease are multifaceted and vary constantly ( Ahmad et al., 2001 ).

The general effects of CC across sectors could limit sustainable development in a number of ways. This is because CC and sustainable development are increasingly being recognized as being intertwined. Specifically, CC influences prospects for sustainable development, which in turn, not only determines future CC but also influences adaptive capacities and mitigation outcomes ( Downing et al., 2003 ; Bizikova et al., 2007 ). Environmental destruction, biodiversity loss, and dwindling water supplies, all have a negative impact on food security, particularly in developing countries ( Pachauri et al., 2014 ). In developing countries such as Nigeria, which depend solely on rainfall for agricultural production, the direct impacts are mainly concerned with output and income loss. This definitely draws a setback to the United Nation's sustainable development goals on poverty and hunger.

Taking adequate actions is therefore imperative for sustainable production and consumption, thus, reducing poverty and promoting health. This will also support the development of more sustainable production and environments. Again, CC governance that will deal decisively with the economic and ecological impacts of CC is imperative for sustainable development. Likewise, policies that improve on the synergy between sectoral impacts and climate governance is essential for a sustainable future ( Uitto et al., 2017 ). CC impact in each geopolitical region and the pragmatic mitigation methods is presented in Table 6 .

Table 6

CC impact in each geopolitical region and the pragmatic mitigation methods.

4.7. Impact of CC on aquaculture

Aquaculture no doubt has been impacted by CC in various ways in Nigeria. As outlined by Froehlich et al. (2018) , there is a greater probability of aquaculture decline under CC. Food security could be affected by such projected declines (particularly from marine aquaculture). Despite such effects on one of the fastest-growing food sectors, relatively little effort has been committed to research on such impacts, both spatially and temporally, in aquaculture in Nigeria.

On the one hand, exposure of aquaculture systems to environmental factors puts pressure on adequate research. On the other hand, research needs to be specific for different aquaculture species due to differences in physiological functions, sensitivities, and tolerance levels. In view of this, recent research in developed and advanced countries have focused on various aquaculture species using diverse modern techniques and biotechnologies to better understand their responsibilities and coping mechanisms ( Brauner et al., 2019 ; Loughland et al., 2021 ). Comparatively in Nigeria, this form of research is limited, probably due to lack of adequate equipment, unavailability of skilled research personnel, and/or funding. Therefore, it is essential that researchers in the aquaculture field in Nigeria embrace more international collaborations to advance their research and knowledge base. Research institutions may also need to develop better frameworks to encourage high-quality research funding in the country. Government should also avail funds for research institutions to acquire modern research equipment for researchers to utilize. With the current and increasing role of aquaculture in the Nigerian food production system, it is critical to gain a deeper understanding of CC effects on aquaculture. Furthermore, understanding how impact factors compare and relate to aquaculture and other food systems will be crucial to evaluate the full scope of possible future impacts.

As obtained in other developing and developed nations, CC has impacted aquaculture in Nigeria. Studies have reported considerable changes in environmental processes, resulting in changes in primary production. Obia et al. (2015) indicated late changes in fishing occupation. The changes, however, were connected to unprecedented flooding attributed mainly to climate change. Adewale et al. (2017) reported changes in seasonality in fishing, loss of fishing input, while Adebo and Ayelari (2011) and Ikehi (2015) reported low fish productivity and increased access/distance to production/fishing grounds respectively.

Although increases in precipitation-induced floods are of concern to some types of aquaculture and systems (e.g., ponds), they could be of benefit to other types (e.g., coastal). Flooding can have a number of advantages, including recharging wetlands, recharging groundwater, generating floodplains, establishing wildlife habitats, and improving fish productivity ( Poff, 2002 ). But most often, the negative impacts override these potential benefits. Flooding can result in the introduction of predator species into culture ponds, pond water contamination, and fish escapes ( Adhikari et al., 2018 ; Casimiro et al., 2018 ; Kais and Islam 2018 ).

In pond culture and hatcheries, flood-related mortalities are also common and may occur due to several reasons, of which low oxygen levels in floodwaters predominates ( Bell et al., 2009 ; Idris et al., 2014 ). In the long run, these impacts are likely to predominate in developing countries like Nigeria, adversely affecting sector production and growth. Therefore, it has become critical to address the accompanying challenges of CC, which are likely to worsen in the future.

4.8. Local adaptation strategies, effectiveness of current adaptation methods, and implications of wrong adaptations

For adaptation to be successful, it requires strategic approaches that identify measures that would be appropriate and taking the present and future needs into consideration. With the uncertainties in CC scenarios, flexible adaptation strategies are required. The differences in the adaptation measures used in this study, suggests that the inhabitants of the studied area respond to CC by employing techniques that work in their domain. Such adaptation measures may not be effective in other geographical locations. This suggests the need for more research to identify the location-specific adaptation strategies. As indicated in the results for adaptation, many farmers have already employed some of the different strategies against CC. Some local communities have also developed traditional strategies to cope with CC impacts and the role of these adaptation strategies is also well known. However, the adoption of more strategies depends largely on government intervention by improving and strengthening human capital, extension services, and infrastructures at every level. Farmers clearly pointed out that the lack of such facilities has hindered the adaptation of farmers to CC impacts. For instance, the lack of a proper road network has limited farmers from practicing the land fallow system which is one of the climate-smart strategies.

Our study showed that farmers in Nigeria adopted various climate-smart adaptation strategies such as changes in cultivation practices. Similar to our result, adaptation measures taken by farmers in Afghanistan involved changes in cultivation practices. Other measures employed in Afghanistan included scientific techniques for crop cultivation, cultivation of new crop(s) and drought-resistant varieties, and migration of family members. However, to remain effective, these strategies were required to evolve over time following the discourse of CC and society ( Omerkhil et al., 2020 ); an approach that is similarly applicable in Nigeria. In Pakistan, Bakhsh and Kamran (2019) showed that adaptation strategies adopted by farmers involved labour-intensive farm practices such as soil bund-making, deep ploughing, and crop diversification. A variety of socioeconomic factors however influenced farmers' responses to adoption. Of the three practices highlighted above, only crop diversification was employed by farmers in Nigeria. In the Gamo Highlands of Ethiopia, farmers adopted sustainable land management practices as adaptive strategies (similarly employed in Nigeria), and effects on food production vary according to the practice adopted ( Cholo et al., 2019 ). Although the magnitude and consequences of adaptation demands seem to be larger in the Asia-Pacific countries, they have a higher capability for adaptation, than in Africa ( Mertz et al., 2009 ). As a result, more strategic and futuristic development plans are imperative as obtained in some developed countries.

In the UK for instance, there are timely, far-sighted, and well-informed decisions in tackling the issues of CC across sectors. An environmental plan has been developed to create or restore wildlife habitats by 2042. Improvements on flood and coastal defences are also consistently made to strengthen adaptations. Climate models are improved with up-to-date observational records. Moreover, an evaluation of adaptation policy is conducted every two years, and highlights of current “most urgent” risks are identified for actions and research priority ( Carbon Brief, 2018 ; Howarth et al., 2018 ).

Besides the UK, other developed countries and/or their organization have devotedly developed tools for evaluating adaptation options and setting priorities to cope with CC. Such tools include the Digital Adaptation Compendium (EU ADAM project 2009), the Adaptation Decision Explorer (weADAPT), and the Adaptation Wizard (UKCIP) ( Isoard, 2011 ). In France, criteria have been developed for ranking sectoral adaptation options with a long-term planning horizon. In the Netherlands, a route planner has been developed to assess and rank adaptation options based on specific criteria ( van Ierland et al., 2006 ; Hallegatte et al., 2008 ). These examples, frameworks, and approaches are required to be incorporated or tailor-made in the Nigerian context for our adaptation objectives to become more effective.

Although some of the reported adaptation strategies in this study were found to be effective, our study observed that some of the current adaptation methods were not effective ( Table 7 ). For instance, irrigation of pasture during the dry season was not effective ( Tologbonse et al., 2011 ). Others were reported in the form of low resilience or unlikeliness to reduce climate risks. This was in line with the study of Antwi-Agyei et al. (2018) in Ghana, where adaptation responses could sometimes lead to maladaptive outcomes. Particularly, such maladaptive outcomes were related to specific limitations such as poor access to information, poor access to credit, poor government involvement, among others. In these circumstances, government efforts towards adaptation and response strategies were reported to be uncoordinated, thus, limiting the proper implementation of response plans.

Table 7

List of selected current adaptation methods, their effectiveness/ineffectiveness and appropriate adaptation methods.

Adaptation strategies may increase the vulnerability of other groups, sectors, or systems if they have high opportunity costs or set paths that limit the choices available to future generations ( Barnett and O'Neill, 2010 ). Moreover, disproportionate burdening of the most vulnerable sector/groups may also occur in events of meeting the needs of one sector/group. In other cases, energy-intensive adaptation actions could lead to increased emissions of greenhouse gases, while reduced incentives to adapt could unnecessarily change behaviour. These five pathways to maladaptation are implications of wrong adaptations to CC ( Barnett and O'Neill, 2010 ). As highlighted in this study, adaptive responses employed in Nigeria include the reduced number of bathes taken (i.e., reduce incentives to adapt); a scenario where rainfall harvesting could serve as a supplementary water source ( Balogun et al., 2016 ). There were also cases of restriction of water use for specific purposes, which suggests that there has been a distinct and negative change in social norms. Such changes were classified as maladaptive with reference to adaptive responses to water stress in Australia ( Barnett and O'Neill, 2010 ).

Maladaptation does not only affect the short-term adaptive capability but also in the long-term. In the long-term, individuals depending heavily on the natural environment are likely to be more affected, as they would have the least resources to cope. The number of health-related challenges would likely increase. There could also be changes in the distribution of some disease vectors and water-borne illnesses. Sectors that rely strongly on temperature and rainfall (e.g., agriculture, energy, tourism, forestry) could experience increased impacts. Some plants and animal species could struggle to cope with changing environmental conditions. Besides, all sectors could directly and/or indirectly experience economic losses in various ways. Therefore, as highlighted by ( Boko et al., 2007 ), future adaptation strategies in developing countries like Nigeria, need to also focus on improving various sectors to improve the social and economic welfare of individuals. This in turn would improve the adaptive capacity of individuals and communities. Furthermore, government and private sectors should support climate research financially and technically to improve adaptive capacity and resilience ( Sojobi et al., 2016 ).

4.9. Adaptation in urban regions in Nigeria

People living in large, high-density cities and urban areas in Nigeria are exposed to climate impacts in one way or the other. To adapt to climate impacts on the environment, many of these urban areas have devised a variety of strategies to deal with these effects. These strategies in some cases, however, might not be able to stand the test of time. These include, but are not limited to, disaster planning to enable more effective evacuation, landfilling to raise elevations for new development against flood, and the use of proper designs in new constructions ( Sanni et al., 2014 , 2019 ).

In other cases, urban regions in Nigeria adapt through greening/planting trees, use of energy-efficient technologies, building resilient urban infrastructure, enforcement of building guidelines, and improving housing quality to make it more resistant to storm events ( Akinola et al., 2020 ). Lagos, for instance, has developed a means of adapting to flooding through flood and drought warning systems, drainage networks, climate-proof infrastructures, provision of alternative energy sources, urban resettlement, and improving the resilience of vulnerable communities ( LAS-CCAS, 2012 ; Leal Filho et al., 2018 ). The same scenario is true for most of the other urban regions along the Nigerian coast, though strategies vary with the inland urban areas. Moreover, a similar pattern of adaptation is obtained in other African urban regions. In Addis Ababa, early warning systems, drought control, energy-efficient transportations, and buildings are employed ( Bryan et al., 2009 ). In Douala, adaptive strategies include reducing greenhouse gas emissions, alternative energy sources, and poverty reduction to strengthen adaptive capacity ( Wouapi et al., 2014 ). In Accra, residents adapt by building climate-resilient buildings and infrastructures (Ghana Ministry of Environment Science, 2013 ), which is similarly applied in urban regions in India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam ( Jarvie et al., 2015 ).

In agriculture, some of the adaptation strategies employed specifically in urban regions include; the use of air ventilation, integrated farming, use of energy-efficient bulbs in farms, and regular dissemination of short-term weather forecasts to farmers ( LAS-CCAS, 2012 ; Liverpool-Tasie et al., 2019 ). In other urban regions, most of the adaptation strategies highlighted in the result of this study are employed. On a more general note, these impacts affect both the urban poor and rich. However, the rich city-dwellers are better able to protect themselves from the impacts through the insurance of their lives and valuable property ( Sanni et al., 2014 ). A list of appropriate adaptation methods for identified CC impact for urban regions is presented in Table 8 .

Table 8

Appropriate adaptation methods for identified CC impact for urban regions.

4.10. Best practices for climate adaptation in selected developed/developing countries

It is now a known fact that adaptation strategies are irreplaceable in CC mitigation and impact reduction ( Sarkodie and Strezov, 2019 ). Many developed and developing countries have devised means of adapting to climate actions ( Dinesh et al., 2017 ). Examples in developing countries include the improved cocoa farming and mass agroforestry in Ivory Coast, and smallholder aquaculture in Zambia, which utilizes ‘relish’ ponds to provide resilience to climate shock. In the Philippines, alternate wetting and drying in the Angat-Maasim River are practiced. Other good examples are the solar irrigation entrepreneurship in Chakhaji, India, and digital agriculture practices in Zimbabwe ( Dinesh et al., 2017 ). These adaptation strategies are still employed among these countries with effective outcomes.

Likewise, developed countries like Norway, Switzerland, Spain, Canada, United Kingdom, France, China, Finland, and so on, have resorted to more ambitious adaptation plans and policies as part of their developmental plans. In the Netherlands, spatial planning ‘climate proof’ has been developed, while desalination and water reuse, and resilience agriculture are practiced in the US and China respectively ( Dinesh et al., 2017 ; He, 2017 ). In the EU, best adaptation practices include integrated river basin management, drought management for vulnerable river basins, soil management and vegetation cover, sustainable (re-)use of water, residential water saving, vertical farming, etc ( European Commission, 2021 ). These practices have been found effective over the years and worth being considered in the Nigerian framework.

4.11. Research gaps identified

This study identified some research gaps on CC impact research in Nigeria. Currently, there is no research that investigated the scale and magnitude of future impacts in the aquatic environment (RG1) and resources (including aquaculture). This is essential in providing better insights into effective planning, use, and protection of our aquatic environment and resources.

To date, some regions, particularly the Northern region are underrepresented in CC impact research (RG2). Although there is a significant amount of existing data in certain fields conducted in the South, such data may not be transferable considering the differences in environments.

Also, there is an absence of study investigating the effects of multiple variables of CC at the same time (RG3), for instance, on fish physiology and other important aquatic species. Such experimental research is required to provide clearer evidence of the impacts in the coming decades. Research direction for the identified research gap is presented in Figure 12 .

Research direction for each identified research gap on CC impact in Nigeria.

4.12. Cogent measures to be taken by government, industry, and researchers

To prevent CC and improve on adaptation measures, the government, industry, and researchers have significant roles to play. There is a need for the Nigerian government to invest more in modern research facilities and equipment for researchers to utilize. The government needs to protect or restore key ecosystems such as mangroves, forests, oceans, wetlands, and rivers. These key ecosystems play vital roles as a barrier against tropical storms, and in absorbing large quantities of carbon, thus slowing warming.

Furthermore, the government should initiate programs that will increase awareness of the environmental specificity of CC adaptation strategies. Besides, more proactive approaches such as the development of a national climate and adaptation databases, are required to match up with adaptation results as obtained in other countries. Agricultural producers that employ sustainable practices with a respect for nature need to be supported. The government should also control short-lived climate pollutants such as hydrofluorocarbons, ozone, methane, and black carbon (soot) through national policies, regulations, and adequate monitoring. These strategies have been employed in Australia, Canada, China, India, Japan, Russia, Mexico, Brazil, the United States, and the EU ( Government of the Netherlands, 2014 ; Miller et al., 2017 ).

At the industrial level, coal-fired electricity generation should be phased out or reduced to a minimum at the soonest possible period. Sustainable energy such as onshore wind power, offshore wind power, and solar energy should be promoted. Industries should fund innovations aimed at hydrogen and other sustainable fuels. A minimum CO 2 price for electricity production should also be introduced to encourage sustainable energy consumption. Incentives should be provided for climate-friendly food products; thus, encouraging sustainable consumption and reducing food waste ( Government of the Netherlands, 2014 ).

Additionally, researchers are required to engage in more real-life scenarios to better understand the mechanisms and processes underlying CC impacts. These might require collaboration with international researchers to facilitate knowledge transfer.

5. Conclusion

There have been significant inputs in CC impact research and publications in Nigeria. Available studies have investigated and reported diverse CC impacts on agriculture, the environment, and humans. However, the number of published articles on the study theme has been low and on the decline over the past years. The recent decline in research and publication efforts could be risky when compared with future research needs in the country. This is because there has been no current link to adequate implementation of past findings, programs, and strategies against present and future impacts. Furthermore, the research method employed in most of the studies is a questionnaire/interview approach which could be in a rather subjective manner (e.g., respondent's judgment); and may not reflect the magnitude of impacts. An underrepresentation of CC impact clearly makes it difficult to conduct spatial and temporal comparisons, which is useful for understanding the dynamics in ecosystems and their services, including agricultural products.

To this end, it is vital for developing nations such as Nigeria to leverage new technologies, strategies, and approaches that are being employed in advanced countries. Based on the relatively high vulnerability of the Northern region of Nigeria to CC, together with the low human capital development, there is a need for increased attention from research institutions, particularly those situated in the region.

In addition, a timely revision and adequate monitoring of adaptation/mitigation strategies across the various categories are imperative to assess their effectiveness in the country. These are necessary steps to ensure that the changing climate does not exacerbate the multidimensional pressure already on the food and environmental systems. Ultimately, if the government's strategies and plans towards human and economic development in Nigeria are to achieve needed results, it must include appropriate measures to CC impacts. This is only possible through a coordinated effort on climate research, facilitated through improved investment.

On a more general note, this study has also highlighted how CC impacts a typical tropical environment across three thematic areas – agriculture, environment, and humans. Thus, providing a baseline for comparative studies with other environments.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interests statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Mrs. Adedayo Adesina for providing helpful comments on the earlier draft of this paper. In addition, the authors are thankful to the anonymous reviewers for providing insightful suggestions to improve the quality of this paper.

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A review of the status, challenges, trends, and prospects of groundwater quality assessment in Nigeria: an evidence-based meta-analysis approach

• Review Article
• Published: 29 February 2024
• Volume 31 , pages 22284–22307, ( 2024 )

Cite this article

• Michael E. Omeka   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0405-8616 1 ,
• Arinze L. Ezugwu   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0008-7080-1803 2 ,
• Johnson C. Agbasi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1973-5918 3 ,
• Johnbosco C. Egbueri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0281-1213 3 ,
• Hillary O. Abugu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6045-8449 2 ,
• Chiedozie C. Aralu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7077-4835 4 &
• Ifeanyi A. Ucheana   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3244-2618 5  

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With the imminent industrial growth and population increase, Nigeria will continue to experience significant shifts in the quality of water, with a rise in emerging contaminants. This will increase the irregularity and complexity of the water quality information. Therefore, using the PRISMA meta-analysis approach, this review systematically identified the commonly used water quality assessment techniques in Nigeria, the drawback in the application of these techniques as well as the gaps in the area of water quality assessment and monitoring from 2003 to 2023. Recommendations were also made based on the evaluation of a new research direction; through the review of the effectiveness of advanced techniques for monitoring water quality in Nigeria. Sixty-eight published articles were chosen for the meta-analysis while the VOSviewer program was used to perform bibliographic coupling and visualization. The review revealed that the application of machine learning in water quality prediction has not been well explored in Nigeria. This is attributed to limited data availability and poor funding by the government. It was found that southwestern Nigeria has a greater amount of research on groundwater quality monitoring and evaluation than other regions. The variability was explained by variations in the underlying geology, aquifer features; variability in anthropogenic activities, and level of literacy among various geopolitical zones. Further studies should focus on the application of soft-computing and integrated biomonitoring techniques for effective prediction and monitoring of emerging contaminants for improved water quality. Effective collaboration between environmental stakeholders and government agencies is recommended for effective water resource sustainability.

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Michael E. Omeka

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Arinze L. Ezugwu & Hillary O. Abugu

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Michael E. Omeka conceived and designed the project, conducted bibliometric modeling, and wrote the manuscript; Arinze L. Ezugwu contributed to manuscript editing and review; Johnson C. Agbasi contributed to the manuscript review; Johnbosco C. Egbueri contributed to data collection and analysis; Hillary O. Abugu contributed to manuscript editing and supervision; Chiedozie C. Aralu contributed to manuscript review; Ifeanyi A. Ucheana contributed to project design.

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• Hydrogeochemistry (water–rock interaction) has a more significant impact on groundwater pollution quality in southeastern Nigeria than in other regions of the country due to variations in aquifer characteristics and local geochemical variations.

• Generally, Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn, and Cr were identified as the priority heavy metals with more significant impacts on the quality of groundwater in Nigeria than other elements owing to hydrogeochemical variations (rock-water interaction), industrial effluents, and mining.

• There are more studies on groundwater quality assessment and monitoring in the southwest than in other locations due to differences in underlying geology, human activities, and literacy levels between geopolitical zones.

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Omeka, M.E., Ezugwu, A.L., Agbasi, J.C. et al. A review of the status, challenges, trends, and prospects of groundwater quality assessment in Nigeria: an evidence-based meta-analysis approach. Environ Sci Pollut Res 31 , 22284–22307 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32552-2

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Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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Political Science Project Topics and Materials

Below are Political Science Project Topics with available Chapters 1-5. Click on any to preview its Contents

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• Published: 06 January 2022

The production of social science research in Nigeria: status and systemic determinants

• Abiodun Egbetokun   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2069-7648 1 ,
• Adedayo Olofinyehun   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7704-9772 1 ,
• Maruf Sanni   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8313-9910 1 ,
• Aderonke Ayo-Lawal   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5174-4067 1 ,
• Omolayo Oluwatope 1 &
• Utieyineshola Yusuff   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9962-9313 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  9 , Article number:  1 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Development studies
• Social policy

Nigeria has a very large research system, with nearly 200 universities that employed more than 60,000 academic staff at the end of 2019. The country is also one of Africa’s largest producers of scientific research across all disciplines, surpassed only by South Africa and Egypt. In the social sciences, in particular, Nigeria is Africa’s second-largest producer of published research, after South Africa. However, the country’s social science research (SSR) production does not match the size of its SSR system. Using mixed methods, we come up with two important reasons for this: (i) research inputs are low, mainly because research is poorly funded and researchers devote too little time to research as a result of poor organisational climate, and (ii) the research support system is weak. No single institution currently has a clear mandate to centrally coordinate SSR in Nigeria. Consequently, research efforts are often duplicated and the limited research resources are spread too thin. Moreover, logistical support for research is missing or inefficient in most organisations. Therefore, improving research productivity in the country would require much stronger research coordination and wide-ranging improvements in the research climate.

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Introduction.

Social science started to be recognised as a distinct subject area in the nineteenth century (Thompson, 1824 ). Today, the expression ‘social science’ or ‘social sciences’ is applied to the branch of science concerned with society and human behaviours. It includes disciplines such as psychology, cognitive sciences, economics, business, education, sociology, law, political science, social and economic geography, media and communications, and interdisciplinary social sciences (OECD, 2015 ). Social science research (SSR) helps in understanding and developing solutions to complex developmental challenges including climate change, pandemics, poverty, unemployment and others.

More specifically, SSR provides knowledge that is fundamental to the formulation and realisation of development agendas and policies, without which other branches of science are of limited use. For instance, “[s]cientific and technological innovations are necessary, but enabling them to make an impact requires an understanding of how people adapt and change their behaviour. That will probably require new narratives—the purview of rhetoric, literature, philosophy and even theology. Poverty and inequality call even more obviously for expertise beyond science and maths” (Shah, 2020 ).

Clearly, achieving the development agenda at the national level requires significant domestic SSR capacity. This helps to ensure that scientific evidence is generated based on critical analyses of each country’s social, development and policy challenges. Such evidence will help to inform contextually relevant actions and reforms. This is particularly important in developing countries which collectively are disproportionately affected by most of today’s development challenges. However, little is known about SSR capacity in developing countries, particularly in Africa. This is largely due to the absence of reliable system-wide data in most of these countries. Against this background, this paper analyses the production of SSR (that is, the quantity of SSR produced in Nigeria, its quality in terms of peer review and accessibility in terms of open access) and explores the systemic factors that influence its volume and quality in Nigeria.

The case of Nigeria is instructive for two reasons, at least. First, a thorough understanding of SSR production in Africa will benefit from an analysis of the Nigerian context given the country’s geographical and economic size. Nigeria is the largest country in Africa, both by population and gross domestic product (GDP). It is also one of the largest producers of SSR on the continent (AU-NEPAD, 2010 ). Secondly, although Nigeria has a very large SSR system, including a well-organised university system where most of the SSR research takes place, its research productivity does not match its size. For instance, while Nigeria has roughly five times as many universities as South Africa, its aggregate research output from all disciplines is just over a third of South Africa’s (Mba and Ekechukwu, 2019 ). This begs two questions that this paper seeks to answer: Why does such a large research system produce so little, and what can be done about it?

Of the relevant systemic factors that may condition research production (see, for instance, Ngozi et al., 2016 ; Cloete and Bunting, 2013 ; Begum, 2006 ), we focus on:

Input: we evaluate research input in three aspects—personnel, funding and time allocated to research; and

Support system: here we focus on institutions and policy, and research support services.

The choice of these two factors is informed by our conceptual framework which is based on the Doing Research Assessment (DRA) Methodology (GDN, 2017 ). Following this methodology, we conceptualise our assessment as illustrated in Fig. 1 . On the input side, the quality of personnel, the amount of time that they are able to spend on research as well as the availability of funding all influence the rate of SSR production. The effectiveness of these input factors is in turn conditioned by the system within which they are deployed. The most notable aspects of the system include the availability of relevant and high-quality data, physical and intangible infrastructure as well as support personnel (GDN, 2017 ).

The figure illustrates the conceptual framework of the study. It shows that the research system accepts inputs in the form of research personnel, the amount of time they spend on research and how well they are funded. With the data, infrastructure and support personnel provided by the research system, these inputs yield outputs in the form of open-access or closed-access research publication.

We operationalise this framework through a mixed-methods design that combines the collection and analyses of qualitative and quantitative data with rigorous desk research. After describing the research context in the next section, we provide more information on the methodology. Subsequently, the findings are presented and discussed. We show that the volume of social science research production in Nigeria is quite high and has strong potentials for good quality.

The data suggest that Nigeria is the second highest producer of SSR in Africa and most of it is peer-reviewed. We estimate between 6389 and 31,943 social science researchers in the country, around 36% of whom have a Ph.D. However, most of these researchers are compelled to devote too little time to research due to distractions that arise from poor organisational research climate. The overall research landscape is also not well coordinated, largely due to the absence of a social science research council or a similar central coordinating agency. Thus, research funding is considerably limited and foreign funding comes with misaligned agenda that tends to render SSR irrelevant to local needs. These findings highlight the strong need for an improvement in the research environment, starting with the supply of high-quality research support services particularly in the universities and research institutes. There is also a glaring need for a national research policy as well as a central state-led institution dedicated to research management.

Our study extends the previous literature on social science research in Africa. In particular, as far as we know, this study provides the most rigorous evaluation of social science research input and support system in Nigeria so far. This constitutes a much-needed addition to the research on research literature in Nigeria (Ngozi et al., 2016 ; Nwaka, 2000 ) and sub-Saharan Africa (Sooryamoorthy et al., 2018 ; Confraria and Godinho, 2015 ; Cloete and Bunting, 2013 ; Obikeze, 1979 ). Moreover, we go well beyond bibliometric analyses which provide only an aggregate view of the SSR landscape (e.g., Ezema et al., 2017 ; Mouton, 2010 ) to explore some of the characteristics of the research system that condition its output. The use of rich qualitative data allows us to draw a link between the attributes of the SSR system and the volume, relevance and visibility of its output. To the extent to which these attributes are amenable to policy, the results of this paper are particularly useful for policy.

Empirical context

With a projected Footnote 1 population of over 186 million in 2015 (NBS, 2017 ), Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the seventh in the world according to United Nations’ estimates (UNDP, 2016). The country is divided into 36 states across six geopolitical zones—three in the north and three in the south. It is a former British colony that gained independence in October 1960. Following independence, the system of government followed the British model, until 1999 when an American-style representative democracy was established after three decades of military rule. Despite a number of reviews and reforms, the education system continues to follow the British model. The political structure of the country concentrates power in the central Federal Government which controls the university education system and most of the research institutes. Thus, many of the SSR activities are conducted within the structures and institutions of the state. Therefore, weaknesses in the rule of law, political stability, government effectiveness and corruption affect the independence, objectivity and efficiency of research organisations, which in turn facilitate (or hinder) the work of researchers.

For the purpose of this study, we identified 1825 organisations that make up the SSR system and categorised them into four:

Higher education institutions (170)—comprising federal, state and private universities. We exclude other tertiary institutions because they are less research-oriented.

Government and funding agencies (75)—comprising foreign donors, local donors, regulators, national agencies, national ministries and research institutes

Private sector organisations (65)—comprising for-profit think tanks and consultancies as well as businesses that hire researchers

Civil society organisations (1515)—omprising non-governmental organisations (NGOs), opinion leaders, non-profit think tanks and the media.

The diversity of actors and the size of the country create a system in which research is highly dispersed. Moreover, as is typical of many developing countries with poorly mapped systems, there are no reliable sampling frames or databases on the research actors. It is therefore extremely difficult to compile a comprehensive list of institutions with information about the number of researchers in each. Nonetheless, we know from first-hand experience that most of the SSR produced in Nigeria emanates from universities. Comparatively, the volume of research is lower in research institutes and almost negligible in civil society and the private sector. Our assessment of SSR production is therefore heavily tilted towards the university and research institutes.

One of the most widely accepted ways of assessing research output is to use bibliometric data (Ezema et al., 2017 ; Mouton, 2010 ). However, some points need to be borne in mind when applying bibliometrics to SSR in the African context. First, research from Africa is under-reported in existing bibliographies (Duermeijer et al., 2018 ; Gaillard, 1992 ). Even Scopus, which is recognised as being one of the most comprehensive Footnote 2 , particularly in terms of its coverage of developing countries, excludes a large chunk of research from Africa. This under-coverage is particularly acute for disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. Second, a large number of journals local to Africa are excluded from all of the major international indexes (AU-NEPAD, 2010 ). Finally, while the quality of many publications is poor, there are in fact some very good journals that are not listed in any of the well-known indexes. As AU-NEPAD ( 2014 , p161) notes:

“Scientific papers published in national journals may have low impact factors and limited distribution but this does not necessarily imply that the quality of research is poor. Frequently, papers produced nationally address national issues and aim to propose solutions, which affect national policy…To take account of the fact that national publications reflect national research performance in Africa, a bibliometric system that includes international and local journals is required.”

Taken together, these points imply that the bibliographic data underestimates actual output, especially for a large country like Nigeria. Our methodology which we describe subsequently takes these points into consideration. In addition to using a relatively more comprehensive bibliographic database, we use additional data from a survey and interviews with key informants. In combination, these allow us to provide estimates of research input and output, and to discuss relevant systemic characteristics.

Methodology

As highlighted in the section “Introduction”, our research approach is based on the DRA Methodology. It is a mixed-methods design that includes a desk review, a bibliometric analysis, key informant interviews and surveys. The desk-based component of the research involved a review of relevant academic literature including journals, books, reports, working papers and Grey literature. Yet, we were unable to obtain several important indicators and secondary data on the SSR system in Nigeria, notably research expenditure on social science research, and human capital for SSR. To fill these gaps, we made estimates based on the available data, and also asked key informants who have extensive knowledge of the system—for instance, an estimate of the total number of academics in Nigerian universities was obtained from a member of the management staff at the National Universities Commission (NUC).

Given that the SSR system in Nigeria is poorly mapped, obtaining accurate data on certain indicators such as the number of social science researchers would require that we undertake a census in all relevant organisations. Given the sheer size and dispersion of the research system, such census is beyond the reach of our study. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), among other regional and national bodies, provides some relevant data but these are not necessarily disaggregated by discipline. Hence, in several places we rely on data from the 2009 Survey of Research and Experimental Development (R&D) in Nigeria, the first and so far the only comprehensive research census in the country (NACETEM, 2010 ). The survey, which covered the period 2006–2007, was carried out as part of NEPAD’s African Science, Technology and Innovation Indicators (ASTII) initiative (AU-NEPAD, 2010 ). A limitation of this survey is that although it included all tertiary education institutions and research institutes in Nigeria, several institutions, especially universities, did not respond. Wherever necessary, we extrapolate this data, provide a range or an estimate, and complement with other sources.

We obtained data on research output from Scimago, an online bibliographic database that contains aggregate data on different publication types. Unlike other well-known databases like Scopus and Web of Science, Scimago is freely available and is more appropriate for our context given its wider coverage of research in developing countries. The scope of our bibliometric analysis is limited to basic indicators such as publication counts, citation and open access publications in the social sciences. We collected these indicators Footnote 3 for the period 2015–2017 on four disciplinary areas that correspond to the social sciences in Scimago:

Business, management and accounting

Economics, econometrics and finance

Social Sciences

Following the aim of this paper to understand the systemic factors that influence the rate and direction of SSR production in Nigeria, we gathered relevant information through a survey of researchers, administrators and policymakers selected across the four categories of organisations described above. First, we selected 130 organisations from the 1825 described above. We then selected individuals from these organisations by simple random sampling Footnote 4 . Our final sample comprises 805 individuals and the response rate is 85%. There were more male and postgraduate degree holders across all our sampling categories (Table 1 ) Footnote 5 . To complement the data analyses and gain a deeper insight into the research environment, we interviewed 17 key informants whom we purposively selected based on their individual profiles and position within the SSR landscape in Nigeria (Table 2 ) Footnote 6 .

Results and discussion

As highlighted in the section “Introduction”, our aim in this paper is to provide information on the current rate of SSR production in Nigeria and provide insight into the characteristics of the system that influence it. The following discussion is organised into three parts as illustrated in Fig. 1 .

Social science research output in Nigeria

From all available estimates, the volume of SSR production in Nigeria is quite high. For instance, AU-NEPAD ( 2014 ) showed that from 2005 to 2009, the country produced a total of 13,333 peer-reviewed publications in Scopus. While this is large on its own and makes Nigeria the third-largest research producer during that time, it is far behind the top two countries: South Africa had 32,372 and Egypt had 22,955 publications (AU-NEPAD, 2010 ). Nonetheless, Nigeria turns out to be the second-largest producer of SSR in Africa between 2005 and 2009, producing a fourth of South Africa’s publications in social science but thrice as many as Egypt’s (Table 3 ).

Between 2015 and 2017, data from Scimago shows that a total of 4085 SSR publications were produced in Nigeria (Table 4 ). However, the Scimago data does not include some types of publications such as technical reports and policy briefs, which are also important SSR outputs. Our survey asked researchers to report on these other types of publications that they produced in the preceding 3 years. Figure 2 plots the share of respondents who have produced at least one publication of each type. Clearly, journal articles, conference proceedings and book chapters are the most common. This is consistent with previous research, which suggests that journal articles and conference proceedings are the dominant forms of SSR output (Al et al., 2006 ; Hicks, 2004 ). Indeed, one of the best ways in which the research system self-regulates is by peer review. It is expected that rigorous peer review helps to improve research quality and reduce unethical practices. Thus, the amount of published research that benefits from peer review are a proxy for the overall quality of outputs in a research system. It is, therefore, encouraging that around 98% of all published SSR output in Nigeria is peer-reviewed (Table 4 ).

The figure shows the distribution of different types of research publications among the researchers in the study sample. Each bar represents the share of 506 researchers that claimed to have produced at least one unit of each type of publication between 2017 and 2019.

We find that open access publishing is commonplace in the Nigerian SSR landscape. In our survey, nearly half of the sampled researchers published at least 40% of their output without any restrictions in the three years prior to the survey. Similarly, around one out of every three social science publications attributable to Nigeria in Scimago is open-access (Table 4 ). There is an exceptionally high rate of open access (OA) publishing in the field of Economics, econometrics and finance. In this field, the rate of OA publishing is 44% despite the fact that it contributes just 15% of total publications. This contrasts with the broad field of Social Sciences which accounts for 60% of all publications but has an OA publication rate of 37% (Table 4 ). The existence of several OA outlets such as the Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MRPA) Footnote 7 and African Journals Online (AJOL) Footnote 8 contribute to the proliferation of OA output in economics. For instance, 14% out of the 341 SSR-related journals listed in AJOL at the end of December 2019 are in the field of Economics and Development, the third-largest share among all the disciplines.

Peer-reviewed research output in Nigeria is dominant because academic career advancement is tied to it. In universities and research institutes, the number of journal articles and conference papers produced by researchers, usually within a 3-year window, carries most of the weight in the promotion and tenure decisions. However, tenure and promotion decisions typically rely on publication counts rather than impact. This culture, although rapidly changing recently, has had three important implications for SSR production in the country. First, the incentive for high-quality publications is reduced as researchers race towards the number of publications required for promotion. Secondly, the demand for predatory journals is increased because researchers feel pressured to ‘publish or perish’. Thirdly, unethical practices such as plagiarism and publication slicing (where researchers unnecessarily split their research into multiple publications) are stimulated. Hence, a large number of journals published in Nigeria—or in which research from Nigeria appears—are fairly obscure (Ezema, 2010 ). Countering these implications requires strong and consistent policies.

A large share of local journals are not only absent from international indexes, they are also characterised by short life span, many of them not going beyond 2 years (Ifidon, 1994 ). In a study of the social science research landscape in Nigeria, Ezema et al. ( 2017 ) found a high prevalence of commercial publishers—an alternative term for predatory publishers—among the publication outlets used by Nigerian social science researchers. One interviewee confirms this problem, stating that the NUC needs to

“get experts together in Nigeria now to accredit and reaccredit journals in the various disciplines, but I tell you it’s a huge operation…We have a responsibility and we are doing something it’s just that the problems are enormous.”

Nonetheless, the volume of social science research production in Nigeria is obviously high and has strong potentials for good quality. However, the volume of production does not match the large size of the SSR system. For instance, a total of 3991 SSR publications amount to 2.2 publications by each of the 1825 organisations in the Nigerian SSR system from 2015 to 2017. Even if all of the publications were produced by universities, this would be only about 23.4 publications per university in two years. Moreover, the potential for quality is hindered by several systemic weaknesses. In the subsequent sections, we turn to an explanation of some factors that may explain these observations.

Systemic factors that condition social science research output in Nigeria

Research input.

The 2009 Survey of Research and Experimental Development in Nigeria (NACETEM, 2010 ) put the total number of researchers at 17,624 Footnote 9 . Of these, 15,739 were in universities and the remainder were in research institutes. At the end of 2017, the total number of academic staff in Nigerian universities was 62,000 according to the NUC’s Nigerian University System Statistical Digest. Footnote 10 The R&D survey data is dated and counts researchers from fewer universities compared to the more recent NUC data. However, to the best of our knowledge, it is the only reliable count of the number of researchers in Nigerian research institutes. Subsequently, we adopt the documented NUC estimate of about 62,000 researchers in the Nigerian university system and add 1885 researchers in research institutes as reported by NACETEM ( 2010 ). This yields a total of 63,885 researchers in Nigeria.

Without further data, it is difficult to reliably determine what share of these is in the social sciences. Unfortunately, even regulators do not keep such disaggregated data. For instance, a key informant from the NUC informed us that university personnel data disaggregated by discipline was not available at the NUC. There are two ways by which the number of social science researchers may be estimated from the available personnel data: funding and faculty share. Data from NACETEM ( 2010 ) suggest that SSR takes approximately 10% of R&D funding in Nigerian universities and research institutes. If we assume a 1:1 mapping between funding and R&D personnel, the share of social science researchers would then be about 10% of 63,885, that is, 6389. Assuming that the ratio of social science researchers to other disciplines is 1, the share of social science researchers would then be about 50% of 63,885, that is, 31,943. In sum, these estimates suggest that as of 2017, the number of social science researchers in Nigeria would have ranged anywhere between 6389 and 31,943. Using a population estimate of 190 million in 2017, this would amount to between 34 and 168 social science researchers per million Nigerians.

The 2009 R&D Survey Footnote 11 reports 5802 researchers with a doctorate degree, 155 in postdoctoral positions and 4366 studying towards a Ph.D. in Nigerian universities. Thus, a total of 5957 university researchers (38%) already possessed a doctorate Footnote 12 . Of the 1885 researchers in research institutes, only 354 (around 19%) had a Ph.D. In combination, 6311 (around 36%) of all researchers in the universities and research institutes already possessed a Ph.D. at the end of 2007. Keeping with the estimated range of 10–50% from before, the number of social science researchers with a Ph.D. would be between 631 and 3155. On the lower and upper bounds, this would be around 36% of all social science researchers at that time Footnote 13 . It is striking to observe that the share of Ph.D.-qualified researchers in universities is at least twice as much as in research institutes. This may be connected to two factors: there are many more universities than research institutes in Nigeria, and there is a sharp contrast in the appointment and promotion structure in these two types of institutions.

Admittedly, the above estimates are based on a set of strong assumptions and are clearly dated. Unfortunately, more recent data is not available. Nonetheless, the numbers hint at a large research system compared to those of other African countries. For instance, of the 13 countries assessed in AU-NEPAD ( 2010 , chap. 3), Nigeria had the second-largest number of researchers and also the second-largest number of Ph.D.-qualified researchers. Per million, the country had the fifth-highest number of researchers. It is therefore not surprising that Nigeria is one of Africa’s highest producers of research in general, and of SSR specifically. The surprising fact is that the country’s research production does not match the size of its research system. South Africa, which has a considerably smaller research system, at least in terms of the number of research organisations, produces much more research than Nigeria both in general and in the social sciences specifically. A straightforward explanation can be found in the much higher number of researchers in South Africa compared to Nigeria.

Data from the 2009 R&D Survey (NACETEM, 2010 ) showed that Gross Expenditure on Research and Development (GERD) was ₦45.9 billion that is USD583.2 million (2009 PPP) Footnote 14 . As a share of GDP, this was only 0.2%, far below the UNESCO-recommended 1% of GDP. Around 96% of the research funding was provided by the government of Nigeria. The private non-profit sector provided nearly 2% of the funding while 1% came from foreign sources. The for-profit private sector provided only 0.2% of research funding at the end of 2007. Most of the research funding (about 65%) went to universities where 11.3% of total R&D expenditure went to social science and humanities. In research institutes, only 6.2% of R&D expenditure went to the social sciences. Applying these percentages to the GERD value, we find that total R&D expenditure in Nigerian universities and research institutes was around N 29.72 billion and N 16.14 billion, respectively. Of these, about N 3.3 billion in universities and N 1 billion in research institutes went to SSR. As a share of GERD, this represents only about 9.3%. As estimated above, the number of social science researchers in Nigeria in 2007 would be in the range between 1762 and 8812; thus, GERD on social science per researcher would be N 2.42 million in the upper limit and N 0.48 million in the lower range. In 2009 PPP, these would be between approximately USD 31,000 and USD 6000.

Considering that the GERD values include salaries and wages among other things, it stands out clearly that SSR in Nigeria is poorly funded. This much was admitted by a staff of the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND) who said about the level of funding that

“…it’s not adequate to the level that we can push the economy forward but we as an institution we think that we are doing our best to encourage it.”

From our first-hand knowledge of the system and some key informant interviews, we know that the contribution of foreign sources to domestic research in Nigeria is heavily underreported. A lot of the funding comes in form of grants and consultancies but in the university system where most of the research takes place, there is no national monitoring or reporting framework for foreign research funding. Even at the level of individual universities, only large grants are passed through the institution; smaller grants are offered directly to individual researchers and are therefore invisible to observations like ours.

We found out from some of the interviews that a huge amount of funding flows into the country across all disciplines, including social science. Beyond research grants provided by TETFUND, which is the primary research funder in the country, nearly all of the individual and organisational grants expended in Nigeria are from foreign donors. While this is positive in and of itself, it comes with a burden of responsibility for local researchers to follow the agenda of the funding agencies. For instance, almost without exception, calls for grants proposals are tied to research questions and objectives that are pre-determined by the donors. Generally, these questions and objectives are developed with little or no input from local researchers. Therefore, even if they seem appealing, they are often marginally relevant to local needs. In the face of scarce local funding, researchers are compelled to tune their research agenda towards these ‘imported’ research agenda, and ultimately produce outputs that satisfy donors but have limited local relevance. In general, over-reliance on foreign funding reduces the relevance of research activities to the Nigerian situation (Ngozi et al. 2016 ).

Time for research

Time allocated to research as a share of the researcher’s full time is an important indicator of the state of a research system. In a healthy system, the amount of time dedicated to research activities (conducting own research, or other research production, writing, presenting, reviewing) needs to be properly balanced with time devoted to other professional responsibilities such as teaching, administration, preparing lectures, supervising, etc. Most (68%) of the social science researchers that we sampled indicated that they did not have sufficient time for research over the last three years. Indeed, the majority of the researchers spend less than 50% of their time on research (Fig. 3 ). On average, the researchers reported spending only 39.3% (SE = 1.08) of their time on research and the typical (median) social science researcher spends only about 30% of their time doing research. This implies that if we assume 250 working days in a year, the country only realises the equivalent of 75 full days of research from the typical social science researcher.

The figure shows the distribution of researchers according to how much time they devoted to research in 2019. The x -axis is the amount of researchers’ time in increments of 20 per cent while the y-axis is the share of respondents that indicates spending a given amount of time on their research activities.

Several factors are responsible for this low time allocation to research. Besides weak infrastructure, perhaps the most visible of the problems is the amount of distractions that arise from poor organisational research climate. Previous research (e.g., Begum, 2006 ) suggests a strong positive correlation between organisational research climate and research productivity. Notable among the components of organisational climate, especially in the university where most of the SSR in Nigeria is prosecuted, are weekly teaching hours, number of subjects taught per week, student-teacher ratio, number of non-research responsibilities such as committee memberships, and bureaucratic efficiency. Unfortunately, the research system in Nigeria performs poorly on nearly all of these components. Most research organisations are understaffed and the few research staff has to overwork to keep the system running. The problem of inefficient grants management and other research support offices also creates a distraction for researchers. As noted by one of our key informants, who is a researcher-lecturer in Nigeria’s first university,

“…not a lot of time is allocated [to research]. People do more teaching than research…and you don’t get enough grants to do your research. Even when you do have research grants, I’ve found that all the supporting activities [are weak]. For instance personally speaking, the time you spend chasing your money [after] the grant you’ve already [secured] has already landed in the university’s account and they’ve taken their overhead, is way too much. So there are distractors every now and then that researchers just have to struggle with, and those things eat into the time they have to do research. And when that happens and the time is dragging, it has a direct effect on morale, which becomes low.”

Research support system

Institutions and policy.

The existence of an active central institution for the management of research has several advantages. It helps to guarantee a consistent flow of funds for SSR and to ensure that national plans and programmes incorporate SSR. Moreover, such an institution sets the SSR agenda in the country and aligns it to national development priorities. In many countries, this type of institution exists as a research council, such as the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) in South Africa. In Nigeria, however, such institution does not exist. An interviewee referenced the Social Sciences Council of Nigeria (SSCN), which is only a self-organised community of practice comprising eminent social science scholars in Nigeria. The organisation is independent of government and does not play any coordinating role in the SSR system in Nigeria:

“…I used to know of Social Science Research Council but I don’t know to what extent they regulate. I don’t think there is any regulatory organ in Nigeria. We have the Nigerian Economic Society [but] they do not regulate; they only probably coordinate or disseminate research findings through their journals and through their annual conferences.”

The existence of a national policy that outlines the priorities, resources and relevant institutions implicated in the promotion of SSR is closely connected to the existence of a national SSR council. Often, the policy precedes the organisation, as in the case of South Africa but the reverse may also be the case Footnote 15 . We found no such policy in Nigeria, from our desk review. The non-existence of the policy is confirmed by our key informants. One of them specifically said:

“[W]e don’t have national research policies; even organisations don’t have…I don’t think we have any government organisation or a regulatory agency of government on research…”

The high difficulty in getting accurate secondary data on the current status of the SSR system is a direct consequence of the weakness in management-supervision of SSR in the country. In the absence of a coordinating council or a relevant policy, the SSR system is poorly coordinated and the level of interaction among actors is weak. Consequently, the entire system is inefficient as research efforts are often duplicated and the limited research resources are spread too thin. These problems are nicely summarised by one of the key informants that we interviewed. He noted that:

“[T]he greatest challenge on research in Nigeria is that on the average university researchers work in silos even within the same institution. These are very serious issues constraining the ability of our research to contribute to a national system of innovation. [For instance], in the Ministry of Science and Technology there are well over ten research institutes and none of them has a handshake with a corresponding research institution in the university…and I’ve argued that it is a colossal waste of natural and national resources because all of this research are going on with public funds…so why can’t they collaborate to strengthen our national capacity to have a robust national system of innovation?”

These observations highlight a strong need for SSR coordination in Nigeria. Efforts were made recently, based on the National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, to establish a National Research and Innovation Council (NRIC). Although this body was not dedicated to SSR, it would at least have been a good foundation on which future interventions could build. Unfortunately, this council was inaugurated but never really took off. This leaves room for more intervention, as noted by management staff in TETFUND:

“[W]e are pushing for the creation of a national research foundation by discussing and collaborating with all the agencies and institution that revolve around research…[I]t will be a centralised role…Somebody may be undergoing a research under our own institution while another may be doing it in the health sector, but if there are no [coordinating] efforts, we will be working at cross-purposes; but collaborating will strengthen the output [of] the research and will make it more impactful…[T]here should be a national research foundation that will look at the objectives of Nigeria, how to make use of research to set national priorities, implement them and get results…”

Organisational support and administration

The capacity of a research institution to provide effective logistical support for research professionals will directly affect its overall output and quality. This logistical support includes administrative functions such as clerical work, office management, and facilitation of grant procedures. System-wide, the quality of research support services influences the strength of the research system. In Nigeria, such support services are generally available in universities and research institutes. Statutorily, all public research institutes have a Human Resources and a Finance and Accounts department that respectively manage recruitment and accounting processes. In addition to these, most universities, especially the public ones, have a Grants Management Office that centrally administers research grants.

Bearing these in mind, we asked researchers to rate their level of satisfaction with the research support services provided in their institutions. Figure 4 shows that most researchers are dissatisfied, especially with time/stress management and recruitment services. This is reflective of the situation in most Nigerian institutions, where personnel in the support offices are either poorly trained or possess insufficient competence in the provision of research support services. Many institutions also have multiple offices on the bureaucratic chain of command, thereby creating considerable inertia and inefficiency in the system. The earlier quote in the section “Research input” from a university researcher aptly illustrates the problem. A regulator also noted:

“It is one thing to have one or two good researchers in the university but it’s a different thing to have a system where there are officers employed by the universities to help academics write good proposals…[I]n Nigeria…some research projects get derailed because of mismanagement of funds not because people are thieves but sometimes the professors are too engrossed in the real research work and…are financial illiterates…”

The figure summarises a set of Likert scale items on how satisfied researchers feel with different aspects of administrative support provided by their institutions.

The production of knowledge in Africa has been the subject of much enquiry particularly in the field of scientometrics. There is little research, however, on the production of social science research and its determinants. In this paper, we describe the volume of social science research production and its systemic determinants in Nigeria, Africa’s largest economy and one of the largest research systems. Our point of departure is that Nigeria’s research productivity does not match the size of its research system. We propose two broad explanations for this: (1) research inputs are low, mainly because research is poorly funded and researchers devote too little time to research as a result of poor organisational climate. (2) The research support system is weak. No single institution currently has a clear mandate to centrally coordinate SSR in Nigeria. Consequently, research efforts are often duplicated and the limited research resources are spread too thin. Moreover, logistical support for research is missing or inefficient in most organisations.

Three major implications can be drawn from these findings. First, there is a strong need for SSR coordination in Nigeria. A huge gap currently exists for a central state-led institution dedicated to the management of SSR. This may take the form of a national research foundation or a council. Closely connected to this is the need for a national policy that outlines the priorities, resources and relevant institutions for the production of SSR. In combination, these will help to strengthen the production of research, create funding synergies and eliminate redundancies arising from duplicated research efforts. The TETFUND, which is currently the major domestic funder of research, is well-positioned to lead efforts in this direction.

Secondly, it is now necessary more than ever to create a localised bibliographic database as well as a national accreditation system similar to the one maintained by South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training. While a large number of journals are published in the country across many university departments, no database or accreditation system for local journals exists in Nigeria. Overall quality tends to be low and, as a consequence, visibility is poor. The NUC is well-positioned to spearhead efforts in this regard through strong and consistent policies and institutional arrangements. For instance, steering the promotion system in universities beyond publication counts towards quality will incentivise the production of good quality research output. Curating research output in a localised database is particularly valuable because it will help to overcome the under-coverage of African research in existing databases.

Third, national stakeholders, including research organisations and the government, need to create an environment that supports research. This is especially true for universities where most of the research takes place. The existing culture of sabbatical leave during which academics are exempted from teaching to focus on research can be leveraged. Presently, many academics exploit the sabbatical leave to take up teaching positions in other universities in order to realise more income. Reversing this trend requires a higher level of funding for the research system, a role that the government is best positioned to play. Moreover, it may be desirable to implement an optional research leave system, that is, the possibility for a researcher to remain within their university to do research while being exempted from teaching and administrative duties. This is clearly not achievable in an under-staffed research system. Finally, although they may not be a necessity in organisations that do not hire many researchers, competent research management offices are required in every university.

Data availability

The datasets analysed during the current study are available in the Mendeley Data repository: https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/g2wstgcgwc/1 . A data article describing the dataset is also published in Data in Brief and is openly available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2021.106932 (full citation details in the references).

Projections based on 2006 census and population growth rate.

At the time of this study, Scopus contained ~16,000 journals compared with 9500 in the Web of Science.

All indicators were collected in January 2020. Given the dynamics of research output, a search today would yield slightly different results than those reported in this paper.

We stratified the organisations by type, size and location before the random selection.

Further details on the survey and the full survey dataset are available in Egbetokun and Olofinyehun ( 2021 ) as well as Olofinyehun and Egbetokun ( 2021 ).

The purpose of these key informant interviews was not to elicit novel information but to complement, clarify and deepen the insight from the data analysis. Therefore, without sharing the research results ahead, each interviewee was approached with a very specific set of questions, the responses to which were already directly connected to specific issues. Key issues raised by the individuals as well as patterns across interviews based on our research question were then readily established.

The Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MRPA) is a repository that is “intended to disseminate research papers of economists who want to make their work freely available through the RePEc network but are not affiliated with any institution that provides that furtherance” ( https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de , accessed 3 Jan 2020).

African Journals Online (AJOL) is the world’s largest online collection of scholarly journals published on the African continent. A considerable share of the publications in AJOL is open access.

This is the statistic reported in the latest version of the UNSECO Science Report at the time of this study (UNESCO, 2016, p. 320).

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We return to these older estimates because the detailed data was not available from the NUC.

If we assume a 100% throughput of doctoral students, the total number of researchers with a Ph.D. would be 10,323, that is, around 66% of all university researchers.

This is because, by the NACETEM ( 2010 ) estimates, the number of social science researchers in 2007 would range from 10 and 50 per cent of 17,624, that is between 1762 and 8812.

1 USD = 78.62 NGN in 2009 PPP, the year in which the data was collected.

In Nigeria, there is no national research foundation or council in the area of science, technology and innovation yet but a national policy on science, technology and innovation exists.

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Acknowledgements

The study was supported by the Global Development Network (GDN), India, under the Doing Research Assessment (DRA) programme (Grant Reference Number: GDNIO/GRANT/2018-19/050/DR/ABIODUN ADEYEMI EGBETOKUN). More details on the DRA in Nigeria can be found at http://www.gdn.int/doing-research-nigeria . We thank Andy Frost, Francesco Obino, João Costa and Daniel Fussy for constructive criticisms. We also thank participants at the GDN’s 2019 Global Development Conference at Bonn, Germany (October 23–25) for useful feedback on a preliminary version of the results. We also appreciate anonymous reviewers and editors.

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Abiodun Egbetokun, Adedayo Olofinyehun, Maruf Sanni, Aderonke Ayo-Lawal, Omolayo Oluwatope & Utieyineshola Yusuff

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Egbetokun, A., Olofinyehun, A., Sanni, M. et al. The production of social science research in Nigeria: status and systemic determinants. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 9 , 1 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-01017-z

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A Collection of Research Papers by Data Science Nigeria

DataScienceNigeria/Research-Papers-by-Data-Science-Nigeria

Folders and files, repository files navigation, research papers.

This repository is a collection of research papers published by Data Science Nigeria .

Each folder contains all the materials used in conducting respective research projects (inclusive of their datasets and codes if available).

• spaCy model for Medical Named Entity Recognition in Nigerian Social Media Texts
• Semantic Enrichment of Nigerian Pidgin English for Contextual Sentiment Classification ( Paper link )
• AFRIRAZER: A Deep Learning Model to remove Background and Skin from Traditional African Fashion Images ( Paper link )
• Real-Time Crowdsourcing of Health Data in a Low-Income Country: A Case Study of Human Data Supply on Malaria First-Line Treatment Policy Tracking in Nigeria ( Paper link )
• Problem and Solution Documentation Template for Machine Learning Competitions to Enhance Explainability, Reproducibility, and Collaboration Between Stakeholders ( Paper link )
• Federated Grassroots Community Model for Catalyzing Artificial Intelligence for Common Good ( Paper link )
• NaijaNER: Comprehensive Named Entity Recignition for 5 Nigerian Languages ( Paper link )
• Artificial Intelligence for Pharmacovigilance in Nigerian Social Media Text ( Paper link )
• AFRIFASHION1600: A Contemporary African Fashion Dataset for Computer Vision ( Paper link )
• AFRIGAN: African Fashion Style Generator using Generative Adversarial Networks(GANs) ( Paper link )
• AFRIFASHION40000: A GAN generated African Fashion Dataset for Computer Vision ( Paper link )
• A Comparative Analysis of Semi-Supervised and Self-Supervised Classification for Labeling Tweets about Police Brutality ( Paper link )
• A Practical Framework for Building and Managing Digital Crowdsourcing Communities ( Paper link )
• AI-powered understanding of family planning behavioural change using the fogg model ( Paper link )
• COVNLP: A Multisource COVID-19 dataset for Natural Language Processing ( Paper link )
• EDUSTT: In-Domain Speech Recognition for Nigerian Accented Educational Contents in English ( Paper link )

Contributors 9

• Jupyter Notebook 88.6%
• JavaScript 6.5%
• Python 0.1%

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Banking and finance Project Topics And Research Materials In Nigeria

How to access Banking and finance Project Topics And Research Materials In Nigeria

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How to get undergraduate Accounting Project Topics And Research Materials In Nigeria with recent research works

Academic Leadership Online Journal

ONODUGO CHRIS

The Nigerian banking sector acts as the lubricant of economic growth and development through effective financial services that impact every sector of the economy. The banking sector has been the hub and heartbeat of the Nigerian economy. It has played prominent roles in sustaining the development of the Nigerian economy through its financial obligations and performing their traditional roles of financing capital projects, mobilizing savings through a network of branches for investments. Thus, they help in capital formation. Other roles performed by the banks in the economy include financing trade, agriculture, industry, consumer activities and also help in the implementation of monetary policies. Despite having so many sectors in the economy that depend on banking, banks in Nigeria though diversified are yet to realize their full potentials even with the range of specialized actors tapping specific niches. There has been considerable innovation and diversification in the business of major commercial banks. Some of them have engaged in the areas of consumer credit, credit cards, merchant banking, leasing, mutual funds, Academic Leadership (Online Journal) ISSN: 1533-7812 Vol-21-Issue-09-September-2020 P a g e | 29 etc. This study will, therefore, examine the recent developments and trends of the Nigerian banking industry.

How to Get Undergraduate Education Project Topics And Research Materials In Nigeria

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olusegun ademola

Gideon Emmanuel

Banking is an integral and core part of any economy, without which economic activities might be virtually impossible because of the strategic role of banks in not only safe-keeping of money and other vital documents of trade, but as facilitators of economic interests of sorts in the economy. However so important and strategic the roles of banks are in the economy of a nation, these have somewhat been far-fetched in developing countries, especially in Africa and most particularly, Nigeria the focus of this paper. Banking in Nigeria has started somewhat early enough, but has not grown vibrant enough to ginger the much desired growth and vibrancy of the Nigerian economy. The paper seeks to trace the evolution and genealogy of banking activities in Nigeria, its growth through different stages and through the years up until the present. The paper is thus divided n four parts starting with the introduction, to historical development, the evolution of banking in Nigeria, and the conclusion...

Tunde Ogunbado

Islamic Banking in Nigeria got approval from the Central Bank in 2011, after several years of attempts by different groups and organisations. A frame work released in the same year spell out guidelines for the establishment, operations, shari’ah governance and supervision of Islamic banks which can be standalone full-fledged institutions, subsidiaries or widows in this paper and attempts is made to discuss “Islamic Banking as a viable alternative to Conventional Banking in Nigeria. Methodology relied on biography appraisal of such studies that ate related to the study. The paper begin with a short background of Islamic Banking in Nigeria and follows with the basis for the introduction of Central Bank of Nigeria and Non interest financial institutions, Central Bank of Nigeria model, different between Islamic banking, challenges and prospect of Islamic banking and ends with suggestion that there should be a sharia supervisory board for any Islamic bank and that board should consists of trust worthy scholars who are highly qualified to issue fatawa on financial transactions.

Abdullahi Abubakar Lamido

Abstract With a predominant Muslim population, Northern Nigeria hosts the majority of the country’s population. It is blessed with various economic potentials, including vast arable land most of which is cultivable. Despite various initiatives by the Federal and State Governments as well as local and international NGOs to alleviate poverty and engender economic development, the vast majority of the populace of the region lives below the poverty line. This paper explores some of the specific roles Islamic banks can play in addressing the challenge of poverty and underdevelopment in the region. The paper highlights on the strategic role of Islamic banks’ unique model of project-based funding and profit and loss sharing, and through their veritable products such as Salam, Bay’ bi thamanAjiletc, Islamic banks have the potential of boosting agriculture and human development in both the rural and urban communities of Northern Nigeria. Key Words: Economic Development, Islamic Banking, Financing, Northern Nigeria

International Journal of economics, Business and Human Behaviour Editor

Beijing Law Review

Enya Nwocha

This paper titled “Banking Law and Economic Development in Nigeria: Contributions and Constraints of the Banks and Other Financial Institutions Act” came against the background of the current instability and uncertainty in the Nigerian banking sector and the need to strengthen the regulatory regime for optimal performance of the sector. The Banks and Other Financial Institutions Act is the principal legislation regulating banking in Nigeria and has a general application to all banks. This paper has therefore examined the strengths and weaknesses of this Act and measured its contributions to economic development in the country as well as its inherent constraints. The paper has found, among other things that the Act has contributed immensely to economic growth in the country through a multi-dimensional sectoral approach. However, a number of defects in the Act still need to be rectified. The paper has recommended the easing of over-regulation by striking out certain self-contradictory...

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Home — Essay Samples — Geography & Travel — Africa — Nigeria

Essays on Nigeria

Nigeria is a country with a rich and diverse history, culture, and economy. With its large population, diverse ethnic groups, and abundant natural resources, Nigeria offers a wide range of essay topics to explore. Whether you are interested in politics, economics, culture, or history, there are countless fascinating topics to delve into when writing about Nigeria. In this article, we will provide a comprehensive list of Nigeria essay topics, along with some tips on choosing the right topic for your essay.

The Importance of the Topic

Writing about Nigeria is important for several reasons. First, Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and has a significant impact on the continent's politics, economy, and culture. Therefore, understanding Nigeria is crucial for anyone interested in African affairs. Additionally, Nigeria's history and culture are rich and complex, making it an intriguing subject for study and exploration. By writing about Nigeria, you can gain a deeper understanding of the country and its people, as well as contribute to the scholarly discourse on African studies.

Advice on Choosing a Topic

When choosing a topic for your Nigeria essay, it's important to consider your interests, as well as the requirements of the assignment. If you are passionate about politics, you might consider writing about Nigeria's democratic system, the role of political parties, or the impact of corruption on governance. If you are interested in economics, you could explore topics such as Nigeria's oil industry, the impact of globalization on the Nigerian economy, or the challenges of economic development. For those interested in culture and history, there are numerous topics to choose from, including traditional Nigerian music and dance, the history of colonialism in Nigeria, or the impact of globalization on Nigerian traditions. Ultimately, the best topic for your essay is one that aligns with your interests and expertise, while also allowing you to explore new ideas and perspectives.

Nigeria offers a wealth of essay topics to explore, ranging from politics and economics to culture and history. By writing about Nigeria, you can gain a deeper understanding of this diverse and dynamic country, while also contributing to the scholarly discourse on African studies. When choosing a topic for your Nigeria essay, it's important to consider your interests and the requirements of the assignment, in order to select a topic that is both engaging and academically rigorous. Whether you are interested in exploring Nigeria's political landscape, economy, culture, or history, there is no shortage of fascinating topics to delve into when writing about Nigeria.

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African History Research Paper Topics

This page serves as an great resource for students in history, providing a wide array of African history research paper topics . As one of the most diverse and dynamic fields of historical studies, African history spans thousands of years and a multitude of cultures, civilizations, and historical events. With this diversity in mind, we offer a comprehensive list of 100 research paper topics divided into ten categories, each representing a unique aspect of Africa’s rich historical tapestry. Additionally, this page includes a detailed 1000-word article exploring the expansive range of African history research paper topics. We also offer expert advice on choosing the right topic, as well as essential tips for writing an impactful African history research paper. Furthermore, students are introduced to iResearchNet’s writing services, which offer custom-written, top-quality research papers on any African history topic. With features such as expert degree-holding writers, in-depth research, flexible pricing, and timely delivery, students can rest assured that they are receiving the best academic support.

100 African History Research Paper Topics

In this section, we will present a comprehensive list of African history research paper topics. These topics are divided into 10 categories, each containing 10 unique research paper ideas. Exploring these topics will provide students with a rich and diverse range of subjects to explore within the vast field of African history. Let’s dive into each category and explore the fascinating research possibilities.

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Ancient African Civilizations

• The Kingdom of Kush: Its Rise, Decline, and Influence
• The Aksumite Empire: Trade, Religion, and Politics
• Great Zimbabwe: Architecture and Socio-Political Organization
• The Mali Empire: Mansa Musa and the Trans-Saharan Trade
• The Kingdom of Ghana: Gold, Salt, and Commerce
• The Nubian Civilization: Cultural Exchange and Identity
• The Carthaginian Empire: Hannibal’s Invasion of Rome
• The Swahili Coast: Maritime Trade and Cultural Fusion
• The Kingdom of Axum: Christianity and Ethiopian History
• The Bantu Migrations: Language, Culture, and Society

Colonialism and Resistance Movements

• The Scramble for Africa: European Colonialism and its Impacts
• African Resistance against Colonial Rule: Case Studies and Strategies
• Pan-Africanism: Ideologies and Movements for Unity
• African Nationalism: Key Figures and Independence Movements
• Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Nelson Mandela’s Role
• The Mau Mau Uprising: Resistance against British Rule in Kenya
• The Algerian War of Independence: Frantz Fanon and Decolonization
• The Nigerian Civil War: Biafra and the Quest for Self-Determination
• The Congo Crisis: Patrice Lumumba and the Struggle for Independence
• The Suez Crisis: Nasser, Imperialism, and Pan-Arabism

Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade

• The Atlantic Slave Trade: Origins, Routes, and Impact on Africa
• Slavery in Ancient Africa: Historical Context and Variations
• Resistance and Revolts among Enslaved Africans: Strategies and Leaders
• The Middle Passage: Conditions and Experiences of Enslaved Africans
• Plantation Systems in the Americas: Labor, Economy, and Culture
• Abolitionist Movements: Key Figures and Strategies
• The Haitian Revolution: Toussaint Louverture and the Fight for Freedom
• Slave Narratives: Voices of the Enslaved in African-American History
• African Diaspora: Cultural Retention and Transnational Connections
• Legacies of Slavery: Modern-day Consequences and Reconciliation Efforts

Post-Colonial Africa

• Post-Colonial Nation-Building in Africa: Challenges and Strategies
• African Socialism: Ideologies and Implementation
• Dictatorships in Africa: Political Regimes and Human Rights Abuses
• African Feminism: Movements, Challenges, and Achievements
• Pan-African Organizations: Their Role in African Unity and Development
• African Economic Development: Successes, Failures, and Perspectives
• African Independence Leaders: Nkrumah, Kenyatta, and Nyerere
• African Identity and Cultural Revival: Language, Art, and Music
• Resource Conflicts in Africa: Causes, Consequences, and Resolutions
• Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities in Post-Colonial Africa

African Oral Traditions and Literature

• Griots and Oral Historians: Preserving African History and Culture
• African Folktales and Mythology: Themes, Symbols, and Meanings
• African Proverbs: Wisdom and Values Passed Down through Generations
• African Literature: Exploring the Works of Chinua Achebe, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, and others
• African Women Writers: Perspectives and Contributions
• African Poetry: Celebrating African Identity and Resistance
• African Diaspora in Literature: Examining the Works of African Writers in the Diaspora
• African Languages: Preservation and Challenges in a Globalized World
• African Storytelling and Performance Traditions: Rituals, Dance, and Music
• The Influence of African Oral Traditions in Contemporary Literature

African Art and Architecture

• African Sculpture: Materials, Styles, and Symbolism
• African Masks: Ritual, Performance, and Cultural Significance
• Rock Art in Africa: Understanding Prehistoric Narratives
• African Textiles and Adornment: Patterns, Techniques, and Meanings
• African Architecture: Traditional and Modern Expressions
• African Photography: Documenting History and Cultural Identity
• African Music and Dance: Traditional Forms and Contemporary Fusions
• African Film: Portrayals of History, Culture, and Social Issues
• African Contemporary Art: Challenges, Innovations, and Global Recognition
• African Art in Museums: Restitution and Repatriation Debates

Women’s Role in African History

• Women Warriors and Queens in African History: Hatshepsut, Amina of Zazzau, and others
• African Women in Pre-Colonial Societies: Roles, Rights, and Power
• Women’s Organizations and Activism in Colonial and Post-Colonial Africa
• Gendered Perspectives on Anti-Colonial Resistance Movements
• African Women in Politics: Leadership and Challenges
• Women’s Health and Reproductive Rights in Africa
• African Feminist Theories and Intellectual Contributions
• Women’s Education and Empowerment in Africa
• African Women Writers and Artists: Voices and Expressions
• Contemporary Issues and Achievements of African Women

African Independence Movements

• Kwame Nkrumah and the Independence of Ghana
• Jomo Kenyatta and the Struggle for Kenyan Independence
• Patrice Lumumba and the Quest for Congolese Independence
• Ahmed Ben Bella and the Algerian War of Independence
• Julius Nyerere and Tanzania’s Road to Independence
• Sekou Touré and Guinea’s Fight against French Colonial Rule
• Amílcar Cabral and the Liberation of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde
• Agostinho Neto and Angola’s Path to Freedom
• Samora Machel and the Mozambican Liberation Movement
• Robert Mugabe and Zimbabwe’s Liberation Struggle

African Diaspora and Pan-Africanism

• Marcus Garvey and the Back-to-Africa Movement
• The Harlem Renaissance: African-American Art, Literature, and Activism
• Negritude Movement: African Diaspora Writers and Cultural Identity
• Pan-African Congresses: Unity and Political Mobilization
• African-Americans in Africa: Exploring Identity and Connections
• African Diaspora in Europe: Contributions and Challenges
• Caribbean Literature and the African Diaspora Experience
• African Diaspora Communities: Cultural Preservation and Adaptation
• Afro-Latinx Identity and Activism in the Americas
• African Diaspora in Asia: Historical Connections and Contemporary Experiences

African Cultural Heritage and Preservation

• Cultural Heritage Sites in Africa: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
• African Traditional Medicine and Healing Practices
• African Traditional Music and Instruments: Preserving Cultural Expressions
• Oral History Projects in Africa: Recording and Safeguarding Narratives
• African Cultural Festivals: Celebrations of Tradition and Identity
• Museums and Archives in Africa: Preserving and Sharing History
• Restoring African Artifacts: Repatriation Efforts and Challenges
• Cultural Tourism in Africa: Balancing Economic Development and Heritage Conservation
• Indigenous Languages in Africa: Revitalization and Language Preservation
• Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Development in African Communities

This comprehensive list of African history research paper topics provides a diverse range of subjects for students to explore within the vast field of African history. These topics span various time periods, geographical regions, and themes, offering students the opportunity to delve into the rich history, culture, and experiences of the African continent. Whether it’s ancient civilizations, colonialism and resistance movements, or post-colonial Africa, there are countless avenues for research and exploration. By selecting a topic from this list, students can embark on a rewarding journey of discovery and contribute to the understanding and appreciation of African history.

African History: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

African history is a captivating field of study that offers a rich and diverse range of research paper topics. From ancient civilizations to colonialism, from influential leaders to cultural heritage, the history of Africa is filled with compelling narratives and significant events that have shaped the continent and influenced the world. In this section, we will explore the breadth and depth of African history research paper topics, providing students with a glimpse into the fascinating aspects they can delve into.

The history of Africa is replete with magnificent ancient civilizations that made remarkable contributions to human development. Topics within this category can focus on civilizations such as the Kingdom of Kush, Aksumite Empire, Great Zimbabwe, Mali Empire, and the Kingdom of Ghana. Students can explore the rise and fall of these civilizations, their socio-political organization, trade routes, cultural achievements, and their lasting impact on African history.

The impact of European colonialism on Africa is an essential aspect of African history. Research paper topics in this category can examine the scramble for Africa, the resistance against colonial rule, and the emergence of pan-African movements. Specific topics could include the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa, the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya, the Algerian War of Independence, and the Nigerian Civil War. These topics shed light on the struggle for independence and the resilience of African people in reclaiming their sovereignty.

The transatlantic slave trade is a crucial chapter in African history and the global African diaspora. Research topics within this category can explore the origins and routes of the slave trade, resistance and revolts among enslaved Africans, and the legacies of slavery. Specific topics could include the Middle Passage, plantation systems in the Americas, the Haitian Revolution, slave narratives, and the African diaspora. Studying these topics allows students to understand the profound impact of slavery on African societies and its enduring consequences.

The post-colonial era in Africa witnessed significant political, social, and economic changes. Research paper topics within this category can delve into post-colonial nation-building efforts, African socialism, dictatorships, African feminism, and contemporary challenges and opportunities. Students can explore key figures such as Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, and Patrice Lumumba, as well as topics like African economic development, cultural revival, and resource conflicts. Understanding post-colonial Africa provides insights into the complexities and aspirations of the continent.

Oral traditions and literature form a vibrant part of African culture and history. Research topics in this category can explore the role of griots and oral historians, African folktales and mythology, African proverbs, African literature, and the influence of African oral traditions on contemporary literature. By studying these topics, students can gain a deeper appreciation for the rich storytelling traditions that have shaped African societies and continue to inspire writers and artists.

African art and architecture showcase the creativity, craftsmanship, and cultural expressions of diverse African societies. Research paper topics within this category can examine African sculpture, masks, rock art, textiles, architecture, photography, music, and dance. Exploring the artistic traditions of Africa allows students to delve into the symbolism, cultural significance, and evolution of artistic practices across different regions and time periods.

The contributions of women in African history are often overlooked but are essential to understanding the continent’s narrative. Research topics in this category can focus on women warriors and queens, women in pre-colonial societies, women’s organizations and activism, and the representation of gender in resistance movements. Students can explore the lives and achievements of prominent African women, gendered perspectives on African history, and contemporary issues related to women’s rights and empowerment.

The struggle for independence from colonial rule shaped the course of African history. Research paper topics within this category can examine key independence leaders such as Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, Patrice Lumumba, and Amílcar Cabral, as well as the liberation movements in different African countries. Topics may also cover the ideology of pan-Africanism, the fight against imperialism, and the challenges of nation-building in the post-independence era.

The African diaspora and pan-Africanism represent the global connections and solidarity among people of African descent. Research topics within this category can explore figures such as Marcus Garvey, the Harlem Renaissance, the Negritude movement, and the experiences of African diaspora communities in different regions. Students can examine the cultural, political, and intellectual contributions of the African diaspora, as well as the efforts to foster unity and empowerment among people of African descent.

Preserving and celebrating African cultural heritage is crucial for understanding the continent’s diverse traditions. Research paper topics within this category can focus on UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa, African traditional medicine and healing practices, oral history projects, cultural festivals, museums and archives, and efforts to repatriate African artifacts. Students can explore the challenges and successes of preserving African cultural heritage in the face of globalization and the importance of cultural sustainability.

African history offers a wealth of research paper topics that uncover the diverse narratives, achievements, and challenges of the continent and its people. From ancient civilizations to post-colonial Africa, from art and literature to women’s history, the breadth and depth of African history provide endless possibilities for exploration and scholarly inquiry. By selecting a topic from the comprehensive list presented above, students can contribute to the understanding and appreciation of African history, fostering a more nuanced and inclusive view of the continent’s past and its impact on the world.

Choosing African History Research Paper Topics

Selecting a compelling and relevant research paper topic is essential for engaging in meaningful scholarly exploration. When it comes to African history, the diverse and rich tapestry of the continent offers numerous avenues for investigation. In this section, we will provide expert advice on choosing African history research paper topics, guiding students towards topics that are engaging, researchable, and contribute to a deeper understanding of Africa’s past.

• Understand Your Interests and Goals : Begin by reflecting on your personal interests and academic goals. African history covers a vast range of topics, from ancient civilizations to contemporary issues. Consider what aspects of African history resonate with you the most. Are you interested in a particular time period, a specific region, or a thematic focus? Identifying your passions and objectives will help narrow down your topic choices.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Before finalizing your research paper topic, conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with the existing scholarship and available sources. Read scholarly articles, books, and other relevant materials to gain insights into the current discussions and gaps in the field. This research will not only inform your topic selection but also provide a foundation for your literature review and overall research.
• Consult with Your Instructor or Advisor : Consulting with your instructor or advisor is invaluable when choosing a research paper topic. They possess extensive knowledge of the field and can provide guidance based on your academic level, course requirements, and research interests. Discuss potential topics with them, seek their suggestions, and benefit from their expertise in African history. Their insights can help you refine your ideas and ensure your topic aligns with the course objectives.
• Focus on Specific Aspects : African history is a vast and multifaceted subject, so it is advisable to narrow down your topic to specific aspects or themes. Instead of attempting to cover the entire scope of African history, consider delving into a particular event, individual, social issue, or cultural phenomenon. By focusing on specific aspects, you can conduct more in-depth research and provide a more nuanced analysis in your paper.
• Consider Understudied Areas or Alternative Perspectives : Exploring understudied areas or alternative perspectives can contribute to expanding knowledge and generating new insights in African history. Look for topics that have received less attention or alternative viewpoints that challenge conventional narratives. For example, you could explore the role of women in African liberation movements or examine the contributions of marginalized communities that have been overlooked in mainstream historical accounts.
• Incorporate Primary and Secondary Sources : To develop a comprehensive and well-rounded research paper, it is crucial to incorporate both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include original documents, artifacts, interviews, or eyewitness accounts from the time period you are studying. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are scholarly works that analyze and interpret primary sources. Utilizing a combination of primary and secondary sources will provide a stronger foundation for your research and enrich your analysis.
• Consider Comparative Approaches : Comparative approaches can enhance your research paper by examining African history in relation to other regions or global phenomena. For instance, you could explore the impact of African decolonization movements in the context of other anti-colonial struggles worldwide. Comparative approaches offer valuable perspectives, allowing you to identify similarities, differences, and interconnectedness across different historical contexts.
• Be Mindful of Ethical Considerations : When choosing a research paper topic in African history, it is important to be mindful of ethical considerations. Respect the cultures, traditions, and sensitivities of the communities and individuals you study. Engage in ethical research practices, adhere to academic integrity standards, and ensure your research respects the rights and dignity of those involved. Seek guidance from your instructor or advisor if you have any ethical concerns.
• Relevance to Contemporary Issues : African history is not confined to the past but also influences contemporary events and issues. Consider topics that have relevance to current debates, challenges, or developments in Africa. For example, you could explore the historical roots of social or political conflicts, examine the impact of colonial legacies on present-day challenges, or analyze the role of African leaders in shaping regional dynamics. Linking historical analysis to contemporary issues can make your research paper more engaging and impactful.
• Maintain a Manageable Scope : Lastly, ensure that your research paper topic has a manageable scope. Select a topic that you can reasonably explore within the given timeframe and word limit. Narrow down your focus to avoid overwhelming yourself with excessive research and analysis. A well-defined and manageable topic will allow you to delve deeper, conduct thorough research, and present a coherent and comprehensive argument in your paper.

Choosing an African history research paper topic requires careful consideration and strategic thinking. By understanding your interests, conducting preliminary research, consulting with experts, focusing on specific aspects, considering alternative perspectives, and incorporating primary and secondary sources, you can select a topic that is both engaging and academically sound. Additionally, being mindful of ethical considerations, relevance to contemporary issues, and maintaining a manageable scope will ensure a successful research endeavor. Embrace the richness and diversity of African history as you embark on your research journey, uncovering untold stories and contributing to a deeper understanding of Africa’s past.

How to Write an African History Research Paper

Writing an African history research paper requires a systematic approach that encompasses careful planning, thorough research, critical analysis, and effective communication. In this section, we will provide a comprehensive guide on how to write an African history research paper, covering key steps, strategies, and tips to help you succeed in your academic endeavors.

• Understand the Assignment Requirements : Before diving into your research, it is crucial to thoroughly understand the assignment requirements. Review the instructions provided by your instructor, paying attention to the topic guidelines, formatting style, length requirements, and any specific research questions or prompts. Familiarize yourself with the evaluation criteria to ensure you meet the expectations and objectives of the assignment.
• Choose a Focused and Researchable Topic : Selecting a focused and researchable topic is the foundation of a successful research paper. Building on the knowledge gained from the previous section, identify a specific aspect of African history that interests you and aligns with the assignment requirements. Refine your topic to make it manageable within the given word limit and timeframe. Ensure that there are sufficient scholarly sources and primary materials available to support your research.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Once you have chosen your topic, embark on a comprehensive research journey. Begin by consulting scholarly books, journal articles, and reputable online databases to gather relevant information. Explore both primary and secondary sources to gain a deeper understanding of your topic. Primary sources may include archival documents, oral histories, photographs, or artifacts, while secondary sources offer critical analysis and interpretations of primary materials.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : A strong thesis statement is the cornerstone of your research paper. It presents your main argument or hypothesis and provides a roadmap for your paper. Formulate a clear and concise thesis statement that reflects the unique perspective or contribution your research makes to the field of African history. Your thesis should be specific, debatable, and supported by the evidence you gather during your research.
• Outline Your Paper : Creating a well-structured outline is essential for organizing your thoughts and ensuring a coherent flow in your research paper. Divide your paper into logical sections, such as introduction, literature review, methodology, analysis, and conclusion. Within each section, outline the main points you will address and the evidence you will present to support your arguments. An outline serves as a roadmap, helping you stay focused and maintain a logical progression throughout your paper.
• Write a Compelling Introduction : The introduction sets the stage for your research paper and captures the reader’s attention. Begin with a captivating opening sentence or hook that piques the reader’s curiosity. Provide background information on the significance of your topic in African history and its relevance to broader historical discussions. Introduce your thesis statement, highlighting the main argument you will present in your paper. Conclude the introduction by outlining the structure and organization of your paper.
• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : The literature review demonstrates your understanding of existing scholarship and places your research within the broader historical context. Identify key themes, debates, and theories relevant to your topic. Summarize and critically evaluate the main arguments and findings of previous studies. Identify gaps in the literature that your research seeks to address. By engaging with the existing body of knowledge, you establish the significance of your research and demonstrate your expertise in the field.
• Analyze and Interpret the Evidence : The heart of your research paper lies in the analysis and interpretation of the evidence you have gathered. Carefully examine the primary and secondary sources, critically evaluating their credibility, biases, and limitations. Identify patterns, themes, and connections in the evidence that support your thesis statement. Present your analysis in a clear and structured manner, using appropriate citations and referencing conventions to acknowledge the sources of your information.
• Support Your Arguments with Evidence : To strengthen your arguments, provide ample evidence from your research. Incorporate direct quotations, paraphrases, and references to primary and secondary sources to support your claims. Analyze and contextualize the evidence, demonstrating how it relates to your thesis statement and contributes to your overall argument. Ensure that your evidence is properly cited using the appropriate citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago.
• Craft a Convincing Conclusion : The conclusion of your research paper should summarize your main findings, restate your thesis statement, and provide a sense of closure. Recapitulate the significance of your research and its contribution to the field of African history. Reflect on the broader implications and potential future research directions. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion and strive to leave a lasting impression on the reader.

Writing an African history research paper requires careful planning, rigorous research, critical analysis, and effective communication. By understanding the assignment requirements, choosing a focused and researchable topic, conducting in-depth research, developing a strong thesis statement, outlining your paper, and writing a compelling introduction, you can lay a solid foundation for your research paper. By conducting a thorough literature review, analyzing and interpreting the evidence, supporting your arguments with solid evidence, and crafting a convincing conclusion, you can present a well-structured and impactful research paper that contributes to the field of African history. Embrace the opportunity to explore Africa’s rich historical tapestry and shed light on untold stories, deepening our understanding of this vibrant continent.

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Agricultural Economics

Agricultural economics research papers/topics, food security in the semi-arid machakos county: a case study of mwala sub-county.

Abstract: Ensuring food security is a global significant challenge despite struggles to increase agricultural productivity, food distribution and identify appropriate policy interventions to cub food shortage. The recent recurrent incidences of food deficit in Kenya have placed the nation among the 20 most food insecure countries in the world. Food insecurity in the country is a prevalent issue since approximately 84% the country’s landmass is covered by arid and semi-arid land. Achieving ...

The Impact of Fairtrade in Africa: A Case Study of Iria-Ini Tea Factory in Othaya, Nyeri

Abstract: In today’s globalized world trade is one of the most powerful forces linking our lives. International trade has proved to be a source of immense wealth, yet millions of the world’s poorest populations are getting poorer every day. Increased prosperity among developed countries and multi-national corporations has occurred as poverty in developing countries has increased. The already obscene gap between the rich in the global north and the poor in the global south has widened. Ac...

Agricultural Investments and Institutional Arrangements’ Impact on Food Insecurity in Kenya: A Case Research of New Partnership for Africa’s Development from 2003-2020

Abstract: Is Africa capable of feeding itself given the alarming performance and projections shared by international organizations on poverty and food insecurity prevalence in the continent? What seems to be holding back agricultural production in most African countries? This research has sought to answer these questions and has identified that the Agriculture sector will spearhead this transformation since the economic development of most African states is driven by the growth of the sector...

The Effectiveness of Research Processes on Adoption and Diffusion of Agricultural Technologies in Kenya: A Case of Climbing Beans Technology at Kari

Abstract: Findings from the study show that KARI scientists used research processes that were participatory and educative. These included conducting farmer trainings at KARI centre and at on-farm demonstration sites, holding of field days and exchange visits, availability of documented evidence on the technology benefits, ensuring farmers were free to gain entry to the KARI on-station demonstration trails, issuance of clean planting materials, frequent follow ups to farmer's fields, and that...

Food Security in Africa: The Question Of Genetically Engineered Agricultural Crops (GMOs) - Case Study of Kenya

Abstract: Many have discussed Africa's food security crisis for decades but little has been done to change the state of affairs. Discussions concerning genetically engineered agricultural crops, otherwise known as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have emerged after the green revolution that has been witnessed in parts of Asia and Latin America. This new technology has come with a lot of controversy upon which this paper seeks to shed some light. The purpose of this study was to investig...

Potential Implications of the National Horticulture Policy on the Growth of the Cut Flowers Export Industry in Kenya

Abstract: This study sought to find out the potential implications of the National Horticulture Policy 2012 on the growth of the cut flowers export industry in Kenya. The non-implementation of the said policy presents the problem in this study with research questions seeking to find out factors contributing to this state of affairs. The study anchors on the Classical Economic Theory’s key concept of comparative advantage that brings out the aspect of sustenance of Kenya’s competitiveness...

A Survey of Manufacturing - Based Strategies for Small and Medium Scale Enterprises In The Food Processing Industry in Nairobi

Abstract: This research focuses on the SME's in the food processing industry in Kenya. Mainly due to the realization that the Agricultural sector especially with regard to food processing is still vastly unexploited and with great potential for contributing in the economic growth of this country. Adoption of Operations based strategies in the : processing of food products is key to realizing the contribution anticipated in this sector in terms of creation of employment and contribution to th...

Factors influencing default in servicing agricultural loans: a case study of Agricultural Finance Corporation, Machakos County

Abstract: Farm credit offered by AFC is an important tool in poverty alleviation through creation of working opportunities for beneficiaries. The facility improves the economic and social status through poverty alleviation, employment creation and income generation for low income farmers with limited opportunities. Through this facility, the government mainly targets to improve the livelihood and food sufficiency among the rural populace. However, loan repayment is faced by high levels of de...

DETERMINANTS OF FARMERS’ CHOICES OF ADAPTATION STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE: THE CASE OF GUANGUA DISTRICT OF AWI ZONE, AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE, NORTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA

Abstract: Climate change has higher impact on agricultural production by its effect flood, drought, crop pests and diseases. The main objective of study was to assess the determinants of farmers’ choices of adaptation strategies to climate change. Both primary and secondary data were used. A multistage sampling technique was used. This study depends on cross-sectional data. Descriptive statistics,weighted average index, principal component analysis and Multivariate Probit model were used. ...

SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ PERCEPTION TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE AND ADOPTION OF CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE PRACTICES: THE CASE OF MASABA SOUTH SUB-COUNTY, KISII, KENYA

Abstract: Climate variability and change is one of the global challenges facing human beings and their socio-economic activities. The negative impacts are being felt in many parts of Kenya especially in decadence of the agricultural productivity resulting into decreased national and household food security. To adapt to the changing climate, farmers’ need a paradigm shift in their farming practices and adopt practices that sustainably increase agricultural productivity and enhance their res...

ASSESSMENT OF SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ ADOPTION OF CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES: THE CASE OF BUGESERA DISTRICT, RWANDA

Abstract: Currently, climate variability and change has been recognized as a greatest global challenge facing humans being and their socio-economic activities. Rwanda like other developing countries has experienced climate variability and change, which declined agricultural productivities results into decreased national and household food security. To adapt to the changing climate, farmers need a transformation in their farming practices and adopt various practices that sustainably increase ...

DETERMINANTS OF SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ ADOPTION OF CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN LAIKIPIA CENTRAL SUB-COUNTY, KENYA

Abstract: Climate variability and change is increasingly threatening livelihoods and food security and in turn, the attainment of national development goals in Kenya. The declining productivity of agricultural production systems calls for a transformational change in farming practices to ensure sustainable and resilient agriculture. This study assessed smallholder farmers’ perception of climate variability and change, climate smart agricultural practices used by farmers to adapt to climate...

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY ON SELECTED CROP PRODUCTION: THE CASE OF BABILE DISTRICT, EAST HARARGHE ZONE, OROMIA REGIONAL STATE, ETHIOPIA

Abstract: This study was conducted to assess climate variability and its impacts on selected crop production in Babile district. To achieve the objective, primary data was obtained using questionnaire, focus group discussion and key informant interviews whereas secondary data were acquired from different published and unpublished documents from various offices of the district. The study also used rainfall and temperature data (1997 – 2016).out of 4875 household heads founds in the selected...

IMPACT OF IRRIGATION ON CROPPING PATTERN, FARM INCOME AND HUMAN LABOR EMPLOYMENT IN SOFI DISTRICT OF HARARI REGION, ETHIPIA

Abstract: In Ethiopia about 93 percent of cultivated area is rain fed and crop production primarily depends on rainfall. Present study was conducted in rain fed Sofi-District of Harari Region. The objectives of the study were to identify factors affecting participation of farmers in irrigation scheme and impact of irrigation on cropping pattern, farm income and human labor employment. The study was based on 260 sample house holds (130 participants in irrigation schemes and 130 non-participan...

PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY, POST-HARVEST LOSSES AND MARKETING OF SESAME: THE CASE OF KAFTA HUMERA DISTRICT, WESTERN ZONE OF TIGRAY, ETHIOPIA

Abstract: This study analyzed production efficiency, post-harvest loss and marketing of sesame in Kafta Humera district of Tigray region, Ethiopia. It was specifically aimed to address the research gaps by measuring technical, allocative and economic efficiencies and their determinants, measuring post-harvest loss and analyzing its determinants and market performance of sesame in Kafta Humera District. For addressing these objectives the study used primary and secondary data obtained from fi...

Agricultural economics is a branch of applied economics concerned with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food and fibre. Agricultural economics, study of the allocation, distribution, and utilization of the resources used, along with the commodities produced, by farming. Afribary curates list of academic papers and project topics in Agricultural economics. You can browse Agricultural economics project topics and materials, Agricultural economics thesis topics, Agricultural economics dissertation topics, Agricultural economics seminar topics, Agricultural economics essays, Agricultural economics text books, lesson notes in Agricultural economics and all academic papers in Agricultural economics field.

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Shocking Offers: Gender, Wage Inequality, and Recessions in Online Labor Markets

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Using data from the largest online job portal in Nigeria, the speaker will discuss the (a) gender differences in salary offers for jobs, and (b) the response of (a) to recessions. Jobs in industries where the number of job applicants skews female offer lower starting salaries than jobs in industries where applicants skew male. During Nigeria’s 2016 recession, overall job applications rose, but applications to jobs in industries that skew male increased more than applications to jobs in industries that skew female. Salary offers fell sharply for jobs in male-skewed industries compared to female-skewed industries. In accordance with this relative shift in applications, in 2016, the salary-offer gender gap almost disappeared.

ABOUT THE AFRICA ECONOMICS SERIES

The AES are monthly events chaired by Andrew Dabalen, Chief Economist for Africa . The series bring academics, other experts, and policymakers to share their work and thoughts with World bank staff and to discuss implications for policy and the World Bank operations in the Africa region. The events are opened to the public. Please visit the Africa Chief Economist Office’s webpage for more information.

Belinda Archibong  is an Associate Professor of Economics at Barnard College. Her research areas include development economics, political economy, economic history and environmental economics with an African regional focus. Her research investigates the role of historical institutions and environment in inequality of access to public services and the development of human capital, particularly in the areas of education, health and labor. Other works study the economics of prisons, the effects of protests on fiscal transfers and gender gaps in political participation, and the drivers of gender gaps in labor markets in African countries. She is a Faculty Research Fellow at the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) and a faculty affiliate at Columbia University's Center for Development Economics and Policy (CDEP), The Earth Institute at Columbia University, the Institute of African Studies, the Institute for Research in African-American Studies, the Columbia Population Research Center (CPRC), and the Center for Environmental Economics and Policy (CEEP). She is currently a David M. Rubenstein Fellow at the Brookings Institution. She received a B.A. in Economics/Philosophy and a Ph.D. in Sustainable Development from Columbia University.

Africa Region Chief Economist, World Bank

Senior Economist, Human Capital Project, Social Protection and Jobs, World Bank

• DATE:  May 30, 2024
• TIME:  12:30 - 2:00 pm

For more information: Ken Omondi [email protected]

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Innovative Statistics Project Ideas for Insightful Analysis

Table of contents

• 1.1 AP Statistics Topics for Project
• 1.2 Statistics Project Topics for High School Students
• 1.3 Statistical Survey Topics
• 1.4 Statistical Experiment Ideas
• 1.5 Easy Stats Project Ideas
• 1.6 Business Ideas for Statistics Project
• 1.7 Socio-Economic Easy Statistics Project Ideas
• 1.8 Experiment Ideas for Statistics and Analysis
• 2 Conclusion: Navigating the World of Data Through Statistics

Diving into the world of data, statistics presents a unique blend of challenges and opportunities to uncover patterns, test hypotheses, and make informed decisions. It is a fascinating field that offers many opportunities for exploration and discovery. This article is designed to inspire students, educators, and statistics enthusiasts with various project ideas. We will cover:

• Challenging concepts suitable for advanced placement courses.
• Accessible ideas that are engaging and educational for younger students.
• Ideas for conducting surveys and analyzing the results.
• Topics that explore the application of statistics in business and socio-economic areas.

Each category of topics for the statistics project provides unique insights into the world of statistics, offering opportunities for learning and application. Let’s dive into these ideas and explore the exciting world of statistical analysis.

Top Statistics Project Ideas for High School

Statistics is not only about numbers and data; it’s a unique lens for interpreting the world. Ideal for students, educators, or anyone with a curiosity about statistical analysis, these project ideas offer an interactive, hands-on approach to learning. These projects range from fundamental concepts suitable for beginners to more intricate studies for advanced learners. They are designed to ignite interest in statistics by demonstrating its real-world applications, making it accessible and enjoyable for people of all skill levels.

Need help with statistics project? Get your paper written by a professional writer Get Help Reviews.io 4.9/5

AP Statistics Topics for Project

• Analyzing Variance in Climate Data Over Decades.
• The Correlation Between Economic Indicators and Standard of Living.
• Statistical Analysis of Voter Behavior Patterns.
• Probability Models in Sports: Predicting Outcomes.
• The Effectiveness of Different Teaching Methods: A Statistical Study.
• Analysis of Demographic Data in Public Health.
• Time Series Analysis of Stock Market Trends.
• Investigating the Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance.
• Survival Analysis in Clinical Trial Data.
• Regression Analysis on Housing Prices and Market Factors.

Statistics Project Topics for High School Students

• The Mathematics of Personal Finance: Budgeting and Spending Habits.
• Analysis of Class Performance: Test Scores and Study Habits.
• A Statistical Comparison of Local Public Transportation Options.
• Survey on Dietary Habits and Physical Health Among Teenagers.
• Analyzing the Popularity of Various Music Genres in School.
• The Impact of Sleep on Academic Performance: A Statistical Approach.
• Statistical Study on the Use of Technology in Education.
• Comparing Athletic Performance Across Different Sports.
• Trends in Social Media Usage Among High School Students.
• The Effect of Part-Time Jobs on Student Academic Achievement.

Statistical Survey Topics

• Public Opinion on Environmental Conservation Efforts.
• Consumer Preferences in the Fast Food Industry.
• Attitudes Towards Online Learning vs. Traditional Classroom Learning.
• Survey on Workplace Satisfaction and Productivity.
• Public Health: Attitudes Towards Vaccination.
• Trends in Mobile Phone Usage and Preferences.
• Community Response to Local Government Policies.
• Consumer Behavior in Online vs. Offline Shopping.
• Perceptions of Public Safety and Law Enforcement.
• Social Media Influence on Political Opinions.

Statistical Experiment Ideas

• The Effect of Light on Plant Growth.
• Memory Retention: Visual vs. Auditory Information.
• Caffeine Consumption and Cognitive Performance.
• The Impact of Exercise on Stress Levels.
• Testing the Efficacy of Natural vs. Chemical Fertilizers.
• The Influence of Color on Mood and Perception.
• Sleep Patterns: Analyzing Factors Affecting Sleep Quality.
• The Effectiveness of Different Types of Water Filters.
• Analyzing the Impact of Room Temperature on Concentration.
• Testing the Strength of Different Brands of Batteries.

Easy Stats Project Ideas

• Average Daily Screen Time Among Students.
• Analyzing the Most Common Birth Months.
• Favorite School Subjects Among Peers.
• Average Time Spent on Homework Weekly.
• Frequency of Public Transport Usage.
• Comparison of Pet Ownership in the Community.
• Favorite Types of Movies or TV Shows.
• Daily Water Consumption Habits.
• Common Breakfast Choices and Their Nutritional Value.
• Steps Count: A Week-Long Study.

Business Ideas for Statistics Project

• Analyzing Customer Satisfaction in Retail Stores.
• Market Analysis of a New Product Launch.
• Employee Performance Metrics and Organizational Success.
• Sales Data Analysis for E-commerce Websites.
• Impact of Advertising on Consumer Buying Behavior.
• Analysis of Supply Chain Efficiency.
• Customer Loyalty and Retention Strategies.
• Trend Analysis in Social Media Marketing.
• Financial Risk Assessment in Investment Decisions.
• Market Segmentation and Targeting Strategies.

Socio-Economic Easy Statistics Project Ideas

• Income Inequality and Its Impact on Education.
• The Correlation Between Unemployment Rates and Crime Levels.
• Analyzing the Effects of Minimum Wage Changes.
• The Relationship Between Public Health Expenditure and Population Health.
• Demographic Analysis of Housing Affordability.
• The Impact of Immigration on Local Economies.
• Analysis of Gender Pay Gap in Different Industries.
• Statistical Study of Homelessness Causes and Solutions.
• Education Levels and Their Impact on Job Opportunities.
• Analyzing Trends in Government Social Spending.

Experiment Ideas for Statistics and Analysis

• Multivariate Analysis of Global Climate Change Data.
• Time-Series Analysis in Predicting Economic Recessions.
• Logistic Regression in Medical Outcome Prediction.
• Machine Learning Applications in Statistical Modeling.
• Network Analysis in Social Media Data.
• Bayesian Analysis of Scientific Research Data.
• The Use of Factor Analysis in Psychology Studies.
• Spatial Data Analysis in Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
• Predictive Analysis in Customer Relationship Management (CRM).
• Cluster Analysis in Market Research.

Conclusion: Navigating the World of Data Through Statistics

In this exploration of good statistics project ideas, we’ve ventured through various topics, from the straightforward to the complex, from personal finance to global climate change. These ideas are gateways to understanding the world of data and statistics, and platforms for cultivating critical thinking and analytical skills. Whether you’re a high school student, a college student, or a professional, engaging in these projects can deepen your appreciation of how statistics shapes our understanding of the world around us. These projects encourage exploration, inquiry, and a deeper engagement with the world of numbers, trends, and patterns – the essence of statistics.

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MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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Study explains why the brain can robustly recognize images, even without color

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Even though the human visual system has sophisticated machinery for processing color, the brain has no problem recognizing objects in black-and-white images. A new study from MIT offers a possible explanation for how the brain comes to be so adept at identifying both color and color-degraded images.

Using experimental data and computational modeling, the researchers found evidence suggesting the roots of this ability may lie in development. Early in life, when newborns receive strongly limited color information, the brain is forced to learn to distinguish objects based on their luminance, or intensity of light they emit, rather than their color. Later in life, when the retina and cortex are better equipped to process colors, the brain incorporates color information as well but also maintains its previously acquired ability to recognize images without critical reliance on color cues.

The findings are consistent with previous work showing that initially degraded visual and auditory input can actually be beneficial to the early development of perceptual systems.

“This general idea, that there is something important about the initial limitations that we have in our perceptual system, transcends color vision and visual acuity. Some of the work that our lab has done in the context of audition also suggests that there’s something important about placing limits on the richness of information that the neonatal system is initially exposed to,” says Pawan Sinha, a professor of brain and cognitive sciences at MIT and the senior author of the study.

The findings also help to explain why children who are born blind but have their vision restored later in life, through the removal of congenital cataracts, have much more difficulty identifying objects presented in black and white. Those children, who receive rich color input as soon as their sight is restored, may develop an overreliance on color that makes them much less resilient to changes or removal of color information.

MIT postdocs Marin Vogelsang and Lukas Vogelsang, and Project Prakash research scientist Priti Gupta, are the lead authors of the study, which appears today in Science . Sidney Diamond, a retired neurologist who is now an MIT research affiliate, and additional members of the Project Prakash team are also authors of the paper.

Seeing in black and white

The researchers’ exploration of how early experience with color affects later object recognition grew out of a simple observation from a study of children who had their sight restored after being born with congenital cataracts. In 2005, Sinha launched Project Prakash (the Sanskrit word for “light”), an effort in India to identify and treat children with reversible forms of vision loss.

Many of those children suffer from blindness due to dense bilateral cataracts. This condition often goes untreated in India, which has the world’s largest population of blind children, estimated between 200,000 and 700,000.

Children who receive treatment through Project Prakash may also participate in studies of their visual development, many of which have helped scientists learn more about how the brain's organization changes following restoration of sight, how the brain estimates brightness, and other phenomena related to vision.

In this study, Sinha and his colleagues gave children a simple test of object recognition, presenting both color and black-and-white images. For children born with normal sight, converting color images to grayscale had no effect at all on their ability to recognize the depicted object. However, when children who underwent cataract removal were presented with black-and-white images, their performance dropped significantly.

This led the researchers to hypothesize that the nature of visual inputs children are exposed to early in life may play a crucial role in shaping resilience to color changes and the ability to identify objects presented in black-and-white images. In normally sighted newborns, retinal cone cells are not well-developed at birth, resulting in babies having poor visual acuity and poor color vision. Over the first years of life, their vision improves markedly as the cone system develops.

Because the immature visual system receives significantly reduced color information, the researchers hypothesized that during this time, the baby brain is forced to gain proficiency at recognizing images with reduced color cues. Additionally, they proposed, children who are born with cataracts and have them removed later may learn to rely too much on color cues when identifying objects, because, as they experimentally demonstrated in the paper, with mature retinas, they commence their post-operative journeys with good color vision.

To rigorously test that hypothesis, the researchers used a standard convolutional neural network, AlexNet, as a computational model of vision. They trained the network to recognize objects, giving it different types of input during training. As part of one training regimen, they initially showed the model grayscale images only, then introduced color images later on. This roughly mimics the developmental progression of chromatic enrichment as babies’ eyesight matures over the first years of life.

Another training regimen comprised only color images. This approximates the experience of the Project Prakash children, because they can process full color information as soon as their cataracts are removed.

The researchers found that the developmentally inspired model could accurately recognize objects in either type of image and was also resilient to other color manipulations. However, the Prakash-proxy model trained only on color images did not show good generalization to grayscale or hue-manipulated images.

“What happens is that this Prakash-like model is very good with colored images, but it’s very poor with anything else. When not starting out with initially color-degraded training, these models just don’t generalize, perhaps because of their over-reliance on specific color cues,” Lukas Vogelsang says.

The robust generalization of the developmentally inspired model is not merely a consequence of it having been trained on both color and grayscale images; the temporal ordering of these images makes a big difference. Another object-recognition model that was trained on color images first, followed by grayscale images, did not do as well at identifying black-and-white objects.

“It’s not just the steps of the developmental choreography that are important, but also the order in which they are played out,” Sinha says.

The advantages of limited sensory input

By analyzing the internal organization of the models, the researchers found that those that begin with grayscale inputs learn to rely on luminance to identify objects. Once they begin receiving color input, they don’t change their approach very much, since they’ve already learned a strategy that works well. Models that began with color images did shift their approach once grayscale images were introduced, but could not shift enough to make them as accurate as the models that were given grayscale images first.

A similar phenomenon may occur in the human brain, which has more plasticity early in life, and can easily learn to identify objects based on their luminance alone. Early in life, the paucity of color information may in fact be beneficial to the developing brain, as it learns to identify objects based on sparse information.

“As a newborn, the normally sighted child is deprived, in a certain sense, of color vision. And that turns out to be an advantage,” Diamond says.

Researchers in Sinha’s lab have observed that limitations in early sensory input can also benefit other aspects of vision, as well as the auditory system. In 2022, they used computational models to show that early exposure to only low-frequency sounds, similar to those that babies hear in the womb, improves performance on auditory tasks that require analyzing sounds over a longer period of time, such as recognizing emotions. They now plan to explore whether this phenomenon extends to other aspects of development, such as language acquisition.

The research was funded by the National Eye Institute of NIH and the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity.

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When Protectionism Kills Talent

We examine the repercussions of protectionist policies implemented in the United States since 2018 on the composition of workforce and career choices within the semiconductor industry. We find that the shift towards protectionism, aimed at reviving domestic manufacturing and employment, paradoxically resulted in a significant drop in hiring domestic talent. The effect is stronger for entry-level and junior positions, indicating a disproportionate impact on newcomers to the workforce. Additionally, we trace the trajectories of undergraduate and graduate cohorts possessing chip-related skills over time, and document significant shifts away from the chip industry.

We are grateful to Alex Butler, John Griffin, Ahmet Gulek, Tom Meling, Jungu Myung, René Stulz, Yufeng Wu, Alminas Zaldokas, and seminar participants at the Pennsylvania State University for helpful feedback. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Can You Erase the Mark of a Criminal Record? Labor Market Impacts of Criminal Record Remediation

Many have pointed to criminal records as a substantial barrier to employment that could exacerbate racial inequality in the United States. Recent research from UChicago economists shows that retroactively reducing felony convictions to misdemeanors does not, on average, change employment. In this paper, the authors test the possibility that policies that clear entire records—rather than simply reducing their severity— might improve defendants’ labor market outcomes.

To answer this question, the authors first examine defendants’ employment trajectories before and after they encounter the criminal legal system. The authors link criminal records from four jurisdictions (Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Bexar County, Texas) to tax data from the Internal Revenue Service, and show the following:

• There are large and persistent drops in employment at the time of both misdemeanor and felony charges. These patterns are observed for convictions and, perhaps more surprisingly, for non-convictions.  
• A survey of firm hiring decision-makers supports the interpretation that these patterns at least partially reflect the negative impact of having a record. Hiring professionals report markedly reduced likelihood of hiring someone with a drug or theft charge, even if it resulted in a non-conviction.  

The authors next study whether removing criminal records can reverse these patterns. They measure the impacts of three policies that limit the information about criminal history reported in employment background checks: the Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA), which prohibits reporting of criminal charges that did not lead to a conviction (mainly dismissals) after seven years for jobs that pay less than $75,000 a year; the Maryland Credit Reporting Law, which prohibits the reporting of convictions after seven years for jobs that pay less than $20,000 a year; and Pennsylvania’s Clean Slate Law of 2018, which legislated automated sealing of all non-convictions.

The authors detail their methodology for measuring the impact of each policy in their working paper ; in sum, they use administrative tax records to compare individuals who had their records cleared to otherwise-comparable defendants. The authors find similar results across the three policies and jurisdictions that they study:

• There is little evidence that clearing criminal records from background checks (or removing non-convictions, in the case of the FCRA) improves labor market outcomes, on average.  
• A notable exception is evidence that record remediation policies increase the rate of electronically mediated gig platform work, albeit from a very low base.

How is it possible that criminal records are associated with large drops in employment and that remediation policies aren’t effective at mitigating this harm? The authors hypothesize that criminal charges scar defendants’ labor market trajectories in a way that can be difficult to undo later, for instance by creating resume gaps, loss of experience, discouragement, and reduced search. Since there are fewer barriers to participating in platform gig work, the authors posit such work is less susceptible to scarring.

Importantly, criminal record remediation policies may have benefits that are not reflected in the earnings observed in tax records. Remediation of records could directly impact access to housing, civic engagement, quality of life, and other policy-relevant outcomes. At the same time, this research suggests that if reintegration and labor market participation are primary objectives, existing policies are not achieving these goals. These results may help explain why recent evaluations of Ban-the-Box policies failed to find improvements in labor market outcomes for individuals with records.  

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