length of research abstract

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

Academic and Professional Writing

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 3. The Abstract
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
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• Academic Writing Style
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• Theoretical Framework
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• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• How to Write an Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

OASIS: Writing Center

Writing for publication: abstracts.

An abstract is "a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the paper" (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020, p. 38). This summary is intended to share the topic, argument, and conclusions of a research study or course paper, similar to the text on the back cover of a book. When submitting your work for publication, an abstract is often the first piece of your writing a reviewer will encounter. An abstract may not be required for course papers.

Read on for more tips on making a good first impression with a successful abstract.

An abstract is a single paragraph preceded by the heading " Abstract ," centered and in bold font. The abstract does not begin with an indented line. APA (2020) recommends that abstracts should generally be less than 250 words, though many journals have their own word limits; it is always a good idea to check journal-specific requirements before submitting. The Writing Center's APA templates are great resources for visual examples of abstracts.

Abstracts use the present tense to describe currently applicable results (e.g., "Results indicate...") and the past tense to describe research steps (e.g., "The survey measured..."), and they do not typically include citations.

Key terms are sometimes included at the end of the abstract and should be chosen by considering the words or phrases that a reader might use to search for your article.

An abstract should include information such as

• The problem or central argument of your article
• A brief exposition of research design, methods, and procedures.
• A brief summary of your findings
• A brief summary of the implications of the research on practice and theory

It is also appropriate, depending on the type of article you are writing, to include information such as:

• Participant number and type
• Study eligibility criteria
• Limitations of your study
• Implications of your study's conclusions or areas for additional research

Your abstract should avoid unnecessary wordiness and focus on quickly and concisely summarizing the major points of your work. An abstract is not an introduction; you are not trying to capture the reader's attention with timeliness or to orient the reader to the entire background of your study. When readers finish reading your abstract, they should have a strong sense of your article's purpose, approach, and conclusions. The Walden Office of Research and Doctoral Services has additional  tutorial material on abstracts .

Clinical or Empirical Study Abstract Exemplar

In the following abstract, the article's problem is stated in red , the approach and design are in blue , and the results are in green .

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients have a high cardiovascular mortality rate. Precise estimates of the prevalence, risk factors and prognosis of different manifestations of cardiac disease are unavailable. In this study a prospective cohort of 433 ESRD patients was followed from the start of ESRD therapy for a mean of 41 months. Baseline clinical assessment and echocardiography were performed on all patients.  The major outcome measure was death while on dialysis therapy. Clinical manifestations of cardiovascular disease were highly prevalent at the start of ESRD therapy: 14% had coronary artery disease, 19% angina pectoris, 31% cardiac failure, 7% dysrhythmia and 8% peripheral vascular disease. On echocardiography 15% had systolic dysfunction, 32% left ventricular dilatation and 74% left ventricular hypertrophy. The overall median survival time was 50 months. Age, diabetes mellitus, cardiac failure, peripheral vascular disease and systolic dysfunction independently predicted death in all time frames. Coronary artery disease was associated with a worse prognosis in patients with cardiac failure at baseline. High left ventricular cavity volume and mass index were independently associated with death after two years. The independent associations of the different echocardiographic abnormalities were: systolic dysfunction--older age and coronary artery disease; left ventricular dilatation--male gender, anemia, hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia; left ventricular hypertrophy--older age, female gender, wide arterial pulse pressure, low blood urea and hypoalbuminemia. We conclude that clinical and echocardiographic cardiovascular disease are already present in a very high proportion of patients starting ESRD therapy and are independent mortality factors.

Foley, R. N., Parfrey, P. S., Harnett, J. D., Kent, G. M., Martin, C. J., Murray, D. C., & Barre, P. E. (1995). Clinical and echocardiographic disease in patients starting end-stage renal disease therapy. Kidney International , 47 , 186–192. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1995.22

Literature Review Abstract Exemplar

In the following abstract, the purpose and scope of the literature review are in red , the specific span of topics is in blue , and the implications for further research are in green .

This paper provides a review of research into the relationships between psychological types, as measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and managerial attributes, behaviors and effectiveness. The literature review includes an examination of the psychometric properties of the MBTI and the contributions and limitations of research on psychological types. Next, key findings are discussed and used to advance propositions that relate psychological type to diverse topics such as risk tolerance, problem solving, information systems design, conflict management and leadership. We conclude with a research agenda that advocates: (a) the exploration of potential psychometric refinements of the MBTI, (b) more rigorous research designs, and (c) a broadening of the scope of managerial research into type.

Gardner, W. L., & Martinko, M. J. (1996). Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to study managers: A literature review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 22 (1), 45–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639602200103

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Home » Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How Long Should an Abstract Be? Word Count & Length

The abstract is perhaps the most important section of your research paper. Apart from the title, it may be the only part of the paper anyone reads. Whether they read further  depends in part on how good an impression your abstract makes .

The abstract may also be the only part of your paper that has a word limit. Most word limits specify a maximum of  between 250 and 300 words , and some journals require that abstracts be as short as 150 words. Writing a great abstract is almost an art—but writing an abstract that meets word limits is, well, a  science .

 Why do journals impose abstract word limits?

There are several reasons your abstract needs to be short and concise. Journals want readers to buy your article, and they want other researchers to cite your study in their own articles. More citations means a higher impact factor for the journal. The best way to sell your study is to grab the reader’s attention with a great title and abstract. Finally, there is the issue of space. Journals want your abstract to fit on half a page so that a reader won’t have to scroll to read all of it.

When it comes to abstracts, less is more. Only essential information needs to be presented. A short, powerful abstract will draw readers into your research and help the journal attract more readers and receive more citations. The trick is how to trim your abstract to get under the word limit. Here are some time- and researcher-tested ways to pull that off.

Omit Needless Words and Adverbs

In their acclaimed guide to English writing,  The Elements of Style , William Strunk, Jr, and E. B. White teach the key to meeting abstract word limits: Omit needless words. Many writers, especially academic writers, pepper their writing with words that simply don’t need to be there.

A “hedge” is a word or phrase you use when you are concerned about making a claim instead of stating a fact. It’s always a good idea to be careful, especially in academic writing, but many authors use hedge words when they don’t need to. Among the most overused hedge words are the verbs “seem” and “appear.” In the examples below, you’ll see why taking away the hedge words does not alter the meaning.

Hedge : Maroney syndrome  seems   to impair quality of life. No Hedge : Maroney syndrome  impairs   quality of life.

Hedge : Ibuprofen  appears   to diminish pain in most patients. No Hedge : Ibuprofen  diminishes   pain in most patients.

In both pairs, the first and second sentences have essentially the same meaning, except that the second sentence omits the hedge word. Notice how the second examples are more powerful and straightforward without this extra verbiage.

Cutting out needless adverbs is another easy way to limit the number of words in an abstract.

With needless adverbs : We  slowly and carefully  dissected the vagus nerve. Without needless adverbs : We dissected the vagus nerve.

By definition, “dissection” is slow and careful (or  should  be!). Removing the needless adverbs “slowly” and “carefully’ leaves you with a sentence with the same meaning and three fewer words. Same your adverbs for situations in which they truly impact the meaning or have an impact on the reader or interpretation.

Remove Awkward and Unnecessary Transitions

Conjunctive adverbs are better known as “ transition terms ,” and although they can be very useful in creating structure and flow within the body of a paper, in the abstract they are often redundant or even incorrectly used. Among the more commonly used conjunctive adverbs are: however, moreover, therefore, furthermore, additionally, and thus.

The conjunction “moreover” is perhaps the most commonly used needless adverb in scientific papers. Some writers use it because they believe it makes them sound more “academic.” Others use it because they may know that it’s a grammatical faux-pas to start a sentence with the conjunction “And.” Nevertheless, “moreover” can virtually  always  be removed from a sentence without altering the meaning. Watch what happens when we remove the word “moreover from these sentences.

With a transition :  Moreover , we dissected the vagus nerve. Without a transition : We dissected the vagus nerve.

In the instance above, “moreover” does not really make sense as a transition term. Even other transition terms (furthermore, therefore, in addition, etc.) would be somewhat unnecessary when discussing how the study or experiment was performed.

With a transition :  Furthermore , patients with Boney-Maroney syndrome are likely to experience hot flashes and fatigue. Without a transition : Patients with Boney-Maroney syndrome are likely to experience hot flashes and fatigue.

Note that these two sentences have exactly the same meaning with and without the transition term “furthermore.”  These transitions can be much more useful in the longer sections of the paper’s body, especially in the Introduction and Discussion/Conclusion sections.

Use the Active Voice Instead of Passive Voice

One way to shorten your abstract is to apply a rule you might have learned in primary school: use active voice instead of passive voice . In active voice constructions, the subject carries the action. In passive voice, the subject is acted upon, usually by an unnamed actor. Scientists seem to be in love with the passive voice, as it can be found in many papers, simply adding to the word count and making the writing less engaging. Because of this longstanding convention, many believe it makes them sound more “scientific.” Others shun active voice because they feel as though it is too personal. That is a shame. Your sentences will often sound more convincing and powerful in active voice, as the following examples demonstrate:

Passive voice : Pituitary cells  were grown  in dishes that had been subjected to irradiation (12 words). Active voice :  We grew  pituitary cells in irradiated dishes (7 words). Passive voice : Three-hundred and forty-five patients  who had undergone  ovariectomy at our institution  were enrolled  in the present study (17 words). Active voice :  We enrolled   345 patients whom we had ovariectomized (eight words).

Remember, studies don’t conduct themselves;  scientists  conduct studies. Avoid using the passive voice in the abstract—save it for the Methods section!

Do not Include Statistical Methods or Findings in the Abstract

Most scientific articles include statistics. Usually, the statistical methods are described in detail in the Methods section of a paper. But many authors feel compelled for some reason to mention statistics in the abstract, perhaps to get the details out first. But unless your paper is primarily about statistics, it is best to keep statistics out of the abstract and stick to language that expresses the most important use and findings of the study. Not only do statistics add to your word count, but they also interrupt the flow of your argument. You certainly do not need to tell the reader what statistical tests you used or the version of the statistics program you used—that is what the Methods section is for. And never go into detail about EXACTLY which findings your study yielded—that is what the Results section is for.

Consent, Approval, and Other Info That Doesn’t Belong in an Abstract

Some authors place information about patient consent and institutional review board approval in the abstract. Whereas this information is indeed essential, it is not necessary to put it in the abstract. Like statistics, consent and approval statements interrupt the flow of your argument. Readers expect to find information about consent and approval in the Methods section. Leaving this out of your abstract will certainly free up your space to describe the importance of your study.

Abstract Word Limits Are not Targets

Keep in mind that a limit of 250 words does not mean that you should attempt to come as close as possible to the limit. The best abstracts include all essential information well before reaching word limit. Use the above tips to help you create a leaner, tighter abstract that will hook readers and entice them to read your full study.

For more helpful suggestions on academic and research writing, check out the links below or visit the Wordvice Academic Resources page. And be sure to receive professional  English editing services , including  paper editing services , for your journal manuscript before submitting it to journal editors.

Wordvice Resources

• Writing the Results Section for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Literature Review
• Research Writing Tips: How to Draft a Powerful Discussion Section
• How to Captivate Journal Readers with a Strong Introduction
• Tips That Will Make Your Abstract a Success!
• APA In-Text Citation Guide for Research Writing
•   “Abstract Guide for Research Papers.”  (Academic Conferences and Publishing International Limited)
• “How many words should be in the abstract?”  (Research Gate)
• Strunk and White.  The Elements of Style. ( PDF)
• “Organizing Your Social Science Research Paper: The Abstract.”  (USC Libraries)

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Writing the title and abstract for a research paper: Being concise, precise, and meticulous is the key

Milind s. tullu.

Department of Pediatrics, Seth G.S. Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

This article deals with formulating a suitable title and an appropriate abstract for an original research paper. The “title” and the “abstract” are the “initial impressions” of a research article, and hence they need to be drafted correctly, accurately, carefully, and meticulously. Often both of these are drafted after the full manuscript is ready. Most readers read only the title and the abstract of a research paper and very few will go on to read the full paper. The title and the abstract are the most important parts of a research paper and should be pleasant to read. The “title” should be descriptive, direct, accurate, appropriate, interesting, concise, precise, unique, and should not be misleading. The “abstract” needs to be simple, specific, clear, unbiased, honest, concise, precise, stand-alone, complete, scholarly, (preferably) structured, and should not be misrepresentative. The abstract should be consistent with the main text of the paper, especially after a revision is made to the paper and should include the key message prominently. It is very important to include the most important words and terms (the “keywords”) in the title and the abstract for appropriate indexing purpose and for retrieval from the search engines and scientific databases. Such keywords should be listed after the abstract. One must adhere to the instructions laid down by the target journal with regard to the style and number of words permitted for the title and the abstract.

Introduction

This article deals with drafting a suitable “title” and an appropriate “abstract” for an original research paper. Because the “title” and the “abstract” are the “initial impressions” or the “face” of a research article, they need to be drafted correctly, accurately, carefully, meticulously, and consume time and energy.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ] Often, these are drafted after the complete manuscript draft is ready.[ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 9 , 10 , 11 ] Most readers will read only the title and the abstract of a published research paper, and very few “interested ones” (especially, if the paper is of use to them) will go on to read the full paper.[ 1 , 2 ] One must remember to adhere to the instructions laid down by the “target journal” (the journal for which the author is writing) regarding the style and number of words permitted for the title and the abstract.[ 2 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 12 ] Both the title and the abstract are the most important parts of a research paper – for editors (to decide whether to process the paper for further review), for reviewers (to get an initial impression of the paper), and for the readers (as these may be the only parts of the paper available freely and hence, read widely).[ 4 , 8 , 12 ] It may be worth for the novice author to browse through titles and abstracts of several prominent journals (and their target journal as well) to learn more about the wording and styles of the titles and abstracts, as well as the aims and scope of the particular journal.[ 5 , 7 , 9 , 13 ]

The details of the title are discussed under the subheadings of importance, types, drafting, and checklist.

Importance of the title

When a reader browses through the table of contents of a journal issue (hard copy or on website), the title is the “ first detail” or “face” of the paper that is read.[ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 13 ] Hence, it needs to be simple, direct, accurate, appropriate, specific, functional, interesting, attractive/appealing, concise/brief, precise/focused, unambiguous, memorable, captivating, informative (enough to encourage the reader to read further), unique, catchy, and it should not be misleading.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 12 ] It should have “just enough details” to arouse the interest and curiosity of the reader so that the reader then goes ahead with studying the abstract and then (if still interested) the full paper.[ 1 , 2 , 4 , 13 ] Journal websites, electronic databases, and search engines use the words in the title and abstract (the “keywords”) to retrieve a particular paper during a search; hence, the importance of these words in accessing the paper by the readers has been emphasized.[ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 12 , 14 ] Such important words (or keywords) should be arranged in appropriate order of importance as per the context of the paper and should be placed at the beginning of the title (rather than the later part of the title, as some search engines like Google may just display only the first six to seven words of the title).[ 3 , 5 , 12 ] Whimsical, amusing, or clever titles, though initially appealing, may be missed or misread by the busy reader and very short titles may miss the essential scientific words (the “keywords”) used by the indexing agencies to catch and categorize the paper.[ 1 , 3 , 4 , 9 ] Also, amusing or hilarious titles may be taken less seriously by the readers and may be cited less often.[ 4 , 15 ] An excessively long or complicated title may put off the readers.[ 3 , 9 ] It may be a good idea to draft the title after the main body of the text and the abstract are drafted.[ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]

Types of titles

Titles can be descriptive, declarative, or interrogative. They can also be classified as nominal, compound, or full-sentence titles.

Descriptive or neutral title

This has the essential elements of the research theme, that is, the patients/subjects, design, interventions, comparisons/control, and outcome, but does not reveal the main result or the conclusion.[ 3 , 4 , 12 , 16 ] Such a title allows the reader to interpret the findings of the research paper in an impartial manner and with an open mind.[ 3 ] These titles also give complete information about the contents of the article, have several keywords (thus increasing the visibility of the article in search engines), and have increased chances of being read and (then) being cited as well.[ 4 ] Hence, such descriptive titles giving a glimpse of the paper are generally preferred.[ 4 , 16 ]

Declarative title

This title states the main finding of the study in the title itself; it reduces the curiosity of the reader, may point toward a bias on the part of the author, and hence is best avoided.[ 3 , 4 , 12 , 16 ]

Interrogative title

This is the one which has a query or the research question in the title.[ 3 , 4 , 16 ] Though a query in the title has the ability to sensationalize the topic, and has more downloads (but less citations), it can be distracting to the reader and is again best avoided for a research article (but can, at times, be used for a review article).[ 3 , 6 , 16 , 17 ]

From a sentence construct point of view, titles may be nominal (capturing only the main theme of the study), compound (with subtitles to provide additional relevant information such as context, design, location/country, temporal aspect, sample size, importance, and a provocative or a literary; for example, see the title of this review), or full-sentence titles (which are longer and indicate an added degree of certainty of the results).[ 4 , 6 , 9 , 16 ] Any of these constructs may be used depending on the type of article, the key message, and the author's preference or judgement.[ 4 ]

Drafting a suitable title

A stepwise process can be followed to draft the appropriate title. The author should describe the paper in about three sentences, avoiding the results and ensuring that these sentences contain important scientific words/keywords that describe the main contents and subject of the paper.[ 1 , 4 , 6 , 12 ] Then the author should join the sentences to form a single sentence, shorten the length (by removing redundant words or adjectives or phrases), and finally edit the title (thus drafted) to make it more accurate, concise (about 10–15 words), and precise.[ 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 9 ] Some journals require that the study design be included in the title, and this may be placed (using a colon) after the primary title.[ 2 , 3 , 4 , 14 ] The title should try to incorporate the Patients, Interventions, Comparisons and Outcome (PICO).[ 3 ] The place of the study may be included in the title (if absolutely necessary), that is, if the patient characteristics (such as study population, socioeconomic conditions, or cultural practices) are expected to vary as per the country (or the place of the study) and have a bearing on the possible outcomes.[ 3 , 6 ] Lengthy titles can be boring and appear unfocused, whereas very short titles may not be representative of the contents of the article; hence, optimum length is required to ensure that the title explains the main theme and content of the manuscript.[ 4 , 5 , 9 ] Abbreviations (except the standard or commonly interpreted ones such as HIV, AIDS, DNA, RNA, CDC, FDA, ECG, and EEG) or acronyms should be avoided in the title, as a reader not familiar with them may skip such an article and nonstandard abbreviations may create problems in indexing the article.[ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 12 ] Also, too much of technical jargon or chemical formulas in the title may confuse the readers and the article may be skipped by them.[ 4 , 9 ] Numerical values of various parameters (stating study period or sample size) should also be avoided in the titles (unless deemed extremely essential).[ 4 ] It may be worthwhile to take an opinion from a impartial colleague before finalizing the title.[ 4 , 5 , 6 ] Thus, multiple factors (which are, at times, a bit conflicting or contrasting) need to be considered while formulating a title, and hence this should not be done in a hurry.[ 4 , 6 ] Many journals ask the authors to draft a “short title” or “running head” or “running title” for printing in the header or footer of the printed paper.[ 3 , 12 ] This is an abridged version of the main title of up to 40–50 characters, may have standard abbreviations, and helps the reader to navigate through the paper.[ 3 , 12 , 14 ]

Checklist for a good title

Table 1 gives a checklist/useful tips for drafting a good title for a research paper.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 12 ] Table 2 presents some of the titles used by the author of this article in his earlier research papers, and the appropriateness of the titles has been commented upon. As an individual exercise, the reader may try to improvise upon the titles (further) after reading the corresponding abstract and full paper.

Checklist/useful tips for drafting a good title for a research paper

Some titles used by author of this article in his earlier publications and remark/comment on their appropriateness

The Abstract

The details of the abstract are discussed under the subheadings of importance, types, drafting, and checklist.

Importance of the abstract

The abstract is a summary or synopsis of the full research paper and also needs to have similar characteristics like the title. It needs to be simple, direct, specific, functional, clear, unbiased, honest, concise, precise, self-sufficient, complete, comprehensive, scholarly, balanced, and should not be misleading.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 17 ] Writing an abstract is to extract and summarize (AB – absolutely, STR – straightforward, ACT – actual data presentation and interpretation).[ 17 ] The title and abstracts are the only sections of the research paper that are often freely available to the readers on the journal websites, search engines, and in many abstracting agencies/databases, whereas the full paper may attract a payment per view or a fee for downloading the pdf copy.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 14 ] The abstract is an independent and stand-alone (that is, well understood without reading the full paper) section of the manuscript and is used by the editor to decide the fate of the article and to choose appropriate reviewers.[ 2 , 7 , 10 , 12 , 13 ] Even the reviewers are initially supplied only with the title and the abstract before they agree to review the full manuscript.[ 7 , 13 ] This is the second most commonly read part of the manuscript, and therefore it should reflect the contents of the main text of the paper accurately and thus act as a “real trailer” of the full article.[ 2 , 7 , 11 ] The readers will go through the full paper only if they find the abstract interesting and relevant to their practice; else they may skip the paper if the abstract is unimpressive.[ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 13 ] The abstract needs to highlight the selling point of the manuscript and succeed in luring the reader to read the complete paper.[ 3 , 7 ] The title and the abstract should be constructed using keywords (key terms/important words) from all the sections of the main text.[ 12 ] Abstracts are also used for submitting research papers to a conference for consideration for presentation (as oral paper or poster).[ 9 , 13 , 17 ] Grammatical and typographic errors reflect poorly on the quality of the abstract, may indicate carelessness/casual attitude on part of the author, and hence should be avoided at all times.[ 9 ]

Types of abstracts

The abstracts can be structured or unstructured. They can also be classified as descriptive or informative abstracts.

Structured and unstructured abstracts

Structured abstracts are followed by most journals, are more informative, and include specific subheadings/subsections under which the abstract needs to be composed.[ 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 17 , 18 ] These subheadings usually include context/background, objectives, design, setting, participants, interventions, main outcome measures, results, and conclusions.[ 1 ] Some journals stick to the standard IMRAD format for the structure of the abstracts, and the subheadings would include Introduction/Background, Methods, Results, And (instead of Discussion) the Conclusion/s.[ 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 17 , 18 ] Structured abstracts are more elaborate, informative, easy to read, recall, and peer-review, and hence are preferred; however, they consume more space and can have same limitations as an unstructured abstract.[ 7 , 9 , 18 ] The structured abstracts are (possibly) better understood by the reviewers and readers. Anyway, the choice of the type of the abstract and the subheadings of a structured abstract depend on the particular journal style and is not left to the author's wish.[ 7 , 10 , 12 ] Separate subheadings may be necessary for reporting meta-analysis, educational research, quality improvement work, review, or case study.[ 1 ] Clinical trial abstracts need to include the essential items mentioned in the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards Of Reporting Trials) guidelines.[ 7 , 9 , 14 , 19 ] Similar guidelines exist for various other types of studies, including observational studies and for studies of diagnostic accuracy.[ 20 , 21 ] A useful resource for the above guidelines is available at www.equator-network.org (Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of health Research). Unstructured (or non-structured) abstracts are free-flowing, do not have predefined subheadings, and are commonly used for papers that (usually) do not describe original research.[ 1 , 7 , 9 , 10 ]

The four-point structured abstract: This has the following elements which need to be properly balanced with regard to the content/matter under each subheading:[ 9 ]

Background and/or Objectives: This states why the work was undertaken and is usually written in just a couple of sentences.[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 ] The hypothesis/study question and the major objectives are also stated under this subheading.[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 ]

Methods: This subsection is the longest, states what was done, and gives essential details of the study design, setting, participants, blinding, sample size, sampling method, intervention/s, duration and follow-up, research instruments, main outcome measures, parameters evaluated, and how the outcomes were assessed or analyzed.[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 ]

Results/Observations/Findings: This subheading states what was found, is longer, is difficult to draft, and needs to mention important details including the number of study participants, results of analysis (of primary and secondary objectives), and include actual data (numbers, mean, median, standard deviation, “P” values, 95% confidence intervals, effect sizes, relative risks, odds ratio, etc.).[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 ]

Conclusions: The take-home message (the “so what” of the paper) and other significant/important findings should be stated here, considering the interpretation of the research question/hypothesis and results put together (without overinterpreting the findings) and may also include the author's views on the implications of the study.[ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 ]

The eight-point structured abstract: This has the following eight subheadings – Objectives, Study Design, Study Setting, Participants/Patients, Methods/Intervention, Outcome Measures, Results, and Conclusions.[ 3 , 9 , 18 ] The instructions to authors given by the particular journal state whether they use the four- or eight-point abstract or variants thereof.[ 3 , 14 ]

Descriptive and Informative abstracts

Descriptive abstracts are short (75–150 words), only portray what the paper contains without providing any more details; the reader has to read the full paper to know about its contents and are rarely used for original research papers.[ 7 , 10 ] These are used for case reports, reviews, opinions, and so on.[ 7 , 10 ] Informative abstracts (which may be structured or unstructured as described above) give a complete detailed summary of the article contents and truly reflect the actual research done.[ 7 , 10 ]

Drafting a suitable abstract

It is important to religiously stick to the instructions to authors (format, word limit, font size/style, and subheadings) provided by the journal for which the abstract and the paper are being written.[ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 13 ] Most journals allow 200–300 words for formulating the abstract and it is wise to restrict oneself to this word limit.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 22 ] Though some authors prefer to draft the abstract initially, followed by the main text of the paper, it is recommended to draft the abstract in the end to maintain accuracy and conformity with the main text of the paper (thus maintaining an easy linkage/alignment with title, on one hand, and the introduction section of the main text, on the other hand).[ 2 , 7 , 9 , 10 , 11 ] The authors should check the subheadings (of the structured abstract) permitted by the target journal, use phrases rather than sentences to draft the content of the abstract, and avoid passive voice.[ 1 , 7 , 9 , 12 ] Next, the authors need to get rid of redundant words and edit the abstract (extensively) to the correct word count permitted (every word in the abstract “counts”!).[ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 13 ] It is important to ensure that the key message, focus, and novelty of the paper are not compromised; the rationale of the study and the basis of the conclusions are clear; and that the abstract is consistent with the main text of the paper.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 9 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 , 22 ] This is especially important while submitting a revision of the paper (modified after addressing the reviewer's comments), as the changes made in the main (revised) text of the paper need to be reflected in the (revised) abstract as well.[ 2 , 10 , 12 , 14 , 22 ] Abbreviations should be avoided in an abstract, unless they are conventionally accepted or standard; references, tables, or figures should not be cited in the abstract.[ 7 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 13 ] It may be worthwhile not to rush with the abstract and to get an opinion by an impartial colleague on the content of the abstract; and if possible, the full paper (an “informal” peer-review).[ 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 11 , 17 ] Appropriate “Keywords” (three to ten words or phrases) should follow the abstract and should be preferably chosen from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) list of the U.S. National Library of Medicine ( https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/search ) and are used for indexing purposes.[ 2 , 3 , 11 , 12 ] These keywords need to be different from the words in the main title (the title words are automatically used for indexing the article) and can be variants of the terms/phrases used in the title, or words from the abstract and the main text.[ 3 , 12 ] The ICMJE (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors; http://www.icmje.org/ ) also recommends publishing the clinical trial registration number at the end of the abstract.[ 7 , 14 ]

Checklist for a good abstract

Table 3 gives a checklist/useful tips for formulating a good abstract for a research paper.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 , 22 ]

Checklist/useful tips for formulating a good abstract for a research paper

Concluding Remarks

This review article has given a detailed account of the importance and types of titles and abstracts. It has also attempted to give useful hints for drafting an appropriate title and a complete abstract for a research paper. It is hoped that this review will help the authors in their career in medical writing.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgement

The author thanks Dr. Hemant Deshmukh - Dean, Seth G.S. Medical College & KEM Hospital, for granting permission to publish this manuscript.

Chapter 7: Writing Abstracts

Formal Features of Abstracts: Length, Word Choice, and Grammar

This section of the chapter will examine the formal features of abstracts, including length, word choice, and some grammatical issues. Please note that this is not a comprehensive guide but rather a few highlights of issues that we feel are particularly relevant to novice researchers.

In their book-length work on abstracts, Swales & Feak (2009) [1] suggest that the first step to writing an abstract is to find out the word or character limit. Indeed, word/character limits are an especially noteworthy aspect of abstracts because they are so often used as a gateway into acceptance — especially for conferences. Swales and Feak present several guidelines for writing abstracts, and the ones relevant to our discussion are as follows:

• Abstracts in journals are usually between 150-200 words without subheadings (unstructured) or a bit longer (~250 words) if structured (with headings).
• Disciplinary differences may allow for longer (~500 words or more) abstracts; specifically, those for conference submission are generally longer.
• The IEEE [2] uses shorter abstracts (~50 words) for “short communications,” which is a type of article in many of the journals that it publishes.

Although length is often a challenging component of writing an abstract because it’s difficult to summarize an entire study in only a few hundred words, it is a fairly straightforward aspect of this section of a research article. Each journal has a requirement, so you can look up their maximum word lengths on their website.

Word Choice

The primary determinant of the language used in an abstract is its function/purpose. The purpose drives the decisions you will make about what kinds of words and information to use or avoid. Prescriptive guidelines for abstracts are usually dictated by either the discipline or the journal/editor, and, as Swales & Feak (2012) note, there are often “not rules to follow, but rather choices you can make” [3] about what language to include or exclude. The next sections provide some guidance to help you make those choices, and although we are including these in the chapter on Abstracts, the information can be applied to any aspect of research writing. However, as the abstract is a prominent way for others to be introduced to your research [4] , it is particularly important that the language be clear and appropriate. Several research writing guide books claim that because of the heavy reading requirements that researchers face, they must be extremely selective about what they choose to read. Many choose to read abstracts as a summary of an article either as a preview or a replacement. [5] [6] One way to begin drafting your abstract is to consider that both its placement and function within an RA is to bridge the title and the text of the manuscript. Therefore, one best practice is to include every important word from the title in the abstract [7] . This will help you consider the content of the abstract, but there are other considerations as well. For instance, generally abstracts present information in the same order as the research article: IMRD/C. As noted previously, the final section may or may not be included based on what stage the research is in, but regardless, the abstract will flow in this general order/pattern.

Next, we’ll explore some particular word/grammatical categories in an effort to provide you with some ideas. These are not rules, but rather, are suggestions based on linguistic research and general academic writing standards.

The use of personal pronouns (e.g., I, me, my, you, s/he, you, they , etc.) in academic writing are a common source of confusion for many graduate students and other novice academic writers. Are pronouns acceptable in formal academic writing? Should they be avoided? If you are writing about someone else’s work, the third person “they” or “s/he” is widely accepted. In contrast, the use of the second person “you” is typically avoided [8] .

In general, there is much variation in the use of personal pronouns in academic writing even among expert writers [9] . Most writing style guides advise against the use of first and second pronouns and the use of the singular masculine he [10] . Often the suggestions about alternative structures include the use of passive voice, the combined s/he (which can be formed as she/he, he/she, or with the conjunction and between the two), or they regardless of gender and number. In fact, studies show that the singular pronoun they is the most frequent personal pronoun, and has been for at least two decades [11] [12] [13] .

Given this information, we suggest that the use of they is very likely the best choice regardless of the number (singular or plural) or gender. That is, the pronoun they can have antecedents that are male, female, singular, or plural.

Generally, the use of verb tenses varies by section within an abstract. Swales and Feak’s comprehensive guide to academic writing [14] asserts that abstracts tend to begin and end in the present tense but vary significantly in their mid-sections. While there has not been a large, cross-disciplinary study of verb tenses in research article abstracts, there have been some studies about specific disciplines such as applied linguistics [15] and medical research [16] . The latter study found that past tense is often used to write about the purpose/background of the article, to explain the Methods, and to highlight the most significant Results. However, that study also notes that when a writer wants to focus on the generalizability or boost the significance of the findings, authors will often opt for present tense. Note the difference in the strength of these two sentences:

• Our results showed that there were significant differences between the two types of X.
• Our results show that there are significant differences in the two types of X.

The second sentence presents a stronger stance simply because it is in the present tense, which is typically used for facts, general truths, or fixed circumstances. Simple past tense is used for actions started and finished in the past but not necessarily continuing into the present. Therefore, choose your tense carefully because it can be indirect evidence of your stance.

Modal verbs indicate stance; in other words, they allow the writer to strengthen or weaken a claim. In English, there are nine modal verbs as shown in the table:

It’s important to note that each verb carries a level of certainty or doubt that is a really useful way to hedge or boost your claims about findings. Since the abstract is such an important part of representing your work, the careful use of modals is essential to striking the right tone in terms of your level of confidence. Of course, there are other words you can use that also indicate the tentative nature of your work (e.g., adverbs and adjectives such as possibly/possibly, obviously/obvious,  etc.). You can explore those on your own as they are outside the scope of this book. The important point to remember is that you always have a choice about presenting your level of certainty, and modal verbs are important tools in your writing toolbox.

Clauses with that

In 2005, linguistic researchers did a study of over 200 abstracts from six disciplines. The most important finding from the study was that writers tended to use  that clauses when writing about their results. For example, “The study’s results indicate that …” or “The findings confirm that …”. In the full research article, you’ll probably be using these clauses in the Introduction to review literature (e.g., “Other studies have shown that …”) as well as to report the findings in the Results section. However, in an abstract, you will not be reviewing literature at such a fine level of detail, so it’s more likely that you’ll use such a clause to highlight your findings.

Reporting verbs are often used with the word  that to form such clauses. So, it’s important for you to familiarize yourself with some of the more common reporting verbs. A few highly-frequent verbs of this type are presented in the table below:

Each verb has a level of certainty of its own (e.g.,  assert is more confident than  indicate ), so be sure that you are familiar with the exact meaning of each verb. On top of that inherent meaning, such verbs can be combined with adverbs (e.g., possibly, certainly , etc.) and/or modal verbs that can strengthen or weaken the claim as well.

Citations in Abstracts

To cite or not to cite, that is the question. If you do a Google search “Can I cite sources in my abstract?” you’ll find an overwhelming number of negative responses (i.e., No, you should not.). However, as we’ve noted in other sections, academic writing is often not black and white, wrong or right, no or yes. So, while the internet majority may have very sure opinions, it’s less clear than it seems.People provide several reasons why citations in abstracts should be avoided, namely the following:

• To focus on your work, not someone else’s.
• To present a self-contained work without the need for outside reference.
• To reduce unnecessary words contributing to the small word count limit.

On the other hand, there may be some instances in which it is incumbent upon you to cite the work of others. When you are doing research that is a direct response to another researchers’ findings, theories, or claims, then it’s important to cite them. Likewise, if you are using a little-known term that was coined by someone in particular, then it’s important to reference that person. And undoubtedly, when you are doing a replication study or some meta-analyses, it’s necessary to have citations.

On the whole, though, the best practice is not to cite sources in an abstract unless it is absolutely necessary [18] . As with other topics in this book, there are different approaches within disciplines, journals, and writers, who may all have variable stylistic approaches to this issue, so read the Instructions for Authors for your target journal. If there are no guidelines, then examine the abstracts of previously published papers in that journal to see what the common rule seems to be. If all else fails, you can contact the editor.

• Swales, J., & Feak, C. (2009). Abstracts and the writing of abstracts / John M. Swales, Christine B. Feak. ( Michigan Series in English for Academic & Professional Purposes ). ↵
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ↵
• Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2004).  Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills (Vol. 1). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ↵
• Day, R. A., & Gastel, B. (2006). How to write and publish a scientific article , 3 rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ↵
• Gladon, R. J., Graves, W. R., & Kelly, J. M. (2011). Getting published in the life sciences . John Wiley & Sons. ↵
• Lebrun, J. L. (2007). Scientific writing. A reader and writer's guide. World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore. ↵
• Hyland, K., & Jiang, F. K. (2017). Is academic writing becoming more informal?.  English for Specific Purposes, 45, 40-51. ↵
• Harwood, N. (2006). (In)appropriate personal pronoun use in political science: A qualitative study and a proposed heuristic for future research. Written Communication, 23 , 242-250. ↵
• Paterson, L. (2014). British pronoun use, prescription, and processing: Linguistic and social influences affecting 'they' and 'he' . Springer. ↵
• Baranowski, M. (2002). The most recent APA guidelines (7th edition) similar support the use of they as a third person singular pronoun. Current usage of the epicene pronoun in written English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 6 (3), 378-397. ↵
• LaScotte, D. K. (2016). Singular they: An empirical study of generic pronoun use.  American Speech, 91 (1), 62-80. ↵
• Newman, M. (1992). Pronominal disagreements: The stubborn problem of singular epicene antecedents1.  Language in Society, 21 (3), 447-475. ↵
• Tseng, F. (2011). Analyses of Move Structure and Verb Tense of Research Article Abstracts in Applied Linguistics. International Journal of English Linguistics, 1(2), 27. ↵
• Salager-Meyer, F. (1992). A text-type and move analysis study of verb tense and modality distribution in medical English abstracts. English for Specific Purposes, 11 (2), 93-113. ↵
• The modal "shall" is not typically used in American English, but is somewhat common in British English to make suggestions or offer help in either statement or question form. ↵
• Belcher, W. L. (2009). Writing your journal article in 12 weeks: A guide to academic publishing success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ↵

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Scholars often write abstracts for various applications: conference presentations may require an abstract or other short summary for a program; journal articles almost always require abstracts; invited talks and lectures are often advertised using an abstract. While the application may necessarily change the length of the abstract (a conference program may only allow for 50-75 words, for instance), the purpose and structure remains fairly constant.

Abstracts are generally kept brief (approximately 150-200 words). They differ by field, but in general, they need to summarize the article so that readers can decide if it is relevant to their work. The typical abstract includes these elements:

• A statement of the problem and objectives
• A statement of the significance of the work
• A summary of employed methods or your research approach
• A summary of findings or conclusions of the study
• A description of the implications of the findings

Regardless of field, abstract authors should explain the purpose of the work, methods used, the results and the conclusions that can be drawn. However, each field purports slightly different ways to structure the abstract. A reliable strategy is to write the abstract as a condensed version of your article, with 1-2 sentences summarizing each major section. This means that in many of the sciences and a large portion of the humanities, abstracts follow a version of the IMRAD structure: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.

Most scientific journals require authors to submit such abstracts. It is generally advisable to write the abstract in the English language. That is because most papers in other languages, especially Asian nations, tend to publish an English abstract with common search engines, such as, the MLA site.

Example Abstract

This example abstract follows the IMRAD structure closely. The first two sentences are the introduction and background information. Sentences 3-5 describe the methods used in the study. Sentence 6 summarizes the results, while the last two sentences summarize the discussion and conclusion of the study; they also indicate the significance of the results.

Usability and User-Centered Theory for 21 st Century OWLs — by Dana Lynn Driscoll, H. Allen Brizee, Michael Salvo, and Morgan Sousa from The Handbook of Research on Virtual Workplaces and the New Nature of Business Practices . Eds. Kirk St. Amant and Pavel Zemlansky. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing, 2008.

This article describes results of usability research conducted on the Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL). The Purdue OWL is an information-rich educational website that provides free writing resources to users worldwide. Researchers conducted two generations of usability tests. In the first test, participants were asked to navigate the OWL and answer questions. Results of the first test and user-centered scholarship indicated that a more user-centered focus would improve usability. The second test asked participants to answer writing-related questions using both the OWL website and a user-centered OWL prototype. Participants took significantly less time to find information using the prototype and reported a more positive response to the user-centered prototype than the original OWL. Researchers conclude that a user-centered website is more effective and can be a model for information-rich online resources. Researchers also conclude that usability research can be a productive source of ideas, underscoring the need for participatory invention.

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What is a research abstract?

An abstract is a concise summary of a larger research project. It should address all the major points of the project, providing an overview of the research topic, question, methods, results, and significance. The abstract is a snapshot that captures a reader's attention and--although it can stand alone as a representation of the project--invites readers to learn more by viewing your poster or attending your presentation.

What should a research abstract include?

You will likely want to include:

• Background, context, and purpose (the "big picture" in which your research fits)
• Your question, hypothesis, or goal
• The methods and research design you employed/are employing
• Results, products, outcomes (achieved or anticipated)
• Implications and significance: for your field, for future work, for your viewers

What is the format of a research abstract?

The length and format of research abstracts can vary depending on the requirements of a particular conference or journal.

For the UChicago Undergraduate Research Symposium, the requirements are :

• Include a short, descriptive title, capitalized in title case
• Make it only one paragraph
• Have no section breaks, footnotes, or illustrations
• Adhere to a limit of 300 words.
• Pitch your abstract to an educated non-specialist audience (minimize jargon, spell out acronyms)

Should I show my abstract to my mentor?

YES! It is very important that your faculty mentor review and approve your abstract. Your abstract will be publicly available, so you and your mentor should work together to ensure that the abstract presents your work appropriately and does not raise any intellectual-property concerns. Your mentor will need to approve your abstract in our application system before you can be accepted to present at the Undergraduate Research Symposium.

Will you host abstract writing workshops?

Yes! Abstract workshops are now concluded. View the slides and a recorded workshop in our Resource Library .

Where can I find examples of research abstracts?

You can review abstracts from major conferences or journals in your field to ascertain the conventions of your discipline. You can also review the abstracts from prior Undergraduate Research Symposia to see what your peers have written.

Where do I submit my abstract for the upcoming Undergraduate Research Symposium?

Access the online submission form here .

How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries? pp 179–184 Cite as

How to Write an Abstract?

• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
• Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  
• Open Access
• First Online: 24 October 2021

55k Accesses

5 Altmetric

An abstract is a crisp, short, powerful, and self-contained summary of a research manuscript used to help the reader swiftly determine the paper’s purpose. Although the abstract is the first paragraph of the manuscript it should be written last when all the other sections have been addressed.

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. — Zora Neale Hurston, American Author, Anthropologist and Filmmaker (1891–1960)

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1 What is an Abstract?

An abstract is usually a standalone document that informs the reader about the details of the manuscript to follow. It is like a trailer to a movie, if the trailer is good, it stimulates the audience to watch the movie. The abstract should be written from scratch and not ‘cut –and-pasted’ [ 1 ].

2 What is the History of the Abstract?

An abstract, in the form of a single paragraph, was first published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal in 1960 with the idea that the readers may not have enough time to go through the whole paper, and the first abstract with a defined structure was published in 1991 [ 2 ]. The idea sold and now most original articles and reviews are required to have a structured abstract. The abstract attracts the reader to read the full manuscript [ 3 ].

3 What are the Qualities of a Good Abstract?

The quality of information in an abstract can be summarized by four ‘C’s. It should be:

C: Condensed

C: Critical

4 What are the Types of Abstract?

Before writing the abstract, you need to check with the journal website about which type of abstract it requires, with its length and style in the ‘Instructions to Authors’ section.

The abstract types can be divided into:

Descriptive: Usually written for psychology, social science, and humanities papers. It is about 50–100 words long. No conclusions can be drawn from this abstract as it describes the major points in the paper.

Informative: The majority of abstracts for science-related manuscripts are informative and are surrogates for the research done. They are single paragraphs that provide the reader an overview of the research paper and are about 100–150 words in length. Conclusions can be drawn from the abstracts and in the recommendations written in the last line.

Critical: This type of abstract is lengthy and about 400–500 words. In this, the authors’ own research is discussed for reliability, judgement, and validation. A comparison is also made with similar studies done earlier.

Highlighting: This is rarely used in scientific writing. The style of the abstract is to attract more readers. It is not a balanced or complete overview of the article with which it is published.

Structured: A structured abstract contains information under subheadings like background, aims, material and methods, results, conclusion, and recommendations (Fig. 15.1 ). Most leading journals now carry these.

Example of a structured abstract (with permission editor CMRP)

5 What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

An abstract is written to educate the reader about the study that follows and provide an overview of the science behind it. If written well it also attracts more readers to the article. It also helps the article getting indexed. The fate of a paper both before and after publication often depends upon its abstract. Most readers decide if a paper is worth reading on the basis of the abstract. Additionally, the selection of papers in systematic reviews is often dependent upon the abstract.

6 What are the Steps of Writing an Abstract?

An abstract should be written last after all the other sections of an article have been addressed. A poor abstract may turn off the reader and they may cause indexing errors as well. The abstract should state the purpose of the study, the methodology used, and summarize the results and important conclusions. It is usually written in the IMRAD format and is called a structured abstract [ 4 , 5 ].

I: The introduction in the opening line should state the problem you are addressing.

M: Methodology—what method was chosen to finish the experiment?

R: Results—state the important findings of your study.

D: Discussion—discuss why your study is important.

Mention the following information:

Important results with the statistical information ( p values, confidence intervals, standard/mean deviation).

Arrange all information in a chronological order.

Do not repeat any information.

The last line should state the recommendations from your study.

The abstract should be written in the past tense.

7 What are the Things to Be Avoided While Writing an Abstract?

Cut and paste information from the main text

Hold back important information

Use abbreviations

Tables or Figures

Generalized statements

Arguments about the study

8 What are Key Words?

These are important words that are repeated throughout the manuscript and which help in the indexing of a paper. Depending upon the journal 3–10 key words may be required which are indexed with the help of MESH (Medical Subject Heading).

9 How is an Abstract Written for a Conference Different from a Journal Paper?

The basic concept for writing abstracts is the same. However, in a conference abstract occasionally a table or figure is allowed. A word limit is important in both of them. Many of the abstracts which are presented in conferences are never published in fact one study found that only 27% of the abstracts presented in conferences were published in the next five years [ 6 ].

Table 15.1 gives a template for writing an abstract.

10 What are the Important Recommendations of the International Committees of Medical Journal of Editors?

The recommendations are [ 7 ]:

An abstract is required for original articles, metanalysis, and systematic reviews.

A structured abstract is preferred.

The abstract should mention the purpose of the scientific study, how the procedure was carried out, the analysis used, and principal conclusion.

Clinical trials should be reported according to the CONSORT guidelines.

The trials should also mention the funding and the trial number.

The abstract should be accurate as many readers have access only to the abstract.

11 Conclusions

An Abstract should be written last after all the other sections of the manuscript have been completed and with due care and attention to the details.

It should be structured and written in the IMRAD format.

For many readers, the abstract attracts them to go through the complete content of the article.

The abstract is usually followed by key words that help to index the paper.

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Preparing a manuscript for submission to a medical journal. Available on http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/manuscript-preparation/preparing-for-submission.html . Accessed 10 May 2020.

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Department of Surgical Gastroenterology and Liver Transplantation, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Samiran Nundy

Department of Internal Medicine, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Institute for Global Health and Development, The Aga Khan University, South Central Asia, East Africa and United Kingdom, Karachi, Pakistan

Zulfiqar A. Bhutta

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write an Abstract?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_15

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📕 Studying HQ

The ideal length of apa abstracts: nursing research tips, carla johnson.

• October 31, 2023
• How to Guides

In the world of academic writing, precision and clarity are paramount, and this is no different for nursing students. When it comes to crafting an APA abstract, one of the most crucial components of any research paper, students often grapple with questions about its length and structure. In this article, we’ll focus on the ideal length of APA abstracts to enhance nursing research skills. Understanding the intricacies of a well-crafted abstract can significantly impact the quality and reception of your research. Whether you are an aspiring nurse researcher or a seasoned professional, the principles discussed here are essential for ensuring your work is informative and impactful.

What You'll Learn

I. What is an APA Abstract?

Before we explore the ideal length for an APA abstract, it’s crucial to understand its purpose and components. An abstract is a concise summary of a research paper, providing readers with a brief overview of the study’s purpose, methods, results, and conclusions. It serves as a standalone document, allowing readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research without delving into the entire paper.

In APA (American Psychological Association) style, which is widely used in nursing and healthcare research, an abstract typically includes the following key elements:

• Title: The abstract begins with the paper’s title, centered and bolded, serving as a clear indication of the research topic.
• Introduction: This section briefly introduces the research problem or question, highlighting its significance and relevance to the field.
• Methods: It outlines the research methods used, including data collection and analysis techniques.
• Results: The abstract should summarize the key findings or outcomes of the study.
• Conclusions: The final section should present the study’s main conclusions, implications, and potential applications.

The length of the abstract is a subject of debate, as APA guidelines do not prescribe a specific word count or character limit. Instead, APA suggests that an abstract should be “a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article.” This leaves room for interpretation, but it also means that the length should be determined by the research itself and the need to convey its essence effectively.

II. Determining the Right Length

The ideal length of an APA abstract can vary depending on several factors, including the complexity of the research, the journal’s requirements, and the preferences of the author. However, there are some general guidelines to help you determine the right length for your nursing research abstract.

• General Rule: While there is no strict word limit, most APA abstracts range from 150 to 250 words. This is often considered an appropriate length for summarizing a research paper effectively. It forces you to be concise and focus on the most critical aspects of your study.
• Journal Requirements: Some journals may have specific guidelines for abstract length, so it’s essential to consult the publication’s instructions for authors. They may specify a word count or page limit for abstracts.
• Complexity of the Research: If your research is highly complex and includes numerous findings and nuances, you might need a slightly longer abstract to ensure you adequately represent the study. However, it’s essential to strike a balance between detail and brevity.
• Audience Consideration: Think about your target audience, which, in this case, is nursing students. A clear, concise abstract is more likely to engage readers than a lengthy one. Most readers appreciate a brief summary that gets to the point.
• Relevance: Every word in your abstract should serve a purpose. Eliminate unnecessary information, jargon, or redundancies. Focus on the most critical aspects of your research.

III. The Importance of a Well-Crafted Abstract

The length of an APA abstract is important, but equally crucial is its quality. An abstract is often the first and sometimes the only part of your research that readers, including fellow researchers, professors, and students, will see. Therefore, a well-crafted abstract can make a significant difference in how your work is perceived and whether it gets the attention it deserves.

• Clarity and Conciseness: Your abstract should be written in clear, straightforward language. Avoid unnecessary technical terms and complex language that might alienate readers. Ensure that every sentence contributes to the overall understanding of your research.
• Accuracy: The abstract should accurately reflect the main points of your study. Misleading or incomplete information can lead to misunderstandings and may negatively impact the credibility of your research.
• Engagement: An engaging abstract draws readers in, encouraging them to explore the full paper. Highlight the significance of your research question and results, making readers curious about your findings.
• Compliance with APA Style: Ensure that your abstract follows APA style guidelines, not only in terms of length but also in terms of formatting, citation , and referencing. This demonstrates your attention to detail and adherence to scholarly standards.

In nursing research, where precision and clarity are of utmost importance, crafting an effective APA abstract is a skill that every nursing student should master. While there is no strict word limit, a typical APA abstract ranges from 150 to 250 words. However, the ideal length should be determined by the research’s complexity and the need to convey its essence effectively.

An abstract serves as the gateway to your research, and it’s vital to make it clear, concise, and engaging. By following the principles discussed in this article, nursing students can ensure that their abstracts are not only informative but also impactful.

Remember that writing a great abstract is a skill that can be developed with practice.If you find yourself struggling with crafting the perfect abstract or any other aspect of your academic writing, we’re here to help. Our professional writing services cater to the specific needs of nursing students. We have a team of experienced writers who understand the intricacies of nursing and healthcare research, and they can assist you in creating high-quality abstracts, research papers, and other academic documents that meet the highest standards of excellence.

1. How long should an APA 7 abstract be?

The length of an APA 7 abstract typically ranges from 150 to 250 words. However, there is no strict word limit, and the ideal length should be based on the research’s complexity and the need to convey its essence effectively.

2. How do I write an abstract in APA format?

To write an abstract in APA format, start with a concise summary of your research, including the research problem, methods, results, and conclusions. Use clear and concise language, and make sure to follow the specific formatting guidelines for headings and citation.

3. How many keywords in an abstract APA 7?

In an APA 7 abstract, it is recommended to include 5-7 keywords that represent the main concepts and topics of your research. Keywords help readers locate your paper in databases and facilitate searchability.

4. Can an abstract be two pages?

No, an abstract in APA format should be a concise summary, typically ranging from 150 to 250 words. It should not exceed one page, and brevity is encouraged to ensure that it remains an effective summary of your research.

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< Return to Abstracts

Systems-Level Analysis of Extreme Differences in Fatty Acid Chain-Length Production: Natural Variants and Redesigned Brassicaceae Oilseeds

Maneesh Lingwan 1 * ([email protected]), Mary R. Roth 2 , Eleana Kang 3 , Rui Guan 3 , Joseph Ballenger 1 , Somnath Koley 1 , Abdul Ghani 4 , Yen On Chan 4 , Zhen Lyu 4 , Sabin Dahal 4 , Manish Immadi 4 , Mohit Verma 4 , Chunhui Xu 4 , Trey Shaw 4 , Sai Akhil Choppararu 4 , Yongfang Qin 4 , Jose Roberto da Silva Nascimento 4 , Lucas Xavier 4 , Ana Caroline Conrado 4 , Alisha Lnu 2 , Matt Garneau 5 , Agasthya Chenna Prakash 5 , Nina Barroga 5 , Dong Xu 4 , Timothy Durrett 2 , Phil D. Bates 5 , Malia Gehan 1 , Trupti Joshi 4 , Jay J. Thelen 4 , Ruth Welti 2 , Doug K. Allen 1,6 , Edgar B. Cahoon 3

1 Donald Danforth Plant Science Center; 2 Kansas State University–Manhattan; 3 University of Nebraska–Lincoln; 4 University of Missouri–Columbia; 5 Washington State University–Pullman; 6 U.S. Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service

• https://fatplants.net/

The project addresses three goals: (1) systems-level analysis of camelina, pennycress and Cuphea for increased lipid content and predictable production of fatty acids with tailored chain lengths; (2) integration of a redesigned plastid biofactory with extra plastidial metabolism for enhanced oils within an engineered biocontainment strategy; and (3) controlled environment- and field-tested engineered germplasm.

Bigger, Better, Brassicaceae, Biofuels, and Bioproducts (B5) is providing fundamental knowledge to guide biodesigns of Brassicaceae nonfood oilseeds, camelina , and pennycress for sustainable biofuels and bioproducts. One target is the tailoring of fatty acid biosynthesis and storage to generate camelina and pennycress oils rich in medium-chain fatty acids (C8–C14) as feedstocks for sustainable aviation fuel. Researchers have undertaken a systems biology approach to understand the metabolic specialization that enables plants such as Cuphea species to accumulate oils highly enriched with medium-chain fatty acids versus typical oilseeds such as camelina and pennycress that accumulate C16- and C18-rich oils. Researchers are also conducting a systems-level analysis of existing camelina and pennycress lines engineered for C10 oil production to identify metabolic constraints that limit biosynthesis of these redesigned oils.

Lines engineered with genes for further work through a design-build-test-learn strategy. Early transcriptomics results have been incorporated into 3D omics and CCMT tools for comparative and cross- species analytics. Results to date from measurements of biomass, metabolic intermediates, omics studies, and isotope tracer investigations were presented.

Figure 1. A model showing the central metabolic role of fatty acids in the cell, robust and integrated design-build-test-learn (DBTL) cycles will be key to discovering how plants fight back against lipid metabolic remodeling.

Funding Information

This research was supported by the DOE Office of Science, BER program, grant no. DE-SC0023142.

• Open access
• Published: 29 March 2024

Factors influencing the length of stay in forensic psychiatric settings: a systematic review

• Aikaterini Dima 1 , 2 ,
• Adonis Wazir 3 , 4 ,
• Raquel Clark-Castillo 1 ,
• Iordanis Zakopoulos 5 ,
• Shubulade Smith 1 , 6 &
• Fiona Gaughran 1 , 6  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  400 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Forensic psychiatry is often associated with long admissions and has a high cost of care. There is little known about factors influencing length of stay (LOS), and no previous systematic review has synthesised the available data. This paper aims to identify factors influencing the LOS in forensic psychiatry hospitals to inform care and interventions that may reduce the length of admissions.

Methodology

A systematic review was conducted by searching major databases, including PubMed, EMBASE and PsycInfo, from inception until May 2022. Observational studies conducted in forensic hospitals that examined associations between variables of interest and LOS were included. Following data extraction, the Newcastle‒Ottawa Scale was used for quality appraisal. No meta-analysis was conducted due to heterogeneity of information; a quantitative measure to assess the strength of evidence was developed and reported.

A total of 28 studies met the inclusion criteria out of 1606 citations. A detailed quantitative synthesis was performed using robust criteria. Having committed homicide/attempted homicide, a criminal legal status with restrictions, and a diagnosis of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders were all associated with longer LOS. Higher Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scores were associated with a shorter LOS.

High-quality research examining factors associated with LOS in forensic psychiatry is lacking, and studies are heterogeneous. No modifiable characteristics were identified, and thus, practice recommendations were not made. There is an increasing necessity to understand the factors associated with longer admissions to inform care and increase success in reintegration and rehabilitation. This paper provides recommendations for future research.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Forensic psychiatry (FP) has the complex task of caring for mentally disordered offenders: assessing and treating mental illness and simultaneously protecting the public interest where individuals are deemed dangerous [ 1 , 2 ]. FP has taken on different forms across the world and has developed to different extents [ 2 ]. Its scope stretches across several settings: courts, general psychiatric settings, communities, prisons and dedicated forensic psychiatric hospitals. In some places, specialist FP is not available at all [ 3 ]. Naturally, FP is heavily intertwined with and dependent on the criminal justice system given its target population, and it is usually up to the justice system to weigh forensic psychiatrists’ expert opinion, decide on criminal responsibility and whether and where a custodial sentence must be served [ 4 ].

While the management of forensic patients includes rehabilitation and reintegration into society, protecting the public from potentially dangerous individuals remains an important consideration. Forensic inpatients have lengths of stay (LOS) spanning months or, more commonly, years, increasing in the past decades [ 5 ]. These admissions can have LOS that are shorter, equivalent, or sometimes longer than times in detention for imprisoned offenders for the same charge [ 6 ]. A high-security bed in the United Kingdom (UK) will be occupied by a forensic service user for an average of 70 months and a medium-security for 26 months [ 7 ]. A 2018 survey of 23 medium- and 3 high-security hospitals in England identified 23.5% of inpatients as “long-stayers”, defined as inpatients staying for more than 5 years in medium-security and more than 10 years in high-security services [ 8 ]. This phenomenon is not limited to the UK; in Brazil, the average LOS in forensic hospitals was 6 years [ 9 ], whereas in the Netherlands, the duration was greater at 8 years [ 8 ]. The longer LOS of forensic admissions is also apparent within specific diagnoses. In a 2008 study, patients with schizophrenia spent more days per year hospitalised when they had a forensic admission compared with those who had a non-forensic admission [ 10 ].

Forensic mental health services come at a great cost owing to the complexity of care. In the 2019 Scottish government inpatient census, the total number of patients being cared for in a forensic ward in Scotland was 412 [ 11 ]. in a population of 5,479,900 people; this highlights the small patient population admitted to such units. According to the Centre for Mental Health Care in the UK, the average cost per annum in England for low-security and medium-security beds is £153,300 and £176,295, respectively, while the cost for high-security beds ranges from £271,560 to £357,335 depending on the specific service [ 12 ]. High-security beds in Scotland come at comparable costs, approximately £6195 a week and £322,140 per annum in 2009/10 [ 13 ]. Overall, secure care services cost the NHS £821 million in England in 2018/19, corresponding to 10.9% of all public expenditure on mental health services [ 14 ]. This high cost is not limited to the UK. In the Netherlands, a forensic bed costs an average of 388 euros per day, adding up to 141,620 euros per patient per year [ 15 ]. In Japan, the cost of a forensic bed is US$186,019 per year [ 16 ], a cost 4.4 times higher than a non-forensic involuntary admission [ 17 ]. This cost, however, must be understood within the broader healthcare landscape and it is essential to recognise the value these services provide. Alternatives such as prolonged high-security imprisonment may incur comparable or even higher expenses, not to mention potentially inferior outcomes in terms of rehabilitation and recidivism rates.

While high cost is one reason to aim for a shorter LOS, the harms of longer admissions must be considered. A lengthy admission can adversely impact patient outcomes and quality of life and reduce the likelihood of future independent living by the individual [ 18 ]. Furthermore, it can lead to institutionalisation and social withdrawal [ 19 ] and greatly limit autonomy. Forensic environments are by default highly restrictive, with great emphasis placed on security of the individual and others [ 20 ], so a longer admission can result in sometimes unnecessary [ 21 ] prolonged deprivation of civil liberties for the individuals [ 22 ].

However, at present, there is no widely accepted definition of what constitutes a “long LOS” in forensic services; the Butler Committee on Mentally Abnormal Offenders interim report published in 1975 [ 23 ] and the Glancy report published in 1973 [ 24 ] by the Department of Health and Social Security and the Home Office recommended a maximum 18-month to 2-year stay for medium secure units before an alternative placement is sought. However, these were mere recommendations; research across the UK has repeatedly demonstrated that the LOS in medium- and high-security forensic hospitals often exceeds these numbers [ 5 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]. It is also worth noting that the original Glancy Report envisaged that “a significant number of patients are likely to require secure accommodation for longer than 18 months to two years” . Moreoever, there is no definition of LOS (prolonged or otherwise) in the forensic inpatient setting described in the most recent “Standards for Forensic Mental Health Services” by the Royal College of Psychiatrists and the Forensic Quality Network for Forensic Mental Health Services published in 2019 [ 28 ].

Huband et al [ 29 ] attempted in 2018 to define what constitutes “long stay” but found that reports were inconsistent across documents and thus it was not possible. They did, however, highlight some characteristics that may contribute to a long stay, such as “seriousness of index offence, history of psychiatric treatment, cognitive deficit, severity of illness, history of violence, and history of substance misuse”. This persistent lack of definition of an appropriate LOS from national and international bodies poses significant challenges in research, as investigators have to come up with their own definitions.

In light of the high cost and complexity of care, it is essential to understand what a prolonged admission is and what factors contribute to a longer LOS in FP. The reasoning is dual: from a public health and economic perspective, the financial burden of forensic admissions is heavy and increasing. From a patient-centred care perspective, the potentially detrimental effects of a prolonged admission, albeit being poorly defined, in such restrictive environments must be mitigated. Understanding contributing factors means that services can develop mechanisms to better address prolonged stays and patients’ needs.

While most factors that contribute to LOS are non-modifiable, such as sociodemographic characteristics and forensic or psychiatric history, special consideration must be given to the modifiable factors. Forensic care takes place in a complex system that involves a range of interventions that could influence LOS, such as pharmacological, psychological [ 30 ], and occupational therapies [ 31 ] or risk management-focused activities.

To date, there has been no systematic review or meta-analysis focusing on the factors influencing LOS as a primary outcome. The main aims of this systematic review were to identify modifiable and non-modifiable factors associated with LOS in forensic psychiatric hospitals and to identify gaps in the relevant literature to formulate recommendations for future research.

A protocol was developed and registered on PROSPERO (ID: CRD42022330535) in May 2022. The systematic review is herein reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) checklist [ 32 ].

Search strategy and screening

A systematic search strategy was developed according to the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) checklist [ 33 ]. The following electronic databases were searched: PubMED, EMBASE and PsycInfo from inception until May 2022, using both subject indexing terms (MeSH, EMTREE) and keywords and their variations. The full strategy is available in Supplementary Material 1 .

Study screening

Screening of articles was performed by two reviewers (AW and RCC), and any discrepancies were discussed and resolved with the principal reviewer (AD). During the first stage of screening, only titles and abstracts were reviewed to determine eligibility, and a final decision was made at a second stage based on a full-text review of the articles. Any reasons for excluding papers at the full-text review stage were recorded and reported (Fig.  1 ).

PRISMA flow diagram detailing the identification of articles through databases, numbers of abstracts and reports screened, excluded and included, for this systematic review

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

In terms of study design, only observational studies were included due to the nature of the research question. Eligible studies were either prospective or retrospective and used cohort, cross-sectional or case‒control designs. Studies from all countries and jurisdictions were included.

As per the review protocol, studies were included if the patient population examined was adults (aged 18 and above) admitted to forensic psychiatric inpatient settings (defined as specialised forensic hospitals of any security level, including low, medium or high/maximum). Studies conducted in prison, civil or general psychiatric hospitals were ineligible. Studies needed to have reported an association between a variable of interest and LOS to be eligible. LOS could be recorded either as a primary or secondary outcome and measured in any unit of time. LOS was not defined further primarily because the main population of interest was long-stay and difficult-to-discharge patients and secondarily due to a lack of consensus on the definition in forensic psychiatric research.

The variables of interest included sociodemographic characteristics, clinical/psychiatric factors (such as previous diagnoses and treatments), forensic factors (such as characteristics of offence), and legal factors (such as patients’ legal status).

Studies for which full reports were irretrievable and those not reported in English were excluded.

Quality appraisal

Two authors completed the quality appraisal (IZ and AW), and any discrepancies were discussed and resolved with the principal reviewer (AD). The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Newcastle‒Ottawa Scale (NOS) for case‒control and cohort studies [ 34 ] as well as an adapted version of the scale for cross-sectional studies (Supplementary Material 2 ). The NOS gives an overall score based on three concepts: selection of the sample, comparability of groups or controlling for confounders, and outcomes for an outcome of Good, Fair or Poor.

Research methodologies for LOS studies in health care settings have been extensively examined. There is yet to be an established robust methodology that is recommended, and there is lack of consensus in terms of statistical methods that are most appropriate. Overall, research into factors impacting LOS utilises statistical analyses that compare LOS between two independent samples, which can be done by way of bivariate analysis, regression models, or survival analysis [ 35 ]. The critical appraisal was conducted with this consideration in mind, as the NOS allows points for the choice of appropriate statistical tests being reported [ 34 ].

Data extraction

A standardised form for data extraction was developed for the purpose of this review in line with the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement guidance [ 36 ]. Data extracted included the year of publication, author details, study design, study period, statistical analysis, study setting, population details, sample size, assessment or follow-up period, source of information, inclusion and exclusion criteria, LOS and variables of interest as explained above. As the outcome variables differed significantly among the included studies, the form was specifically adapted for each one (example provided in Supplementary Material 3 ). In some studies, the population studied included multiple cohorts, and relevant data were extracted for each cohort separately. All data extraction forms are available upon request.

Data were first extracted on 30/08/2022. Data extraction was performed independently by two reviewers (AW and AD). Any discrepancies were discussed and resolved collaboratively. Authors of included articles were contacted in cases where information and data were missing or inconclusive. Additional data were received only for one study [ 37 ].

Data synthesis

It was not possible to perform a meta-analysis due to heterogeneity among the studies (in methodology and setting) and across selection and coding of variables, lack of data across several studies and the quality of the studies included. Thus, the characteristics of the included studies have been described, including design, setting, sample size, mean age and LOS, and statistics used, which can be seen in Table  1 .

First, all variables identified during data extraction across all studies (380) were collected. These were then grouped and pooled into matching categories (e.g., diagnosis of paraphilias and diagnosis of sexual deviance under the category of sexual preference disorders, as per ICD-10, the diagnosis system in place at the time of data collection). To accurately group the different variables, each article was revisited, and their specific definitions were recorded. Where variables were not clearly defined, decisions were made based on clinical judgement when possible, or the variables were excluded from the grouping. All variables that were examined by only one study were excluded. For each of the remaining variables, the number of studies that investigated them, as well as the number of studies that showed positive, negative or non-significant correlations with the LOS, were reported, stratified by the quality of the respective study (Table  2 ). A list of variables studied per article can be found in Supplementary Material 4 .

To identify factors of interest despite heterogeneity, the reviewers applied the same methodology as Luppa et al [ 38 ] and Moore et al [ 39 ]. To assess the quality of the evidence for each of the variables, a judgement was made based on three criteria: (a) the number of studies that examined a particular variable, (b) the quality of those studies, and (c) the consistency of the results across studies. Variables that did not meet the specified criteria or those that were evaluated by fewer than 3 studies were determined to have “inconclusive evidence”. Evidence was further deemed “inconclusive” when there was an equal sum of findings pointing in different directions. A summary of the quality of evidence can be found in Table  3 , as per the following criteria:

“Strong” quality of evidence for a particular variable was considered if it was examined in at least 3 good quality studies, and the results were similar (following the same direction of association) in at least 75% of the studies that looked at it.

“Moderate” was based on having consistent findings in at least 50% of studies across a minimum of 2 good quality studies.

“Weak” was attributed to variables that were examined by at least 3 studies, 1 of which was assessed to be of good quality, with similar results in at least 50%, or similar results in at least 4 studies classed as either fair or poor quality.

The search yielded a total of 1606 records across three databases. After de-duplication, 1176 records were left for screening. Following the title and abstract screening stage, 1122 records were excluded, and 54 records were eligible for full text review. Reasons for excluding full papers were recorded and reported (Fig.  1 ). Quality appraisal and data extraction were completed for 28 studies in total.

The list of included studies and their characteristics are presented in Table  1 . In terms of study design, cross-sectional methodologies were largely overrepresented (23 studies), whereas fewer prospective or retrospective cohort [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ] and case‒control designs [ 44 ] were identified.

A total of 13 studies were conducted in the UK [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ], five studies in the USA [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ] and two studies in Sweden [ 40 , 60 ] and the Netherlands [ 61 , 62 ]. The rest of the studies were conducted in Australia [ 63 ], Canada [ 64 ], Czechia [ 37 ], Germany [ 65 ], Ireland [ 41 ], and Poland [ 66 ]. The total sample size across all studies was 10,112, with the smallest being 14 [ 64 ] and the largest being 2287 participants [ 52 ].

The level of hospital security was not specified or applicable in seven studies [ 37 , 40 , 53 , 61 , 63 , 64 , 65 ]. There were three studies that were conducted across more than one level of security (2 studies in medium- and high-security hospitals [ 50 , 52 ] and one study in low- and medium-security hospitals [ 54 ]). The rest of the studies were conducted across only one level of security, with 10 studies conducted in maximum- or high-security hospitals [ 44 , 45 , 51 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 ], seven studies in medium-security hospitals [ 41 , 42 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 66 ] and one study in low-security hospitals [ 43 ].

Most studies reported mean ages of their samples, which ranged from 29.9 years [ 44 ] to 52.97 years [ 62 ]. The age of participants was not reported in four studies [ 42 , 51 , 59 , 65 ]. The majority of studies included predominantly males, with percentages ranging from 64.3% [ 64 ] to 90.3% [ 46 ] of all participants. Nine studies [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 49 , 51 , 55 , 56 , 60 , 62 ] included only male participants. One study examined female patients only [ 47 ]. One study only looked at forensic patients with a learning disability [ 48 ].

The overall LOS was reported in most studies, but others reported means of the groups without giving an overall picture. LOS ranged from 0.32 years (equivalent to 116.9 days) in a study conducted in a maximum-security hospital in the USA [ 55 ] to 14.95 years in a study conducted in both medium- and high-security settings in the UK [ 50 ]. In the latter study, there was no differentiation in the reporting between the medium and high secure settings in terms of LOS.

Quality of studies

Following critical appraisal, seven studies were judged to be of good quality, nine studies of fair quality and the rest of the studies were poor. The most common issues identified were a lack of comparators or adequate control for confounders and offering no justification for sample size selection. Strong indicators across studies commonly included random selection and representativeness of the sample. Moreover, most investigators had direct access to secure and up-to-date medical records but did not account for reporting bias by the authors of the records. The outcomes of the studies were reported to varied extents, with a minority of the studies only including statistically significant results in their manuscripts. Details of the critical appraisal can be found in Table  4 .

Studied variables

Overall, a total of 380 variables were examined. Variables that were similar were pooled and grouped. Table  2 shows all 79 factors that were assessed by at least two articles. Although the broad categories of variables were predetermined, the ones displayed are a result of what was identified in the review.

The most studied factor was the presence of a major index offence (defined as homicide, attempted homicide, serious bodily assault, armed robbery, kidnapping and arson), which was examined in 20 articles. This was followed by age (16 articles), psychosis-related diagnoses (excluding schizophrenia) (11 articles), male sex (nine articles), and history of substance use disorder (nine articles).

Some noteworthy variables that were examined by a single study and were not included in the discussion were treatment with clozapine [ 66 ], treatment with > 1 antipsychotic [ 66 ], persistent psychotic symptoms over the past 6 months of admission [ 66 ], age at first psychiatric admission [ 65 ], age at the onset of psychiatric symptoms [ 43 ], and substance abuse during admission [ 40 ].

Predictors of length of stay

The present review demonstrated varying quality of evidence for the different variables studied (Table  3 ). Most variables had no significant correlation with LOS. Significant correlations could be made for some factors. A lower GAF score (moderate evidence), an index offence of homicide or attempted homicide (moderate evidence), a legal status of criminal section with restrictions (moderate), or a diagnosis of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders (weak evidence) were correlated with a longer LOS.

The primary aim of this systematic review was to identify factors that influence LOS in forensic inpatient settings and synthesise findings across high-quality studies. At the time of this study, no previous systematic review has focused entirely on the factors that influence LOS in forensic settings. A systematic review in 2015 examined factors influencing key forensic outcomes [ 67 ]; however, this review included fewer articles and was not focused on LOS. The authors only extracted statistically significant results, and there was no data synthesis. There was no meta-analysis for reasons similar to those reported above. Similarly, a rapid review conducted in 2018 by Huband et al [ 29 ] attempted to answer a set of different questions, including what constitutes a long stay, what are the characteristics of long-stay patients and what factors predict the LOS. This review utilised a rapid rather than a systematic review methodology and more restrictive inclusion criteria, such as factors that were only explored by multivariate analysis. Although this may control for confounding, it nevertheless excludes other robust statistical analyses. Most importantly, however, both Huband et al. and Sedgwick et al. described their findings narratively and did not conduct a data synthesis.

Main findings

While no meta-analysis was performed, we identified factors of interest that are supported by strong, moderate or weak quality of evidence, as explained above. The primary reason for identifying relevant variables remains to inform better care and discharge planning for forensic patients and allow for targeted treatment and distribution of health services; however, for most of the studies, no link to clinical practice was made.

One of the aims of this review was to identify modifiable factors for the purpose of directing potential future interventions. However, most factors with good quality evidence were non-modifiable. While most studies looked at historical information (e.g., psychiatric history, forensic history), few examined characteristics of treatment or institutional behaviour, and no studies looked into details of daily functioning with the exception of GAF scores. Some clinically interesting variables included refusal of treatment [ 59 ] and involuntary treatment administration [ 59 ], treatment with more than one antipsychotic [ 66 ] and having treatment-resistant psychosis [ 37 ], i.e., non-responsive to at least two different antipsychotics.

Overall, it appears that none of the sociodemographic variables appeared to be associated with LOS, including age, sex, ethnicity, employment, and family status, supported by strong and moderate quality of evidence. This differs from general psychiatric wards, where African-Caribbean patients appear to experience prolonged stays [ 68 ] in the UK. A common difficulty in research remains the consistent measurement of these variables, as while frequently included in studies, authors use different terminology. We explore this complexity in more detail below.

Interestingly, civil legal status was not associated with longer admissions. This finding, however, is limited to psychiatric services in the UK, where the term refers to an involuntary admission under Part II of the Mental Health Act (MHA) 1983 [ 69 ] (amended in 2007 [ 70 ]) either for assessment or treatment. A criminal (or forensic) section refers to an involuntary admission under Part III of the MHA, which may include court-imposed restrictions, as indicated previously in this paper. Admissions under civil detention are largely into general psychiatric hospitals, but these patients can be found in forensic wards at varying degrees [ 71 ] and are transferred usually as a result of increased risk and behavioural disturbance that cannot be managed on general psychiatric wards.

The initial expectation was that civil detention would correlate with shorter LOS due to the absence of an index offence and judiciary involvement. However, on closer inspection, these patients appear to pose greater management challenges, with more frequent episodes of aggression [ 72 , 73 ]. This may nullify the positive effect of not having committed an offence.

Similarly, an absence of index offence and institutional aggression during hospitalisation (including the requirement of seclusion and restraint) did not influence LOS. Institutional aggression was quantified by the number of incidents perpetrated by the individual throughout their admission. The common expectation in forensic psychiatric settings is that heightened risk would result in a prolonged stay to protect either the individual or society– in some cases, both. There is, however, a need for further investigation to corroborate these findings.

Conversely, and unsurprisingly, patients in the UK admitted under a criminal section with restrictions tended to stay in the hospital for longer periods of time. A criminal section implies that an individual has been convicted of a crime by court but is identified to have a mental disorder and is in need of medical assessment and/or treatment. A criminal section with restrictions means that the individual cannot be granted leave or be discharged without prior approval by the Ministry of Justice and is usually reserved for more serious offences.

The most examined variable across all studies was a major index offence. Unlike the findings of Sedgwick et al [ 67 ] and Huband et al [ 29 ], the evidence suggesting that having committed a broadly defined major offence prolongs the LOS was inconclusive, primarily due to the inconsistency of results across studies. A major index offence is associated with an increased risk of violence and more conservative discharge planning. Nonetheless, it is important to note that despite being inconclusive, there were nine studies [ 40 , 42 , 47 , 51 , 55 , 59 , 63 , 65 , 66 ] where having committed a major index offence was reported as a predictor of longer LOS, and there is a need for more high-quality studies to decipher this relationship. On the other hand, having committed specifically homicide or attempted to commit homicide was associated with an increase in LOS.

With regard to rating scales, GAF was the only scale to have an association with LOS, and this was negative. This finding appears logical, as a higher GAF score is associated with fewer symptoms and better social and occupational functioning [ 74 ]. GAF has also been found to have a strong predictive validity of one-year treatment outcomes [ 75 ] and thus appears to be a reliable tool to monitor progress and recovery.

In terms of diagnosis, while schizophrenia-spectrum disorders (SSD) were linked to prolonged LOS, the quality of evidence was moderate and did not extend to the specific diagnosis of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders. This may be due to limited high-quality studies and sample sizes, but it could also be partially explained by the relative dearth of evidence for optimal management of SSD such as schizophrenia [ 76 ] and the widespread recognition of the burden of such a diagnosis [ 77 ]. One key aspect of the impact of diagnosis on LOS, however, would be the existence of comorbidities, such as substance use disorder, which has a very high prevalence among patients with SSD [ 78 ]. This association should be the focus of future research.

One key finding across this review was a consistently higher LOS among patients in the UK, particularly in comparison to the USA. The importance of different organisations and the provision of forensic psychiatry cannot be understated. However, at least when comparing services of similar nature (i.e., high-security settings), such a stark difference could be explained by several factors. In US secure hospitals, the focus is on competency restoration to stand trial, rather than long-term treatment. If competency cannot be restored, then charges must be dropped, and the individuals are either released or admitted under a civil Sect. [ 79 ]. There has been a recent drive to reduce the prison population and a focus on community services in the USA, which may lead to faster movement between services [ 80 , 81 ]. Additionally, the influence of a public, nationalised health system in the UK might also be relevant, as is the court diversion system [ 82 ]. Very few studies from other countries were included, and thus, no inferences could be made.

Variation of definitions

One striking finding of this review was the often-extreme variations in definitions of relevant variables. Some of these variations, such as the level of security or lack thereof, were expected, as FP is structured differently across the world and is dependent on local legislation [ 83 ].

This variation included the primary outcome variable, LOS, defined mostly as either LOS at the time of the study or LOS until discharge. As there is no accepted threshold of a “lengthy” inpatient stay, authors have had to devise their own definition which differ across studies. A total of 19 out of 28 studies did not define LOS at all and rather drew comparisons based on the LOS of the included patients at a specific point in time. The most common cut-off point used was the 2-year mark [ 42 , 44 , 46 , 51 , 60 , 65 ]. Chester et al [ 50 ] and Duke et al [ 52 ] defined a prolonged LOS as more than 5 years in medium secure care and 10 years in high secure care and compared patients in these groups with those who did not meet the criteria. For Alexander et al [ 48 ], the difficult-to-discharge group was determined based on the median LOS of the patients who had been discharged at the time of the study. The need for a universal definition remains a very important point for consideration in forensic research.

The definition of ethnicity also poses a challenge, as there is no universally agreed system of classification, and such a classification would largely depend on local context [ 84 ]. The relationship between ethnicity and outcomes may be affected by minority status, which is not constant globally. In our review, different studies used different ways of reporting or had much broader categorisations, and it is possible that there may be associations missed due to the difficulties in grouping.

The definition and measurement of age was surprisingly varied. The definitions encountered in the included articles were age on admission, age on discharge, and age during the study. In terms of association with LOS, these varying definitions represent different variables and should be studied further to corroborate the accuracy of the conclusion itself.

Another important finding to highlight was the lack of effect size measurement and differences in statistical analysis and reporting across multiple studies. P values alone are not sufficient to identify an association, and a statistically significant result is much more likely with larger sample sizes [ 85 ]. Effect sizes are thus necessary to understand the extent of the difference between the groups and provide an added layer of security that the result is not only statistically but also clinically significant.

Limitations

This review aimed to answer a complex question. The authors focused on synthesising evidence across different countries, cultures and economic systems, all factors that are imperative in forensic psychiatry. There is thus an inherent weakness in any similar quantitative‒qualitative analysis and one that is unlikely to be resolved in the future.

As with all systematic reviews, and despite best efforts to include all relevant terms and keywords in the search strategies, it is possible that relevant and high-quality studies might have been missed as non-English articles were excluded and the search was limited to three databases. However, the search strategy was initially piloted across all key databases, and those with relevant results were included in the review.

As the present review focused on observational studies, the evidence identified carries several of the limitations associated with this design. Cross-sectional designs in particular—which were overrepresented—have limited capacity to assess causal relationships between LOS and variables of interest. It is, however, a cost-effective and easy way to look at a snapshot of information, and it is preferred where access to detailed medical records is readily available.

Most commonly, forensic mental health services include 3 levels of security. This is the case for the UK [ 5 ], Sweden [ 86 ], Poland [ 87 ], Canada [ 88 ], Germany [ 89 ] and Australia [ 90 ]. Dutch forensic services provide four levels of security, determined by the patient’s legal and clinical status [ 8 ]. In some jurisdictions, all three levels are provided on the same site. However, even where the level of security appears similar, service provision and expectations may not be comparable, as demonstrated by the stark LOS difference among high-secure hospitals in the US and UK. It would be important for future research to focus on specific levels of security that are aligned both in terms of risk stratification and scope of practice, particularly when conducting international reviews.

A key limitation in both the available evidence and this study is highlighted by the lack of a meta-analysis. Studies looking at LOS in forensic settings are extremely heterogeneous in terminology, measurement of variables, statistical analysis, measurement of effect sizes, and even in reporting of results. Even beyond the heterogeneity, most of the included studies explored a large number of variables but without having a prior hypothesis and without reporting effect sizes. This is not the case only in FP research but also in general psychiatry and was highlighted by a 2011 review on the LOS in general psychiatric inpatients in the USA [ 91 ]. It is the authors’ hope that this review can bring this issue forward and encourage future authors to follow a list of recommendations that have been compiled and can be found below.

Lastly, an important observation was data dredging. Data dredging increases the chance of identifying possible associations, particularly statistically significant ones, through introducing multiple variables or multiple categorisations of variables [ 92 , 93 ]. Across several studies in this review, the list of variables was lengthy, and among the statistically significant associations identified, some often lacked practical or clinical significance and had poor generalisability outside the study population. Such variables could include inappropriately grouped diagnoses (e.g. intellectual disability and dementia) or extensive categorisation of demographic history (e.g. employment or social history).

Implications for future research and practice

The present body of work adds significant value to the literature, if only for the gaps that have been identified and described at length. A set of variables, including having committed homicide/attempted homicide, a criminal status with restrictions and schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, were found to have evidence of varying quality to suggest that they may prolong LOS. These findings should be re-examined using higher quality research to prove this association and understand how care can be adapted to account for them– perhaps through the development of different pathways for rehabilitation, according to the details of the index offence (aside the levels of security). On the other hand, the importance of GAF scores has been highlighted, as they are negatively associated with LOS and can be a quick and efficient tool to use in daily practice. While the evidence is moderate, it implies that both severity of illness and daily functioning are important aspects to consider across care planning, and future researchers are encouraged to use them as guidance for examining response to rehabilitation.

Regarding heterogeneity, unless a set of commonly examined variables are standardised, it is unlikely that a meta-analysis will be possible in the future. A set has been compiled below, and the authors encourage investigators to consider this in their practice. It is also crucial that modifiable variables, particularly in terms of treatment (pharmacological and non-pharmacological) characteristics, are explored. While the evidence for psychotherapy treatment was inconclusive due to a lack of high-quality studies and consistency, Long et al [ 47 ] identified that engagement reduced LOS, while Moulden et al [ 64 ] reported a reduction in LOS for patients receiving Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT), albeit in a very small sample. Another non-pharmacological treatment option that ought to be explored is occupational therapy, as it plays a significant role in recovery [ 94 ]: Messina [ 57 ] highlighted a shorter LOS among those with higher attendance at therapeutic groups while in the hospital, and there was evidence in this review to suggest that the same applies to higher GAF scores [ 40 , 55 , 57 ], which are partly based on psychosocial and daily functioning.

Conclusion and recommendations

This systematic review was conducted to explore factors associated with LOS for patients in forensic psychiatry units. A limited number of studies with adequate quality to make conclusions was identified, but it was possible to identify factors with moderate or weak evidence to support their correlation (or lack thereof) with LOS. There is moderate to weak evidence of a positive effect among having committed homicide/attempted homicide, a criminal section with restrictions and schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and LOS. Moderate evidence suggests a negative correlation between the GAF score and LOS. There are varying levels of quality of evidence that suggest no significant correlation between the other variables that were reviewed and LOS.

This review has highlighted gaps and inconsistencies in current research, as well as heterogeneities in methodology, definitions, and analyses. Thus, some recommendations for researchers to consider in the future have been compiled:

In terms of methodology, prospective cohort designs and examining specific sets of variables from admission (including pathway to admission) onwards will provide a more robust methodological approach, allowing inferences on any associations with LOS. Moreover, due to forensic services relying mostly on involuntary admissions, loss to follow-up is highly unlikely.

Use standardised definitions for variables including age, sex, employment status, marital status, ethnicity, race, migration, or citizenship status where possible. This endeavour becomes more complex across borders, and the authors recommend using standardised tools such as census questionnaires.

If there is grouping of diagnoses, provide additional data on each diagnosis made using consistent classification systems, such as ICD-11, to facilitate later meta-analyses. Additionally, any comorbidities (historic or current) need to be clearly mentioned and their associations examined.

Collect treatment-related variables such as medication choice, polypharmacy, engagement in psychotherapy, and engagement in occupational therapy.

Examine variables related to presentation as an inpatient, including behavioural disturbance and institutional aggression, ongoing symptoms of mental illness, and use of substances.

Future research should focus on modifiable characteristics (such as recommendations IV and V) while continuing to collect non-modifiable characteristics in a uniform manner.

Avoid overinclusion of variables, particularly where clinical significance may be questionable.

Report on effect sizes where a statistically significant result has been identified and present this finding in a clear and concise manner.

Data availability

Additional data available upon request.

Abbreviations

• Length of stay

Global Assessment of Functioning

Forensic Psychiatry

United Kingdom

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Newcastle‒Ottawa Scale

Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology

Schizophrenia-spectrum disorder

Dialectical-Behavioural Therapy

Not specified

Not applicable

Intellectual disability/No intellectual disability

High security

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Medium security

Long-stayers/Non-long-stayers

Long-term Forensic Psychiatric Centre

Regular Forensic Psychiatric Centre

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Professor Vasilis P. Bozikas, Professor Dimitrios G. Goulis and Associate Professor Leda-Kalliopi Kovatsi for their expertise and assistance while reviewing this paper and providing invaluable feedback at its thesis stage as part of the MSc Medical Research Methodology at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

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All authors critically reviewed the manuscript and approved the final version. All authors agree to be held accountable for all aspects of the submitted work. AD was the principal reviewer and contributed to conception and design, data acquisition, data analysis and data interpretation. AW contributed to conception and design, data acquisition, and data analysis. RCC contributed to data acquisition. IZ contributed to data analysis. SS contributed to interpretation of the data. FG contributed to conception and design as well as interpretation of the data.

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Dima, A., Wazir, A., Clark-Castillo, R. et al. Factors influencing the length of stay in forensic psychiatric settings: a systematic review. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 400 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10863-x

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Abstract 6071: Identification of a molecular glue degrader targeting the full-length AR and AR-V7 splice variant

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Yuan Liu , Mads B. Larsen , Bo Lin , Irene A. Cardenal , Jason Kennerdell , Toren Finkel , Bill B. Chen; Abstract 6071: Identification of a molecular glue degrader targeting the full-length AR and AR-V7 splice variant. Cancer Res 15 March 2024; 84 (6_Supplement): 6071. https://doi.org/10.1158/1538-7445.AM2024-6071

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Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in males and the fifth leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide. A variety of therapeutic approaches exist including steroid synthesis inhibitors and next-generation ligand binding domain (LBD) antagonists [e.g., enzalutamide (Enza)]. However, these approaches are only effective against tumors bearing the full-length androgen receptor (AR-FL). In the course of their disease, many patients acquire androgen receptor splice variant 7 (AR-V7), a mutant form of the receptor which lacks the LBD and is constitutively activated. To date, no effective therapy has been demonstrated for patients with metastatic prostate cancer bearing the AR-V7 signature. We have recently developed a high throughput platform that allows for the identification of ligands that can bind to a wide variety of protein targets. Using this approach, we screened a diverse chemical library of 100,000 small molecules to identify compounds that are bound to AR-V7. One such molecule, AR-600, directly bound to AR-V7 and moreover, induced proteasomal-mediated targeted protein degradation of both AR-V7 and AR-FL. In prostate cancer cell lines expressing AR-FL, AR-600 induced a gene expression profile similar to cells treated with Enza including a marked reduction in KLK3 (PSA) expression. Moreover, AR-600 inhibited the growth of 22RV1 cells (IC50=23 nM), a cell line that predominantly expresses AR-V7, as well as C4-2 cells that express predominantly full-length AR (IC50=51 nM). In contrast, the compound did not affect the growth of a wide variety of non-tumorigenic cells, non-prostate tumor cell lines or PC3 cells, a prostate cell line that exhibits AR-independent cell growth (IC50>100uM). Preliminary exploration of the mechanism of action of AR-600 (M.W. ~300 Daltons) demonstrates the compound works as a molecular glue. These results thereby identify a small molecule glue degrader that can specifically induce the targeted protein degradation of the AR-V7 splice variant. Given the strong association of this isoform with treatment resistance, this approach would appear to provide an attractive strategy for patients with metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer.

Citation Format: Yuan Liu, Mads B. Larsen, Bo Lin, Irene A. Cardenal, Jason Kennerdell, Toren Finkel, Bill B. Chen. Identification of a molecular glue degrader targeting the full-length AR and AR-V7 splice variant [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2024; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2024 Apr 5-10; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(6_Suppl):Abstract nr 6071.

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