experimental research report example

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Writing the Experimental Report: Overview, Introductions, and Literature Reviews

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Written for undergraduate students and new graduate students in psychology (experimental), this handout provides information on writing in psychology and on experimental report and experimental article writing.

Experimental reports (also known as "lab reports") are reports of empirical research conducted by their authors. You should think of an experimental report as a "story" of your research in which you lead your readers through your experiment. As you are telling this story, you are crafting an argument about both the validity and reliability of your research, what your results mean, and how they fit into other previous work.

These next two sections provide an overview of the experimental report in APA format. Always check with your instructor, advisor, or journal editor for specific formatting guidelines.

General-specific-general format

Experimental reports follow a general to specific to general pattern. Your report will start off broadly in your introduction and discussion of the literature; the report narrows as it leads up to your specific hypotheses, methods, and results. Your discussion transitions from talking about your specific results to more general ramifications, future work, and trends relating to your research.

Experimental reports in APA format have a title page. Title page formatting is as follows:

• A running head and page number in the upper right corner (right aligned)
• A definition of running head in IN ALL CAPS below the running head (left aligned)
• Vertically and horizontally centered paper title, followed by author and affiliation

Please see our sample APA title page .

Crafting your story

Before you begin to write, carefully consider your purpose in writing: what is it that you discovered, would like to share, or would like to argue? You can see report writing as crafting a story about your research and your findings. Consider the following.

• What is the story you would like to tell?
• What literature best speaks to that story?
• How do your results tell the story?
• How can you discuss the story in broad terms?

During each section of your paper, you should be focusing on your story. Consider how each sentence, each paragraph, and each section contributes to your overall purpose in writing. Here is a description of one student's process.

Briel is writing an experimental report on her results from her experimental psychology lab class. She was interested in looking at the role gender plays in persuading individuals to take financial risks. After her data analysis, she finds that men are more easily persuaded by women to take financial risks and that men are generally willing to take more financial risks.

When Briel begins to write, she focuses her introduction on financial risk taking and gender, focusing on male behaviors. She then presents relevant literature on financial risk taking and gender that help illuminate her own study, but also help demonstrate the need for her own work. Her introduction ends with a study overview that directly leads from the literature review. Because she has already broadly introduced her study through her introduction and literature review, her readers can anticipate where she is going when she gets to her study overview. Her methods and results continue that story. Finally, her discussion concludes that story, discussing her findings, implications of her work, and the need for more research in the area of gender and financial risk taking.

The abstract gives a concise summary of the contents of the report.

• Abstracts should be brief (about 100 words)
• Abstracts should be self-contained and provide a complete picture of what the study is about
• Abstracts should be organized just like your experimental report—introduction, literature review, methods, results and discussion
• Abstracts should be written last during your drafting stage

Introduction

The introduction in an experimental article should follow a general to specific pattern, where you first introduce the problem generally and then provide a short overview of your own study. The introduction includes three parts: opening statements, literature review, and study overview.

Opening statements: Define the problem broadly in plain English and then lead into the literature review (this is the "general" part of the introduction). Your opening statements should already be setting the stage for the story you are going to tell.

Literature review: Discusses literature (previous studies) relevant to your current study in a concise manner. Keep your story in mind as you organize your lit review and as you choose what literature to include. The following are tips when writing your literature review.

• You should discuss studies that are directly related to your problem at hand and that logically lead to your own hypotheses.
• You do not need to provide a complete historical overview nor provide literature that is peripheral to your own study.
• Studies should be presented based on themes or concepts relevant to your research, not in a chronological format.
• You should also consider what gap in the literature your own research fills. What hasn't been examined? What does your work do that others have not?

Study overview: The literature review should lead directly into the last section of the introduction—your study overview. Your short overview should provide your hypotheses and briefly describe your method. The study overview functions as a transition to your methods section.

You should always give good, descriptive names to your hypotheses that you use consistently throughout your study. When you number hypotheses, readers must go back to your introduction to find them, which makes your piece more difficult to read. Using descriptive names reminds readers what your hypotheses were and allows for better overall flow.

In our example above, Briel had three different hypotheses based on previous literature. Her first hypothesis, the "masculine risk-taking hypothesis" was that men would be more willing to take financial risks overall. She clearly named her hypothesis in the study overview, and then referred back to it in her results and discussion sections.

Thais and Sanford (2000) recommend the following organization for introductions.

• Provide an introduction to your topic
• Provide a very concise overview of the literature
• State your hypotheses and how they connect to the literature
• Provide an overview of the methods for investigation used in your research

Bem (2006) provides the following rules of thumb for writing introductions.

• Write in plain English
• Take the time and space to introduce readers to your problem step-by-step; do not plunge them into the middle of the problem without an introduction
• Use examples to illustrate difficult or unfamiliar theories or concepts. The more complicated the concept or theory, the more important it is to have clear examples
• Open with a discussion about people and their behavior, not about psychologists and their research

Scientific Reports

What this handout is about.

This handout provides a general guide to writing reports about scientific research you’ve performed. In addition to describing the conventional rules about the format and content of a lab report, we’ll also attempt to convey why these rules exist, so you’ll get a clearer, more dependable idea of how to approach this writing situation. Readers of this handout may also find our handout on writing in the sciences useful.

Background and pre-writing

Why do we write research reports.

You did an experiment or study for your science class, and now you have to write it up for your teacher to review. You feel that you understood the background sufficiently, designed and completed the study effectively, obtained useful data, and can use those data to draw conclusions about a scientific process or principle. But how exactly do you write all that? What is your teacher expecting to see?

To take some of the guesswork out of answering these questions, try to think beyond the classroom setting. In fact, you and your teacher are both part of a scientific community, and the people who participate in this community tend to share the same values. As long as you understand and respect these values, your writing will likely meet the expectations of your audience—including your teacher.

So why are you writing this research report? The practical answer is “Because the teacher assigned it,” but that’s classroom thinking. Generally speaking, people investigating some scientific hypothesis have a responsibility to the rest of the scientific world to report their findings, particularly if these findings add to or contradict previous ideas. The people reading such reports have two primary goals:

• They want to gather the information presented.
• They want to know that the findings are legitimate.

Your job as a writer, then, is to fulfill these two goals.

How do I do that?

Good question. Here is the basic format scientists have designed for research reports:

• Introduction

Methods and Materials

This format, sometimes called “IMRAD,” may take slightly different shapes depending on the discipline or audience; some ask you to include an abstract or separate section for the hypothesis, or call the Discussion section “Conclusions,” or change the order of the sections (some professional and academic journals require the Methods section to appear last). Overall, however, the IMRAD format was devised to represent a textual version of the scientific method.

The scientific method, you’ll probably recall, involves developing a hypothesis, testing it, and deciding whether your findings support the hypothesis. In essence, the format for a research report in the sciences mirrors the scientific method but fleshes out the process a little. Below, you’ll find a table that shows how each written section fits into the scientific method and what additional information it offers the reader.

Thinking of your research report as based on the scientific method, but elaborated in the ways described above, may help you to meet your audience’s expectations successfully. We’re going to proceed by explicitly connecting each section of the lab report to the scientific method, then explaining why and how you need to elaborate that section.

Although this handout takes each section in the order in which it should be presented in the final report, you may for practical reasons decide to compose sections in another order. For example, many writers find that composing their Methods and Results before the other sections helps to clarify their idea of the experiment or study as a whole. You might consider using each assignment to practice different approaches to drafting the report, to find the order that works best for you.

What should I do before drafting the lab report?

The best way to prepare to write the lab report is to make sure that you fully understand everything you need to about the experiment. Obviously, if you don’t quite know what went on during the lab, you’re going to find it difficult to explain the lab satisfactorily to someone else. To make sure you know enough to write the report, complete the following steps:

• What are we going to do in this lab? (That is, what’s the procedure?)
• Why are we going to do it that way?
• What are we hoping to learn from this experiment?
• Why would we benefit from this knowledge?
• Consult your lab supervisor as you perform the lab. If you don’t know how to answer one of the questions above, for example, your lab supervisor will probably be able to explain it to you (or, at least, help you figure it out).
• Plan the steps of the experiment carefully with your lab partners. The less you rush, the more likely it is that you’ll perform the experiment correctly and record your findings accurately. Also, take some time to think about the best way to organize the data before you have to start putting numbers down. If you can design a table to account for the data, that will tend to work much better than jotting results down hurriedly on a scrap piece of paper.
• Record the data carefully so you get them right. You won’t be able to trust your conclusions if you have the wrong data, and your readers will know you messed up if the other three people in your group have “97 degrees” and you have “87.”
• Consult with your lab partners about everything you do. Lab groups often make one of two mistakes: two people do all the work while two have a nice chat, or everybody works together until the group finishes gathering the raw data, then scrams outta there. Collaborate with your partners, even when the experiment is “over.” What trends did you observe? Was the hypothesis supported? Did you all get the same results? What kind of figure should you use to represent your findings? The whole group can work together to answer these questions.
• Consider your audience. You may believe that audience is a non-issue: it’s your lab TA, right? Well, yes—but again, think beyond the classroom. If you write with only your lab instructor in mind, you may omit material that is crucial to a complete understanding of your experiment, because you assume the instructor knows all that stuff already. As a result, you may receive a lower grade, since your TA won’t be sure that you understand all the principles at work. Try to write towards a student in the same course but a different lab section. That student will have a fair degree of scientific expertise but won’t know much about your experiment particularly. Alternatively, you could envision yourself five years from now, after the reading and lectures for this course have faded a bit. What would you remember, and what would you need explained more clearly (as a refresher)?

Once you’ve completed these steps as you perform the experiment, you’ll be in a good position to draft an effective lab report.

Introductions

How do i write a strong introduction.

For the purposes of this handout, we’ll consider the Introduction to contain four basic elements: the purpose, the scientific literature relevant to the subject, the hypothesis, and the reasons you believed your hypothesis viable. Let’s start by going through each element of the Introduction to clarify what it covers and why it’s important. Then we can formulate a logical organizational strategy for the section.

The inclusion of the purpose (sometimes called the objective) of the experiment often confuses writers. The biggest misconception is that the purpose is the same as the hypothesis. Not quite. We’ll get to hypotheses in a minute, but basically they provide some indication of what you expect the experiment to show. The purpose is broader, and deals more with what you expect to gain through the experiment. In a professional setting, the hypothesis might have something to do with how cells react to a certain kind of genetic manipulation, but the purpose of the experiment is to learn more about potential cancer treatments. Undergraduate reports don’t often have this wide-ranging a goal, but you should still try to maintain the distinction between your hypothesis and your purpose. In a solubility experiment, for example, your hypothesis might talk about the relationship between temperature and the rate of solubility, but the purpose is probably to learn more about some specific scientific principle underlying the process of solubility.

For starters, most people say that you should write out your working hypothesis before you perform the experiment or study. Many beginning science students neglect to do so and find themselves struggling to remember precisely which variables were involved in the process or in what way the researchers felt that they were related. Write your hypothesis down as you develop it—you’ll be glad you did.

As for the form a hypothesis should take, it’s best not to be too fancy or complicated; an inventive style isn’t nearly so important as clarity here. There’s nothing wrong with beginning your hypothesis with the phrase, “It was hypothesized that . . .” Be as specific as you can about the relationship between the different objects of your study. In other words, explain that when term A changes, term B changes in this particular way. Readers of scientific writing are rarely content with the idea that a relationship between two terms exists—they want to know what that relationship entails.

Not a hypothesis:

“It was hypothesized that there is a significant relationship between the temperature of a solvent and the rate at which a solute dissolves.”

Hypothesis:

“It was hypothesized that as the temperature of a solvent increases, the rate at which a solute will dissolve in that solvent increases.”

Put more technically, most hypotheses contain both an independent and a dependent variable. The independent variable is what you manipulate to test the reaction; the dependent variable is what changes as a result of your manipulation. In the example above, the independent variable is the temperature of the solvent, and the dependent variable is the rate of solubility. Be sure that your hypothesis includes both variables.

Justify your hypothesis

You need to do more than tell your readers what your hypothesis is; you also need to assure them that this hypothesis was reasonable, given the circumstances. In other words, use the Introduction to explain that you didn’t just pluck your hypothesis out of thin air. (If you did pluck it out of thin air, your problems with your report will probably extend beyond using the appropriate format.) If you posit that a particular relationship exists between the independent and the dependent variable, what led you to believe your “guess” might be supported by evidence?

Scientists often refer to this type of justification as “motivating” the hypothesis, in the sense that something propelled them to make that prediction. Often, motivation includes what we already know—or rather, what scientists generally accept as true (see “Background/previous research” below). But you can also motivate your hypothesis by relying on logic or on your own observations. If you’re trying to decide which solutes will dissolve more rapidly in a solvent at increased temperatures, you might remember that some solids are meant to dissolve in hot water (e.g., bouillon cubes) and some are used for a function precisely because they withstand higher temperatures (they make saucepans out of something). Or you can think about whether you’ve noticed sugar dissolving more rapidly in your glass of iced tea or in your cup of coffee. Even such basic, outside-the-lab observations can help you justify your hypothesis as reasonable.

Background/previous research

This part of the Introduction demonstrates to the reader your awareness of how you’re building on other scientists’ work. If you think of the scientific community as engaging in a series of conversations about various topics, then you’ll recognize that the relevant background material will alert the reader to which conversation you want to enter.

Generally speaking, authors writing journal articles use the background for slightly different purposes than do students completing assignments. Because readers of academic journals tend to be professionals in the field, authors explain the background in order to permit readers to evaluate the study’s pertinence for their own work. You, on the other hand, write toward a much narrower audience—your peers in the course or your lab instructor—and so you must demonstrate that you understand the context for the (presumably assigned) experiment or study you’ve completed. For example, if your professor has been talking about polarity during lectures, and you’re doing a solubility experiment, you might try to connect the polarity of a solid to its relative solubility in certain solvents. In any event, both professional researchers and undergraduates need to connect the background material overtly to their own work.

Organization of this section

Most of the time, writers begin by stating the purpose or objectives of their own work, which establishes for the reader’s benefit the “nature and scope of the problem investigated” (Day 1994). Once you have expressed your purpose, you should then find it easier to move from the general purpose, to relevant material on the subject, to your hypothesis. In abbreviated form, an Introduction section might look like this:

“The purpose of the experiment was to test conventional ideas about solubility in the laboratory [purpose] . . . According to Whitecoat and Labrat (1999), at higher temperatures the molecules of solvents move more quickly . . . We know from the class lecture that molecules moving at higher rates of speed collide with one another more often and thus break down more easily [background material/motivation] . . . Thus, it was hypothesized that as the temperature of a solvent increases, the rate at which a solute will dissolve in that solvent increases [hypothesis].”

Again—these are guidelines, not commandments. Some writers and readers prefer different structures for the Introduction. The one above merely illustrates a common approach to organizing material.

How do I write a strong Materials and Methods section?

As with any piece of writing, your Methods section will succeed only if it fulfills its readers’ expectations, so you need to be clear in your own mind about the purpose of this section. Let’s review the purpose as we described it above: in this section, you want to describe in detail how you tested the hypothesis you developed and also to clarify the rationale for your procedure. In science, it’s not sufficient merely to design and carry out an experiment. Ultimately, others must be able to verify your findings, so your experiment must be reproducible, to the extent that other researchers can follow the same procedure and obtain the same (or similar) results.

Here’s a real-world example of the importance of reproducibility. In 1989, physicists Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischman announced that they had discovered “cold fusion,” a way of producing excess heat and power without the nuclear radiation that accompanies “hot fusion.” Such a discovery could have great ramifications for the industrial production of energy, so these findings created a great deal of interest. When other scientists tried to duplicate the experiment, however, they didn’t achieve the same results, and as a result many wrote off the conclusions as unjustified (or worse, a hoax). To this day, the viability of cold fusion is debated within the scientific community, even though an increasing number of researchers believe it possible. So when you write your Methods section, keep in mind that you need to describe your experiment well enough to allow others to replicate it exactly.

With these goals in mind, let’s consider how to write an effective Methods section in terms of content, structure, and style.

Sometimes the hardest thing about writing this section isn’t what you should talk about, but what you shouldn’t talk about. Writers often want to include the results of their experiment, because they measured and recorded the results during the course of the experiment. But such data should be reserved for the Results section. In the Methods section, you can write that you recorded the results, or how you recorded the results (e.g., in a table), but you shouldn’t write what the results were—not yet. Here, you’re merely stating exactly how you went about testing your hypothesis. As you draft your Methods section, ask yourself the following questions:

• How much detail? Be precise in providing details, but stay relevant. Ask yourself, “Would it make any difference if this piece were a different size or made from a different material?” If not, you probably don’t need to get too specific. If so, you should give as many details as necessary to prevent this experiment from going awry if someone else tries to carry it out. Probably the most crucial detail is measurement; you should always quantify anything you can, such as time elapsed, temperature, mass, volume, etc.
• Rationale: Be sure that as you’re relating your actions during the experiment, you explain your rationale for the protocol you developed. If you capped a test tube immediately after adding a solute to a solvent, why did you do that? (That’s really two questions: why did you cap it, and why did you cap it immediately?) In a professional setting, writers provide their rationale as a way to explain their thinking to potential critics. On one hand, of course, that’s your motivation for talking about protocol, too. On the other hand, since in practical terms you’re also writing to your teacher (who’s seeking to evaluate how well you comprehend the principles of the experiment), explaining the rationale indicates that you understand the reasons for conducting the experiment in that way, and that you’re not just following orders. Critical thinking is crucial—robots don’t make good scientists.
• Control: Most experiments will include a control, which is a means of comparing experimental results. (Sometimes you’ll need to have more than one control, depending on the number of hypotheses you want to test.) The control is exactly the same as the other items you’re testing, except that you don’t manipulate the independent variable-the condition you’re altering to check the effect on the dependent variable. For example, if you’re testing solubility rates at increased temperatures, your control would be a solution that you didn’t heat at all; that way, you’ll see how quickly the solute dissolves “naturally” (i.e., without manipulation), and you’ll have a point of reference against which to compare the solutions you did heat.

Describe the control in the Methods section. Two things are especially important in writing about the control: identify the control as a control, and explain what you’re controlling for. Here is an example:

“As a control for the temperature change, we placed the same amount of solute in the same amount of solvent, and let the solution stand for five minutes without heating it.”

Structure and style

Organization is especially important in the Methods section of a lab report because readers must understand your experimental procedure completely. Many writers are surprised by the difficulty of conveying what they did during the experiment, since after all they’re only reporting an event, but it’s often tricky to present this information in a coherent way. There’s a fairly standard structure you can use to guide you, and following the conventions for style can help clarify your points.

• Subsections: Occasionally, researchers use subsections to report their procedure when the following circumstances apply: 1) if they’ve used a great many materials; 2) if the procedure is unusually complicated; 3) if they’ve developed a procedure that won’t be familiar to many of their readers. Because these conditions rarely apply to the experiments you’ll perform in class, most undergraduate lab reports won’t require you to use subsections. In fact, many guides to writing lab reports suggest that you try to limit your Methods section to a single paragraph.
• Narrative structure: Think of this section as telling a story about a group of people and the experiment they performed. Describe what you did in the order in which you did it. You may have heard the old joke centered on the line, “Disconnect the red wire, but only after disconnecting the green wire,” where the person reading the directions blows everything to kingdom come because the directions weren’t in order. We’re used to reading about events chronologically, and so your readers will generally understand what you did if you present that information in the same way. Also, since the Methods section does generally appear as a narrative (story), you want to avoid the “recipe” approach: “First, take a clean, dry 100 ml test tube from the rack. Next, add 50 ml of distilled water.” You should be reporting what did happen, not telling the reader how to perform the experiment: “50 ml of distilled water was poured into a clean, dry 100 ml test tube.” Hint: most of the time, the recipe approach comes from copying down the steps of the procedure from your lab manual, so you may want to draft the Methods section initially without consulting your manual. Later, of course, you can go back and fill in any part of the procedure you inadvertently overlooked.
• Past tense: Remember that you’re describing what happened, so you should use past tense to refer to everything you did during the experiment. Writers are often tempted to use the imperative (“Add 5 g of the solid to the solution”) because that’s how their lab manuals are worded; less frequently, they use present tense (“5 g of the solid are added to the solution”). Instead, remember that you’re talking about an event which happened at a particular time in the past, and which has already ended by the time you start writing, so simple past tense will be appropriate in this section (“5 g of the solid were added to the solution” or “We added 5 g of the solid to the solution”).
• Active: We heated the solution to 80°C. (The subject, “we,” performs the action, heating.)
• Passive: The solution was heated to 80°C. (The subject, “solution,” doesn’t do the heating–it is acted upon, not acting.)

Increasingly, especially in the social sciences, using first person and active voice is acceptable in scientific reports. Most readers find that this style of writing conveys information more clearly and concisely. This rhetorical choice thus brings two scientific values into conflict: objectivity versus clarity. Since the scientific community hasn’t reached a consensus about which style it prefers, you may want to ask your lab instructor.

How do I write a strong Results section?

Here’s a paradox for you. The Results section is often both the shortest (yay!) and most important (uh-oh!) part of your report. Your Materials and Methods section shows how you obtained the results, and your Discussion section explores the significance of the results, so clearly the Results section forms the backbone of the lab report. This section provides the most critical information about your experiment: the data that allow you to discuss how your hypothesis was or wasn’t supported. But it doesn’t provide anything else, which explains why this section is generally shorter than the others.

Before you write this section, look at all the data you collected to figure out what relates significantly to your hypothesis. You’ll want to highlight this material in your Results section. Resist the urge to include every bit of data you collected, since perhaps not all are relevant. Also, don’t try to draw conclusions about the results—save them for the Discussion section. In this section, you’re reporting facts. Nothing your readers can dispute should appear in the Results section.

Most Results sections feature three distinct parts: text, tables, and figures. Let’s consider each part one at a time.

This should be a short paragraph, generally just a few lines, that describes the results you obtained from your experiment. In a relatively simple experiment, one that doesn’t produce a lot of data for you to repeat, the text can represent the entire Results section. Don’t feel that you need to include lots of extraneous detail to compensate for a short (but effective) text; your readers appreciate discrimination more than your ability to recite facts. In a more complex experiment, you may want to use tables and/or figures to help guide your readers toward the most important information you gathered. In that event, you’ll need to refer to each table or figure directly, where appropriate:

“Table 1 lists the rates of solubility for each substance”

“Solubility increased as the temperature of the solution increased (see Figure 1).”

If you do use tables or figures, make sure that you don’t present the same material in both the text and the tables/figures, since in essence you’ll just repeat yourself, probably annoying your readers with the redundancy of your statements.

Feel free to describe trends that emerge as you examine the data. Although identifying trends requires some judgment on your part and so may not feel like factual reporting, no one can deny that these trends do exist, and so they properly belong in the Results section. Example:

“Heating the solution increased the rate of solubility of polar solids by 45% but had no effect on the rate of solubility in solutions containing non-polar solids.”

This point isn’t debatable—you’re just pointing out what the data show.

As in the Materials and Methods section, you want to refer to your data in the past tense, because the events you recorded have already occurred and have finished occurring. In the example above, note the use of “increased” and “had,” rather than “increases” and “has.” (You don’t know from your experiment that heating always increases the solubility of polar solids, but it did that time.)

You shouldn’t put information in the table that also appears in the text. You also shouldn’t use a table to present irrelevant data, just to show you did collect these data during the experiment. Tables are good for some purposes and situations, but not others, so whether and how you’ll use tables depends upon what you need them to accomplish.

Tables are useful ways to show variation in data, but not to present a great deal of unchanging measurements. If you’re dealing with a scientific phenomenon that occurs only within a certain range of temperatures, for example, you don’t need to use a table to show that the phenomenon didn’t occur at any of the other temperatures. How useful is this table?

As you can probably see, no solubility was observed until the trial temperature reached 50°C, a fact that the text part of the Results section could easily convey. The table could then be limited to what happened at 50°C and higher, thus better illustrating the differences in solubility rates when solubility did occur.

As a rule, try not to use a table to describe any experimental event you can cover in one sentence of text. Here’s an example of an unnecessary table from How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper , by Robert A. Day:

As Day notes, all the information in this table can be summarized in one sentence: “S. griseus, S. coelicolor, S. everycolor, and S. rainbowenski grew under aerobic conditions, whereas S. nocolor and S. greenicus required anaerobic conditions.” Most readers won’t find the table clearer than that one sentence.

When you do have reason to tabulate material, pay attention to the clarity and readability of the format you use. Here are a few tips:

• Number your table. Then, when you refer to the table in the text, use that number to tell your readers which table they can review to clarify the material.
• Give your table a title. This title should be descriptive enough to communicate the contents of the table, but not so long that it becomes difficult to follow. The titles in the sample tables above are acceptable.
• Arrange your table so that readers read vertically, not horizontally. For the most part, this rule means that you should construct your table so that like elements read down, not across. Think about what you want your readers to compare, and put that information in the column (up and down) rather than in the row (across). Usually, the point of comparison will be the numerical data you collect, so especially make sure you have columns of numbers, not rows.Here’s an example of how drastically this decision affects the readability of your table (from A Short Guide to Writing about Chemistry , by Herbert Beall and John Trimbur). Look at this table, which presents the relevant data in horizontal rows:

It’s a little tough to see the trends that the author presumably wants to present in this table. Compare this table, in which the data appear vertically:

The second table shows how putting like elements in a vertical column makes for easier reading. In this case, the like elements are the measurements of length and height, over five trials–not, as in the first table, the length and height measurements for each trial.

• Make sure to include units of measurement in the tables. Readers might be able to guess that you measured something in millimeters, but don’t make them try.
• Don’t use vertical lines as part of the format for your table. This convention exists because journals prefer not to have to reproduce these lines because the tables then become more expensive to print. Even though it’s fairly unlikely that you’ll be sending your Biology 11 lab report to Science for publication, your readers still have this expectation. Consequently, if you use the table-drawing option in your word-processing software, choose the option that doesn’t rely on a “grid” format (which includes vertical lines).

How do I include figures in my report?

Although tables can be useful ways of showing trends in the results you obtained, figures (i.e., illustrations) can do an even better job of emphasizing such trends. Lab report writers often use graphic representations of the data they collected to provide their readers with a literal picture of how the experiment went.

When should you use a figure?

Remember the circumstances under which you don’t need a table: when you don’t have a great deal of data or when the data you have don’t vary a lot. Under the same conditions, you would probably forgo the figure as well, since the figure would be unlikely to provide your readers with an additional perspective. Scientists really don’t like their time wasted, so they tend not to respond favorably to redundancy.

If you’re trying to decide between using a table and creating a figure to present your material, consider the following a rule of thumb. The strength of a table lies in its ability to supply large amounts of exact data, whereas the strength of a figure is its dramatic illustration of important trends within the experiment. If you feel that your readers won’t get the full impact of the results you obtained just by looking at the numbers, then a figure might be appropriate.

Of course, an undergraduate class may expect you to create a figure for your lab experiment, if only to make sure that you can do so effectively. If this is the case, then don’t worry about whether to use figures or not—concentrate instead on how best to accomplish your task.

Figures can include maps, photographs, pen-and-ink drawings, flow charts, bar graphs, and section graphs (“pie charts”). But the most common figure by far, especially for undergraduates, is the line graph, so we’ll focus on that type in this handout.

At the undergraduate level, you can often draw and label your graphs by hand, provided that the result is clear, legible, and drawn to scale. Computer technology has, however, made creating line graphs a lot easier. Most word-processing software has a number of functions for transferring data into graph form; many scientists have found Microsoft Excel, for example, a helpful tool in graphing results. If you plan on pursuing a career in the sciences, it may be well worth your while to learn to use a similar program.

Computers can’t, however, decide for you how your graph really works; you have to know how to design your graph to meet your readers’ expectations. Here are some of these expectations:

• Keep it as simple as possible. You may be tempted to signal the complexity of the information you gathered by trying to design a graph that accounts for that complexity. But remember the purpose of your graph: to dramatize your results in a manner that’s easy to see and grasp. Try not to make the reader stare at the graph for a half hour to find the important line among the mass of other lines. For maximum effectiveness, limit yourself to three to five lines per graph; if you have more data to demonstrate, use a set of graphs to account for it, rather than trying to cram it all into a single figure.
• Plot the independent variable on the horizontal (x) axis and the dependent variable on the vertical (y) axis. Remember that the independent variable is the condition that you manipulated during the experiment and the dependent variable is the condition that you measured to see if it changed along with the independent variable. Placing the variables along their respective axes is mostly just a convention, but since your readers are accustomed to viewing graphs in this way, you’re better off not challenging the convention in your report.
• Label each axis carefully, and be especially careful to include units of measure. You need to make sure that your readers understand perfectly well what your graph indicates.
• Number and title your graphs. As with tables, the title of the graph should be informative but concise, and you should refer to your graph by number in the text (e.g., “Figure 1 shows the increase in the solubility rate as a function of temperature”).
• Many editors of professional scientific journals prefer that writers distinguish the lines in their graphs by attaching a symbol to them, usually a geometric shape (triangle, square, etc.), and using that symbol throughout the curve of the line. Generally, readers have a hard time distinguishing dotted lines from dot-dash lines from straight lines, so you should consider staying away from this system. Editors don’t usually like different-colored lines within a graph because colors are difficult and expensive to reproduce; colors may, however, be great for your purposes, as long as you’re not planning to submit your paper to Nature. Use your discretion—try to employ whichever technique dramatizes the results most effectively.
• Try to gather data at regular intervals, so the plot points on your graph aren’t too far apart. You can’t be sure of the arc you should draw between the plot points if the points are located at the far corners of the graph; over a fifteen-minute interval, perhaps the change occurred in the first or last thirty seconds of that period (in which case your straight-line connection between the points is misleading).
• If you’re worried that you didn’t collect data at sufficiently regular intervals during your experiment, go ahead and connect the points with a straight line, but you may want to examine this problem as part of your Discussion section.
• Make your graph large enough so that everything is legible and clearly demarcated, but not so large that it either overwhelms the rest of the Results section or provides a far greater range than you need to illustrate your point. If, for example, the seedlings of your plant grew only 15 mm during the trial, you don’t need to construct a graph that accounts for 100 mm of growth. The lines in your graph should more or less fill the space created by the axes; if you see that your data is confined to the lower left portion of the graph, you should probably re-adjust your scale.
• If you create a set of graphs, make them the same size and format, including all the verbal and visual codes (captions, symbols, scale, etc.). You want to be as consistent as possible in your illustrations, so that your readers can easily make the comparisons you’re trying to get them to see.

How do I write a strong Discussion section?

The discussion section is probably the least formalized part of the report, in that you can’t really apply the same structure to every type of experiment. In simple terms, here you tell your readers what to make of the Results you obtained. If you have done the Results part well, your readers should already recognize the trends in the data and have a fairly clear idea of whether your hypothesis was supported. Because the Results can seem so self-explanatory, many students find it difficult to know what material to add in this last section.

Basically, the Discussion contains several parts, in no particular order, but roughly moving from specific (i.e., related to your experiment only) to general (how your findings fit in the larger scientific community). In this section, you will, as a rule, need to:

Explain whether the data support your hypothesis

• Acknowledge any anomalous data or deviations from what you expected

Derive conclusions, based on your findings, about the process you’re studying

• Relate your findings to earlier work in the same area (if you can)

Explore the theoretical and/or practical implications of your findings

Let’s look at some dos and don’ts for each of these objectives.

This statement is usually a good way to begin the Discussion, since you can’t effectively speak about the larger scientific value of your study until you’ve figured out the particulars of this experiment. You might begin this part of the Discussion by explicitly stating the relationships or correlations your data indicate between the independent and dependent variables. Then you can show more clearly why you believe your hypothesis was or was not supported. For example, if you tested solubility at various temperatures, you could start this section by noting that the rates of solubility increased as the temperature increased. If your initial hypothesis surmised that temperature change would not affect solubility, you would then say something like,

“The hypothesis that temperature change would not affect solubility was not supported by the data.”

Note: Students tend to view labs as practical tests of undeniable scientific truths. As a result, you may want to say that the hypothesis was “proved” or “disproved” or that it was “correct” or “incorrect.” These terms, however, reflect a degree of certainty that you as a scientist aren’t supposed to have. Remember, you’re testing a theory with a procedure that lasts only a few hours and relies on only a few trials, which severely compromises your ability to be sure about the “truth” you see. Words like “supported,” “indicated,” and “suggested” are more acceptable ways to evaluate your hypothesis.

Also, recognize that saying whether the data supported your hypothesis or not involves making a claim to be defended. As such, you need to show the readers that this claim is warranted by the evidence. Make sure that you’re very explicit about the relationship between the evidence and the conclusions you draw from it. This process is difficult for many writers because we don’t often justify conclusions in our regular lives. For example, you might nudge your friend at a party and whisper, “That guy’s drunk,” and once your friend lays eyes on the person in question, she might readily agree. In a scientific paper, by contrast, you would need to defend your claim more thoroughly by pointing to data such as slurred words, unsteady gait, and the lampshade-as-hat. In addition to pointing out these details, you would also need to show how (according to previous studies) these signs are consistent with inebriation, especially if they occur in conjunction with one another. To put it another way, tell your readers exactly how you got from point A (was the hypothesis supported?) to point B (yes/no).

Acknowledge any anomalous data, or deviations from what you expected

You need to take these exceptions and divergences into account, so that you qualify your conclusions sufficiently. For obvious reasons, your readers will doubt your authority if you (deliberately or inadvertently) overlook a key piece of data that doesn’t square with your perspective on what occurred. In a more philosophical sense, once you’ve ignored evidence that contradicts your claims, you’ve departed from the scientific method. The urge to “tidy up” the experiment is often strong, but if you give in to it you’re no longer performing good science.

Sometimes after you’ve performed a study or experiment, you realize that some part of the methods you used to test your hypothesis was flawed. In that case, it’s OK to suggest that if you had the chance to conduct your test again, you might change the design in this or that specific way in order to avoid such and such a problem. The key to making this approach work, though, is to be very precise about the weakness in your experiment, why and how you think that weakness might have affected your data, and how you would alter your protocol to eliminate—or limit the effects of—that weakness. Often, inexperienced researchers and writers feel the need to account for “wrong” data (remember, there’s no such animal), and so they speculate wildly about what might have screwed things up. These speculations include such factors as the unusually hot temperature in the room, or the possibility that their lab partners read the meters wrong, or the potentially defective equipment. These explanations are what scientists call “cop-outs,” or “lame”; don’t indicate that the experiment had a weakness unless you’re fairly certain that a) it really occurred and b) you can explain reasonably well how that weakness affected your results.

If, for example, your hypothesis dealt with the changes in solubility at different temperatures, then try to figure out what you can rationally say about the process of solubility more generally. If you’re doing an undergraduate lab, chances are that the lab will connect in some way to the material you’ve been covering either in lecture or in your reading, so you might choose to return to these resources as a way to help you think clearly about the process as a whole.

This part of the Discussion section is another place where you need to make sure that you’re not overreaching. Again, nothing you’ve found in one study would remotely allow you to claim that you now “know” something, or that something isn’t “true,” or that your experiment “confirmed” some principle or other. Hesitate before you go out on a limb—it’s dangerous! Use less absolutely conclusive language, including such words as “suggest,” “indicate,” “correspond,” “possibly,” “challenge,” etc.

Relate your findings to previous work in the field (if possible)

We’ve been talking about how to show that you belong in a particular community (such as biologists or anthropologists) by writing within conventions that they recognize and accept. Another is to try to identify a conversation going on among members of that community, and use your work to contribute to that conversation. In a larger philosophical sense, scientists can’t fully understand the value of their research unless they have some sense of the context that provoked and nourished it. That is, you have to recognize what’s new about your project (potentially, anyway) and how it benefits the wider body of scientific knowledge. On a more pragmatic level, especially for undergraduates, connecting your lab work to previous research will demonstrate to the TA that you see the big picture. You have an opportunity, in the Discussion section, to distinguish yourself from the students in your class who aren’t thinking beyond the barest facts of the study. Capitalize on this opportunity by putting your own work in context.

If you’re just beginning to work in the natural sciences (as a first-year biology or chemistry student, say), most likely the work you’ll be doing has already been performed and re-performed to a satisfactory degree. Hence, you could probably point to a similar experiment or study and compare/contrast your results and conclusions. More advanced work may deal with an issue that is somewhat less “resolved,” and so previous research may take the form of an ongoing debate, and you can use your own work to weigh in on that debate. If, for example, researchers are hotly disputing the value of herbal remedies for the common cold, and the results of your study suggest that Echinacea diminishes the symptoms but not the actual presence of the cold, then you might want to take some time in the Discussion section to recapitulate the specifics of the dispute as it relates to Echinacea as an herbal remedy. (Consider that you have probably already written in the Introduction about this debate as background research.)

This information is often the best way to end your Discussion (and, for all intents and purposes, the report). In argumentative writing generally, you want to use your closing words to convey the main point of your writing. This main point can be primarily theoretical (“Now that you understand this information, you’re in a better position to understand this larger issue”) or primarily practical (“You can use this information to take such and such an action”). In either case, the concluding statements help the reader to comprehend the significance of your project and your decision to write about it.

Since a lab report is argumentative—after all, you’re investigating a claim, and judging the legitimacy of that claim by generating and collecting evidence—it’s often a good idea to end your report with the same technique for establishing your main point. If you want to go the theoretical route, you might talk about the consequences your study has for the field or phenomenon you’re investigating. To return to the examples regarding solubility, you could end by reflecting on what your work on solubility as a function of temperature tells us (potentially) about solubility in general. (Some folks consider this type of exploration “pure” as opposed to “applied” science, although these labels can be problematic.) If you want to go the practical route, you could end by speculating about the medical, institutional, or commercial implications of your findings—in other words, answer the question, “What can this study help people to do?” In either case, you’re going to make your readers’ experience more satisfying, by helping them see why they spent their time learning what you had to teach them.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

American Psychological Association. 2010. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Beall, Herbert, and John Trimbur. 2001. A Short Guide to Writing About Chemistry , 2nd ed. New York: Longman.

Blum, Deborah, and Mary Knudson. 1997. A Field Guide for Science Writers: The Official Guide of the National Association of Science Writers . New York: Oxford University Press.

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, Joseph Bizup, and William T. FitzGerald. 2016. The Craft of Research , 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Briscoe, Mary Helen. 1996. Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A Guide to Better Posters, Presentations, and Publications , 2nd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Council of Science Editors. 2014. Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers , 8th ed. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.

Davis, Martha. 2012. Scientific Papers and Presentations , 3rd ed. London: Academic Press.

Day, Robert A. 1994. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper , 4th ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press.

Porush, David. 1995. A Short Guide to Writing About Science . New York: Longman.

Williams, Joseph, and Joseph Bizup. 2017. Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace , 12th ed. Boston: Pearson.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Chapter 11: Presenting Your Research

Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style

Learning Objectives

• Identify the major sections of an APA-style research report and the basic contents of each section.
• Plan and write an effective APA-style research report.

In this section, we look at how to write an APA-style empirical research report , an article that presents the results of one or more new studies. Recall that the standard sections of an empirical research report provide a kind of outline. Here we consider each of these sections in detail, including what information it contains, how that information is formatted and organized, and tips for writing each section. At the end of this section is a sample APA-style research report that illustrates many of these principles.

Sections of a Research Report

Title page and abstract.

An APA-style research report begins with a  title page . The title is centred in the upper half of the page, with each important word capitalized. The title should clearly and concisely (in about 12 words or fewer) communicate the primary variables and research questions. This sometimes requires a main title followed by a subtitle that elaborates on the main title, in which case the main title and subtitle are separated by a colon. Here are some titles from recent issues of professional journals published by the American Psychological Association.

• Sex Differences in Coping Styles and Implications for Depressed Mood
• Effects of Aging and Divided Attention on Memory for Items and Their Contexts
• Computer-Assisted Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Child Anxiety: Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial
• Virtual Driving and Risk Taking: Do Racing Games Increase Risk-Taking Cognitions, Affect, and Behaviour?

Below the title are the authors’ names and, on the next line, their institutional affiliation—the university or other institution where the authors worked when they conducted the research. As we have already seen, the authors are listed in an order that reflects their contribution to the research. When multiple authors have made equal contributions to the research, they often list their names alphabetically or in a randomly determined order.

In some areas of psychology, the titles of many empirical research reports are informal in a way that is perhaps best described as “cute.” They usually take the form of a play on words or a well-known expression that relates to the topic under study. Here are some examples from recent issues of the Journal Psychological Science .

• “Smells Like Clean Spirit: Nonconscious Effects of Scent on Cognition and Behavior”
• “Time Crawls: The Temporal Resolution of Infants’ Visual Attention”
• “Scent of a Woman: Men’s Testosterone Responses to Olfactory Ovulation Cues”
• “Apocalypse Soon?: Dire Messages Reduce Belief in Global Warming by Contradicting Just-World Beliefs”
• “Serial vs. Parallel Processing: Sometimes They Look Like Tweedledum and Tweedledee but They Can (and Should) Be Distinguished”
• “How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Words: The Social Effects of Expressive Writing”

Individual researchers differ quite a bit in their preference for such titles. Some use them regularly, while others never use them. What might be some of the pros and cons of using cute article titles?

For articles that are being submitted for publication, the title page also includes an author note that lists the authors’ full institutional affiliations, any acknowledgments the authors wish to make to agencies that funded the research or to colleagues who commented on it, and contact information for the authors. For student papers that are not being submitted for publication—including theses—author notes are generally not necessary.

The  abstract  is a summary of the study. It is the second page of the manuscript and is headed with the word  Abstract . The first line is not indented. The abstract presents the research question, a summary of the method, the basic results, and the most important conclusions. Because the abstract is usually limited to about 200 words, it can be a challenge to write a good one.

Introduction

The  introduction  begins on the third page of the manuscript. The heading at the top of this page is the full title of the manuscript, with each important word capitalized as on the title page. The introduction includes three distinct subsections, although these are typically not identified by separate headings. The opening introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting, the literature review discusses relevant previous research, and the closing restates the research question and comments on the method used to answer it.

The Opening

The  opening , which is usually a paragraph or two in length, introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting. To capture the reader’s attention, researcher Daryl Bem recommends starting with general observations about the topic under study, expressed in ordinary language (not technical jargon)—observations that are about people and their behaviour (not about researchers or their research; Bem, 2003 [1] ). Concrete examples are often very useful here. According to Bem, this would be a poor way to begin a research report:

Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance received a great deal of attention during the latter part of the 20th century (p. 191)

The following would be much better:

The individual who holds two beliefs that are inconsistent with one another may feel uncomfortable. For example, the person who knows that he or she enjoys smoking but believes it to be unhealthy may experience discomfort arising from the inconsistency or disharmony between these two thoughts or cognitions. This feeling of discomfort was called cognitive dissonance by social psychologist Leon Festinger (1957), who suggested that individuals will be motivated to remove this dissonance in whatever way they can (p. 191).

After capturing the reader’s attention, the opening should go on to introduce the research question and explain why it is interesting. Will the answer fill a gap in the literature? Will it provide a test of an important theory? Does it have practical implications? Giving readers a clear sense of what the research is about and why they should care about it will motivate them to continue reading the literature review—and will help them make sense of it.

Breaking the Rules

Researcher Larry Jacoby reported several studies showing that a word that people see or hear repeatedly can seem more familiar even when they do not recall the repetitions—and that this tendency is especially pronounced among older adults. He opened his article with the following humourous anecdote:

A friend whose mother is suffering symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) tells the story of taking her mother to visit a nursing home, preliminary to her mother’s moving there. During an orientation meeting at the nursing home, the rules and regulations were explained, one of which regarded the dining room. The dining room was described as similar to a fine restaurant except that tipping was not required. The absence of tipping was a central theme in the orientation lecture, mentioned frequently to emphasize the quality of care along with the advantages of having paid in advance. At the end of the meeting, the friend’s mother was asked whether she had any questions. She replied that she only had one question: “Should I tip?” (Jacoby, 1999, p. 3)

Although both humour and personal anecdotes are generally discouraged in APA-style writing, this example is a highly effective way to start because it both engages the reader and provides an excellent real-world example of the topic under study.

The Literature Review

Immediately after the opening comes the  literature review , which describes relevant previous research on the topic and can be anywhere from several paragraphs to several pages in length. However, the literature review is not simply a list of past studies. Instead, it constitutes a kind of argument for why the research question is worth addressing. By the end of the literature review, readers should be convinced that the research question makes sense and that the present study is a logical next step in the ongoing research process.

Like any effective argument, the literature review must have some kind of structure. For example, it might begin by describing a phenomenon in a general way along with several studies that demonstrate it, then describing two or more competing theories of the phenomenon, and finally presenting a hypothesis to test one or more of the theories. Or it might describe one phenomenon, then describe another phenomenon that seems inconsistent with the first one, then propose a theory that resolves the inconsistency, and finally present a hypothesis to test that theory. In applied research, it might describe a phenomenon or theory, then describe how that phenomenon or theory applies to some important real-world situation, and finally suggest a way to test whether it does, in fact, apply to that situation.

Looking at the literature review in this way emphasizes a few things. First, it is extremely important to start with an outline of the main points that you want to make, organized in the order that you want to make them. The basic structure of your argument, then, should be apparent from the outline itself. Second, it is important to emphasize the structure of your argument in your writing. One way to do this is to begin the literature review by summarizing your argument even before you begin to make it. “In this article, I will describe two apparently contradictory phenomena, present a new theory that has the potential to resolve the apparent contradiction, and finally present a novel hypothesis to test the theory.” Another way is to open each paragraph with a sentence that summarizes the main point of the paragraph and links it to the preceding points. These opening sentences provide the “transitions” that many beginning researchers have difficulty with. Instead of beginning a paragraph by launching into a description of a previous study, such as “Williams (2004) found that…,” it is better to start by indicating something about why you are describing this particular study. Here are some simple examples:

Another example of this phenomenon comes from the work of Williams (2004).

Williams (2004) offers one explanation of this phenomenon.

An alternative perspective has been provided by Williams (2004).

We used a method based on the one used by Williams (2004).

Finally, remember that your goal is to construct an argument for why your research question is interesting and worth addressing—not necessarily why your favourite answer to it is correct. In other words, your literature review must be balanced. If you want to emphasize the generality of a phenomenon, then of course you should discuss various studies that have demonstrated it. However, if there are other studies that have failed to demonstrate it, you should discuss them too. Or if you are proposing a new theory, then of course you should discuss findings that are consistent with that theory. However, if there are other findings that are inconsistent with it, again, you should discuss them too. It is acceptable to argue that the  balance  of the research supports the existence of a phenomenon or is consistent with a theory (and that is usually the best that researchers in psychology can hope for), but it is not acceptable to  ignore contradictory evidence. Besides, a large part of what makes a research question interesting is uncertainty about its answer.

The Closing

The  closing  of the introduction—typically the final paragraph or two—usually includes two important elements. The first is a clear statement of the main research question or hypothesis. This statement tends to be more formal and precise than in the opening and is often expressed in terms of operational definitions of the key variables. The second is a brief overview of the method and some comment on its appropriateness. Here, for example, is how Darley and Latané (1968) [2] concluded the introduction to their classic article on the bystander effect:

These considerations lead to the hypothesis that the more bystanders to an emergency, the less likely, or the more slowly, any one bystander will intervene to provide aid. To test this proposition it would be necessary to create a situation in which a realistic “emergency” could plausibly occur. Each subject should also be blocked from communicating with others to prevent his getting information about their behaviour during the emergency. Finally, the experimental situation should allow for the assessment of the speed and frequency of the subjects’ reaction to the emergency. The experiment reported below attempted to fulfill these conditions. (p. 378)

Thus the introduction leads smoothly into the next major section of the article—the method section.

The  method section  is where you describe how you conducted your study. An important principle for writing a method section is that it should be clear and detailed enough that other researchers could replicate the study by following your “recipe.” This means that it must describe all the important elements of the study—basic demographic characteristics of the participants, how they were recruited, whether they were randomly assigned, how the variables were manipulated or measured, how counterbalancing was accomplished, and so on. At the same time, it should avoid irrelevant details such as the fact that the study was conducted in Classroom 37B of the Industrial Technology Building or that the questionnaire was double-sided and completed using pencils.

The method section begins immediately after the introduction ends with the heading “Method” (not “Methods”) centred on the page. Immediately after this is the subheading “Participants,” left justified and in italics. The participants subsection indicates how many participants there were, the number of women and men, some indication of their age, other demographics that may be relevant to the study, and how they were recruited, including any incentives given for participation.

After the participants section, the structure can vary a bit. Figure 11.1 shows three common approaches. In the first, the participants section is followed by a design and procedure subsection, which describes the rest of the method. This works well for methods that are relatively simple and can be described adequately in a few paragraphs. In the second approach, the participants section is followed by separate design and procedure subsections. This works well when both the design and the procedure are relatively complicated and each requires multiple paragraphs.

What is the difference between design and procedure? The design of a study is its overall structure. What were the independent and dependent variables? Was the independent variable manipulated, and if so, was it manipulated between or within subjects? How were the variables operationally defined? The procedure is how the study was carried out. It often works well to describe the procedure in terms of what the participants did rather than what the researchers did. For example, the participants gave their informed consent, read a set of instructions, completed a block of four practice trials, completed a block of 20 test trials, completed two questionnaires, and were debriefed and excused.

In the third basic way to organize a method section, the participants subsection is followed by a materials subsection before the design and procedure subsections. This works well when there are complicated materials to describe. This might mean multiple questionnaires, written vignettes that participants read and respond to, perceptual stimuli, and so on. The heading of this subsection can be modified to reflect its content. Instead of “Materials,” it can be “Questionnaires,” “Stimuli,” and so on.

The  results section  is where you present the main results of the study, including the results of the statistical analyses. Although it does not include the raw data—individual participants’ responses or scores—researchers should save their raw data and make them available to other researchers who request them. Several journals now encourage the open sharing of raw data online.

Although there are no standard subsections, it is still important for the results section to be logically organized. Typically it begins with certain preliminary issues. One is whether any participants or responses were excluded from the analyses and why. The rationale for excluding data should be described clearly so that other researchers can decide whether it is appropriate. A second preliminary issue is how multiple responses were combined to produce the primary variables in the analyses. For example, if participants rated the attractiveness of 20 stimulus people, you might have to explain that you began by computing the mean attractiveness rating for each participant. Or if they recalled as many items as they could from study list of 20 words, did you count the number correctly recalled, compute the percentage correctly recalled, or perhaps compute the number correct minus the number incorrect? A third preliminary issue is the reliability of the measures. This is where you would present test-retest correlations, Cronbach’s α, or other statistics to show that the measures are consistent across time and across items. A final preliminary issue is whether the manipulation was successful. This is where you would report the results of any manipulation checks.

The results section should then tackle the primary research questions, one at a time. Again, there should be a clear organization. One approach would be to answer the most general questions and then proceed to answer more specific ones. Another would be to answer the main question first and then to answer secondary ones. Regardless, Bem (2003) [3] suggests the following basic structure for discussing each new result:

• Remind the reader of the research question.
• Give the answer to the research question in words.
• Present the relevant statistics.
• Qualify the answer if necessary.
• Summarize the result.

Notice that only Step 3 necessarily involves numbers. The rest of the steps involve presenting the research question and the answer to it in words. In fact, the basic results should be clear even to a reader who skips over the numbers.

The  discussion  is the last major section of the research report. Discussions usually consist of some combination of the following elements:

• Summary of the research
• Theoretical implications
• Practical implications
• Limitations
• Suggestions for future research

The discussion typically begins with a summary of the study that provides a clear answer to the research question. In a short report with a single study, this might require no more than a sentence. In a longer report with multiple studies, it might require a paragraph or even two. The summary is often followed by a discussion of the theoretical implications of the research. Do the results provide support for any existing theories? If not, how  can  they be explained? Although you do not have to provide a definitive explanation or detailed theory for your results, you at least need to outline one or more possible explanations. In applied research—and often in basic research—there is also some discussion of the practical implications of the research. How can the results be used, and by whom, to accomplish some real-world goal?

The theoretical and practical implications are often followed by a discussion of the study’s limitations. Perhaps there are problems with its internal or external validity. Perhaps the manipulation was not very effective or the measures not very reliable. Perhaps there is some evidence that participants did not fully understand their task or that they were suspicious of the intent of the researchers. Now is the time to discuss these issues and how they might have affected the results. But do not overdo it. All studies have limitations, and most readers will understand that a different sample or different measures might have produced different results. Unless there is good reason to think they  would have, however, there is no reason to mention these routine issues. Instead, pick two or three limitations that seem like they could have influenced the results, explain how they could have influenced the results, and suggest ways to deal with them.

Most discussions end with some suggestions for future research. If the study did not satisfactorily answer the original research question, what will it take to do so? What  new  research questions has the study raised? This part of the discussion, however, is not just a list of new questions. It is a discussion of two or three of the most important unresolved issues. This means identifying and clarifying each question, suggesting some alternative answers, and even suggesting ways they could be studied.

Finally, some researchers are quite good at ending their articles with a sweeping or thought-provoking conclusion. Darley and Latané (1968) [4] , for example, ended their article on the bystander effect by discussing the idea that whether people help others may depend more on the situation than on their personalities. Their final sentence is, “If people understand the situational forces that can make them hesitate to intervene, they may better overcome them” (p. 383). However, this kind of ending can be difficult to pull off. It can sound overreaching or just banal and end up detracting from the overall impact of the article. It is often better simply to end when you have made your final point (although you should avoid ending on a limitation).

The references section begins on a new page with the heading “References” centred at the top of the page. All references cited in the text are then listed in the format presented earlier. They are listed alphabetically by the last name of the first author. If two sources have the same first author, they are listed alphabetically by the last name of the second author. If all the authors are the same, then they are listed chronologically by the year of publication. Everything in the reference list is double-spaced both within and between references.

Appendices, Tables, and Figures

Appendices, tables, and figures come after the references. An  appendix  is appropriate for supplemental material that would interrupt the flow of the research report if it were presented within any of the major sections. An appendix could be used to present lists of stimulus words, questionnaire items, detailed descriptions of special equipment or unusual statistical analyses, or references to the studies that are included in a meta-analysis. Each appendix begins on a new page. If there is only one, the heading is “Appendix,” centred at the top of the page. If there is more than one, the headings are “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on, and they appear in the order they were first mentioned in the text of the report.

After any appendices come tables and then figures. Tables and figures are both used to present results. Figures can also be used to illustrate theories (e.g., in the form of a flowchart), display stimuli, outline procedures, and present many other kinds of information. Each table and figure appears on its own page. Tables are numbered in the order that they are first mentioned in the text (“Table 1,” “Table 2,” and so on). Figures are numbered the same way (“Figure 1,” “Figure 2,” and so on). A brief explanatory title, with the important words capitalized, appears above each table. Each figure is given a brief explanatory caption, where (aside from proper nouns or names) only the first word of each sentence is capitalized. More details on preparing APA-style tables and figures are presented later in the book.

Sample APA-Style Research Report

Figures 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, and 11.5 show some sample pages from an APA-style empirical research report originally written by undergraduate student Tomoe Suyama at California State University, Fresno. The main purpose of these figures is to illustrate the basic organization and formatting of an APA-style empirical research report, although many high-level and low-level style conventions can be seen here too.

Key Takeaways

• An APA-style empirical research report consists of several standard sections. The main ones are the abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, and references.
• The introduction consists of an opening that presents the research question, a literature review that describes previous research on the topic, and a closing that restates the research question and comments on the method. The literature review constitutes an argument for why the current study is worth doing.
• The method section describes the method in enough detail that another researcher could replicate the study. At a minimum, it consists of a participants subsection and a design and procedure subsection.
• The results section describes the results in an organized fashion. Each primary result is presented in terms of statistical results but also explained in words.
• The discussion typically summarizes the study, discusses theoretical and practical implications and limitations of the study, and offers suggestions for further research.
• Practice: Look through an issue of a general interest professional journal (e.g.,  Psychological Science ). Read the opening of the first five articles and rate the effectiveness of each one from 1 ( very ineffective ) to 5 ( very effective ). Write a sentence or two explaining each rating.
• Practice: Find a recent article in a professional journal and identify where the opening, literature review, and closing of the introduction begin and end.
• Practice: Find a recent article in a professional journal and highlight in a different colour each of the following elements in the discussion: summary, theoretical implications, practical implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research.

Long Descriptions

Figure 11.1 long description: Table showing three ways of organizing an APA-style method section.

In the simple method, there are two subheadings: “Participants” (which might begin “The participants were…”) and “Design and procedure” (which might begin “There were three conditions…”).

In the typical method, there are three subheadings: “Participants” (“The participants were…”), “Design” (“There were three conditions…”), and “Procedure” (“Participants viewed each stimulus on the computer screen…”).

In the complex method, there are four subheadings: “Participants” (“The participants were…”), “Materials” (“The stimuli were…”), “Design” (“There were three conditions…”), and “Procedure” (“Participants viewed each stimulus on the computer screen…”). [Return to Figure 11.1]

• Bem, D. J. (2003). Writing the empirical journal article. In J. M. Darley, M. P. Zanna, & H. R. Roediger III (Eds.),  The compleat academic: A practical guide for the beginning social scientist  (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ↵
• Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4 , 377–383. ↵

A type of research article which describes one or more new empirical studies conducted by the authors.

The page at the beginning of an APA-style research report containing the title of the article, the authors’ names, and their institutional affiliation.

A summary of a research study.

The third page of a manuscript containing the research question, the literature review, and comments about how to answer the research question.

An introduction to the research question and explanation for why this question is interesting.

A description of relevant previous research on the topic being discusses and an argument for why the research is worth addressing.

The end of the introduction, where the research question is reiterated and the method is commented upon.

The section of a research report where the method used to conduct the study is described.

The main results of the study, including the results from statistical analyses, are presented in a research article.

Section of a research report that summarizes the study's results and interprets them by referring back to the study's theoretical background.

Part of a research report which contains supplemental material.

Research Methods in Psychology - 2nd Canadian Edition Copyright © 2015 by Paul C. Price, Rajiv Jhangiani, & I-Chant A. Chiang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Many believe that a scientist’s most difficult job is not conducting an experiment but presenting the results in an effective and coherent way. Even when your methods and technique are sound and your notes are comprehensive, writing a report can be a challenge because organizing and communicating scientific findings requires patience and a thorough grasp of certain conventions. Having a clear understanding of the typical goals and strategies for writing an effective lab report can make the process much less troubling.

General Considerations

It is useful to note that effective scientific writing serves the same purpose that your lab report should. Good scientific writing explains:

• The goal(s) of your experiment
• How you performed the experiment
• The results you obtained
• Why these results are important

While it’s unlikely that you’re going to win the Nobel Prize for your work in an undergraduate laboratory course, tailoring your writing strategies in imitation of professional journals is easier than you might think, since they all follow a consistent pattern. However, your instructor has the final say in determining how your report should be structured and what should appear in each section. Please use the following explanations only to supplement your given writing criteria, rather than thinking of them as an indication of how all lab reports must be written.

In Practice

The Structure of a Report

The traditional experimental report is structured using the acronym “IMRAD” which stands for I ntroduction, M ethods, R esults and D iscussion. The “ A ” is sometimes used to stand for A bstract. For help writing abstracts, please see Sweetland’s resource entitled “What is an abstract, and how do I write one?”

Introduction: “What am I doing here?” The introduction should accomplish what any good introduction does: draw the reader into the paper. To simplify things, follow the “inverted pyramid” structure, which involves narrowing information from the most broad (providing context for your experiment’s place in science) to the most specific (what exactly your experiment is about). Consider the example below.

Most broad: “Caffeine is a mild stimulant that is found in many common beverages, including coffee.”

Less broad: “Common reactions to caffeine use include increased heart rate and increased respiratory rate.”

Slightly more specific (moving closer to your experiment): Previous research has shown that people who consume multiple caffeinated beverages per day are also more likely to be irritable.

Most specific (your experiment): This study examines the emotional states of college students (ages 18-22) after they have consumed three cups of coffee each day.

See how that worked? Each idea became slightly more focused, ending with a brief description of your particular experiment. Here are a couple more tips to keep in mind when writing an introduction:

• Include an overview of the topic in question, including relevant literature A good example: “In 1991, Rogers and Hammerstein concluded that drinking coffee improves alertness and mental focus (citation 1991).
• Explain what your experiment might contribute to past findings A good example: “Despite these established benefits, coffee may negatively impact mood and behavior. This study aims to investigate the emotions of college coffee drinkers during finals week.”
• Keep the introduction brief There’s no real advantage to writing a long introduction. Most people reading your paper already know what coffee is, and where it comes from, so what’s the point of giving them a detailed history of the coffee bean? A good example: “Caffeine is a psychoactive stimulant, much like nicotine.” (Appropriate information, because it gives context to caffeine—the molecule of study) A bad example: “Some of the more popular coffee drinks in America include cappuccinos, lattés, and espresso.” (Inappropriate for your introduction. This information is useless for your audience, because not only is it already familiar, but it doesn’t mention anything about caffeine or its effects, which is the reason that you’re doing the experiment.)
• Avoid giving away the detailed technique and data you gathered in your experiment A good example: “A sample of coffee-drinking college students was observed during end-of-semester exams.” ( Appropriate for an introduction ) A bad example: “25 college students were studied, and each given 10oz of premium dark roast coffee (containing 175mg caffeine/serving, except for Folgers, which has significantly lower caffeine content) three times a day through a plastic straw, with intervals of two hours, for three weeks.” ( Too detailed for an intro. More in-depth information should appear in your “Methods” or “Results” sections. )

Methods: “Where am I going to get all that coffee…?”

A “methods” section should include all the information necessary for someone else to recreate your experiment. Your experimental notes will be very useful for this section of the report. More or less, this section will resemble a recipe for your experiment. Don’t concern yourself with writing clever, engaging prose. Just say what you did, as clearly as possible. Address the types of questions listed below:

• Where did you perform the experiment? (This one is especially important in field research— work done outside the laboratory.)
• How much did you use? (Be precise.)
• Did you change anything about them? (i.e. Each 5 oz of coffee was diluted with 2 oz distilled water.)
• Did you use any special method for recording data? (i.e. After drinking coffee, students’ happiness was measured using the Walter Gumdrop Rating System, on a scale of 1-10.)
• Did you use any techniques/methods that are significant for the research? (i.e. Maybe you did a double blinded experiment with X and Y as controls. Was your control a placebo? Be specific.)
• Any unusual/unique methods for collecting data? If so, why did you use them?

After you have determined the basic content for your “methods” section, consider these other tips:

• Decide between using active or passive voice

There has been much debate over the use of passive voice in scientific writing. “Passive voice” is when the subject of a sentence is the recipient of the action.

• For example: Coffee was given to the students.

“Active voice” is when the subject of a sentence performs the action.

• For example: I gave coffee to the students.

The merits of using passive voice are obvious in some cases. For instance, scientific reports are about what is being studied, and not about YOU. Using too many personal pronouns can make your writing sound more like a narrative and less like a report. For that reason, many people recommend using passive voice to create a more objective, professional tone, emphasizing what was done TO your subject. However, active voice is becoming increasingly common in scientific writing, especially in social sciences, so the ultimate decision of passive vs. active voice is up to you (and whoever is grading your report).

• Units are important When using numbers, it is important to always list units, and keep them consistent throughout the section. There is a big difference between giving someone 150 milligrams of coffee and 150 grams of coffee—the first will keep you awake for a while, and the latter will put you to sleep indefinitely. So make sure you’re consistent in this regard.
• Don’t needlessly explain common techniques If you’re working in a chemistry lab, for example, and you want to take the melting point of caffeine, there’s no point saying “I used the “Melting point-ometer 3000” to take a melting point of caffeine. First I plugged it in…then I turned it on…” Your reader can extrapolate these techniques for him or herself, so a simple “Melting point was recorded” will work just fine.
• If it isn’t important to your results, don’t include it No one cares if you bought the coffee for your experiment on “3 dollar latte day”. The price of the coffee won’t affect the outcome of your experiment, so don’t bore your reader with it. Simply record all the things that WILL affect your results (i.e. masses, volumes, numbers of trials, etc).

Results: The only thing worth reading?

The “results” section is the place to tell your reader what you observed. However, don’t do anything more than “tell.” Things like explaining and analyzing belong in your discussion section. If you find yourself using words like “because” or “which suggests” in your results section, then STOP! You’re giving too much analysis.

A good example: “In this study, 50% of subjects exhibited symptoms of increased anger and annoyance in response to hearing Celine Dion music.” ( Appropriate for a “results” section—it doesn’t get caught up in explaining WHY they were annoyed. )

In your “results” section, you should:

• Display facts and figures in tables and graphs whenever possible. Avoid listing results like “In trial one, there were 5 students out of 10 who showed irritable behavior in response to caffeine. In trial two…” Instead, make a graph or table. Just be sure to label it so you can refer to it in your writing (i.e. “As Table 1 shows, the number of swear words spoken by students increased in proportion to the amount of coffee consumed.”) Likewise, be sure to label every axis/heading on a chart or graph (a good visual representation can be understood on its own without any textual explanation). The following example clearly shows what happened during each trial of an experiment, making the trends visually apparent, and thus saving the experimenter from having to explain each trial with words.
• Identify only the most significant trends. Don’t try to include every single bit of data in this section, because much of it won’t be relevant to your hypothesis. Just pick out the biggest trends, or what is most significant to your goals.

Discussion: “What does it all mean?”

The “discussion” section is intended to explain to your reader what your data can be interpreted to mean. As with all science, the goal for your report is simply to provide evidence that something might be true or untrue—not to prove it unequivocally. The following questions should be addressed in your “discussion” section:

• Is your hypothesis supported? If you didn’t have a specific hypothesis, then were the results consistent with what previous studies have suggested? A good example: “Consistent with caffeine’s observed effects on heart rate, students’ tendency to react strongly to the popping of a balloon strongly suggests that caffeine’s ability to heighten alertness may also increase nervousness.”
• Was there any data that surprised you? Outliers are seldom significant, and mentioning them is largely useless. However, if you see another cluster of points on a graph that establish their own trend, this is worth mentioning.
• Are the results useful? If you have no significant findings, then just say that. Don’t try to make wild claims about the meanings of your work if there is no statistical/observational basis for these claims—doing so is dishonest and unhelpful to other scientists reading your work. Similarly, try to avoid using the word “proof” or “proves.” Your work is merely suggesting evidence for new ideas. Just because things worked out one way in your trials, that doesn’t mean these results will always be repeatable or true.
• What are the implications of your work? Here are some examples of the types of questions that can begin to show how your study can be significant outside of this one particular experiment: Why should anyone care about what you’re saying? How might these findings affect coffee drinkers? Do your findings suggest that drinking coffee is more harmful than previously thought? Less harmful? How might these findings affect other fields of science? What about the effects of caffeine on people with emotional disorders? Do your findings suggest that they should or should not drink coffee?
• Any shortcomings of your work? Were there any flaws in your experimental design? How should future studies in this field accommodate for these complications. Does your research raise any new questions? What other areas of science should be explored as a result of your work?

Resources: Hogg, Alan. "Tutoring Scientific Writing." Sweetland Center for Writing. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 3/15/2011. Lecture. Swan, Judith A, and George D. Gopen. "The Science of Scientific Writing." American Scientist . 78. (1990): 550-558. Print. "Scientific Reports." The Writing Center . University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 5 May 2011. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/lab_report_complete.html

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Formatting Science Reports

This section describes an organizational structure commonly used to report experimental research in many scientific disciplines, the IMRAD format: I ntroduction, M ethods, R esults, And D iscussion.

When and when not to use the IMRAD format

Although most scientific reports use the IMRAD format, there are some exceptions.

This format is usually not used in reports describing other kinds of research, such as field or case studies, in which headings are more likely to differ according to discipline. Although the main headings are standard for many scientific fields, details may vary; check with your instructor, or, if submitting an article to a journal, refer to the instructions to authors.

Developing a Title

Titles should.

• Describe contents clearly and precisely, so that readers can decide whether to read the report
• Provide key words for indexing

Titles should NOT

• Include wasted words such as “studies on,” “an investigation of”
• Use abbreviations and jargon
• Use “cute” language

Good Titles

The Relationship of Luteinizing Hormone to Obesity in the Zucker Rat

Poor Titles

An Investigation of Hormone Secretion and Weight in Rats Fat Rats: Are Their Hormones Different?

The Abstract

The guidelines below address issues to consider when writing an abstract.

What is the report about, in miniature and without specific details?

• State main objectives. (What did you investigate? Why?)
• Describe methods. (What did you do?)
• Summarize the most important results. (What did you find out?)
• State major conclusions and significance. (What do your results mean? So what?)

What to avoid:

• Do not include references to figures, tables, or sources.
• Do not include information not in report.

Additional tips:

• Find out maximum length (may vary from 50 to 300+ words).
• Process: Extract key points from each section. Condense in successive revisions.

The Introduction

Guidelines for effective scientific report introductions.

What is the problem?

• Describe the problem investigated.
• Summarize relevant research to provide context, key terms, and concepts so your reader can understand the experiment.

Why is it important?

• Review relevant research to provide rationale. (What conflict or unanswered question, untested population, untried method in existing research does your experiment address? What findings of others are you challenging or extending?)

What solution (or step toward a solution) do you propose?

• Briefly describe your experiment: hypothesis(es), research question(s); general experimental design or method; justification of method if alternatives exist.
• Move from general to specific: problem in real world/research literature –> your experiment.
• Engage your reader: answer the questions, “What did you do?” “Why should I care?”
• Make clear the links between problem and solution, question asked and research design, prior research and your experiment.
• Be selective, not exhaustive, in choosing studies to cite and amount of detail to include. (In general, the more relevant an article is to your study, the more space it deserves and the later in the Introduction it appears.)
• Ask your instructor whether to summarize results and/or conclusions in the Introduction.

Methods Section

Below are some questions to consider for effective methods sections in scientific reports.

How did you study the problem?

• Briefly explain the general type of scientific procedure you used.

What did you use?

(May be subheaded as Materials)

• Describe what materials, subjects, and equipment (chemicals, experimental animals, apparatus, etc.) you used. (These may be subheaded Animals, Reagents, etc.)

How did you proceed?

(May be subheaded as Methods or Procedures)

• Explain the steps you took in your experiment. (These may be subheaded by experiment, types of assay, etc.)
• Provide enough detail for replication. For a journal article, include, for example, genus, species, strain of organisms; their source, living conditions, and care; and sources (manufacturer, location) of chemicals and apparatus.
• Order procedures chronologically or by type of procedure (subheaded) and chronologically within type.
• Use past tense to describe what you did.
• Quantify when possible: concentrations, measurements, amounts (all metric); times (24-hour clock); temperatures (centigrade)
• Don’t include details of common statistical procedures.
• Don’t mix results with procedures.

Results Section

The section below offers some questions asked for effective results sections in scientific reports.

What did you observe?

For each experiment or procedure:

• Briefly describe experiment without detail of Methods section (a sentence or two).
• Representative: most common
• Best Case: best example of ideal or exception
• from most to least important
• from simple to complex
• organ by organ; chemical class by chemical class
• Use past tense to describe what happened.
• Don’t simply repeat table data; select .
• Don’t interpret results.
• Avoid extra words: “It is shown in Table 1 that X induced Y” –> “X induced Y (Table 1).”

Discussion Section

The table below offers some questions effective discussion sections in scientific reports address.

What do your observations mean?

• Summarize the most important findings at the beginning.

What conclusions can you draw?

For each major result:

• Describe the patterns, principles, relationships your results show.
• Explain how your results relate to expectations and to literature cited in your Introduction. Do they agree, contradict, or are they exceptions to the rule?
• Explain plausibly any agreements, contradictions, or exceptions.
• Describe what additional research might resolve contradictions or explain exceptions.

How do your results fit into a broader context?

• Suggest the theoretical implications of your results.
• Suggest practical applications of your results?
• Extend your findings to other situations or other species.
• Give the big picture: do your findings help us understand a broader topic?
• Move from specific to general: your finding(s) –> literature, theory, practice.
• Don’t ignore or bury the major issue. Did the study achieve the goal (resolve the problem, answer the question, support the hypothesis) presented in the Introduction?
• Give evidence for each conclusion.
• Discuss possible reasons for expected and unexpected findings.
• Don’t overgeneralize.
• Don’t ignore deviations in your data.
• Avoid speculation that cannot be tested in the foreseeable future.

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Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Writing up a Research Report

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A research report is one big argument how and why you came up with your conclusions. To make it a convincing argument, a typical guiding structure has developed. In the different chapters, distinct issues need to be addressed to explain to the reader why your conclusions are valid. The governing principle for writing the report is full disclosure: to explain everything and ensure replicability by another researcher.

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Field, A. (2016). An adventure in statistics. The reality enigma . SAGE.

Field, A. (2020). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE.

Früh, M., Keimer, I., & Blankenagel, M. (2019). The impact of Balanced Scorecard excellence on shareholder returns. IFZ Working Paper No. 0003/2019. Retrieved June 09, 2021, from https://zenodo.org/record/2571603#.YMDUafkzZaQ .

Yin, R. K. (2013). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). SAGE.

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Hunziker, S., Blankenagel, M. (2021). Writing up a Research Report. In: Research Design in Business and Management. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-34357-6_4

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FAQs About Experimental Research Papers (APA)

What is a research paper? 

A researcher uses a research paper to explain how they conducted a research study to answer a question or test a hypothesis. They explain why they conducted the study, the research question or hypothesis they tested, how they conducted the study, the results of their study, and the implications of these results. 

What is the purpose of an experimental research paper? 

A research paper is intended to inform others about advancement in a particular field of study. The researcher who wrote the paper identified a gap in the research in a field of study and used their research to help fill this gap. The researcher uses their paper to inform others about the knowledge that the results of their study contribute. 

What sections are included in an experimental research paper?

A typical research paper contains a Title Page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References section. Some also contain a Table and Figures section and Appendix section. 

What citation style is used for experimental research papers? 

APA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used for research papers. 

Structure Of Experimental Research Papers (APA)

• Answers the question of “What is this paper about and who wrote it?”
• Located on the first page of the paper 
• The author’s note acknowledges any support that the authors received from others
• A student paper also includes the course number and name, instructor’s name, and assignment due date
• Contains a title that summarizes the purpose and content of the research study and engages the audience 
• No longer than 250 words
• Summarizes important background information, the research questions and/or hypothesis, methods, key findings, and implications of the findings
• Explains what the topic of the research is and why the topic is worth studying
• Summarizes and discusses prior research conducted on the topic 
• Identifies unresolved issues and gaps in past research that the current research will address
• Ends with an overview of the current research study, including how the independent and dependent variables, the research questions or hypotheses, and the objective of the research 
• Explains how the research study was conducted 
• Typically includes 3 sections: Participants, Materials, and Procedure
• Includes characteristics of the subjects, how the subjects were selected and recruited, how their anonymity was protected, and what feedback was provided to the participants
• Describes any equipment, surveys, tests, questionnaires, informed consent forms, and observational techniques 
• Describes the independent and dependent variables, the type of research design, and how the data was collected
• Explains what results were found in the research study 
• Describes the data that was collected and the results of statistical tests 
• Explains the significance of the results 
• Accepts or denies the hypotheses 
• Details the implications of these findings 
• Addresses the limitations of the study and areas for future research 
• Includes all sources that were mentioned in the research study 
• Adheres to APA citation styles
• Includes all tables and/or figures that were used in the research study 
• Each table and figure is placed on a separate page 
• Tables are included before figures
• Begins with a bolded, centered header such as “ Table 1 ”
• Appends all forms, surveys, tests, etc. that were used in the study 
• Only includes documents that were referenced in the Methods section 
• Each entry is placed on a separate page 
• Begins with a bolded, centered header such as “ Appendix A ”

Tips For Experimental Research Papers (APA)

• Initial interest will motivate you to complete your study 
• Your entire study will be centered around this question or statement 
• Use only verifiable sources that provide accurate information about your topic 
• You need to thoroughly understand the field of study your topic is on to help you recognize the gap your research will fill and the significance of your results
• This will help you identify what you should study and what the significance of your study will be 
• Create an outline before you begin writing to help organize your thoughts and direct you in your writing 
• This will prevent you from losing the source or forgetting to cite the source 
• Work on one section at a time, rather than trying to complete multiple sections at once
• This information can be easily referred to as your write your various sections 
• When conducting your research, working general to specific will help you narrow your topic and fully understand the field your topic is in 
• When writing your literature review, writing from general to specific will help the audience understand your overall topic and the narrow focus of your research 
• This will prevent you from losing sources you may need later 
• Incorporate correct APA formatting as you write, rather than changing the formatting at the end of the writing process 

Checklist For Experimental Research Papers (APA)

• If the paper is a student paper, it contains the title of the project, the author’s name(s), the instructor's name, course number and name, and assignment due date
• If the paper is a professional paper, it includes the title of the paper, the author’s name(s), the institutional affiliation, and the author note
• Begins on the first page of the paper
• The title is typed in upper and lowercase letters, four spaces below the top of the paper, and written in boldface 
• Other information is separated by a space from the title

Title (found on title page)

• Informs the audience about the purpose of the paper 
• Captures the attention of the audience 
• Accurately reflects the purpose and content of the research paper 

Abstract 

• Labeled as “ Abstract ”
• Begins on the second page 
• Provides a short, concise summary of the content of the research paper 
• Includes background information necessary to understand the topic 
• Background information demonstrates the purpose of the paper
• Contains the hypothesis and/or research questions addressed in the paper
• Has a brief description of the methods used 
• Details the key findings and significance of the results
• Illustrates the implications of the research study 
• Contains less than 250 words

Introduction 

• Starts on the third page 
• Includes the title of the paper in bold at the top of the page
• Contains a clear statement of the problem that the paper sets out to address 
• Places the research paper within the context of previous research on the topic 
• Explains the purpose of the research study and what you hope to find
• Describes the significance of the study 
• Details what new insights the research will contribute
• Concludes with a brief description of what information will be mentioned in the literature review

Literature Review

• Labeled as “ Literature Review”
• Presents a general description of the problem area 
• Defines any necessary terms 
• Discusses and summarizes prior research on the selected topic 
• Identifies any unresolved issues or gaps in research that the current research plans to address
• Concludes with a summary of the current research study, including the independent and dependent variables, the research questions or hypotheses, and the objective of the research  
• Labeled as “ Methods ”
• Efficiently explains how the research study was conducted 
• Appropriately divided into sections
• Describes the characteristics of the participants 
• Explains how the participants were selected 
• Details how the anonymity of the participants was protected 
• Notes what feedback the participants will be provided 
• Describes all materials and instruments that were used 
• Mentions how the procedure was conducted and data collected
• Notes the independent and dependent variables 
• Includes enough information that another researcher could duplicate the research 

Results 

• Labeled as “ Results ”
• Describes the data was collected
• Explains the results of statistical tests that were performed
• Omits any analysis or discussion of the implications of the study 

Discussion 

• Labeled as “ Discussion ”
• Describes the significance of the results 
• Relates the results to the research questions and/or hypotheses
• States whether the hypotheses should be rejected or accepted 
• Addresses limitations of the study, including potential bias, confounds, imprecision of measures, and limits to generalizability
• Explains how the study adds to the knowledge base and expands upon past research
• Labeled as “ References ”
• Correctly cites sources according to APA formatting 
• Orders sources alphabetically
• All sources included in the study are cited in the reference section 

Table and Figures (optional)

•  Each table and each figure is placed on a separate page 
• Tables and figures are included after the reference page
• Tables and figures are correctly labeled
• Each table and figure begins with a bolded, centered header such as “ Table 1 ,” “ Table 2 ,”

Appendix (optional) 

• Any forms, surveys, tests, etc. are placed in the Appendix
• All appendix entries are mentioned in the Methods section 
• Each appendix begins on a new page
• Each appendix begins with a bolded, centered header such as “ Appendix A, ” “ Appendix B ”

Additional Resources For Experimental Research Papers (APA)

• https://www.mcwritingcenterblog.org/single-post/how-to-conduct-research-using-the-library-s-resources
• https://www.mcwritingcenterblog.org/single-post/how-to-read-academic-articles
• https://researchguides.ben.edu/source-evaluation   
• https://researchguides.library.brocku.ca/external-analysis/evaluating-sources
• https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• https://nmu.edu/writingcenter/tips-writing-research-paper
• https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/how-to-write-a-research-question
• https://www.unr.edu/writing-speaking-center/student-resources/writing-speaking-resources/guide-to-writing-research-papers
• https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1F4DFWf85zEH4aZvm10i8Ahm_3xnAekal?usp=sharing
• https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html
• https://libguides.elmira.edu/research
• https://www.nhcc.edu/academics/library/doing-library-research/basic-steps-research-process
• https://libguides.wustl.edu/research
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Ontogenetic Color Change and Mating Cues in Largus californicus (Hemiptera: Largidae)

Carey Booth Box 123 Biology 102 2 February 1995 Lab instructor: Ned Knight Lab day: Friday

Ontogenetic color change at sexual maturation can be useful in identifying an appropriate mate for some organisms. Largus californicus individuals undergo two ontogenetic color changes. First instars are bright red, second through fifth instars are shiny blue-black, and adults are black with orange markings. Adult male mating behavior suggested that the change in color from fifth instars to adults might enable males to discriminate between nymphs and adults. Males mount adults and persist if they have mounted a female and quickly release if they have mounted another male. Males were never observed to mount nymphs. Female color patterns were altered and male's copulatory attempts were timed to determine if color pattern was used by males in mating decisions. The null hypothesis that dorsal color pattern does not significantly affect male mating behavior could not be rejected, therefore the significance of the color change from nymph to adult must be sought elsewhere.

Introduction

Ontogenetic color change at the time of sexual maturation has been shown to be advantageous to fish (Fricke 1980), reptiles (Werner, 1978), and birds (Lyon and Montgomerie, 1986). In general, dull-colored juveniles avoid predation risk and harassment by breeding males, and sexually mature individuals use bright colors to advertise their readiness to mate (Booth, 1990a). In insects, mating cues are often chemical rather than visual (Jacobson, 1972), but there are some exceptions. In diurnal Lepidoptera, adult color pattern plays an important role in the initial phase of mating behavior (Graham et al., 1980). In holometabolous insects, such as Lepidoptera, maturation is associated with dramatic morphological changes, therefore distinguishing between larvae and adults for mating attempts is not difficult. The recognition of maturity is more difficult in hemimetabolous insects where late instars may be similar to adults in size and shape. The possibility that ontogenetic color change in some Hemiptera may have evolved as an indication of maturation has not been investigated experimentally.

The mating behavior of male Largus californicus suggests that males may be using visual cues, perhaps in addition to pheromonal cues, to distinguish between fifth instars and adults for mating attempts. Fifth instars are shiny blue-black and almost adult-sized. Adults (both males and females) are black with orange borders around the thickened portion of the hemelytra and pronotum (Booth, 1990b). Although males were never observed to mount nymphs, they do mount other adults, and persist if they have mounted a female or release within a few seconds if they have mounted another male. Their distinctive courtship behavior allows an observer to identify immediately the initiation of a mating event. This consists of the male orienting towards the female when he is approximately 1 cm away, rapidly waving his antennae, leaping onto the female's back, and agitatedly grabbing the female with his legs. As their genitals do not immediately join, it is possible to separate a pair before they actually mate.

These bugs do not fly and are easily handled and painted without significantly disrupting their normal behavior. Experiments were designed to determine if males use color cues in their mating decision and if their behavior could explain the significance of the ontogenetic color change from fifth instars to adults. The null hypothesis that dorsal color pattern does not significantly affect male mating behavior was tested.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was performed outdoors at the Main Campus Reserve at the University of California, Santa Barbara on January 31, 1988. Bugs were collected from the Reserve on the morning of the testing day. Tests were performed when the bugs are normally active (1030 to 1430 hours) and control tests were interspersed between experimental tests so that time of day, temperature, cloudiness, and other environmental variables would be approximately the same between experiment and control.

An acrylic black paint and clear finish were used in each treatment. The first treatment was black paint and clear finish on the ventral surface of the female to control for the smell of the paints without altering the black and orange pattern on the dorsum. The second treatment was clear finish on the dorsum to control for covering the dorsal surface, which may reduce any scent emitted or otherwise affect the female's behavior. The third treatment was black paint on the dorsum to mimic the color of the fifth instars. The three treatments will be referred to as normal, clear, and black for brevity.

One female was used for all three treatments to hold other aspects (size, shape, scent) of the female's attractiveness constant. The order of presentation of the three treatments was necessarily the same for all males, as the one female in each experiment could only have black paint added after the normal and clear treatments. This design allows for a repeated measures analysis of variance as each male is tested with the same female under three different paint conditions.

After each painting, the female was placed in a clear plastic 9 x 7 x 3 cm box. Males were held separately in labeled plastic petri dishes. Each male was introduced one at a time into the box at the point farthest from the female. He was removed when he mounted the female or after an arbitrarily chosen time of 270 seconds had elapsed, whichever came first. The time to mount or 270 seconds (no-mount) was recorded. The pair was separated before their genitalia joined so no actual mating occurred. After all 15 males were tested, the female was painted for the next treatment and the males were tested in the same order.

To control for the possibility of males tiring by the second or third trial, a similar number of different males were tested three times each with one untreated female; i.e. no changes were made to the female between trials. Trials were alternated between experimental and control males throughout the day of testing. A total of two females (one experimental and one control) and 29 males (15 experimental and 14 control) were used.

Statistical analyses were performed using the StatView program on a Macintosh microcomputer. One-way, repeated measures ANOVAs were used to test for differences in males' time to mount among the three treatments and among the three control trials.

No significant differences were found in males' time to mount among the three treatments or among the three control trials based on a repeated measures ANOVA (Table 1). Males mounted black painted females as readily as females with the typical black and orange pattern.

There was a slight, but not significant, increase in male's mean time to mount for the black treatment as compared to the normal and clear treatments (Figure 1). The 95% confidence intervals were also larger for the black treatment. The first control trial had a slightly larger, but not significantly different, male's mean time to mount as compared to the second and third trials (Figure 2). The male's mean times to mount were lower for the three control trials than for the three experimental treatments.

Because the maximal time males were allowed to stay in the box without mounting the female was chosen arbitrarily, the one case where a male did not mount the female within the allotted 270 seconds could have biased the results (Table 1). After excluding the mount time for the male that failed to mount, the results did not differ qualitatively from the above: no significant differences were found.

By using one female for all three color treatments, any non-color aspects of the female's attractiveness were held constant. As the null hypothesis (that males' time to mount is not significantly affected by color of the female) was not rejected, males evidently used those other traits in seeking a mate. The male behavior of mounting other adults (male or female) and not nymphs may indicate that there are pheromonal differences between nymphs and adults but not between adult males and females. Males release other males rapidly once contact has been made, so chemical cues transferred by touch or other close range signals (such as sound) may be used to distinguish males from females. There are slight shape differences between nymphs and adults (nymphs are more spherical) that could possibly be used by males in mating decisions. Other experiments are necessary to determine the nature of the communication between adults and between adults and nymphs.

Among hemipterans, several species use pheromones as mating cues. Males of the southern green stink bug (Nezara viridula) release a pheromone that attracts females, males, late-stage nymphs, and a parasitoid (Aldrich et al., 1987). Females of Dysdercus cingulatus and Pyrrhocoris apterus also produce substances attractive to males (Osmani and Naidu, 1967; Zdarek, 1970). As these last two species are in the same superfamily (Pyrrhocoroidea) as L. californicus, it is possible that L. californicus females also produce a pheromone that is attractive to males. However, several species in the family Largidae, including L. cinctus (a close relative of L. californicus), have minimal development of the metathoracic scent gland evaporative area (Schaefer, 1972), so their use of pheromonal communication may be limited. The use of pheromones does not rule out the possibility that visual cues may also be important.

Aldrich, J. R., J. E. Oliver, W. R. Lusby, J. P. Kochansky and J. A. Lockwood. 1987. Pheromone strains of the cosmopolitan pest, Nezara viridula (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). J. Exp. Zool. 244: 171-175.

Booth, C. L. 1990a. Evolutionary significance of ontogenetic colour change in animals. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 40: 125-163.

Booth, C. L. 1990b. Biology of Largus californicus (Hemiptera: Largidae). Southwestern Naturalist 35: 15-22.

Fricke, H. W. 1980. Juvenile-adult colour patterns and coexistence in the territorial coral reef fish Pomacanthus imperator. Mar. Ecol. 1: 133-141.

Graham, S. M., W. B. Watt and L. F. Gall. 1980. Metabolic resource allocation vs. mating attractiveness: Adaptive pressures on the "alba" polymorphism of Colias butterflies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 77: 3615-3619.

Jacobson, M. 1972. Insect sex pheromones. Academic Press, New York.

Lyon, B. E. and R. D. Montgomerie. 1986. Delayed plumage maturation in passerine birds: reliable signaling by subordinate males? Evolution 40: 605-615.

Osmani, Z. and M. B. Naidu. 1967. Evidence of sex attractant in female Dysdercus cingulatus Fabr. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 5: 51.

Schaefer, C. W. 1972. Degree of metathoracic scent-gland development in the trichophorous Heteroptera (Hemiptera). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 65: 810-821.

Werner, D. I. 1978. On the biology of Tropidurus delanonis, Baur (Iguanidae). Z. Tierpsychol. 47: 337-395.

Zdarek, J. 1970. Mating behaviour in the bug, Pyrrhocoris apterus L. (Heteroptera): ontogeny and its environmental control. Behaviour 37: 253-268.

Table 1. Repeated measures ANOVA on males' time to mount female (in seconds).

a Males' copulatory attempts were timed from point of entry into female container.

b SEM = standard error of the mean

c F = F statistic

d df = degrees of freedom for numerator, denominator

e P = probability value

f Each Largus californicus male was tested with the same female under three different paint conditions. Black and clear paint on the dorsum = Normal treatment. Clear paint on the dorsum = Clear treatment. Black paint on the dorsum = Black treatment to mimic the color of the fifth instar larva.

g Different males were tested three times each with one untreated female = Control trials 1-3.

Figure 1: Mean male mount time (sec) with 95% confidence intervals under three experimental conditions. Each Largus californicus male was tested for time to mount (attempting copulation) with the same female under three different paint conditions. Normal = Black and clear paint on the dorsum to control for odor of paints. Clear = Clear paint on the dorsum to control for covering the dorsal surface. Black = Black paint on the dorsum to mimic the color of the fifth instar larva.

Figure 2: Mean male mount time (sec) with 95% confidence intervals for three control trials. Different Largus californicus males were tested for time to mount (attempting copulation) three times each with one untreated female to control for order of presentation in the experimental treatments.

10 Real-Life Experimental Research Examples

Experimental research is research that involves using a scientific approach to examine research variables.

Below are some famous experimental research examples. Some of these studies were conducted quite a long time ago. Some were so controversial that they would never be attempted today. And some were so unethical that they would never be permitted again.

A few of these studies have also had very practical implications for modern society involving criminal investigations, the impact of television and the media, and the power of authority figures.

Examples of Experimental Research

1. pavlov’s dog: classical conditioning.

Dr. Ivan Pavlov was a physiologist studying animal digestive systems in the 1890s. In one study, he presented food to a dog and then collected its salivatory juices via a tube attached to the inside of the animal’s mouth.

As he was conducting his experiments, an annoying thing kept happening; every time his assistant would enter the lab with a bowl of food for the experiment, the dog would start to salivate at the sound of the assistant’s footsteps.

Although this disrupted his experimental procedures, eventually, it dawned on Pavlov that something else was to be learned from this problem.

Pavlov learned that animals could be conditioned into responding on a physiological level to various stimuli, such as food, or even the sound of the assistant bringing the food down the hall.

Hence, the creation of the theory of classical conditioning. One of the most influential theories in psychology still to this day.

2. Bobo Doll Experiment: Observational Learning

Dr. Albert Bandura conducted one of the most influential studies in psychology in the 1960s at Stanford University.

His intention was to demonstrate that cognitive processes play a fundamental role in learning. At the time, Behaviorism was the predominant theoretical perspective, which completely rejected all inferences to constructs not directly observable .

So, Bandura made two versions of a video. In version #1, an adult behaved aggressively with a Bobo doll by throwing it around the room and striking it with a wooden mallet. In version #2, the adult played gently with the doll by carrying it around to different parts of the room and pushing it gently.

After showing children one of the two versions, they were taken individually to a room that had a Bobo doll. Their behavior was observed and the results indicated that children that watched version #1 of the video were far more aggressive than those that watched version #2.

Not only did Bandura’s Bobo doll study form the basis of his social learning theory, it also helped start the long-lasting debate about the harmful effects of television on children.

Worth Checking Out: What’s the Difference between Experimental and Observational Studies?

3. The Asch Study: Conformity  

Dr. Solomon Asch was interested in conformity and the power of group pressure. His study was quite simple. Different groups of students were shown lines of varying lengths and asked, “which line is longest.”

However, out of each group, only one was an actual participant. All of the others in the group were working with Asch and instructed to say that one of the shorter lines was actually the longest.

Nearly every time, the real participant gave an answer that was clearly wrong, but the same as the rest of the group.

The study is one of the most famous in psychology because it demonstrated the power of social pressure so clearly.  

4. Car Crash Experiment: Leading Questions

In 1974, Dr. Elizabeth Loftus and her undergraduate student John Palmer designed a study to examine how fallible human judgement is under certain conditions.

They showed groups of research participants videos that depicted accidents between two cars. Later, the participants were asked to estimate the rate of speed of the cars.

Here’s the interesting part. All participants were asked the same question with the exception of a single word: “How fast were the two cars going when they ______into each other?” The word in the blank varied in its implied severity.

Participants’ estimates were completely affected by the word in the blank. When the word “smashed” was used, participants estimated the cars were going much faster than when the word “contacted” was used. 

This line of research has had a huge impact on law enforcement interrogation practices, line-up procedures, and the credibility of eyewitness testimony .

5. The 6 Universal Emotions

The research by Dr. Paul Ekman has been influential in the study of emotions. His early research revealed that all human beings, regardless of culture, experience the same 6 basic emotions: happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, surprise, and anger.

In the late 1960s, Ekman traveled to Papua New Guinea. He approached a tribe of people that were extremely isolated from modern culture. With the help of a guide, he would describe different situations to individual members and take a photo of their facial expressions.

The situations included: if a good friend had come; their child had just died; they were about to get into a fight; or had just stepped on a dead pig.

The facial expressions of this highly isolated tribe were nearly identical to those displayed by people in his studies in California.

6. The Little Albert Study: Development of Phobias  

Dr. John Watson and Dr. Rosalie Rayner sought to demonstrate how irrational fears were developed.

Their study involved showing a white rat to an infant. Initially, the child had no fear of the rat. However, the researchers then began to create a loud noise each time they showed the child the rat by striking a steel bar with a hammer.

Eventually, the child started to cry and feared the white rat. The child also developed a fear of other white, furry objects such as white rabbits and a Santa’s beard.

This study is famous because it demonstrated one way in which phobias are developed in humans, and also because it is now considered highly unethical for its mistreatment of children, lack of study debriefing , and intent to instil fear.  

7. A Class Divided: Discrimination

Perhaps one of the most famous psychological experiments of all time was not conducted by a psychologist. In 1968, third grade teacher Jane Elliott conducted one of the most famous studies on discrimination in history. It took place shortly after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

She divided her class into two groups: brown-eyed and blue-eyed students. On the first day of the experiment, she announced the blue-eyed group as superior. They received extra privileges and were told not to intermingle with the brown-eyed students.

They instantly became happier, more self-confident, and started performing better academically.

The next day, the roles were reversed. The brown-eyed students were announced as superior and given extra privileges. Their behavior changed almost immediately and exhibited the same patterns as the other group had the day before.

This study was a remarkable demonstration of the harmful effects of discrimination.

8. The Milgram Study: Obedience to Authority

Dr. Stanley Milgram conducted one of the most influential experiments on authority and obedience in 1961 at Yale University.

Participants were told they were helping study the effects of punishment on learning. Their job was to administer an electric shock to another participant each time they made an error on a test. The other participant was actually an actor in another room that only pretended to be shocked.

However, each time a mistake was made, the level of shock was supposed to increase, eventually reaching quite high voltage levels. When the real participants expressed reluctance to administer the next level of shock, the experimenter, who served as the authority figure in the room, pressured the participant to deliver the next level of shock.

The results of this study were truly astounding. A surprisingly high percentage of participants continued to deliver the shocks to the highest level possible despite the very strong objections by the “other participant.”

This study demonstrated the power of authority figures.

9. The Marshmallow Test: Delay of Gratification

The Marshmallow Test was designed by Dr. Walter Mischel to examine the role of delay of gratification and academic success.

Children ages 4-6 years old were seated at a table with one marshmallow placed in front of them. The experimenter explained that if they did not eat the marshmallow, they would receive a second one. They could then eat both.

The children that were able to delay gratification the longest were rated as significantly more competent later in life and earned higher SAT scores than children that could not withstand the temptation.  

The study has since been conceptually replicated by other researchers that have revealed additional factors involved in delay of gratification and academic achievement.

10. Stanford Prison Study: Deindividuation

Dr. Philip Zimbardo conducted one of the most famous psychological studies of all time in 1971. The purpose of the study was to investigate how the power structure in some situations can lead people to behave in ways highly uncharacteristic of their usual behavior.

College students were recruited to participate in the study. Some were randomly assigned to play the role of prison guard. The others were actually “arrested” by real police officers. They were blindfolded and taken to the basement of the university’s psychology building which had been converted to look like a prison.

Although the study was supposed to last 2 weeks, it had to be halted due to the abusive actions of the guards.

The study demonstrated that people will behave in ways they never thought possible when placed in certain roles and power structures. Although the Stanford Prison Study is so well-known for what it revealed about human nature, it is also famous because of the numerous violations of ethical principles.

The studies above are varied and focused on many different aspects of human behavior . However, each example of experimental research listed above has had a lasting impact on society. Some have had tremendous sway in how very practical matters are conducted, such as criminal investigations and legal proceedings.

Psychology is a field of study that is often not fully understood by the general public. When most people hear the term “psychology,” they think of a therapist that listens carefully to the revealing statements of a patient. The therapist then tries to help their patient learn to cope with many of life’s challenges. Nothing wrong with that.

In reality however, most psychologists are researchers. They spend most of their time designing and conducting experiments to enhance our understanding of the human condition.

Asch SE. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority . Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70 (9),1-70. https://doi.org/doi:10.1037/h0093718

Bandura A. (1965). Influence of models’ reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1 (6), 589-595. https://doi.org/doi:10.1037/h0022070

Beck, H. P., Levinson, S., & Irons, G. (2009). Finding little Albert: A journey to John B. Watson’s infant laboratory.  American Psychologist, 64(7),  605-614.

Ekman, P. & Friesen, W. V. (1971).  Constants Across Cultures in the Face and motion .  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(2) , 124-129.

Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of

the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal

Behavior, 13 (5), 585–589.

Milgram S (1965). Some Conditions of Obedience and Disobedience to Authority. Human Relations, 18(1), 57–76.

Mischel, W., & Ebbesen, E. B. (1970). Attention in delay of gratification . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16 (2), 329-337.

Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes . London: Oxford University Press.

Watson, J. & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions.  Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3 , 1-14. Zimbardo, P., Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Jaffe, D. (1971). The Stanford Prison Experiment: A simulation study of the psychology of imprisonment . Stanford University, Stanford Digital Repository, Stanford.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Experimental Research Design — 6 mistakes you should never make!

Since school days’ students perform scientific experiments that provide results that define and prove the laws and theorems in science. These experiments are laid on a strong foundation of experimental research designs.

An experimental research design helps researchers execute their research objectives with more clarity and transparency.

In this article, we will not only discuss the key aspects of experimental research designs but also the issues to avoid and problems to resolve while designing your research study.

Table of Contents

What Is Experimental Research Design?

Experimental research design is a framework of protocols and procedures created to conduct experimental research with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. Herein, the first set of variables acts as a constant, used to measure the differences of the second set. The best example of experimental research methods is quantitative research .

Experimental research helps a researcher gather the necessary data for making better research decisions and determining the facts of a research study.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Experimental Research?

A researcher can conduct experimental research in the following situations —

• When time is an important factor in establishing a relationship between the cause and effect.
• When there is an invariable or never-changing behavior between the cause and effect.
• Finally, when the researcher wishes to understand the importance of the cause and effect.

Importance of Experimental Research Design

To publish significant results, choosing a quality research design forms the foundation to build the research study. Moreover, effective research design helps establish quality decision-making procedures, structures the research to lead to easier data analysis, and addresses the main research question. Therefore, it is essential to cater undivided attention and time to create an experimental research design before beginning the practical experiment.

By creating a research design, a researcher is also giving oneself time to organize the research, set up relevant boundaries for the study, and increase the reliability of the results. Through all these efforts, one could also avoid inconclusive results. If any part of the research design is flawed, it will reflect on the quality of the results derived.

Types of Experimental Research Designs

Based on the methods used to collect data in experimental studies, the experimental research designs are of three primary types:

1. Pre-experimental Research Design

A research study could conduct pre-experimental research design when a group or many groups are under observation after implementing factors of cause and effect of the research. The pre-experimental design will help researchers understand whether further investigation is necessary for the groups under observation.

Pre-experimental research is of three types —

• One-shot Case Study Research Design
• One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
• Static-group Comparison

2. True Experimental Research Design

A true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis. It is one of the most accurate forms of research because it provides specific scientific evidence. Furthermore, out of all the types of experimental designs, only a true experimental design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. However, in a true experiment, a researcher must satisfy these three factors —

• There is a control group that is not subjected to changes and an experimental group that will experience the changed variables
• A variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
• Random distribution of the variables

This type of experimental research is commonly observed in the physical sciences.

3. Quasi-experimental Research Design

The word “Quasi” means similarity. A quasi-experimental design is similar to a true experimental design. However, the difference between the two is the assignment of the control group. In this research design, an independent variable is manipulated, but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned. This type of research design is used in field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.

The classification of the research subjects, conditions, or groups determines the type of research design to be used.

Advantages of Experimental Research

Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before taking the research to clinical trials. Moreover, it provides the best method to test your theory because of the following advantages:

• Researchers have firm control over variables to obtain results.
• The subject does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research. Anyone can implement it for research purposes.
• The results are specific.
• Post results analysis, research findings from the same dataset can be repurposed for similar research ideas.
• Researchers can identify the cause and effect of the hypothesis and further analyze this relationship to determine in-depth ideas.
• Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The collected data could be used as a foundation to build new research ideas for further studies.

6 Mistakes to Avoid While Designing Your Research

There is no order to this list, and any one of these issues can seriously compromise the quality of your research. You could refer to the list as a checklist of what to avoid while designing your research.

1. Invalid Theoretical Framework

Usually, researchers miss out on checking if their hypothesis is logical to be tested. If your research design does not have basic assumptions or postulates, then it is fundamentally flawed and you need to rework on your research framework.

2. Inadequate Literature Study

Without a comprehensive research literature review , it is difficult to identify and fill the knowledge and information gaps. Furthermore, you need to clearly state how your research will contribute to the research field, either by adding value to the pertinent literature or challenging previous findings and assumptions.

3. Insufficient or Incorrect Statistical Analysis

Statistical results are one of the most trusted scientific evidence. The ultimate goal of a research experiment is to gain valid and sustainable evidence. Therefore, incorrect statistical analysis could affect the quality of any quantitative research.

4. Undefined Research Problem

This is one of the most basic aspects of research design. The research problem statement must be clear and to do that, you must set the framework for the development of research questions that address the core problems.

5. Research Limitations

Every study has some type of limitations . You should anticipate and incorporate those limitations into your conclusion, as well as the basic research design. Include a statement in your manuscript about any perceived limitations, and how you considered them while designing your experiment and drawing the conclusion.

6. Ethical Implications

The most important yet less talked about topic is the ethical issue. Your research design must include ways to minimize any risk for your participants and also address the research problem or question at hand. If you cannot manage the ethical norms along with your research study, your research objectives and validity could be questioned.

Experimental Research Design Example

In an experimental design, a researcher gathers plant samples and then randomly assigns half the samples to photosynthesize in sunlight and the other half to be kept in a dark box without sunlight, while controlling all the other variables (nutrients, water, soil, etc.)

By comparing their outcomes in biochemical tests, the researcher can confirm that the changes in the plants were due to the sunlight and not the other variables.

Experimental research is often the final form of a study conducted in the research process which is considered to provide conclusive and specific results. But it is not meant for every research. It involves a lot of resources, time, and money and is not easy to conduct, unless a foundation of research is built. Yet it is widely used in research institutes and commercial industries, for its most conclusive results in the scientific approach.

Have you worked on research designs? How was your experience creating an experimental design? What difficulties did you face? Do write to us or comment below and share your insights on experimental research designs!

Frequently Asked Questions

Randomization is important in an experimental research because it ensures unbiased results of the experiment. It also measures the cause-effect relationship on a particular group of interest.

Experimental research design lay the foundation of a research and structures the research to establish quality decision making process.

There are 3 types of experimental research designs. These are pre-experimental research design, true experimental research design, and quasi experimental research design.

The difference between an experimental and a quasi-experimental design are: 1. The assignment of the control group in quasi experimental research is non-random, unlike true experimental design, which is randomly assigned. 2. Experimental research group always has a control group; on the other hand, it may not be always present in quasi experimental research.

Experimental research establishes a cause-effect relationship by testing a theory or hypothesis using experimental groups or control variables. In contrast, descriptive research describes a study or a topic by defining the variables under it and answering the questions related to the same.

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Experimental Research: Meaning And Examples Of Experimental Research

Ever wondered why scientists across the world are being lauded for discovering the Covid-19 vaccine so early? It’s because every…

Ever wondered why scientists across the world are being lauded for discovering the Covid-19 vaccine so early? It’s because every government knows that vaccines are a result of experimental research design and it takes years of collected data to make one. It takes a lot of time to compare formulas and combinations with an array of possibilities across different age groups, genders and physical conditions. With their efficiency and meticulousness, scientists redefined the meaning of experimental research when they discovered a vaccine in less than a year.

What Is Experimental Research?

Characteristics of experimental research design, types of experimental research design, advantages and disadvantages of experimental research, examples of experimental research.

Experimental research is a scientific method of conducting research using two variables: independent and dependent. Independent variables can be manipulated to apply to dependent variables and the effect is measured. This measurement usually happens over a significant period of time to establish conditions and conclusions about the relationship between these two variables.

Experimental research is widely implemented in education, psychology, social sciences and physical sciences. Experimental research is based on observation, calculation, comparison and logic. Researchers collect quantitative data and perform statistical analyses of two sets of variables. This method collects necessary data to focus on facts and support sound decisions. It’s a helpful approach when time is a factor in establishing cause-and-effect relationships or when an invariable behavior is seen between the two.  

Now that we know the meaning of experimental research, let’s look at its characteristics, types and advantages.

The hypothesis is at the core of an experimental research design. Researchers propose a tentative answer after defining the problem and then test the hypothesis to either confirm or disregard it. Here are a few characteristics of experimental research:

• Dependent variables are manipulated or treated while independent variables are exerted on dependent variables as an experimental treatment. Extraneous variables are variables generated from other factors that can affect the experiment and contribute to change. Researchers have to exercise control to reduce the influence of these variables by randomization, making homogeneous groups and applying statistical analysis techniques.
• Researchers deliberately operate independent variables on the subject of the experiment. This is known as manipulation.
• Once a variable is manipulated, researchers observe the effect an independent variable has on a dependent variable. This is key for interpreting results.
• A researcher may want multiple comparisons between different groups with equivalent subjects. They may replicate the process by conducting sub-experiments within the framework of the experimental design.

Experimental research is equally effective in non-laboratory settings as it is in labs. It helps in predicting events in an experimental setting. It generalizes variable relationships so that they can be implemented outside the experiment and applied to a wider interest group.

The way a researcher assigns subjects to different groups determines the types of experimental research design .

Pre-experimental Research Design

In a pre-experimental research design, researchers observe a group or various groups to see the effect an independent variable has on the dependent variable to cause change. There is no control group as it is a simple form of experimental research . It’s further divided into three categories:

• A one-shot case study research design is a study where one dependent variable is considered. It’s a posttest study as it’s carried out after treating what presumably caused the change.
• One-group pretest-posttest design is a study that combines both pretest and posttest studies by testing a single group before and after administering the treatment.
• Static-group comparison involves studying two groups by subjecting one to treatment while the other remains static. After post-testing all groups the differences are observed.

This design is practical but lacks in certain areas of true experimental criteria.

True Experimental Research Design

This design depends on statistical analysis to approve or disregard a hypothesis. It’s an accurate design that can be conducted with or without a pretest on a minimum of two dependent variables assigned randomly. It is further classified into three types:

• The posttest-only control group design involves randomly selecting and assigning subjects to two groups: experimental and control. Only the experimental group is treated, while both groups are observed and post-tested to draw a conclusion from the difference between the groups.
• In a pretest-posttest control group design, two groups are randomly assigned subjects. Both groups are presented, the experimental group is treated and both groups are post-tested to measure how much change happened in each group.
• Solomon four-group design is a combination of the previous two methods. Subjects are randomly selected and assigned to four groups. Two groups are tested using each of the previous methods.

True experimental research design should have a variable to manipulate, a control group and random distribution.

With experimental research, we can test ideas in a controlled environment before marketing. It acts as the best method to test a theory as it can help in making predictions about a subject and drawing conclusions. Let’s look at some of the advantages that make experimental research useful:

• It allows researchers to have a stronghold over variables and collect desired results.
• Results are usually specific.
• The effectiveness of the research isn’t affected by the subject.
• Findings from the results usually apply to similar situations and ideas.
• Cause and effect of a hypothesis can be identified, which can be further analyzed for in-depth ideas.
• It’s the ideal starting point to collect data and lay a foundation for conducting further research and building more ideas.
• Medical researchers can develop medicines and vaccines to treat diseases by collecting samples from patients and testing them under multiple conditions.
• It can be used to improve the standard of academics across institutions by testing student knowledge and teaching methods before analyzing the result to implement programs.
• Social scientists often use experimental research design to study and test behavior in humans and animals.
• Software development and testing heavily depend on experimental research to test programs by letting subjects use a beta version and analyzing their feedback.

Even though it’s a scientific method, it has a few drawbacks. Here are a few disadvantages of this research method:

• Human error is a concern because the method depends on controlling variables. Improper implementation nullifies the validity of the research and conclusion.
• Eliminating extraneous variables (real-life scenarios) produces inaccurate conclusions.
• The process is time-consuming and expensive
• In medical research, it can have ethical implications by affecting patients’ well-being.
• Results are not descriptive and subjects can contribute to response bias.

Experimental research design is a sophisticated method that investigates relationships or occurrences among people or phenomena under a controlled environment and identifies the conditions responsible for such relationships or occurrences

Experimental research can be used in any industry to anticipate responses, changes, causes and effects. Here are some examples of experimental research :

• This research method can be used to evaluate employees’ skills. Organizations ask candidates to take tests before filling a post. It is used to screen qualified candidates from a pool of applicants. This allows organizations to identify skills at the time of employment. After training employees on the job, organizations further evaluate them to test impact and improvement. This is a pretest-posttest control group research example where employees are ‘subjects’ and the training is ‘treatment’.
• Educational institutions follow the pre-experimental research design to administer exams and evaluate students at the end of a semester. Students are the dependent variables and lectures are independent. Since exams are conducted at the end and not the beginning of a semester, it’s easy to conclude that it’s a one-shot case study research.
• To evaluate the teaching methods of two teachers, they can be assigned two student groups. After teaching their respective groups on the same topic, a posttest can determine which group scored better and who is better at teaching. This method can have its drawbacks as certain human factors, such as attitudes of students and effectiveness to grasp a subject, may negatively influence results. 

Experimental research is considered a standard method that uses observations, simulations and surveys to collect data. One of its unique features is the ability to control extraneous variables and their effects. It’s a suitable method for those looking to examine the relationship between cause and effect in a field setting or in a laboratory. Although experimental research design is a scientific approach, research is not entirely a scientific process. As much as managers need to know what is experimental research , they have to apply the correct research method, depending on the aim of the study.

Harappa’s Thinking Critically program makes you more decisive and lets you think like a leader. It’s a growth-driven course for managers who want to devise and implement sound strategies, freshers looking to build a career and entrepreneurs who want to grow their business. Identify and avoid arguments, communicate decisions and rely on effective decision-making processes in uncertain times. This course teaches critical and clear thinking. It’s packed with problem-solving tools, highly impactful concepts and relatable content. Build an analytical mindset, develop your skills and reap the benefits of critical thinking with Harappa!

Explore Harappa Diaries to learn more about topics such as Main Objective Of Research , Definition Of Qualitative Research , Examples Of Experiential Learning and Collaborative Learning Strategies to upgrade your knowledge and skills.

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Original research article, learning scientific observation with worked examples in a digital learning environment.

• 1 Department Educational Sciences, Chair for Formal and Informal Learning, Technical University Munich School of Social Sciences and Technology, Munich, Germany
• 2 Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany

Science education often aims to increase learners’ acquisition of fundamental principles, such as learning the basic steps of scientific methods. Worked examples (WE) have proven particularly useful for supporting the development of such cognitive schemas and successive actions in order to avoid using up more cognitive resources than are necessary. Therefore, we investigated the extent to which heuristic WE are beneficial for supporting the acquisition of a basic scientific methodological skill—conducting scientific observation. The current study has a one-factorial, quasi-experimental, comparative research design and was conducted as a field experiment. Sixty two students of a German University learned about scientific observation steps during a course on applying a fluvial audit, in which several sections of a river were classified based on specific morphological characteristics. In the two experimental groups scientific observation was supported either via faded WE or via non-faded WE both presented as short videos. The control group did not receive support via WE. We assessed factual and applied knowledge acquisition regarding scientific observation, motivational aspects and cognitive load. The results suggest that WE promoted knowledge application: Learners from both experimental groups were able to perform the individual steps of scientific observation more accurately. Fading of WE did not show any additional advantage compared to the non-faded version in this regard. Furthermore, the descriptive results reveal higher motivation and reduced extraneous cognitive load within the experimental groups, but none of these differences were statistically significant. Our findings add to existing evidence that WE may be useful to establish scientific competences.

1 Introduction

Learning in science education frequently involves the acquisition of basic principles or generalities, whether of domain-specific topics (e.g., applying a mathematical multiplication rule) or of rather universal scientific methodologies (e.g., performing the steps of scientific observation) ( Lunetta et al., 2007 ). Previous research has shown that worked examples (WE) can be considered particularly useful for developing such cognitive schemata during learning to avoid using more cognitive resources than necessary for learning successive actions ( Renkl et al., 2004 ; Renkl, 2017 ). WE consist of the presentation of a problem, consecutive solution steps and the solution itself. This is especially advantageous in initial cognitive skill acquisition, i.e., for novice learners with low prior knowledge ( Kalyuga et al., 2001 ). With growing knowledge, fading WE can lead from example-based learning to independent problem-solving ( Renkl et al., 2002 ). Preliminary work has shown the advantage of WE in specific STEM domains like mathematics ( Booth et al., 2015 ; Barbieri et al., 2021 ), but less studies have investigated their impact on the acquisition of basic scientific competencies that involve heuristic problem-solving processes (scientific argumentation, Schworm and Renkl, 2007 ; Hefter et al., 2014 ; Koenen et al., 2017 ). In the realm of natural sciences, various basic scientific methodologies are employed to acquire knowledge, such as experimentation or scientific observation ( Wellnitz and Mayer, 2013 ). During the pursuit of knowledge through scientific inquiry activities, learners may encounter several challenges and difficulties. Similar to the hurdles faced in experimentation, where understanding the criteria for appropriate experimental design, including the development, measurement, and evaluation of results, is crucial ( Sirum and Humburg, 2011 ; Brownell et al., 2014 ; Dasgupta et al., 2014 ; Deane et al., 2014 ), scientific observation additionally presents its own set of issues. In scientific observation, e.g., the acquisition of new insights may be somewhat incidental due to spontaneous and uncoordinated observations ( Jensen, 2014 ). To address these challenges, it is crucial to provide instructional support, including the use of WE, particularly when observations are carried out in a more self-directed manner.

For this reason, the aim of the present study was to determine the usefulness of digitally presented WE to support the acquisition of a basic scientific methodological skill—conducting scientific observations—using a digital learning environment. In this regard, this study examined the effects of different forms of digitally presented WE (non-faded vs. faded) on students’ cognitive and motivational outcomes and compared them to a control group without WE. Furthermore, the combined perspective of factual and applied knowledge, as well as motivational and cognitive aspects, represent further value added to the study.

2 Theoretical background

2.1 worked examples.

WE have been commonly used in the fields of STEM education (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) ( Booth et al., 2015 ). They consist of a problem statement, the steps to solve the problem, and the solution itself ( Atkinson et al., 2000 ; Renkl et al., 2002 ; Renkl, 2014 ). The success of WE can be explained by their impact on cognitive load (CL) during learning, based on assumptions from Cognitive Load Theory ( Sweller, 2006 ).

Learning with WE is considered time-efficient, effective, and superior to problem-based learning (presentation of the problem without demonstration of solution steps) when it comes to knowledge acquisition and transfer (WE-effect, Atkinson et al., 2000 ; Van Gog et al., 2011 ). Especially WE can help by reducing the extraneous load (presentation and design of the learning material) and, in turn, can lead to an increase in germane load (effort of the learner to understand the learning material) ( Paas et al., 2003 ; Renkl, 2014 ). With regard to intrinsic load (difficulty and complexity of the learning material), it is still controversially discussed if it can be altered by instructional design, e.g., WE ( Gerjets et al., 2004 ). WE have a positive effect on learning and knowledge transfer, especially for novices, as the step-by-step presentation of the solution requires less extraneous mental effort compared to problem-based learning ( Sweller et al., 1998 ; Atkinson et al., 2000 ; Bokosmaty et al., 2015 ). With growing knowledge, WE can lose their advantages (due to the expertise-reversal effect), and scaffolding learning via faded WE might be more successful for knowledge gain and transfer ( Renkl, 2014 ). Faded WE are similar to complete WE, but fade out solution steps as knowledge and competencies grow. Faded WE enhance near-knowledge transfer and reduce errors compared to non-faded WE ( Renkl et al., 2000 ).

In addition, the reduction of intrinsic and extraneous CL by WE also has an impact on learner motivation, such as interest ( Van Gog and Paas, 2006 ). Um et al. (2012) showed that there is a strong positive correlation between germane CL and the motivational aspects of learning, like satisfaction and emotion. Gupta (2019) mentions a positive correlation between CL and interest. Van Harsel et al. (2019) found that WE positively affect learning motivation, while no such effect was found for problem-solving. Furthermore, learning with WE increases the learners’ belief in their competence in completing a task. In addition, fading WE can lead to higher motivation for more experienced learners, while non-faded WE can be particularly motivating for learners without prior knowledge ( Paas et al., 2005 ). In general, fundamental motivational aspects during the learning process, such as situational interest ( Lewalter and Knogler, 2014 ) or motivation-relevant experiences, like basic needs, are influenced by learning environments. At the same time, their use also depends on motivational characteristics of the learning process, such as self-determined motivation ( Deci and Ryan, 2012 ). Therefore, we assume that learning with WE as a relevant component of a learning environment might also influence situational interest and basic needs.

2.1.1 Presentation of worked examples

WE are frequently used in digital learning scenarios ( Renkl, 2014 ). When designing WE, the application via digital learning media can be helpful, as their content can be presented in different ways (video, audio, text, and images), tailored to the needs of the learners, so that individual use is possible according to their own prior knowledge or learning pace ( Mayer, 2001 ). Also, digital media can present relevant information in a timely, motivating, appealing and individualized way and support learning in an effective and needs-oriented way ( Mayer, 2001 ). The advantages of using digital media in designing WE have already been shown in previous studies. Dart et al. (2020) presented WE as short videos (WEV). They report that the use of WEV leads to increased student satisfaction and more positive attitudes. Approximately 90% of the students indicated an active learning approach when learning with the WEV. Furthermore, the results show that students improved their content knowledge through WEV and that they found WEV useful for other courses as well.

Another study ( Kay and Edwards, 2012 ) presented WE as video podcasts. Here, the advantages of WE regarding self-determined learning in terms of learning location, learning time, and learning speed were shown. Learning performance improved significantly after use. The step-by-step, easy-to-understand explanations, the diagrams, and the ability to determine the learning pace by oneself were seen as beneficial.

Multimedia WE can also be enhanced with self-explanation prompts ( Berthold et al., 2009 ). Learning from WE with self-explanation prompts was shown to be superior to other learning methods, such as hypertext learning and observational learning.

In addition to presenting WE in different medial ways, WE can also comprise different content domains.

2.1.2 Content and context of worked examples

Regarding the content of WE, algorithmic and heuristic WE, as well as single-content and double-content WE, can be distinguished ( Reiss et al., 2008 ; Koenen et al., 2017 ; Renkl, 2017 ). Algorithmic WE are traditionally used in the very structured mathematical–physical field. Here, an algorithm with very specific solution steps is to learn, for example, in probability calculation ( Koenen et al., 2017 ). In this study, however, we focus on heuristic double-content WE. Heuristic WE in science education comprise fundamental scientific working methods, e.g., conducting experiments ( Koenen et al., 2017 ). Furthermore, double-content WE contain two learning domains that are relevant for the learning process: (1) the learning domain describes the primarily to be learned abstract process or concept, e.g., scientific methodologies like observation (see section 2.2), while (2) the exemplifying domain consists of the content that is necessary to teach this process or concept, e.g., mapping of river structure ( Renkl et al., 2009 ).

Depending on the WE content to be learned, it may be necessary for learning to take place in different settings. This can be in a formal or informal learning setting or a non-formal field setting. In this study, the focus is on learning scientific observation (learning domain) through river structure mapping (exemplary domain), which takes place with the support of digital media in a formal (university) setting, but in an informal context (nature).

2.2 Scientific observation

Scientific observation is fundamental to all scientific activities and disciplines ( Kohlhauf et al., 2011 ). Scientific observation must be clearly distinguished from everyday observation, where observation is purely a matter of noticing and describing specific characteristics ( Chinn and Malhotra, 2001 ). In contrast to this everyday observation, scientific observation as a method of knowledge acquisition can be described as a rather complex activity, defined as the theory-based, systematic and selective perception of concrete systems and processes without any fundamental manipulation ( Wellnitz and Mayer, 2013 ). Wellnitz and Mayer (2013) described the scientific observation process via six steps: (1) formulation of the research question (s), (2) deduction of the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis, (3) planning of the research design, (4) conducting the observation, (5) analyzing the data, and (6) answering the research question(s) on this basis. Only through reliable and qualified observation, valid data can be obtained that provide solid scientific evidence ( Wellnitz and Mayer, 2013 ).

Since observation activities are not trivial and learners often observe without generating new knowledge or connecting their observations to scientific explanations and thoughts, it is important to provide support at the related cognitive level, so that observation activities can be conducted in a structured way according to pre-defined criteria ( Ford, 2005 ; Eberbach and Crowley, 2009 ). Especially during field-learning experiences, scientific observation is often spontaneous and uncoordinated, whereby random discoveries result in knowledge gain ( Jensen, 2014 ).

To promote successful observing in rather unstructured settings like field trips, instructional support for the observation process seems useful. To guide observation activities, digitally presented WE seem to be an appropriate way to introduce learners to the individual steps of scientific observation using concrete examples.

2.3 Research questions and hypothesis

The present study investigates the effect of digitally presented double-content WE that supports the mapping of a small Bavarian river by demonstrating the steps of scientific observation. In this analysis, we focus on the learning domain of the WE and do not investigate the exemplifying domain in detail. Distinct ways of integrating WE in the digital learning environment (faded WE vs. non-faded WE) are compared with each other and with a control group (no WE). The aim is to examine to what extent differences between those conditions exist with regard to (RQ1) learners’ competence acquisition [acquisition of factual knowledge about the scientific observation method (quantitative data) and practical application of the scientific observation method (quantified qualitative data)], (RQ2) learners’ motivation (situational interest and basic needs), and (RQ3) CL. It is assumed that (Hypothesis 1), the integration of WE (faded and non-faded) leads to significantly higher competence acquisition (factual and applied knowledge), significantly higher motivation and significantly lower extraneous CL as well as higher germane CL during the learning process compared to a learning environment without WE. No differences between the conditions are expected regarding intrinsic CL. Furthermore, it is assumed (Hypothesis 2) that the integration of faded WE leads to significantly higher competence acquisition, significantly higher motivation, and lower extraneous CL as well as higher germane CL during the learning processes compared to non-faded WE. No differences between the conditions are expected with regard to intrinsic CL.

The study took place during the field trips of a university course on the application of a fluvial audit (FA) using the German working aid for mapping the morphology of rivers and their floodplains ( Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt, 2019 ). FA is the leading fluvial geomorphological tool for application to data collection contiguously along all watercourses of interest ( Walker et al., 2007 ). It is widely used because it is a key example of environmental conservation and monitoring that needs to be taught to students of selected study programs; thus, knowing about the most effective ways of learning is of high practical relevance.

3.1 Sample and design

3.1.1 sample.

The study was conducted with 62 science students and doctoral students of a German University (age M  = 24.03 years; SD  = 4.20; 36 females; 26 males). A total of 37 participants had already conducted a scientific observation and would rate their knowledge in this regard at a medium level ( M  = 3.32 out of 5; SD  = 0.88). Seven participants had already conducted an FA and would rate their knowledge in this regard at a medium level ( M  = 3.14 out of 5; SD  = 0.90). A total of 25 participants had no experience at all. Two participants had to be excluded from the sample afterward because no posttest results were available.

3.1.2 Design

The study has a 1-factorial quasi-experimental comparative research design and is conducted as a field experiment using a pre/posttest design. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no WE ( n  = 20), faded WE ( n  = 20), and non-faded WE ( n  = 20).

3.2 Implementation and material

3.2.1 implementation.

The study started with an online kick-off meeting where two lecturers informed all students within an hour about the basics regarding the assessment of the structural integrity of the study river and the course of the field trip days to conduct an FA. Afterward, within 2 weeks, students self-studied via Moodle the FA following the German standard method according to the scoresheets of Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt (2019) . This independent preparation using the online presented documents was a necessary prerequisite for participation in the field days and was checked in the pre-testing. The preparatory online documents included six short videos and four PDF files on the content, guidance on the German protocol of the FA, general information on river landscapes, information about anthropogenic changes in stream morphology and the scoresheets for applying the FA. In these sheets, the river and its floodplain are subdivided into sections of 100 m in length. Each of these sections is evaluated by assessing 21 habitat factors related to flow characteristics and structural variability. The findings are then transferred into a scoring system for the description of structural integrity from 1 (natural) to 7 (highly modified). Habitat factors have a decisive influence on the living conditions of animals and plants in and around rivers. They included, e.g., variability in water depth, stream width, substratum diversity, or diversity of flow velocities.

3.2.2 Materials

On the field trip days, participants were handed a tablet and a paper-based FA worksheet (last accessed 21st September 2022). 1 This four-page assessment sheet was accompanied by a digital learning environment presented on Moodle that instructed the participants on mapping the water body structure and guided the scientific observation method. All three Moodle courses were identical in structure and design; the only difference was the implementation of the WE. Below, the course without WE are described first. The other two courses have an identical structure, but contain additional WE in the form of learning videos.

3.2.3 No worked example

After a short welcome and introduction to the course navigation, the FA started with the description of a short hypothetical scenario: Participants should take the role of an employee of an urban planning office that assesses the ecomorphological status of a small river near a Bavarian city. The river was divided into five sections that had to be mapped separately. The course was structured accordingly. At the beginning of each section, participants had to formulate and write down a research question, and according to hypotheses regarding the ecomorphological status of the river’s section, they had to collect data in this regard via the mapping sheet and then evaluate their data and draw a conclusion. Since this course serves as a control group, no WE videos supporting the scientific observation method were integrated. The layout of the course is structured like a book, where it is not possible to scroll back. This is important insofar as the participants do not have the possibility to revisit information in order to keep the conditions comparable as well as distinguishable.

3.2.4 Non-faded worked example

In the course with no-faded WE, three instructional videos are shown for each of the five sections. In each of the three videos, two steps of the scientific observation method are presented so that, finally, all six steps of scientific observation are demonstrated. The mapping of the first section starts after the general introduction (as described above) with the instruction to work on the first two steps of scientific observation: the formulation of a research question and hypotheses. To support this, a video of about 4 min explains the features of scientific sound research questions and hypotheses. To this aim, a practical example, including explanations and tips, is given regarding the formulation of research questions and hypotheses for this section (e.g., “To what extent does the building development and the closeness of the path to the water body have an influence on the structure of the water body?” Alternative hypothesis: It is assumed that the housing development and the closeness of the path to the water body have a negative influence on the water body structure. Null hypothesis: It is assumed that the housing development and the closeness of the path to the watercourse have no negative influence on the watercourse structure.). Participants should now formulate their own research questions and hypotheses, write them down in a text field at the end of the page, and then skip to the next page. The next two steps of scientific observation, planning and conducting, are explained in a short 4-min video. To this aim, a practical example including explanations and tips is given regarding planning and conducting scientific for this section (e.g., “It’s best to go through each evaluation category carefully one by one that way you are sure not to forget anything!”). Now, participants were asked to collect data for the first section using their paper-based FA worksheet. Participants individually surveyed the river and reported their results in the mapping sheet by ticking the respective boxes in it. After collecting this data, they returned to the digital learning environment to learn how to use these data by studying the last two steps of scientific observation, evaluation, and conclusion. The third 4-min video explained how to evaluate and interpret collected data. For this purpose, a practical example with explanations and tips is given regarding evaluating and interpreting data for this section (e.g., “What were the individual points that led to the assessment? Have there been points that were weighted more than others? Remember the introduction video!”). At the end of the page, participants could answer their before-stated research questions and hypotheses by evaluating their collected data and drawing a conclusion. This brings participants to the end of the first mapping section. Afterward, the cycle begins again with the second section of the river that has to be mapped. Again, participants had to conduct the steps of scientific observation, guided by WE videos, explaining the steps in slightly different wording or with different examples. A total of five sections are mapped, in which the structure of the learning environment and the videos follow the same procedure.

3.2.5 Faded worked example

The digital learning environment with the faded WE follow the same structure as the version with the non-faded WE. However, in this version, the information in the WE videos is successively reduced. In the first section, all three videos are identical to the version with the non-faded WE. In the second section, faded content was presented as follows: the tip at the end was omitted in all three videos. In the third section, the tip and the practical example were omitted. In the fourth and fifth sections, no more videos were presented, only the work instructions.

3.3 Procedure

The data collection took place on four continuous days on the university campus, with a maximum group size of 15 participants on each day. The students were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions (no WE vs. faded WE vs. non-faded WE). After a short introduction to the procedure, the participants were handed the paper-based FA worksheet and one tablet per person. Students scanned the QR code on the first page of the worksheet that opened the pretest questionnaire, which took about 20 min to complete. After completing the questionnaire, the group walked for about 15 min to the nearby small river that was to be mapped. Upon arrival, there was first a short introduction to the digital learning environment and a check that the login (via university account on Moodle) worked. During the next 4 h, the participants individually mapped five segments of the river using the cartography worksheet. They were guided through the steps of scientific observation using the digital learning environment on the tablet. The results of their scientific observation were logged within the digital learning environment. At the end of the digital learning environment, participants were directed to the posttest via a link. After completing the test, the tablets and mapping sheets were returned. Overall, the study took about 5 h per group each day.

3.4 Instruments

In the pretest, sociodemographic data (age and gender), the study domain and the number of study semesters were collected. Additionally, the previous scientific observation experience and the estimation of one’s own ability in this regard were assessed. For example, it was asked whether scientific observation had already been conducted and, if so, how the abilities were rated on a 5-point scale from very low to very high. Preparation for the FA on the basis of the learning material was assessed: Participants were asked whether they had studied all six videos and all four PDF documents, with the response options not at all, partially, and completely. Furthermore, a factual knowledge test about scientific observation and questions about self-determination theory was administered. The posttest used the same knowledge test, and additional questions on basic needs, situational interest, measures of CL and questions about the usefulness of the WE. All scales were presented online, and participants reached the questionnaire via QR code.

3.4.1 Scientific observation competence acquisition

For the factual knowledge (quantitative assessment of the scientific observation competence), a single-choice knowledge test with 12 questions was developed and used as pre- and posttest with a maximum score of 12 points. It assesses the learners’ knowledge of the scientific observation method regarding the steps of scientific observation, e.g., formulating research questions and hypotheses or developing a research design. The questions are based on Wahser (2008 , adapted by Koenen, 2014 ) and adapted to scientific observation: “Although you are sure that you have conducted the scientific observation correctly, an unexpected result turns up. What conclusion can you draw?” Each question has four answer options (one of which is correct) and, in addition, one “I do not know” option.

For the applied knowledge (quantified qualitative assessment of the scientific observation competence), students’ scientific observations written in the digital learning environment were analyzed. A coding scheme was used with the following codes: 0 = insufficient (text field is empty or includes only insufficient key points), 1 = sufficient (a research question and no hypotheses or research question and inappropriate hypotheses are stated), 2 = comprehensive (research question and appropriate hypothesis or research question and hypotheses are stated, but, e.g., incorrect null hypothesis), 3 = very comprehensive (correct research question, hypothesis and null hypothesis are stated). One example of a very comprehensive answer regarding the research question and hypothesis is: To what extent does the lack of riparian vegetation have an impact on water body structure? Hypothesis: The lack of shore vegetation has a negative influence on the water body structure. Null hypothesis: The lack of shore vegetation has no influence on the water body structure. Afterward, a sum score was calculated for each participant. Five times, a research question and hypotheses (steps 1 and 2 in the observation process) had to be formulated (5 × max. 3 points = 15 points), and five times, the research questions and hypotheses had to be answered (steps 5 and 6 in the observation process: evaluation and conclusion) (5 × max. 3 points = 15 points). Overall, participants could reach up to 30 points. Since the observation and evaluation criteria in data collection and analysis were strongly predetermined by the scoresheet, steps 3 and 4 of the observation process (planning and conducting) were not included in the analysis.

All 600 cases (60 participants, each 10 responses to code) were coded by the first author. For verification, 240 cases (24 randomly selected participants, eight from each course) were cross-coded by an external coder. In 206 of the coded cases, the raters agreed. The cases in which the raters did not agree were discussed together, and a solution was found. This results in Cohen’s κ = 0.858, indicating a high to very high level of agreement. This indicates that the category system is clearly formulated and that the individual units of analysis could be correctly assigned.

3.4.2 Self-determination index

For the calculation of the self-determination index (SDI-index), Thomas and Müller (2011) scale for self-determination was used in the pretest. The scale consists of four subscales: intrinsic motivation (five items; e.g., I engage with the workshop content because I enjoy it; reliability of alpha = 0.87), identified motivation (four items; e.g., I engage with the workshop content because it gives me more options when choosing a career; alpha = 0.84), introjected motivation (five items; e.g., I engage with the workshop content because otherwise I would have a guilty feeling; alpha = 0.79), and external motivation (three items, e.g., I engage with the workshop content because I simply have to learn it; alpha = 0.74). Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree. To calculate the SDI-index, the sum of the self-determined regulation styles (intrinsic and identified) is subtracted from the sum of the external regulation styles (introjected and external), where intrinsic and external regulation are scored two times ( Thomas and Müller, 2011 ).

3.4.3 Motivation

Basic needs were measured in the posttest with the scale by Willems and Lewalter (2011) . The scale consists of three subscales: perceived competence (four items; e.g., during the workshop, I felt that I could meet the requirements; alpha = 0.90), perceived autonomy (five items; e.g., during the workshop, I felt that I had a lot of freedom; alpha = 0.75), and perceived autonomy regarding personal wishes and goals (APWG) (four items; e.g., during the workshop, I felt that the workshop was how I wish it would be; alpha = 0.93). We added all three subscales to one overall basic needs scale (alpha = 0.90). Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree.

Situational interest was measured in the posttest with the 12-item scale by Lewalter and Knogler (2014 ; Knogler et al., 2015 ; Lewalter, 2020 ; alpha = 0.84). The scale consists of two subscales: catch (six items; e.g., I found the workshop exciting; alpha = 0.81) and hold (six items; e.g., I would like to learn more about parts of the workshop; alpha = 0.80). Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree.

3.4.4 Cognitive load

In the posttest, CL was used to examine the mental load during the learning process. The intrinsic CL (three items; e.g., this task was very complex; alpha = 0.70) and extraneous CL (three items; e.g., in this task, it is difficult to identify the most important information; alpha = 0.61) are measured with the scales from Klepsch et al. (2017) . The germane CL (two items; e.g., the learning session contained elements that supported me to better understand the learning material; alpha = 0.72) is measured with the scale from Leppink et al. (2013) . Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree.

3.4.5 Attitudes toward worked examples

To measure how effective participants rated the WE, we used two scales related to the WE videos as instructional support. The first scale from Renkl (2001) relates to the usefulness of WE. The scale consists of four items (e.g., the explanations were helpful; alpha = 0.71). Two items were recoded because they were formulated negatively. The second scale is from Wachsmuth (2020) and relates to the participant’s evaluation of the WE. The scale consists of nine items (e.g., I always did what was explained in the learning videos; alpha = 0.76). Four items were recoded because they were formulated negatively. Participants could indicate their answers on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree.

3.5 Data analysis

An ANOVA was used to calculate if the variable’s prior knowledge and SDI index differed between the three groups. However, as no significant differences between the conditions were found [prior factual knowledge: F (2, 59) = 0.15, p  = 0.865, η 2  = 0.00 self-determination index: F (2, 59) = 0.19, p  = 0.829, η 2  = 0.00], they were not included as covariates in subsequent analyses.

Furthermore, a repeated measure, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), was conducted to compare the three treatment groups (no WE vs. faded WE vs. non-faded WE) regarding the increase in factual knowledge about the scientific observation method from pretest to posttest.

A MANOVA (multivariate analysis) was calculated with the three groups (no WE vs. non-faded WE vs. faded WE) as a fixed factor and the dependent variables being the practical application of the scientific observation method (first research question), situational interest, basic needs (second research question), and CL (third research question).

Additionally, to determine differences in applied knowledge even among the three groups, Bonferroni-adjusted post-hoc analyses were conducted.

The descriptive statistics between the three groups in terms of prior factual knowledge about the scientific observation method and the self-determination index are shown in Table 1 . The descriptive statistics revealed only small, non-significant differences between the three groups in terms of factual knowledge.

Table 1 . Means (standard deviations) of factual knowledge tests (pre- and posttest) and self-determination index for the three different groups.

The results of the ANOVA revealed that the overall increase in factual knowledge from pre- to posttest just misses significance [ F (1, 57) = 3.68, p  = 0.060, η 2  = 0 0.06]. Furthermore, no significant differences between the groups were found regarding the acquisition of factual knowledge from pre- to posttest [ F (2, 57) = 2.93, p  = 0.062, η 2  = 0.09].

An analysis of the descriptive statistics showed that the largest differences between the groups were found in applied knowledge (qualitative evaluation) and extraneous load (see Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Means (standard deviations) of dependent variables with the three different groups.

Results of the MANOVA revealed significant overall differences between the three groups [ F (12, 106) = 2.59, p  = 0.005, η 2  = 0.23]. Significant effects were found for the application of knowledge [ F (2, 57) = 13.26, p  = <0.001, η 2  = 0.32]. Extraneous CL just missed significance [ F (2, 57) = 2.68, p  = 0.065, η 2  = 0.09]. There were no significant effects for situational interest [ F (2, 57) = 0.44, p  = 0.644, η 2  = 0.02], basic needs [ F (2, 57) = 1.22, p  = 0.302, η 2  = 0.04], germane CL [ F (2, 57) = 2.68, p  = 0.077, η 2  = 0.09], and intrinsic CL [ F (2, 57) = 0.28, p  = 0.757, η 2  = 0.01].

Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc analysis revealed that the group without WE had significantly lower scores in the evaluation of the applied knowledge than the group with non-faded WE ( p  = <0.001, M diff  = −8.90, 95% CI [−13.47, −4.33]) and then the group with faded WE ( p  = <0.001, M diff  = −7.40, 95% CI [−11.97, −2.83]). No difference was found between the groups with faded and non-faded WE ( p  = 1.00, M diff  = −1.50, 95% CI [−6.07, 3.07]).

The descriptive statistics regarding the perceived usefulness of WE and participants’ evaluation of the WE revealed that the group with the faded WE rated usefulness slightly higher than the participants with non-faded WE and also reported a more positive evaluation. However, the results of a MANOVA revealed no significant overall differences [ F (2, 37) = 0.32, p  = 0.732, η 2  = 0 0.02] (see Table 3 ).

Table 3 . Means (standard deviations) of dependent variables with the three different groups.

5 Discussion

This study investigated the use of WE to support students’ acquisition of science observation. Below, the research questions are answered, and the implications and limitations of the study are discussed.

5.1 Results on factual and applied knowledge

In terms of knowledge gain (RQ1), our findings revealed no significant differences in participants’ results of the factual knowledge test both across all three groups and specifically between the two experimental groups. These results are in contradiction with related literature where WE had a positive impact on knowledge acquisition ( Renkl, 2014 ) and faded WE are considered to be more effective in knowledge acquisition and transfer, in contrast to non-faded WE ( Renkl et al., 2000 ; Renkl, 2014 ). A limitation of the study is the fact that the participants already scored very high on the pretest, so participation in the intervention would likely not yield significant knowledge gains due to ceiling effects ( Staus et al., 2021 ). Yet, nearly half of the students reported being novices in the field prior to the study, suggesting that the difficulty of some test items might have been too low. Here, it would be important to revise the factual knowledge test, e.g., the difficulty of the distractors in further study.

Nevertheless, with regard to application knowledge, the results revealed large significant differences: Participants of the two experimental groups performed better in conducting scientific observation steps than participants of the control group. In the experimental groups, the non-faded WE group performed better than the faded WE group. However, the absence of significant differences between the two experimental groups suggests that faded and non-faded WE used as double-content WE are suitable to teach applied knowledge about scientific observation in the learning domain ( Koenen, 2014 ). Furthermore, our results differ from the findings of Renkl et al. (2000) , in which the faded version led to the highest knowledge transfer. Despite the fact that the non-faded WE performed best in our study, the faded version of the WE was also appropriate to improve learning, confirming the findings of Renkl (2014) and Hesser and Gregory (2015) .

5.2 Results on learners’ motivation

Regarding participants’ motivation (RQ2; situational interest and basic needs), no significant differences were found across all three groups or between the two experimental groups. However, descriptive results reveal slightly higher motivation in the two experimental groups than in the control group. In this regard, our results confirm existing literature on a descriptive level showing that WE lead to higher learning-relevant motivation ( Paas et al., 2005 ; Van Harsel et al., 2019 ). Additionally, both experimental groups rated the usefulness of the WE as high and reported a positive evaluation of the WE. Therefore, we assume that even non-faded WE do not lead to over-instruction. Regarding the descriptive tendency, a larger sample might yield significant results and detect even small effects in future investigations. However, because this study also focused on comprehensive qualitative data analysis, it was not possible to evaluate a larger sample in this study.

5.3 Results on cognitive load

Finally, CL did not vary significantly across all three groups (RQ3). However, differences in extraneous CL just slightly missed significance. In descriptive values, the control group reported the highest extrinsic and lowest germane CL. The faded WE group showed the lowest extrinsic CL and a similar germane CL as the non-faded WE group. These results are consistent with Paas et al. (2003) and Renkl (2014) , reporting that WE can help to reduce the extraneous CL and, in return, lead to an increase in germane CL. Again, these differences were just above the significance level, and it would be advantageous to retest with a larger sample to detect even small effects.

Taken together, our results only partially confirm H1: the integration of WE (both faded and non-faded WE) led to a higher acquisition of application knowledge than the control group without WE, but higher factual knowledge was not found. Furthermore, higher motivation or different CL was found on a descriptive level only. The control group provided the basis for comparison with the treatment in order to investigate if there is an effect at all and, if so, how large the effect is. This is an important point to assess whether the effort of implementing WE is justified. Additionally, regarding H2, our results reveal no significant differences between the two WE conditions. We assume that the high complexity of the FA could play a role in this regard, which might be hard to handle, especially for beginners, so learners could benefit from support throughout (i.e., non-faded WE).

In addition to the limitations already mentioned, it must be noted that only one exemplary topic was investigated, and the sample only consisted of students. Since only the learning domain of the double-content WE was investigated, the exemplifying domain could also be analyzed, or further variables like motivation could be included in further studies. Furthermore, the influence of learners’ prior knowledge on learning with WE could be investigated, as studies have found that WE are particularly beneficial in the initial acquisition of cognitive skills ( Kalyuga et al., 2001 ).

6 Conclusion

Overall, the results of the current study suggest a beneficial role for WE in supporting the application of scientific observation steps. A major implication of these findings is that both faded and non-faded WE should be considered, as no general advantage of faded WE over non-faded WE was found. This information can be used to develop targeted interventions aimed at the support of scientific observation skills.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical approval was not required for the study involving human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent to participate in this study was not required from the participants in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

ML: Writing – original draft. SM: Writing – review & editing. JP: Writing – review & editing. JG: Writing – review & editing. DL: Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2024.1293516/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: digital media, worked examples, scientific observation, motivation, cognitive load

Citation: Lechner M, Moser S, Pander J, Geist J and Lewalter D (2024) Learning scientific observation with worked examples in a digital learning environment. Front. Educ . 9:1293516. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1293516

Received: 13 September 2023; Accepted: 29 February 2024; Published: 18 March 2024.

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*Correspondence: Miriam Lechner, [email protected]