assignment in programming language

• Assignment Statement

An Assignment statement is a statement that is used to set a value to the variable name in a program .

Assignment statement allows a variable to hold different types of values during its program lifespan. Another way of understanding an assignment statement is, it stores a value in the memory location which is denoted by a variable name.

The symbol used in an assignment statement is called as an operator . The symbol is ‘=’ .

Note: The Assignment Operator should never be used for Equality purpose which is double equal sign ‘==’.

The Basic Syntax of Assignment Statement in a programming language is :

variable = expression ;

variable = variable name

expression = it could be either a direct value or a math expression/formula or a function call

Few programming languages such as Java, C, C++ require data type to be specified for the variable, so that it is easy to allocate memory space and store those values during program execution.

data_type variable_name = value ;

In the above-given examples, Variable ‘a’ is assigned a value in the same statement as per its defined data type. A data type is only declared for Variable ‘b’. In the 3 rd line of code, Variable ‘a’ is reassigned the value 25. The 4 th line of code assigns the value for Variable ‘b’.

Assignment Statement Forms

This is one of the most common forms of Assignment Statements. Here the Variable name is defined, initialized, and assigned a value in the same statement. This form is generally used when we want to use the Variable quite a few times and we do not want to change its value very frequently.

Tuple Assignment

Generally, we use this form when we want to define and assign values for more than 1 variable at the same time. This saves time and is an easy method. Note that here every individual variable has a different value assigned to it.

(Code In Python)

Sequence Assignment

(Code in Python)

Multiple-target Assignment or Chain Assignment

In this format, a single value is assigned to two or more variables.

Augmented Assignment

In this format, we use the combination of mathematical expressions and values for the Variable. Other augmented Assignment forms are: &=, -=, **=, etc.

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• Access Modifier
• Variables of Built-in-Datatypes
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• Type Modifier

Few Rules for Assignment Statement

Few Rules to be followed while writing the Assignment Statements are:

• Variable names must begin with a letter, underscore, non-number character. Each language has its own conventions.
• The Data type defined and the variable value must match.
• A variable name once defined can only be used once in the program. You cannot define it again to store other types of value.
• If you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the previous value and assign the new value.

FAQs on Assignment Statement

Q1. Which of the following shows the syntax of an  assignment statement ?

• variablename = expression ;
• expression = variable ;
• datatype = variablename ;
• expression = datatype variable ;

Answer – Option A.

Q2. What is an expression ?

• Same as statement
• List of statements that make up a program
• Combination of literals, operators, variables, math formulas used to calculate a value
• Numbers expressed in digits

Answer – Option C.

Q3. What are the two steps that take place when an  assignment statement  is executed?

• Evaluate the expression, store the value in the variable
• Reserve memory, fill it with value
• Evaluate variable, store the result
• Store the value in the variable, evaluate the expression.

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Assignment vs Equality

Kenneth Leroy Busbee

Assignment  sets and/or re-sets the value stored in the storage location denoted by a variable name. [1] Equality is a relational operator that tests or defines the relationship between two entities. [2]

Most control structures use a test expression that executes either selection (as in the: if then else) or iteration (as in the while; do while; or for loops) based on the truthfulness or falseness of the expression. Thus, we often talk about the Boolean expression that is controlling the structure. Within many programming languages, this expression must be a Boolean expression and is governed by a tight set of rules. However, in many programming languages, each data type can be used as a Boolean expression because each data type can be demoted into a Boolean value by using the rule/concept that zero and nothing represent false and all non-zero values represent true.

Within various languages, we have the potential added confusion of the equals symbol = as an operator that does not represent the normal math meaning of equality that we have used for most of our life. The equals symbol typically means: assignment. To get the equality concept of math we often use two equal symbols to represent the relational operator of equality. Let’s consider:

The test expression of the control structure will always be true because the expression is an assignment (not the relational operator of == ). It assigns the ‘y’ to the variable pig, then looks at the value in pig and determines that it is not zero; therefore the expression is true. And it will always be true and the else part will never be executed. This is not what the programmer had intended. The correct syntax for a Boolean expression is:

This example reminds you that you must be careful in creating your test expressions so that they are indeed a question, usually involving the relational operators. Some programming languages will generate a warning or an error when an assignment is used in a Boolean expression, and some do not.

Don’t get caught using assignment for equality.

• cnx.org: Programming Fundamentals – A Modular Structured Approach using C++
• Wikipedia: Assignment (computer science) ↵
• Wikipedia: Relational operator ↵

Programming Fundamentals Copyright © 2018 by Kenneth Leroy Busbee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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1.4 — Variable assignment and initialization

In the previous lesson ( 1.3 -- Introduction to objects and variables ), we covered how to define a variable that we can use to store values. In this lesson, we’ll explore how to actually put values into variables and use those values.

As a reminder, here’s a short snippet that first allocates a single integer variable named x , then allocates two more integer variables named y and z :

Variable assignment

After a variable has been defined, you can give it a value (in a separate statement) using the = operator . This process is called assignment , and the = operator is called the assignment operator .

By default, assignment copies the value on the right-hand side of the = operator to the variable on the left-hand side of the operator. This is called copy assignment .

Here’s an example where we use assignment twice:

This prints:

When we assign value 7 to variable width , the value 5 that was there previously is overwritten. Normal variables can only hold one value at a time.

One of the most common mistakes that new programmers make is to confuse the assignment operator ( = ) with the equality operator ( == ). Assignment ( = ) is used to assign a value to a variable. Equality ( == ) is used to test whether two operands are equal in value.

Initialization

One downside of assignment is that it requires at least two statements: one to define the variable, and another to assign the value.

These two steps can be combined. When an object is defined, you can optionally give it an initial value. The process of specifying an initial value for an object is called initialization , and the syntax used to initialize an object is called an initializer .

In the above initialization of variable width , { 5 } is the initializer, and 5 is the initial value.

Different forms of initialization

Initialization in C++ is surprisingly complex, so we’ll present a simplified view here.

There are 6 basic ways to initialize variables in C++:

You may see the above forms written with different spacing (e.g. int d{7}; ). Whether you use extra spaces for readability or not is a matter of personal preference.

Default initialization

When no initializer is provided (such as for variable a above), this is called default initialization . In most cases, default initialization performs no initialization, and leaves a variable with an indeterminate value.

We’ll discuss this case further in lesson ( 1.6 -- Uninitialized variables and undefined behavior ).

Copy initialization

When an initial value is provided after an equals sign, this is called copy initialization . This form of initialization was inherited from C.

Much like copy assignment, this copies the value on the right-hand side of the equals into the variable being created on the left-hand side. In the above snippet, variable width will be initialized with value 5 .

Copy initialization had fallen out of favor in modern C++ due to being less efficient than other forms of initialization for some complex types. However, C++17 remedied the bulk of these issues, and copy initialization is now finding new advocates. You will also find it used in older code (especially code ported from C), or by developers who simply think it looks more natural and is easier to read.

For advanced readers

Copy initialization is also used whenever values are implicitly copied or converted, such as when passing arguments to a function by value, returning from a function by value, or catching exceptions by value.

Direct initialization

When an initial value is provided inside parenthesis, this is called direct initialization .

Direct initialization was initially introduced to allow for more efficient initialization of complex objects (those with class types, which we’ll cover in a future chapter). Just like copy initialization, direct initialization had fallen out of favor in modern C++, largely due to being superseded by list initialization. However, we now know that list initialization has a few quirks of its own, and so direct initialization is once again finding use in certain cases.

Direct initialization is also used when values are explicitly cast to another type.

One of the reasons direct initialization had fallen out of favor is because it makes it hard to differentiate variables from functions. For example:

List initialization

The modern way to initialize objects in C++ is to use a form of initialization that makes use of curly braces. This is called list initialization (or uniform initialization or brace initialization ).

List initialization comes in three forms:

As an aside…

Prior to the introduction of list initialization, some types of initialization required using copy initialization, and other types of initialization required using direct initialization. List initialization was introduced to provide a more consistent initialization syntax (which is why it is sometimes called “uniform initialization”) that works in most cases.

Additionally, list initialization provides a way to initialize objects with a list of values (which is why it is called “list initialization”). We show an example of this in lesson 16.2 -- Introduction to std::vector and list constructors .

List initialization has an added benefit: “narrowing conversions” in list initialization are ill-formed. This means that if you try to brace initialize a variable using a value that the variable can not safely hold, the compiler is required to produce a diagnostic (usually an error). For example:

In the above snippet, we’re trying to assign a number (4.5) that has a fractional part (the .5 part) to an integer variable (which can only hold numbers without fractional parts).

Copy and direct initialization would simply drop the fractional part, resulting in the initialization of value 4 into variable width . Your compiler may optionally warn you about this, since losing data is rarely desired. However, with list initialization, your compiler is required to generate a diagnostic in such cases.

Conversions that can be done without potential data loss are allowed.

To summarize, list initialization is generally preferred over the other initialization forms because it works in most cases (and is therefore most consistent), it disallows narrowing conversions, and it supports initialization with lists of values (something we’ll cover in a future lesson). While you are learning, we recommend sticking with list initialization (or value initialization).

Best practice

Prefer direct list initialization (or value initialization) for initializing your variables.

Author’s note

Bjarne Stroustrup (creator of C++) and Herb Sutter (C++ expert) also recommend using list initialization to initialize your variables.

In modern C++, there are some cases where list initialization does not work as expected. We cover one such case in lesson 16.2 -- Introduction to std::vector and list constructors .

Because of such quirks, some experienced developers now advocate for using a mix of copy, direct, and list initialization, depending on the circumstance. Once you are familiar enough with the language to understand the nuances of each initialization type and the reasoning behind such recommendations, you can evaluate on your own whether you find these arguments persuasive.

Value initialization and zero initialization

When a variable is initialized using empty braces, value initialization takes place. In most cases, value initialization will initialize the variable to zero (or empty, if that’s more appropriate for a given type). In such cases where zeroing occurs, this is called zero initialization .

Q: When should I initialize with { 0 } vs {}?

Use an explicit initialization value if you’re actually using that value.

Use value initialization if the value is temporary and will be replaced.

Initialize your variables

Initialize your variables upon creation. You may eventually find cases where you want to ignore this advice for a specific reason (e.g. a performance critical section of code that uses a lot of variables), and that’s okay, as long as the choice is made deliberately.

Related content

For more discussion on this topic, Bjarne Stroustrup (creator of C++) and Herb Sutter (C++ expert) make this recommendation themselves here .

We explore what happens if you try to use a variable that doesn’t have a well-defined value in lesson 1.6 -- Uninitialized variables and undefined behavior .

Initialize your variables upon creation.

Initializing multiple variables

In the last section, we noted that it is possible to define multiple variables of the same type in a single statement by separating the names with a comma:

We also noted that best practice is to avoid this syntax altogether. However, since you may encounter other code that uses this style, it’s still useful to talk a little bit more about it, if for no other reason than to reinforce some of the reasons you should be avoiding it.

You can initialize multiple variables defined on the same line:

Unfortunately, there’s a common pitfall here that can occur when the programmer mistakenly tries to initialize both variables by using one initialization statement:

In the top statement, variable “a” will be left uninitialized, and the compiler may or may not complain. If it doesn’t, this is a great way to have your program intermittently crash or produce sporadic results. We’ll talk more about what happens if you use uninitialized variables shortly.

The best way to remember that this is wrong is to consider the case of direct initialization or brace initialization:

Because the parenthesis or braces are typically placed right next to the variable name, this makes it seem a little more clear that the value 5 is only being used to initialize variable b and d , not a or c .

Unused initialized variables warnings

Modern compilers will typically generate warnings if a variable is initialized but not used (since this is rarely desirable). And if “treat warnings as errors” is enabled, these warnings will be promoted to errors and cause the compilation to fail.

Consider the following innocent looking program:

When compiling this with the g++ compiler, the following error is generated:

and the program fails to compile.

There are a few easy ways to fix this.

• If the variable really is unused, then the easiest option is to remove the defintion of x (or comment it out). After all, if it’s not used, then removing it won’t affect anything.
• Another option is to simply use the variable somewhere:

But this requires some effort to write code that uses it, and has the downside of potentially changing your program’s behavior.

The [[maybe_unused]] attribute C++17

In some cases, neither of the above options are desirable. Consider the case where we have a bunch of math/physics values that we use in many different programs:

If we use these a lot, we probably have these saved somewhere and copy/paste/import them all together.

However, in any program where we don’t use all of these values, the compiler will complain about each variable that isn’t actually used. While we could go through and remove/comment out the unused ones for each program, this takes time and energy. And later if we need one that we’ve previously removed, we’ll have to go back and re-add it.

To address such cases, C++17 introduced the [[maybe_unused]] attribute, which allows us to tell the compiler that we’re okay with a variable being unused. The compiler will not generate unused variable warnings for such variables.

The following program should generate no warnings/errors:

Additionally, the compiler will likely optimize these variables out of the program, so they have no performance impact.

In future lessons, we’ll often define variables we don’t use again, in order to demonstrate certain concepts. Making use of [[maybe_unused]] allows us to do so without compilation warnings/errors.

Question #1

What is the difference between initialization and assignment?

Show Solution

Initialization gives a variable an initial value at the point when it is created. Assignment gives a variable a value at some point after the variable is created.

Question #2

What form of initialization should you prefer when you want to initialize a variable with a specific value?

Direct list initialization (aka. direct brace initialization).

Question #3

What are default initialization and value initialization? What is the behavior of each? Which should you prefer?

Default initialization is when a variable initialization has no initializer (e.g. int x; ). In most cases, the variable is left with an indeterminate value.

Value initialization is when a variable initialization has an empty brace (e.g. int x{}; ). In most cases this will perform zero-initialization.

You should prefer value initialization to default initialization.

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Assignment Operators in C

In C language, the assignment operator stores a certain value in an already declared variable. A variable in C can be assigned the value in the form of a literal, another variable, or an expression.

The value to be assigned forms the right-hand operand, whereas the variable to be assigned should be the operand to the left of the " = " symbol, which is defined as a simple assignment operator in C.

In addition, C has several augmented assignment operators.

The following table lists the assignment operators supported by the C language −

Simple Assignment Operator (=)

The = operator is one of the most frequently used operators in C. As per the ANSI C standard, all the variables must be declared in the beginning. Variable declaration after the first processing statement is not allowed.

You can declare a variable to be assigned a value later in the code, or you can initialize it at the time of declaration.

You can use a literal, another variable, or an expression in the assignment statement.

Once a variable of a certain type is declared, it cannot be assigned a value of any other type. In such a case the C compiler reports a type mismatch error.

In C, the expressions that refer to a memory location are called "lvalue" expressions. A lvalue may appear as either the left-hand or right-hand side of an assignment.

On the other hand, the term rvalue refers to a data value that is stored at some address in memory. A rvalue is an expression that cannot have a value assigned to it which means an rvalue may appear on the right-hand side but not on the left-hand side of an assignment.

Variables are lvalues and so they may appear on the left-hand side of an assignment. Numeric literals are rvalues and so they may not be assigned and cannot appear on the left-hand side. Take a look at the following valid and invalid statements −

Augmented Assignment Operators

In addition to the = operator, C allows you to combine arithmetic and bitwise operators with the = symbol to form augmented or compound assignment operator. The augmented operators offer a convenient shortcut for combining arithmetic or bitwise operation with assignment.

For example, the expression "a += b" has the same effect of performing "a + b" first and then assigning the result back to the variable "a".

Run the code and check its output −

Similarly, the expression "a <<= b" has the same effect of performing "a << b" first and then assigning the result back to the variable "a".

Here is a C program that demonstrates the use of assignment operators in C −

When you compile and execute the above program, it will produce the following result −

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What are Operators in Programming?

• Binary Operators in Programming
• Unary Operators in Programming
• Types of Operators in Programming
• Assignment Operators in Programming
• Comparison Operators in Programming
• Ternary Operator in Programming
• Bitwise AND operator in Programming
• Bitwise OR Operator (|) in Programming
• Logical AND operator in Programming
• Conditional Operator in Programming
• Right Shift Operator (>>) in Programming
• Modulus Operator in Programming
• Operator Associativity in Programming
• Logical NOT Operator in Programming
• Pre and Post Decrement Operator in Programming
• Increment and Decrement Operators in Programming
• Logical OR operator in Programming
• Operator Overloading in Dart
• Relational Operators in C

Operators in programming are essential symbols that perform operations on variables and values , enabling tasks like arithmetic calculations, logical comparisons, and bitwise manipulations. In this article, we will learn about the basics of operators and their types.

Operators in Programming

Table of Content

• Operator Precedence and Associativity in Programming
• Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) related to Programming Operators

Operators in programming are symbols or keywords that represent computations or actions performed on operands. Operands can be variables , constants , or values , and the combination of operators and operands form expressions. Operators play a crucial role in performing various tasks, such as arithmetic calculations, logical comparisons, bitwise operations, etc.

Types of Operators in Programming:

Here are some common types of operators:

• Arithmetic Operators: Perform basic arithmetic operations on numeric values. Examples: + (addition), – (subtraction), * (multiplication), / (division), % (modulo).
• Comparison Operators: Compare two values and return a Boolean result (true or false). Examples: == (equal to), != (not equal to), < (less than), > (greater than), <= (less than or equal to), >= (greater than or equal to).
• Logical Operators: Perform logical operations on Boolean values. Examples: && (logical AND), || (logical OR), ! (logical NOT).
• Assignment Operators: Assign values to variables. Examples: = (assign), += (add and assign), -=, *= (multiply and assign), /=, %=.
• Increment and Decrement Operators: Increase or decrease the value of a variable by 1. Examples: ++ (increment), — (decrement).
• Bitwise Operators: Perform operations on individual bits of binary representations of numbers. Examples: & (bitwise AND), | (bitwise OR), ^ (bitwise XOR), ~ (bitwise NOT), << (left shift), >> (right shift).

These operators provide the building blocks for creating complex expressions and performing diverse operations in programming languages. Understanding their usage is crucial for writing efficient and expressive code.

Arithmetic Operators in Programming:

Arithmetic operators in programming are fundamental components of programming languages, enabling the manipulation of numeric values for various computational tasks. Here’s an elaboration on the key arithmetic operators:

Comparison Operators in Programming:

Comparison operators in programming are used to compare two values or expressions and return a Boolean result indicating the relationship between them. These operators play a crucial role in decision-making and conditional statements. Here are the common comparison operators:

These operators are extensively used in conditional statements, loops, and decision-making constructs to control the flow of a program based on the relationship between variables or values. Understanding comparison operators is crucial for creating logical and effective algorithms in programming.

Logical Operators in Programming:

Logical operators in programming are used to perform logical operations on Boolean values . These operators are crucial for combining or manipulating conditions and controlling the flow of a program based on logical expressions. Here are the common logical operators:

These logical operators are frequently used in conditional statements (if, else if, else), loops, and decision-making constructs to create complex conditions based on multiple Boolean expressions. Understanding how to use logical operators is essential for designing effective and readable control flow in programming.

Assignment Operators in Programming:

Assignment operators in programming are used to assign values to variables. They are essential for storing and updating data within a program. Here are common assignment operators:

Assignment operators are fundamental for updating variable values, especially in loops and mathematical computations, contributing to the dynamic nature of programming. Understanding how to use assignment operators is essential for effective variable manipulation in a program.

Increment and Decrement Operators in Programming:

Increment and decrement operators in programming are used to increase or decrease the value of a variable by 1, respectively. They are shorthand notations for common operations and are particularly useful in loops. Here are the two types:

These operators are frequently employed in loops, especially for iterating through arrays or performing repetitive tasks. Their concise syntax enhances code readability and expressiveness.

Bitwise Operators in Programming:

Bitwise operators in programming perform operations at the bit level , manipulating individual bits of binary representations of numbers. These operators are often used in low-level programming, such as embedded systems and device drivers. Here are the common bitwise operators:

Bitwise operators are useful in scenarios where direct manipulation of binary representations or specific bit patterns is required, such as optimizing certain algorithms or working with hardware interfaces. Understanding bitwise operations is essential for low-level programming tasks.

Operator Precedence and Associativity in Programming :

Operator Precedence is a rule that determines the order in which operators are evaluated in an expression. It defines which operators take precedence over others when they are combined in the same expression. Operators with higher precedence are evaluated before operators with lower precedence. Parentheses can be used to override the default precedence and explicitly specify the order of evaluation.

Operator Associativity is a rule that determines the grouping of operators with the same precedence in an expression when they appear consecutively. It specifies the direction in which operators of equal precedence are evaluated. The two common associativities are:

• Left to Right (Left-Associative): Operators with left associativity are evaluated from left to right. For example, in the expression a + b + c , the addition operators have left associativity, so the expression is equivalent to (a + b) + c .
• Right to Left (Right-Associative): Operators with right associativity are evaluated from right to left. For example, in the expression a = b = c , the assignment operator = has right associativity, so the expression is equivalent to a = (b = c) .

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) related to Programming Operators :

Here are some frequently asked questions (FAQs) related to programming operators:

Q1: What are operators in programming?

A: Operators in programming are symbols that represent computations or actions to be performed on operands. They can manipulate data, perform calculations, and facilitate various operations in a program.

Q2: How are operators categorized?

A: Operators are categorized based on their functionality. Common categories include arithmetic operators (for mathematical operations), assignment operators (for assigning values), comparison operators (for comparing values), logical operators (for logical operations), and bitwise operators (for manipulating individual bits).

Q3: What is the difference between unary and binary operators?

A: Unary operators operate on a single operand, while binary operators operate on two operands. For example, the unary minus -x negates the value of x , while the binary plus a + b adds the values of a and b .

Q4: Can operators be overloaded in programming languages?

A: Yes, some programming languages support operator overloading, allowing developers to define custom behaviors for operators when applied to user-defined types. This is commonly seen in languages like C++.

Q5: How do logical AND ( && ) and logical OR ( || ) operators work?

A: The logical AND ( && ) operator returns true if both of its operands are true. The logical OR ( || ) operator returns true if at least one of its operands is true. These operators are often used in conditional statements and expressions.

Q6: What is the purpose of the ternary operator ( ?: )?

A: The ternary operator is a shorthand for an if-else statement. It evaluates a condition and returns one of two values based on whether the condition is true or false. It is often used for concise conditional assignments.

Q7: How does the bitwise XOR operator ( ^ ) work?

A: The bitwise XOR ( ^ ) operator performs an exclusive OR operation on individual bits. It returns 1 for bits that are different and 0 for bits that are the same. This operator is commonly used in bit manipulation tasks.

Q8: What is the difference between = and == ?

A: The = operator is an assignment operator used to assign a value to a variable. The == operator is a comparison operator used to check if two values are equal. It is important not to confuse the two, as = is used for assignment, and == is used for comparison.

Q9: How do increment ( ++ ) and decrement ( -- ) operators work?

A: The increment ( ++ ) operator adds 1 to the value of a variable, while the decrement ( -- ) operator subtracts 1. These operators can be used as prefix ( ++x ) or postfix ( x++ ), affecting the order of the increment or decrement operation.

Q10: Are operators language-specific?

A: While many operators are common across programming languages, some languages may introduce unique operators or have variations in their behavior. However, the fundamental concepts of arithmetic, logical, and bitwise operations are prevalent across various languages.

Q11: What is the modulus operator ( % ) used for?

A: The modulus operator ( % ) returns the remainder when one number is divided by another. It is often used to check divisibility or to cycle through a sequence of values. For example, a % 2 can be used to determine if a is an even or odd number.

Q12: Can the same operator have different meanings in different programming languages?

A: Yes, the same symbol may represent different operators or operations in different programming languages. For example, the + operator is used for addition in most languages, but in some languages (like JavaScript), it is also used for string concatenation.

Q13: What is short-circuit evaluation in the context of logical operators?

A: Short-circuit evaluation is a behavior where the second operand of a logical AND ( && ) or logical OR ( || ) operator is not evaluated if the outcome can be determined by the value of the first operand alone. This can lead to more efficient code execution.

Q14: How are bitwise left shift ( << ) and right shift ( >> ) operators used?

A: The bitwise left shift ( << ) operator shifts the bits of a binary number to the left, effectively multiplying the number by 2. The bitwise right shift ( >> ) operator shifts the bits to the right, effectively dividing the number by 2.

Q15: Can you provide an example of operator precedence in programming?

A: Operator precedence determines the order in which operators are evaluated. For example, in the expression a + b * c , the multiplication ( * ) has higher precedence than addition ( + ), so b * c is evaluated first.

Q16: How does the ternary operator differ from an if-else statement?

A: The ternary operator ( ?: ) is a concise way to express a conditional statement with a single line of code. It returns one of two values based on a condition. An if-else statement provides a more extensive code block for handling multiple statements based on a condition.

Q17: Are there any operators specifically designed for working with arrays or collections?

A: Some programming languages provide specific operators or methods for working with arrays or collections. For example, in Python, the in operator is used to check if an element is present in a list.

Q18: How can bitwise operators be used for efficient memory management?

A: Bitwise operators are often used for efficient memory management by manipulating individual bits. For example, bitwise AND can be used to mask specific bits, and bitwise OR can be used to set particular bits.

Q19: Can operators be overloaded in all programming languages?

A: No, not all programming languages support operator overloading. While some languages like C++ allow developers to redefine the behavior of operators for user-defined types, others, like Java, do not permit operator overloading.

Q20: How do you handle operator precedence in complex expressions?

A: Parentheses are used to explicitly specify the order of operations in complex expressions, ensuring that certain operations are performed before others. For example, (a + b) * c ensures that addition is performed before multiplication.

In conclusion, operators in programming are essential tools that enable the manipulation, comparison, and logical operations on variables and values. They form the building blocks of expressions and play a fundamental role in controlling program flow, making decisions, and performing calculations. From arithmetic and comparison operators for numerical tasks to logical operators for decision-making, and bitwise operators for low-level bit manipulation, each type serves specific purposes in diverse programming scenarios.

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CSE341: Homework and Study Note for Programming Languages on Coursera

Weiting-Zhang/Programming-Languages

Folders and files, repository files navigation, programming languages on coursera.

This course is an introduction to the basic concepts of programming languages, with a strong emphasis on functional programming . The course uses the languages ML (in Part A ), Racket (in Part B ), and Ruby (in Part C ) as vehicles for teaching the concepts, but the real intent is to teach enough about how any language “fits together” to make you more effective programming in any language -- and in learning new ones.

Introduction

This repo contains all my work for this course. All the code base, quiz questions, screenshot, and images, are taken from, unless specified, Programming Languages on Coursera . The course is also avilable on washington.edu .

What I want to say

VERBOSE CONTENT WARNING: YOU CAN JUMP TO THE NEXT SECTION IF YOU WANT

Here I released these solutions, which are only for your reference purpose . It may help you to save some time. And I hope you don't copy any part of the code (the programming assignments are fairly easy if you read the instructions carefully), see the quiz solutions before you start your own adventure.

Currently, this repo has 3 major parts you may be interested in and I will give a list here.

Homework Assignments and Exams

Part A: ML and Functional Pragramming

• Week 2 - Homework 1 - ML Functions, Tuples, Lists, and More : 104/100
• Week 3 - Homework 2 - Datatypes, Pattern Matching, Tail Recursion, and More : 104/100
• Week 4 - Homework 3 - First-Class Functions and Closures : 100/100
• Week 5 - Part A - Exam

Part B: Racket and Dynamically Typed Language

• Week 1 - Homework 4 - Racket, Delaying Evaluation, Memoization, Macros
• Week 2 - Homework 5 - Structs, Implementing Languages, Static vs. Dynamic Typing
• Week 3 - Section Quiz

Part C: Ruby and Object-Oriented Language

• Week 1 - Homework 6 - Ruby, Object-Oriented Programming, Subclassing
• Week 2 - Homework 7 - Program Decomposition, Mixins, Subtyping, and More
• Week 3 - Final Exam
• Standard ML 100.0%