research study about plants

• Search Menu
• Advance Articles
• Collections
• Focus Collections
• Teaching Tools in Plant Biology
• Browse by cover
• High-Impact Research
• Author Guidelines
• Quick and Simple Author Support
• Focus Issues Call for Papers
• Submission Site
• Open Access Options
• Self-Archiving Policy
• Why Publish with Us?
• About The Plant Cell
• About The American Society of Plant Biologists
• Editorial Board
• Advertising & Corporate Services
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

Article Contents

• < Previous

Why Study Plants?

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data

Why Study Plants?, The Plant Cell , Volume 21, Issue 10, October 2009, No Pagination Specified, https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.109.tt1009

• Permissions Icon Permissions

Plants provide us with oxygen, food, fuel and fiber. Among other reasons, scientists study plants to improve and secure the food supply for an increasing world population, identify new sources of bioactive compounds and medicines, improve fiber production and identify sources of biofuels and biorenewable resources. This lecture is designed for a general audience or first year university students - no prior knowledge is assumed.

Click HERE to access Teaching Tool Components

Supplementary data

Email alerts, citing articles via.

• Recommend to Your Librarian
• Advertising & Corporate Services
• Awards & Funding
• Plant Science Today
• Plant Biology Meeting
• Meeting Management Services
• Plant Science Research Weekly
• Taproot: A Plantae Podcast

Affiliations

• Online ISSN 1532-298X
• Print ISSN 1040-4651
• Copyright © 2024 American Society of Plant Biologists
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Suggested Searches

• Climate Change
• Expedition 64
• Mars perseverance
• SpaceX Crew-2
• International Space Station
• View All Topics A-Z

Humans in Space

Earth & climate, the solar system, the universe, aeronautics, learning resources, news & events.

NASA’s PACE Data on Ocean, Atmosphere, Climate Now Available

Altitude Chamber Gets Upgrade for Artemis II, Spacecraft Testing Begins 

NASA Next-Generation Solar Sail Boom Technology Ready for Launch

• Search All NASA Missions
• A to Z List of Missions
• Upcoming Launches and Landings
• Spaceships and Rockets
• Communicating with Missions
• James Webb Space Telescope
• Hubble Space Telescope
• Why Go to Space
• Astronauts Home
• Commercial Space
• Destinations
• Living in Space
• Explore Earth Science
• Earth, Our Planet
• Earth Science in Action
• Earth Multimedia
• Earth Science Researchers
• Pluto & Dwarf Planets
• Asteroids, Comets & Meteors
• The Kuiper Belt
• The Oort Cloud
• Skywatching
• The Search for Life in the Universe
• Black Holes
• The Big Bang
• Dark Energy & Dark Matter
• Earth Science
• Planetary Science
• Astrophysics & Space Science
• The Sun & Heliophysics
• Biological & Physical Sciences
• Lunar Science
• Citizen Science
• Astromaterials
• Aeronautics Research
• Human Space Travel Research
• Science in the Air
• NASA Aircraft
• Flight Innovation
• Supersonic Flight
• Air Traffic Solutions
• Green Aviation Tech
• Drones & You
• Technology Transfer & Spinoffs
• Space Travel Technology
• Technology Living in Space
• Manufacturing and Materials
• Science Instruments
• For Kids and Students
• For Educators
• For Colleges and Universities
• For Professionals
• Science for Everyone
• Requests for Exhibits, Artifacts, or Speakers
• STEM Engagement at NASA
• NASA's Impacts
• Centers and Facilities
• Directorates
• Organizations
• People of NASA
• Internships
• Our History
• Doing Business with NASA
• Get Involved
• Aeronáutica
• Ciencias Terrestres
• Sistema Solar
• All NASA News
• Video Series on NASA+
• Newsletters
• Social Media
• Media Resources
• Upcoming Launches & Landings
• Virtual Events
• Sounds and Ringtones
• Interactives
• STEM Multimedia

The April 8 Total Solar Eclipse: Through the Eyes of NASA

NASA’s Boeing Crew Flight Test Mission Overview

Hubble Spots a Galaxy Hidden in a Dark Cloud

NASA Shares Medical Expertise with New Space Station Partners

From NASA’s First Astronaut Class to Artemis II: The Importance of Military Jet Pilot Experience

The Ocean Touches Everything: Celebrate Earth Day with NASA

Earth Day Poster 2024

Media Get Close-Up of NASA’s Jupiter-Bound Europa Clipper

More Than 36,000 Volunteers Helped Do NASA Eclipse Science

NASA’s TESS Temporarily Pauses Science Observations

NASA Names Finalists of the Power to Explore Challenge

Earth Day 2024: Posters and Virtual Backgrounds

NASA Langley Team to Study Weather During Eclipse Using Uncrewed Vehicles

ARMD Solicitations

NASA Noise Prediction Tool Supports Users in Air Taxi Industry

Tech Today: Folding NASA Experience into an Origami Toolkit 

NASA’s SERT II: ‘A Genuine Space Success Story’

NASA Partnerships Bring 2024 Total Solar Eclipse to Everyone

Shawnta M. Ball Turns Obstacles into Opportunities in Goddard’s Education Office

A Langley Intern Traveled 1,340 Miles to View a Total Solar Eclipse. Here’s What She Saw.

La presentación del X-59 de la NASA personifica la tradición aeronáutica

A researcher’s guide to: plant science, space station research integration office.

March 2023 Edition

By Elison B. Blancaflor, Ph.D. Raymond M. Wheeler, Ph.D. Gioia Massa, Ph.D Jeff T. Richards, M.S. Charles D. Quincy, PE Howard G. Levine, Ph.D.

Advances made during decades of spaceflight experimentation have identified critical gaps in our understanding of the role of gravity and the spaceflight environment on plant biology at the cellular, tissue, whole plant, and community levels.

The International Space Station is a unique platform where reduced gravity can be used to probe and dissect biological mechanisms in plants for understanding how terrestrial biology responds to gravity. This knowledge is important for supporting safe and long-term human habitation in space using bioregenerative life support with plants and microbial communities in space. This knowledge can also be applied to reducing exploration risks to crews by designing countermeasures to problems associated with living in space. In addition, scientists can investigate how plants respond to reduced gravity environments on the moon and Mars.

This researcher’s guide provides information on the background for plant science research, summarizes previous research, including lessons learned, and provides information on ISS research facilities. Information on what potential investigators should know about conducting research on the International Space Station is also provided.

PDF readers: PDF [1.6 MB]

All other eBook readers: ( in process )

Discover More Topics

Station Researcher’s Guide Series

Opportunities and Information for Researchers

Space Station Research Results

Latest News from Space Station Research

• News Releases

An inside look at how plants and mycorrhizal fungi cooperate

A new view into a symbiosis could offer benefits to address climate change: pulling atmospheric carbon into soil and boosting biofuel feedstocks with less fertilizer

DOE/Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Benjamin Cole, senior author of the Nature Plants paper describing one of the first cross-kingdom spatially-resolved transcriptomics studies to date. 

Credit: (Thor Swift/Berkeley Lab)

For millions of years, underground fungi have lived in symbiosis with plant roots. Plants provide photosynthesized carbon, while fungi deliver water and nutrients. In order to do so, these organisms share space at cellular scale: fungi stretch a network of tendrils called arbuscules into a plant’s root cells, and both organisms rearrange their cells around this structure to facilitate sharing. 

Recently, researchers have been able to study both sides of this interaction up close, using RNA sequencing to understand gene expression: one of the first cross-kingdom spatially-resolved transcriptomics studies to date. This paper is the cover article for the April 2024 issue  of Nature Plants . 

“We wanted to better understand the nature of this symbiosis at the cellular level — really understand how those two cell types [of two different organisms] are interacting with each other, without all the noise or other biological activity of the surrounding neighborhood,” said Benjamin Cole, senior author of this work. Cole is a research scientist at the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Joint Genome Institute (JGI), a DOE Office of Science User Facility located at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab).

Specific understanding of this symbiosis could offer improvements in multiple directions. On the fungi side, underground mycorrhizal networks can serve as a reservoir for carbon compounds that plants generate from carbon dioxide they take in. In this way, encouraging this symbiosis could improve the way soils store carbon from the atmosphere. For plants, boosting this relationship could improve biofuel feedstocks growing in nutrient-poor fields. “This is one interaction that allows plants to better survive in those environments,”  Karen Serrano said. She is first author of this paper and a graduate researcher at the Joint BioEnergy Institute (JBEI).

Cole led the work in collaboration with JBEI as part of the 2021 Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program. Cole also received a DOE Early Career Research Program (ECRP) award in 2021, which aims in part to build off of this work. Former JGI postdoctoral scholar Margot Bezrutczyk collaborated extensively with Cole and Serrano to collect and analyze the single nuclei and spatial transcriptomics data this work leverages.

These experiments focused on two species at once: the model legume species Medicago truncatula and the mycorrhizal fungi Rhizophagus irregularis. To see how these organisms cooperate, this team applied R. irregularis spores directly to M. truncatula seedlings grown in a controlled environment chamber, so the fungus could colonize the plants’ roots. Then, comparing with control seedlings which were not treated with fungi, they used multiple approaches to look at gene expression in both plant cells and fungal cells.

Using a technique called single nuclei RNA sequencing, the researchers identified different cell types within M. truncatula root cells, and profiled their gene expression. Then, the researchers used a technique called spatial transcriptomics, to generate maps of gene expression. This spatial transcriptomics technique allowed them to understand gene expression within circular capture areas roughly 55-microns in diameter — about the width of a human hair. At such resolution, this spatial transcriptomics data captured molecular information from both plant cells and fungal cells.

“Because this technology relies on just polyadenylated transcript capture — any RNA that is from eukaryotes — we were able to capture both plant and fungal transcripts,” Serrano said. This team quantified the expression of over 12,000 fungal genes, in addition to associated plant genes. 

All together, these data offer a granular view of both plant and fungal activity at different stages of this symbiosis. Within that activity, Serrano, Cole and their team found over 1,000 upregulated genes, 188 of which were shared with previous studies in the same system. With the right functional characterization, those genes could become dials for tuning this symbiosis. “Those are great candidates for genetic engineering. Our hope is that the community at large will follow that up,” Serrano said. 

This work focused on a relatively well-understood model system, so future directions will also include targeting biofuel feedstocks in similar studies. “We would like to look at arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in other bioenergy grasses, like sorghum and switchgrass. We're optimizing systems now, so that we can get those working,” Cole said. 

The U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, a DOE Office of Science User Facility at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, is committed to advancing genomics in support of DOE missions related to clean energy generation and environmental characterization and cleanup. JGI provides integrated high-throughput sequencing and computational analysis that enable systems-based scientific approaches to these challenges. Follow @jgi on Twitter.

DOE’s Office of Science is the largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States, and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, please visit science.energy.gov . 

The Joint BioEnergy Institute is a DOE Bioenergy Research Center managed by Berkeley Lab. For more information, please visit jbei.org .

Nature Plants

10.1038/s41477-024-01666-3

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Spatial co-transcriptomics reveals discrete stages of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis

Article Publication Date

Disclaimer: AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert system.

Additional Multimedia

Original Source

Advertisement

Research Progress on endangered plants: a bibliometric analysis

• Review Paper
• Published: 07 March 2022
• Volume 31 , pages 1125–1147, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Jie Xu 1 , 3 ,
• Pengnan Xiao 2 ,
• TingTing Li 1 , 3 &
• Zhengxiang Wang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9514-6712 1 , 3  

903 Accesses

10 Citations

Explore all metrics

The rapid extinction of endangered plants (EPs) may lead to the destruction of entire ecosystems, which will seriously threaten the survival and development of humans. Research on endangered plants should be strengthened to scientifically guide the protection of endangered plants. Based on 1635 publications collected from the Web of Science Core Collection ™ (WoS), this paper aims to provide a comprehensive bibliometric run-through and visualization of the subject of EPs. Contingent on influential authors, organizations, top journals and subject category, as well as the most influential papers in the EPs field were discussed in detail. Afterwards, by analyzing the co-occurrence network and evolution path of keywords, to discover the main research topics. In the discussion part, this paper focuses on important issues and research frameworks in the field. The main motive of the paper is to assist research workers interested in the area of EPs to determine the ongoing potential research opportunities and hotspots.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA) Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Impact of climate change on biodiversity loss: global evidence

Muzafar Shah Habibullah, Badariah Haji Din, … Hasan Zahid

Challenges and opportunities of area-based conservation in reaching biodiversity and sustainability goals

Samuel Hoffmann

Ecotourism and sustainable development: a scientometric review of global research trends

Lishan Xu, Changlin Ao, … Zhenyu Cai

Data Availability

Not applicable.

Code Availability

Adhikari D, Barik SK, Upadhaya K (2012) Habitat distribution modelling for reintroduction of Ilex khasiana Purk., a critically endangered tree species of northeastern India. Ecol Eng 40:37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.12.004

Article   Google Scholar  

Bacles CFE, Lowe AJ, Ennos RA (2004) Genetic effects of chronic habitat fragmentation on tree species: the case of Sorbus aucuparia in a deforested Scottish landscape. Mol Ecol 13, 573-584.10.1046/j.1365-294X.2004.02093.x

Barrett S, Kohn JR (1991) Genetic and Evolutionary Consequences of Small Population Size in Plants: Implications for Conservation. Genetics & Conservation of Rare Plants

Caro TM, O. G (1999) On the Use of Surrogate Species in Conservation Biology.Conserv Biol(4),805–814

Caro T, Laurenson M, Karen M (1994) Ecological and genetic factors in conservation: A cautionary tale. Science

Chao S, Wang S, Xia EH, Jiang JJ, Zeng FC, Gao LZ (2016) Full transcription of the chloroplast genome in photosynthetic eukaryotes. Sci Rep-Uk.10.1038/srep30135

Chen L, Gao QK, Chen DM, Xu CJ (2005) The use of RAPD markers for detecting genetic diversity, relationship and molecular identification of Chinese elite tea genetic resources [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Biodivers Conserv 14:1433–1444

CM C (2006) CiteSpace II: Detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient patterns in scientific literature. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (3),359–377. 10.1002/asi.20317

Csergő AM, Salguero Gómez R, Broennimann O, Coutts SR, Guisan A, Angert AL, Welk E, Stott I, Enquist BJ, McGill B, Svenning JC, Violle C, Buckley YM (2017) Less favourable climates constrain demographic strategies in plants. Ecol Lett 20, 969-980.10.1111/ele.12794

Cyranoski D (2008) China: Visions of China. Nature 454, 384-387.10.1038/454384a

Dongyan X (2004) A floristic study of the rare and endangered plants in Baimashan nature reserve. JOURNAL OF HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY 17, 278–281, 302.10.3969/j.issn.1674-4942.2004.03.017

Draper D, Rosselló-Graell A, Garcia C, Gomes CT, Sérgio (2003) C., Application of GIS in plant conservation programmes in Portugal. Biol Conserv 113, 337–349

Tao DU (2017) W. S. Q. X., Analysis of competitiveness of international geographic institutes based on bibliometrics. Acta Geographica Sinica 72, 1702-1716.10.11821/dlxb201709014

Du Xiajin, Hengan Z, Xiaofeng L, Li W (2017) Megasporogenesis and Development of Female Gametophyte of Endangered Plant Diplopanax stachyanthus. Journal of Tropical and Subtropical Botany 25, 605-609.10.11926/jtsb.3696

Eck N, Waltman L (2010) Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics 84:523–538

Eggleton LHJB (1998) Biodiversity inventories, indicator taxa and effects of habitat modification in tropical forest. Nature

El-Banhawy A, Nour IH, Acedo C, Elkordy A, Ellmouni Y (2021) Taxonomic Revisiting and Phylogenetic Placement of Two Endangered Plant Species: Silene leucophylla Boiss. and Silene schimperiana Boiss. (Caryophyllaceae) Plants 10:740

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Elith J, Graham H, Anderson CP, Dudík R, Ferrier M, Guisan S, Hijmans AJ, Huettmann R, Leathwick FR, Lehmann J, Li A, Lohmann JG, Loiselle LA, Manion B, Moritz G, Nakamura C, Nakazawa M, Overton YMcCM, Townsend Peterson J, Phillips AJ, Richardson S, Scachetti-Pereira K, Schapire RE, Soberón R, Williams J, Wisz SS, Zimmermann ME (2006) N., Novel methods improve prediction of species’ distributions from occurrence data. Ecography 29, 129-151.10.1111/j.2006.0906-7590.04596.x

Engelmann F (2011) Use of biotechnologies for the conservation of plant biodiversity. In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant 47, 5-16.10.1007/s11627-010-9327-2

Fanrong F (2008) Research on Endangered Plant Baiguimu’s Endangered System and Ex-situ Conservation. Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University

Fanrong F, Xiangqing M, Mark P (2008) Research progress in conservation biology of endangered plants in China. CHINA FORESTRY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, pp 1–5

Farwig N, Braun C, Hning-Gaese B (2008) K., Human disturbance reduces genetic diversity of an endangered tropical tree, Prunus africana (Rosaceae). Conserv Genet 9, 317.10.1007/s10592-007-9343-x

Fenu G, Bacchetta G, Charalambos SC, Fournaraki C, Galdo G, Gotsiou P, Kyratzis A, Piazza C, Vicens M, Pinna MS (2019) An early evaluation of translocation actions for endangered plant species on Mediterranean islands. Plant Diversity 41, 94-104.10.1016/j.pld.2019.03.001

Garfield E, Paris SW, Stock WG (2006) HistCite: A software tool for informetric analysis of citation linkage. NFD Information-Wissenschaft und Praxis 57:391–400

Google Scholar  

Gibbs JP (2001) Demography versus habitat fragmentation as determinants of genetic variation in wild populations. Biol Conserv 100, 15-20.10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00203-2

Godefroid S, Piazza C, Rossi G, Buord S, Stevens A, Aguraiuja R, Cowell C, Weekley CW, Vogg G, Iriondo JM, Johnson I, Dixon B, Gordon D, Magnanon S, Valentin B, Bjureke K, Koopman R, Vicens M, Virevaire M, Vanderborght T (2011) How successful are plant species reintroductions? Biol Conserv 144, 672-682.10.1016/j.biocon.2010.10.003

Goodman BD (1990) The demography of chance extinction. Viable Population for Conservation

Guirui Y (2003) Global Change and Carbon Cycle and Carbon Storage in Terrestrial Ecosystem (Fine). Meteorological Press

Guisan A, Broennimann O, Engler R (2006) Using Niche-Based Models to Improve the Sampling of Rare Species. Conserv Biol 20, 501-511.10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00354.x

Guisan A, Zimmermann NE (2000) Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology. Ecol Model 135, 147-186.10.1016/S0304-3800(00)00354-9

Guo-hua L, Bo-jie F (2001) Effects of global climate change on forest ecosystems. JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES, 71-78.10.3321/j.issn:1000-3037.2001.01.013

Honnay O, Jacquemyn H (2007) Susceptibility of Common and Rare Plant Species to the Genetic Consequences of Habitat Fragmentation. Conserv Biol 21, 823-831.10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00646.x

Huang J, Chen B, Liu C, Lai J, Zhang J, Ma K (2012) Identifying hotspots of endemic woody seed plant diversity in China. Divers Distrib 18, 673-688.10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00845.x

IUCN (2021) IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN

Jeong HM, Kim HR, Hong S, You YH (2018) Effects of elevated CO2 concentration and increased temperature on leaf quality responses of rare and endangered plants. Journal of Ecology & Environment 42, 1.10.1186/s41610-017-0061-0

Jiakuan HSGY (1998) Variation of flower number and seed setting rate of Liriodendron tulipifera. Acta Botanica Sinica, 27-32.10.3321/j.issn:1672-9072.1998.01.003

Jin’E M (2008) Study on Physiological and Ecological Characteristics of Endangered Plant Sinocalycanthus. Southwest University

Jingyun F (2000) Global Ecology: Climate Change and Ecological Response

Lande MR (1991) Assessing Extinction Threats: Toward a Reevaluation of IUCN Threatened Species Categories. Conserv Biol 5:148–157

Legname G, Nguyen HOB, Baskakov IV, Cohen FE, DeArmond SJ, Prusiner SB (2005) Strain-specified characteristics of mouse synthetic prions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102, 2168-2173.10.1073/pnas.0409079102

Liang F, Huang Q, Yanping YU, Liang H, Huang Q, Liu X, Chen Q, Tan X, University YN (2019) Physiological response of endangered semi-mangrove Barringtonia racemosa to salt stress and its correlation analysis. Journal of Central South University of Forestry & Technology 39, 12-18.10.14067/j.cnki.1673-923x.2019.10.003

Li-hua Z, Xiu-zhen C, Hong-liang Z (2006) Endangering Mechanism and Strategy for Conservation of Endangered Plant. Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities, Science and Technology, pp 43–46. 10.3969/j.issn.1673-0712.2006.06.015

Liu H, Yan MA, Qichao WU, Wang Y, Zang D, University SA (2020) Intraspecific and interspecific competition of the endangered plant Salix taishanensis. Journal of Forest and Environment 40, 178-183.10.13324/j.cnki.jfcf.2020.02.010

Liu N, Zhu W, Sun Z, Yang L, Yuan S, Ren H (2014) Canopy Size Dependent Facilitations from the Native ShrubRhodomyrtus tomentosa to the Early Establishment of Native TreesCastanopsis fissa and Syzygium hancei in Tropical China. Restor Ecol 22, 509-516.10.1111/rec.12094

Liu Z, Shu Q, Wang L, Yu M, Hu Y, Zhang H, Tao Y, Shao Y (2012) Genetic diversity of the endangered and medically important Lycium ruthenicum Murr. revealed by sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) markers. Biochem Syst Ecol 45, 86-97.10.1016/j.bse.2012.07.017

Liwen W (2016) The value of U.S. national parks. Grand Garden of Science, 3.10.3969/j.issn.1003-1871.2016.22.007

Mark FFMX (2008) Research progress in conservation biology of endangered plants in China. CHINA FORESTRY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1-5.10.3969/j.issn.1000-8101.2008.03.001

Myers N (1988) Myers N. — Threatened biotas: “Hot Spots” in tropical forests. Environmentalist The Environmentalist 8:187–208

Nicotra A, Hoyle G, Steadman K, Good R (2014) Australian alpine seed ecology: plant conservation and adaptation to climate change. ARC linkage project, Symposium on Alpine Seed & Plant Ecology in the Australian Alps

Ning X, Chen LN, Khoon-Meng W, Cui YZ, Yang HQ, Monica S (2016) Seed Set and Natural Regeneration of Dendrocalamus membranaceus Munro after Mass and Sporadic Flowering in Yunnan, China. Plos One 11, e153845.10.1371/journal.pone.0153845

Olde Venterink H, van der Vliet RE, Wassen MJ (2001) Nutrient limitation along a productivity gradient in wet meadows. Plant Soil 234, 171-179.10.1023/A:1017922715903

Orme CDL, Davies RG, Burgess M, Eigenbrod F, Pickup N, Olson VA, Webster AJ, Ding T, Rasmussen PC, Ridgely RS, Stattersfield AJ, Bennett PM, Blackburn TM, Gaston KJ (2005a) Owens, I. P. F., Global hotspots of species richness are not congruent with endemism or threat. Nature 436, 1016-1019.10.1038/nature03850

Orme CDL, Davies RG, Burgess M, Eigenbrod F, Pickup N, Olson VA, Webster AJ, Ding T, Rasmussen PC, Ridgely RS, Stattersfield AJ, Bennett PM, Blackburn TM, Gaston KJ (2005b) Owens, I. P. F., Global hotspots of species richness are not congruent with endemism or threat. Nature 436, 1016-1019.10.1038/nature03850

Petrie M, Bradford D, Hubbard JB, Lauenroth RM, Andrews WK (2017) C., M., Climate change may restrict dryland forest regeneration in the 21st century. Ecology.10.1002/ecy.1791

Quanguang Y, Chai S, Wu R, Zou R, Wei X (2020) Characteristics of Concomitant Community and Population Structure of Endangered Plant Camellia tunghinensis. Guangxi Forestry Science 036, 45–55, 64.10.3969/j.issn.1006-1126.2020.04.003

Rovzar C, Gillespie TW, Kawelo K (2016) Landscape to site variations in species distribution models for endangered plants. Forest Ecol Manag 369, 20-28.10.1016/j.foreco.2016.03.030

Saccheri I, Kuussaari M, Kankare M, Vikman P, Fortelius W, Hanski (1998) I., Inbreeding and extinction in a butterfly metapopulation. Nature 392, 491

Salmerón-Sánchez E, Mendoza-Fernández AJ, Lorite J, Mota JF, Peñas J (2021) Plant conservation in Mediterranean-type ecosystems. Mediterranean Botany 42, e71333.10.5209/mbot.71333

Sarasan V, Cripps R, Ramsay MM, Atherton C, McMichen M, Prendergast G, Rowntree JK (2006) CONSERVATION IN VITRO OF THREATENED PLANTS – PROGRESS IN THE PAST DECADE. In vitro cellular & developmental biology. Plant 42, 206-214.10.1079/IVP2006769

Shao-xian W, Fei W, Cheng-bai L, Zhi-yong Y, Xia C (2008) Application of DNA molecular markers in endangered species conservation.CHINESE JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY,250–256.CNKI:SUN:STXZ.0.2008-02-021

Shengce T, Zhiping Z, Xianen Z (2001) Development of PCR Technology. China Biotechnology 21, 26-29.10.3969/j.issn.1671-8135.2001.04.006

Song G, Haiqun W, Canming Z, Deyuan H (1997) Genetic Diversity and Population Differentiation of Cathaya Argyrophylla in Bamian Mountain. J Integr Plant Biol , 266–271

Stephen B, See-Chung C, Chong SL, Frieda C, Fiona I, Putri WU, Neil W, Wortley AH (2012) Observations on the Morphology, Pollination and Cultivation of Coco de Mer (Lodoicea maldivica (J F Gmel.) Pers., Palmae). Journal of Botany,2012,(2012-3-14) 2012, 1-13.10.1155/2012/687832

Steven S (2013) Plant Reintroduction in a Changing Climate: Promises and Perils. Restor Ecol

Sumin LI, You W, Xiao S, Dongjin HE, Hong W, Liu J (2015) Gap micro-environment of endangered plant Tsuga longibracteata forests in Tianbaoyan National Nature Reserve. Journal of Forest and Environment 35.10.13324/j.cnki.jfcf.2015.04.009

Sun J, Wu Y, He Y (2018) The Geographical Sciences during 1986–2015: From the Classics to the Frontiers

Tingting LCLP (2009) The Niche Characteristics of Endangered Plant Tsuga tchekiangensisin Jiulongshan National Nature Reserve of Zhejiang Province. JOURNAL OF WUHAN BOTANICAL RESEARCH 27, 55-61.10.3969/j.issn.2095-0837.2009.01.009

van Eck NJ, Waltman L (2010) Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics 84, 523-538.10.1007/s11192-009-0146-3

Vitousek PM (1994) Beyond Global Warming: Ecology and Global Change. Ecology 75, 1861-1876.10.2307/1941591

Volis S (2016) How to conserve threatened Chinese plant species with extremely small populations? Plant Diversity 38, 45-52.10.1016/j.pld.2016.05.003

Wassen MJ, Venterink HO, Lapshina ED, Tanneberger F (2005) Endangered plants persist under phosphorus limitation. Nature 437, 547-550.10.1038/nature03950

Wassen M, Venterink H, Lapshina E, Tanneberger F (2005) Endangered plants persist under phosphorus limitation. Nature 437, 547-550.10.1038/nature03950

Wei L, Guihua L, Jin Z, Desi (2002) H.,

Studies on the Seed Bank of Freshwater Wetland:A review. ACTA ECOLOGICA SINICA, 395-402.10.3321/j.issn:1000-0933 (2002) 03.016

Whittaker RJ, Araújo MB, Jepson P, Ladle RJ, Watson JEM, Willis KJ (2005) Conservation Biogeography: assessment and prospect. Divers Distrib 11, 3-23.10.1111/j.1366-9516.2005.00143.x

Wilson EO (1988) Biodiversity, National Forum on Biodiversity, Washington D.C. 1986

Xianwei Y, Jie C, Ge, Ying, Guan, Baohua F, Meiying, Qiu Y (2002) A comparison of dormancy and germination of seeds between an endangered species, Changium smyrnioides, and a non-endangered species, Anthriscus sylvestris. Biodivers Sci 10:425–430

Xiao-xue CSYX (2010) Seed germination characteristics of endangered plant Sinia rhodoleuca. Chin J Ecol 29:233–237. doi: https://doi.org/10.7498/aps.62.174102

Xibin ZSBX (2014) Progress in Chinese geography research reflected from Acta Geographica Sinica during 1934–2013:A bibliometrics analysis. Acta Geographica Sinica 69, 1077-1092.10.11821/dlxb201408005

Xin-Hua ZDJ (1999) Progress in studies of genetic diversity and conservation biology of endangered plant species. CHINESE BIODIVERSITY, 31-37.10.3321/j.issn:1005-0094.1999.01.006

Xin-ran W (2015) Application and Prospect of Biotechnology in the Research and Development of Medicinal Plants. Science&Technology Vis 46:2343

Xu L (2017) The application and prospect of biotechnology in the research and development of medicinal plants. REGIONAL GOVENANCE (5).10.3969/j.issn.2096-4595.2017.05.134

YAN ZU YT (1998) ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS ON SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE PRODUCE AND ENDANGERED REASON OF RHODIOLA SACHALINENSIS. Plant Res 18:336–340

Yinghong J (2018) Analysis of the ecological characteristics and endangered causes of the extremely small population of Phoebe hainanensis. Central South University of Forestry and Technology

Yong ZYLY (2017) Flower phenology and breeding system of endangered mangrove Lumnitzera littorea (Jack.) Voigt. Chinese Journal of Applied & Environmental Biology 23, 77-81.10.3724/SP.J.1145.2016.03021

Yuanhuo D, Zhou S (2008) The classification of endangered degrees of species and the progress in researches on species- endangering mechanisms. BIOLOGY TEACHING 33, 5-6.10.3969/j.issn.1004-7549.2008.06.002

Ze-xin J, Jun-min L (2007) ISSR analysis on genetic diversity of endangered relic shrub Sinocalycanthus chinensis. Chin J Appl Ecol 18:247–253

Zhihuan H (2020a) The Research Progress of Endangered Causes and Protection Strategy of Rare and Endangered Plants in China. Journal of University of Souht China(Science & Technology) 34, 42-50.10.19431/j.cnki.1673-0062.2020.03.007

Zhihuan H (2020b) The Research Progress of Endangered Causes and Protection Strategy of Rare and Endangered Plants in China. J Univ Souht China(Science Technology) 34:42 -50.10. 19431 /j. cnki

Zhuang XLGT (2011) Pollination biology of Camellia changii. Chinese Journal of Ecology 30, 552-557.10.3724/SP.J.1011.2011.00150

Zimmermann NE, Yoccoz NG, Edwards TC, Meier ES, Thuiller W, Guisan A, Schmatz DR, Pearman PB (2009) Climatic extremes improve predictions of spatial patterns of tree species.P Natl Acad Sci Usa106

Download references

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42101065), the Central Government Guides Local Science and Technology Development Projects(2019ZYYD050), the Open Foundation of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Key Laboratory of Hubei Province (2021(C)002.)

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, Hubei University, 430062, Wuhan, China

Jie Xu, TingTing Li & Zhengxiang Wang

The College of Urban & Environmental Sciences, Central China Normal University, 430079, Wuhan, China

Pengnan Xiao

Regional Development and Environmental Response, Key Laboratory of Hubei Province, 430062, Wuhan, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization, ZX.W and J.X.; methodology, J.X and P.X.; software, P.X. and J.X and TT.L.; writing—original draft preparation, P.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.”

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zhengxiang Wang .

Ethics declarations

Statements and declarations.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Communicated by Daniel Sanchez Mata.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Xu, J., Xiao, P., Li, T. et al. Research Progress on endangered plants: a bibliometric analysis. Biodivers Conserv 31 , 1125–1147 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02392-y

Download citation

Received : 20 June 2021

Revised : 16 January 2022

Accepted : 25 January 2022

Published : 07 March 2022

Issue Date : March 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02392-y

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Research hotspots
• Conservation
• Bibliometrics
• Endangered system
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Understanding ecosystems for a sustainable future, search form.

Visitors: The SERC campus is open Monday-Saturday, 8:00am-5:30pm. We're closed Sundays and federal holidays. Please do a health self-check before arriving, and stay home if feeling sick. Read Plan Your Visit for information on where to park, updated maps and hours, safety, and more.

Our trails are closed due to downed debris from a recent storm. For your safety, please do not hike the trails until further notice. We appreciate your patience while we work to clear the debris.

In the event of a government shutdown, SERC will remain OPEN for our normal Monday - Saturday hours through at least Saturday, October 7, by using prior year funds. Visit si.edu for updates.

The Woodlawn History Center is open Friday and Saturday, 10:00am - 2:00pm. Read Plan Your Visit for information on where to park, updated maps, safety, and more.

• Strategic Goals
• Advisory Board
• Corporate Leaders Program
• Director's Letter
• SERC Newsletter
• SERC Newsletter Signup
• Research Topics
• Laboratories
• Publications
• Research Around the Globe
• Coastal Carbon Network
• Ecological Genomics Core
• Technology in Ecology
• Environmental Data
• National Ballast Information Clearinghouse
• On-site School Programs
• On-site Group Programs
• Volunteer in Education
• Professional Development & Science Courses
• Learning Resources
• Virtual Field Trips & Talks
• Job Opportunities
• Visiting Scientists and Research Associates
• Internships and Fellowships
• Plan Your Visit
• Calendar of Events
• Maps and Trails
• Evening Lectures
• Woodlawn History Center
• SERC Fact Sheet
• Find an Expert
• Image Gallery
• News Releases
• SERC In The News
• Smithsonian Statement on Responding to Climate Change
• Science Writing Internships
• Why Do We Call It Participatory Science?
• Volunteer Projects
• Annual Reports
• Sign Up For The Email List
• Shorelines Blog
• SERC YouTube Channel
• Meeting Spaces & Housing

Plant Growth

Education Menu

Plants are vital to all life on Earth. They are important because plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produce oxygen. In addition, plants make up the base of the food web by producing their own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, and other chemicals. This is why they are known as producers or Autotrophs . Examples of autotrophs on land are trees, vines, or shrubs. Autotrophs can also be found in the upper layers of the ocean, called algae. One of the many services autotrophs provide is to protect against erosion. Erosion is when the force of water, wind, or ice wash away layers of the soil that are necessary to protect against strong weather events like thunderstorms or hurricanes. If you lived on a hill that had little or no autotrophs and it rained really hard, over time, you would be at risk for landslides because their roots hold the soil together. Luckily, there are people who study plants, called botanists or plant ecologists/ scientists, and can tell us about why plants are needed! These scientists study the biology and chemistry of plants. In other words, they study the function of plants and why plants evolved the way they did, among other things. SERC has plant ecologists that study autotrophs and their interactions with other autotrophs, animals, and other living organisms. Read more about their research here: Plant Ecology at SERC .

• Middle School
• Germination is when the seed has become a tiny plant.
• To sow seeds means to plant or scatter them in soil so they can start growing.
• Photosynthesis is a chemical process that explains the way plants eat. It is also one of the processes that produce oxygen.
• Frost date is the predicted day when it will be too cold to plant anything. This date is important to know because if it is too cold, your new plants will not do well so you have to wait until after this date to plant.
• Plant hardiness zone helps growers determine what plants can thrive at a specific location. Plants will do well in the zone they are labeled at and in the zone numbers higher than that. For example, a plant that is hardy at zone 5 should be able to survive in zones 5-13 ( Zoning in on Hardiness , What zone am I in? ).
• Temperature is a measurement of how hot or cold something is. It is measured in Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (C) degrees . Temperature in Celsius is commonly used in science, but it is really up to your teachers and school to tell you if they prefer Fahrenheit or Celsius.
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen from one plant to another. This happens when pollen sticks to a pollinator such as a bee, bird, or bat while feeding on the nectar of a flower. 

• Greenhouse gases , as stated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) , are gases such as carbon dioxide and methane that trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere. These greenhouse gases create the Greenhouse Effect which warms Earth’s surface (where we live) so we can live at a comfortable temperature.
• NASA - What are climate and climate change? (for students in grades 5-8)
• NASA's Climate Kids - Global Climate Change
• Watch this video to learn more about the causes and effects of climate change: National Geographic - Causes and Effects of Climate Change video
• Read more about the Greenhouse Effect by going to this link: NASA Climate Kids - What is the greenhouse effect?  

Connections to SERC's Research About Plant Growth

Photosynthesis, Nutrients, Soil & Basic Plant Information

What You Need to Know About the Location You Are Planting In

Extinct- Plant Survival Game

How to Grow A Plant Indoors/ Outdoors Plus Supplies

Examples of Plants You Can Grow for Every Season

Types of Soil for Gardening  

Biotechnological approaches to study plant responses to stress

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Agricultural Sciences, Universitat Jaume I, Campus Riu Sec, 12071 Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
• PMID: 23509757
• PMCID: PMC3591138
• DOI: 10.1155/2013/654120

Multiple biotic and abiotic environmental stress factors affect negatively various aspects of plant growth, development, and crop productivity. Plants, as sessile organisms, have developed, in the course of their evolution, efficient strategies of response to avoid, tolerate, or adapt to different types of stress situations. The diverse stress factors that plants have to face often activate similar cell signaling pathways and cellular responses, such as the production of stress proteins, upregulation of the antioxidant machinery, and accumulation of compatible solutes. Over the last few decades advances in plant physiology, genetics, and molecular biology have greatly improved our understanding of plant responses to abiotic stress conditions. In this paper, recent progresses on systematic analyses of plant responses to stress including genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and transgenic-based approaches are summarized.

Publication types

• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Antioxidants / chemistry
• Biotechnology / methods*
• Crops, Agricultural / metabolism
• Gene Expression Regulation, Plant
• Hormones / metabolism
• Metabolomics
• Plant Physiological Phenomena*
• Plants / metabolism*
• Signal Transduction
• Stress, Physiological*
• Antioxidants

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Browse Titles

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

National Research Council (US) Committee on Examination of Plant Science Research Programs in the United States. Plant Biology Research and Training for the 21st Century. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1992.

Plant Biology Research and Training for the 21st Century.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

1 Why Plant-Biology Research Today?

Throughout human history, plants have been the object of pervasive and at times dominant artistic and intellectual interest. Plants were important subjects from the earliest study of life processes, and they were central to scientific study in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Good reasons remain to study the basic life processes of plants. Research on plants enriches our intellectual life and adds to our knowledge about other life processes. The results of research on plant systems also can teach us how to approach problems in agriculture, health, and the environment.

• Plants, Human Health, and Civilization

Our understanding of plant life underpins a vast range of activities and touches virtually every aspect of human life. From their origins, human civilizations have depended for their development and prosperity on their ability to manage plants and have sometimes fallen because of their failure to do so. Throughout history, plants have been collected, traded, selectively adapted for new environments, and bred for new combinations of traits. Plants have been manipulated for use as food and fiber, and for many other, particularly aesthetic, purposes.

Modern civilization rests on the successful and sustained cultivation of plants and on the wise use of the biologic and physical resource base on which their cultivation depends. Our knowledge about the world around us is incomplete if we do not include plants in our discoveries, and it is distorted if we do not place sufficient emphasis on plant life. There are many compelling practical reasons also for society to invest in research about plants and to educate its citizens for careers in which knowledge about plants is important. From fundamental discoveries about plant life arise technologies and capabilities in a wide range of practical applications ( Figure 2 ).

Potential applications of plan-biology research.

• Plants and the Environment

Only higher plants and a few microorganisms can convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy. Photosynthetic organisms are at the center of the earth's hospitality to other life. Plants and photosynthetic bacteria gave rise to the earth's atmosphere. They are important in regulating climate and the chemical and biologic conditions of the soil and water. Photosynthetic plants are the source of the fossil fuels we are depleting today, and they provide the most readily harvested source of renewable energy for tomorrow. The primary atmospheric gas incorporated by plants in photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, is one of the major ''greenhouse'' gases. Plants regulate the carbon cycle of the biosphere. Plants, in part through their unique symbiotic relationships with microorganisms, also play a major role in regulating the partitioning of nitrogen between atmospheric and life processes. We will never fully understand the global environment—or have a serious hope of successfully managing it in the face of explosive population growth—until we have a much more comprehensive understanding of plants, their cellular processes, and their ecology and population biology.

Plants are important in maintaining a healthy environment, for example, by controlling erosion and water pollution, and by helping to reduce air pollution. They improve the environment for human activities everywhere—from indoor spaces to vast wilderness areas.

The role of terrestrial plants and marine phytoplankton in maintaining an environment suitable for human habitation is inadequately appreciated, but there is a growing recognition of the urgent need to illuminate the role of plants. The accumulated effects of more than a century of industrial activity, explosive population growth, severe shifts in land use, and other effects of human use of the earth show that human activities can overpower the buffering effects of the natural processes that regulate global climate. The health and wellbeing of the human race could well rest on our achieving a better understanding on which to base a more reasoned exploitation of plant life.

Unique and Scientifically Interesting Properties of Plants

Plants differ from animals in several important ways.

Development . The growth of a plant from an undifferentiated cell into a complete and mature organism requires only a few hormones. Moreover, plant cells are totipotent: It is possible to regenerate a whole plant from a single leaf or root cell. In contrast, specific cells (the germ line) of an animal in early development form the germ cells. Plants have no germ line in this sense and produce sexual organs and gametes from somatic tissue late in their development.

Biochemistry . Plants are virtually the sole source of new oxygen and carbohydrates on the planet. Light is harvested by unique organelles, the chloroplasts. Plants synthesize the 20 amino acids required for proteins, including the 10 amino acids that humans are unable to produce. Moreover, in a unique symbiotic relationship with some plants, microorganisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen for plant use in the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, and other compounds.

Physiology . Plants lack the major organ systems present in animals. Yet, their physiology permits them to respond to their environment. Instead of an immune system, they have inducible disease resistance mechanisms that enable them to make natural toxins against fungal and bacterial pathogens. Instead of a nervous system, they have a repertoire of receptors and pigments that allow them to respond to their environment. Instead of a muscular and skeletal system, they have a novel set of fibers for support. They are attached to their substrates, and they can move only by growing or by gaining or losing water.

Plants and Global Warming

Atmospheric modelers are trying to evaluate the effects of changes in carbon dioxide concentration on global weather patterns and temperature. Models that predict carbon dioxide uptake and water loss by leaves grown under different environmental conditions can make an important contribution to elucidating global climate change. Other plant research is needed to develop sensitive ways to determine how much of the light energy absorbed by a leaf is used for photosynthesis (for metabolism and growth) and how much is simply reradiated as heat. The efficiency with which plants use light can vary enormously in response to environmental variables, such as water stress, temperature, disease or insect damage, or fluctuations in the supply of nitrogen or phosphorus. Theoretical models are being rigorously tested, with a fair degree of success. In addition, remote-sensing techniques are being developed to evaluate the photosynthetic performance of whole plant communities in response to stress. Modeling and experimental studies promise the quantitative information required to put predictions of atmospheric change (or lack of it) on a sound basis.

• Plants in Agriculture, Medicine, and Industry

Macroscopic and microscopic plants form the first link in the terrestrial and aquatic food chains. Plants are thus at the heart of agriculture. Together with microorganisms and domesticated animals, plants provide the raw materials for our food and drink. Plants also provide many of the materials used in clothing and buildings. The application of basic knowledge about plants has made modern agriculture possible. For example, studies of the nutrient requirements of plants led to soil fertility management.

The Green Revolution was founded on fundamental knowledge gleaned from research in genetics and plant nutrition. Genetic manipulation is a powerful, proven method for improving the productivity, quality, and disease resistance of plants. Basic knowledge of genetic inheritance, defense responses, pathogen genetics, and population genetics will continue to yield improvements in the technology needed to secure a stable food supply.

Plants are critical to human health. They are the sole source of some of the essential amino acids, vitamins, and other nutrients in our diet. Research with plants was central to elucidating the role of vitamins in human health and disease: Plants high in ascorbic acid, such as peppers and citrus, prevent scurvy. Grains in the diet provide B vitamins. Many drugs were first discovered as plant products before methods for their synthesis were developed. Research on plants yielded cardiac glycosides (such as digitalis), a wide range of useful alkaloids (such as scopolamine, atropine, quinine, and ephedrine), dicoumarol, and many other drugs. Research on lower plants and agricultural soils yielded many antibiotics. Even today, more than 20 percent of all prescription drugs are derived from plants.

The chemical industry developed from the work of German scientists who learned to synthesize dyes from coal tar, a derivative of fossil plants, to replace the commonly used dyes derived from wild and cultivated plants. Now, the search has been reversed and plant-derived products are sought to replace harmful coal tar dyes. Modern industry and society continue to depend in many ways on chemical products derived from plants, such as soaps, detergents, rubber, paints, resins, plastics, adsorbents, and adhesives.

• Plants and the Origins of Modern Biology

Research with plants has strongly influenced the development of biology and has contributed to many important scientific advances. It was research with plants that led to the discovery of the rules of genetic inheritance (Gregor Mendel's peas), of the role of light in regulating the physiologic responses of higher organisms (phytochromes), of transposition of genetic elements (controlling elements in maize), and of the protein nature of enzymes (urease). Research with a plant virus contributed to the elucidation of the structure of DNA itself (X-ray diffraction with tobacco mosaic virus) and of the role of nucleic acids in the genetic material of all life forms.

These examples illustrate how the study of plants has affected biologic research for several generations. But how well equipped are we to deal with the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead? The techniques of modern biology, and in particular modern genetics, make many difficult problems in plant biology approachable. Before the era of recombinant DNA, the tools available for genetic studies of plants' development, metabolism, and environmental responsiveness were relatively crude. Now modern genetics offers new promise to the plant sciences. In some fields of modern biology, plants offer the preferred model system for fundamental and exploratory science through application of molecular genetic techniques. Scientists now can transfer genes easily among plant species, and because the genomes of some plant species are quite small they can be studied readily. Plants can be used to answer many general questions in biology in such diverse subdisciplines as development, metabolism, gene regulation, symbiosis, and chromosome structure.

It is not within the scope of this report to describe a research agenda for plant sciences. Other National Research Council reports have contained pertinent research agendas, for example, Investing in Research (NRC, 1989a), Opportunities in Biology (NRC, 1989b), and Forestry Research: A Mandate for Change (NRC, 1990).

In recent years, the scientific community has shown significantly increased interest in research with plants. The power of modern methods to answer important questions in plant biology has stimulated the interest of scientists in leading universities and other research institutions in the United States and abroad. Well-funded plant-biology laboratories here and elsewhere are making research contributions at the cutting edge of biology. This heightened interest has generated more worthy research proposals than public agencies can fund. An informal survey of the private sector in agricultural biotechnology indicates that in the late 1980s about $250 million (exclusive of development costs) each year was being spent on basic plant-biology research by companies whose work was primarily or exclusively with plants.

The fertility of modern plant-biology research is demonstrated in special issues of Science (November 16, 1990) and Cell (January 27, 1989). Developmental biology, cell-to-cell recognition, signal transduction, the molecular basis of disease, plant-microbe interactions, gene regulation, transposition, and photosynthesis are some of the areas covered in these issues. Several new plant journals have been launched recently; three leading examples are: The Plant Cell, The Plant Journal, and Plant Molecular Biology .

• Cite this Page National Research Council (US) Committee on Examination of Plant Science Research Programs in the United States. Plant Biology Research and Training for the 21st Century. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1992. 1, Why Plant-Biology Research Today?
• PDF version of this title (1.1M)

In this Page

Recent activity.

• Why Plant-Biology Research Today? - Plant Biology Research and Training for the ... Why Plant-Biology Research Today? - Plant Biology Research and Training for the 21st Century

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

Connect with NLM

National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894

Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure

Help Accessibility Careers

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals

Plant biotechnology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Plant biotechnology can be defined as the introduction of desirable traits into plants through genetic modification.

Haploids fast-track hybrid plant breeding

Two studies report the use of paternal haploids to enable one-step transfer of cytoplasmic male sterility in maize and broccoli, which resolves a key technical bottleneck in hybrid crop breeding.

• Ravi Maruthachalam

Related Subjects

• Agricultural genetics
• Field trials
• Molecular engineering in plants

Latest Research and Reviews

Comparative studies of four cumin landraces grown in Egypt

• Abeer A. Ahmed
• Marwa Ghoneim
• Mohamed A. A. Ahmed

Transient expression of anti-HrpE scFv antibody reduces the hypersensitive response in non-host plant against bacterial phytopathogen Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri

• Hamideh Raeisi
• Mohammad Reza Safarnejad
• Seyed Ali Elahinia

Identification of a sugarcane bacilliform virus promoter that is activated by drought stress in plants

The promoter PSCBV-YZ2060 cloned from the sugarcane bacilliform virus is shown to be induced by drought in sugarcane and Arabidopsis plants and is a potential alternative promoter for genetic engineering of drought-resistant transgenic crops.

• Sheng-Ren Sun
• Xiao-Bin Wu

Lipids productivity of cyanobacterium Anabaena vaginicola in an internally illuminated photobioreactor using LED bar lights

• Hootan Goldoost
• Farzaneh Vahabzadeh
• Narges Fallah

Dynamics of starch formation and gene expression during grain filling and its possible influence on grain quality

• Sanjeeva Rao Durbha
• N. Siromani
• R. M. Sundaram

Cyto-swapping in maize by haploid induction with a cenh3 mutant

An efficient method of cyto-swapping by haploid induction using a CENH3 mutation is reported in maize, to convert commercial germplasm to cytoplasmic male sterility for hybrid seed production.

• Esteban Bortiri
• Rebecca Selby
• Tim Kelliher

News and Comment

Feeding the future global population.

Climate change is exacerbating challenges both for global food production and from its environmental impacts. Sustainable and socially responsible solutions for future world-wide food security are urgently needed.

Novel gene for herbicide resistance

Blueprint for non-transgenic edited plants

A robust strategy to obtain edited crops without integration of a transgene is developed based on co-editing the ALS gene and a gene of interest.

• Jean-Luc Gallois
• Fabien Nogué

A new chance for genome editing in Europe

• Hervé Vanderschuren
• Patience Chatukuta
• Devang Mehta

Callose integration into secondary cell walls modifies woody biomass ultrastructure and accessibility

Previous genetic engineering of plant secondary cell walls targeted its core polymers to facilitate their extractability. The ectopic introduction of the polymer callose into poplar wood secondary cell walls modifies the ultrastructure of cellulose microfibril aggregates and suggests new avenues when considering biomass genetic engineering.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

• Search this journal
• Search all journals

Advertisement

Article Sections

• Materials and Methods
• Results and Discussion

Article Figures

Vegetative top dry weight (DW), leaf DW, stem DW, and stem diameter of mature eggplant plants as affected by irrigation rate. Irrigation rate was applied as percentage of crop evapotranspiration. Curve was fit by linear regression. Fall of 2010, Tifton, GA.

Seasonal volumetric soil water content (measured at 12- and 30-cm depth) as influenced by irrigation rate. Irrigation rate was applied as percentage of crop evapotranspiration. Line was fit by linear regression. Fall of 2010, Tifton, GA.

Effect of irrigation rate and soil depth on the concentration of nitrate-nitrogen in the soil (0 to 60 cm) in drip-irrigated eggplant grown on raised beds and plastic film mulch. Irrigation rate was applied as percentage of crop evapotranspiration. Line was fit by linear regression. Fall of 2010, Tifton, GA.

Cumulative number of fruit and fruit yields as affected by irrigation rate in drip-irrigated eggplant grown on raised beds and plastic film mulch. Irrigation rate was applied as percentage of crop evapotranspiration. Line was fit by linear regression. Fall of 2010, Tifton, GA.

Individual fruit weight as influenced by irrigation rate in drip-irrigated eggplant grown on raised beds and plastic film mulch. Irrigation rate was applied as percentage of crop evapotranspiration. Line was fit by linear regression. Fall of 2010, Tifton, GA.

• View raw image
• Download Powerpoint Slide

Related Content

• Previous Article
• Next Article

Eggplant ( Solanum melongena L.) Plant Growth and Fruit Yield as Affected by Drip Irrigation Rate

Eggplant ( Solanum melongena L.) is an increasingly popular crop in the United States. In the southeastern United States, eggplant is often produced with high levels of irrigation water [above the rate of crop evapotranspiration (ETc)], resulting in water waste and nitrogen (N) leaching. The objective of this research was to assess the effects of irrigation rate on plant growth and fruit yield in eggplant. The study was conducted in Tifton, GA, in the fall of 2010 and 2011. Eggplant plants cv. Santana were grown on raised beds (1.8 m centers) covered with white plastic film mulch. There was a single drip tape along the center of the bed. The design was a randomized complete block with five treatments and four replications. Treatments consisted of irrigation rates based on ETc (33%, 67%, 100%, 133%, and 167% ETc). Plant growth, chlorophyll index (CI), and volumetric soil water content (SWC) were monitored over the season. In 2010, SWC (0–30 cm deep) increased and soil nitrate levels decreased with increasing irrigation rates. Foliar N and potassium (K), and CI decreased with increasing irrigation rate, probably due to a dilution effect. Stem diameter, leaf dry weight (DW), and vegetative top DW increased with increasing irrigation rate. Net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance ( g S ) were lowest at 33% ETc. Fruit number and fruit yields (marketable and total) were also lowest at 33% ETc and there were little yield differences among irrigation rates higher than 33% ETc. In 2011, irrigation rate had minor or no effect on SWC, plant growth of mature plants, leaf gas exchange, and fruit number and yield. The no treatment effect observed for eggplant in 2011 was likely because study was conducted in a low field that remained moist most of the time, nullifying the treatment effects. Results suggested that eggplant may tolerate mild water stress, since plants irrigated at 67% ETc produced fruit yields similar to those of plants irrigated at 100% ETc or higher rates. Thus, there is a potential to save water by reducing current irrigation rates without negatively impacting fruit yields.

Eggplant, also known as aubergine and brinjal, is widely grown and consumed in southern and southeast Asia and has increased in popularity in the United States as a specialty vegetable. In 2001, U.S. eggplant production was valued at $42.5 million, and Georgia, Florida, California, New Jersey, and New York were the top five producers. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has not collected complete domestic production statistics for eggplants since 2001. In 2012, farm gate value in the state of Georgia was $17 million ( CAED, 2013 ). Average eggplant yield in Florida is ≈30 t·ha −1 ( Ozores-Hampton, 2014 ).

Eggplant is in the Solanaceae family, as are tomato ( Solanum lycopersicon ) and pepper ( Capsicum annum ) and shares similar environmental and cultural requirements as those crops. However, in contrast to tomato and pepper, eggplant crop can tolerate greater levels of drought stress ( Behboudian, 1977 ). There are several studies on eggplant irrigation carried out in Asia, Africa, and Europe ( Aujla et al., 2007 ; Behboudian, 1977 ; Chartzoulakis and Drosos, 1995 ; Gaveh et al., 2011 ; Karam et al., 2011 ) showing that eggplant can be produced at moderate levels of drought stress without major impact on fruit yield.

In southeastern United States, eggplant is often produced with high levels of irrigation water (above the rate of ETc) and N fertilizer, resulting in water waste and N leaching. Excessive irrigation rate not only wastes water, but may also result in reduced yields in bell pepper ( Díaz-Pérez et al., 2004 ; Sezen et al., 2006 ) and tomato ( Locascio et al., 1989 ; Ngouajio et al., 2007 ). To our knowledge, there are no published studies in the United States on the effect of irrigation rate on the yield and plant growth of drip-irrigated eggplants. Irrigation studies, intended to optimize use of irrigation water, are necessary to enable the protection of water resources in the United States. Therefore, the objective of this research was to assess the effects of irrigation rate on plant growth and fruit yield in eggplant.

Study site.

The study was carried out at the Horticulture Farm, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA, during the fall of 2010 and 2011. The farm is located at an altitude of 108 m above mean sea level, 31°28′ N latitude and 83°31′ W longitude. The soil of the farm is a Tifton sandy loam (a fine loamy-siliceous, thermic Plinthic Kandiudults) with pH 6.5. Available water capacity is 18 to 36 mm in the top 30 cm of soil profile ( Calhoun, 1983 ). In 2010, field had a gentle sloping (slope ≈3%); in 2011, field had a nearly level slope. The distance between the 2010 and 2011 fields was ≈70 m.

Land preparation and planting.

Eggplant plants were grown on plastic film mulch on raised beds (6 × 0.76 m, formed on 1.8-m centers). Before laying mulch, the soil was fertilized with N, phosphorous (P), and K at 60, 26, and 50 kg·ha −1 , respectively, using 10–10–10 granular fertilizer. At the same time, plastic film mulch [white on black, low-density polyethylene with a slick surface texture, 1.52 m wide and 25 µm thick (RepelGro, ReflecTek Foils, Inc., Lake Zurich, IL)] was laid with a mulch-laying machine, drip irrigation tape [20.3 cm emitter spacing and a 8.3 mL·min −1 emitter flow (Ro-Drip, Roberts Irrigation Products, Inc., San Marcos, CA)] was placed 5 cm deep in the center of the bed.

Eggplant transplants were produced in a greenhouse using peat-based medium (Pro-Mix, Quakertown, PA) and polystyrene 200-cell (2.5 × 2.5 cm cell) trays. Six-week-old eggplant transplants were planted with a mechanical transplanter on 6 Aug. 2010 and 5 Aug. 2011 in one row per bed, with a 60 cm separation between plants. About 250 mL of starter fertilizer solution (555 mg·L −1 N; 821·mg·L −1 P; 0 mg·L −1 K) was applied directly to the base of each transplant. The length of the experimental plot was 6.1 m. Starting 3 weeks after transplanting, plants were fertilized weekly through the drip system with N and K. Fertilization rates of N and K after transplanting were 0.7, 1.0, 1.5, and 2 kg·ha −1 ·d −1 in week 5, week 6; week 7; and weeks 13–15, respectively. Total N–P–K applied in the season was 218 kg·ha −1 N, 30 kg·ha −1 P, and 181 kg·ha −1 K.

Experimental design and treatments.

The design was a randomized complete block with five treatments and four replications. Treatments consisted of irrigation rates based on ETc (33%, 67%, 100%, 133%, and 167% the rate of ETc). ETc was calculated by multiplying the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) by a crop coefficient (Kc), which is dependent on the crop stage of development. Available Kc values for eggplant were developed for bare soil (unmulched) production. These Kc values, however, are not recommended for crops under plasticulture systems since plastic mulches reduce soil evaporation and ETc ( Allen et al., 1998 ; Pereira et al., 2015 ; Simonne et al., 2006 ). The Kc values used in this study were modified relative to those proposed for bell pepper in Florida ( Simonne et al., 2006 ). The Kc values used were 0.25 (week 1 after transplanting), 0.40 (week 2), 0.55 (week 3), 0.70 (week 4), 0.85 (week 5), 1.0 (week 6–11), and 0.8 (week 12–14).

All treatments received equal volumes of irrigation water (88 and 49 mm in 2010 and 2011, respectively) during the crop establishment period (first 4 weeks after transplanting). Irrigation treatments were initiated on week 5. Water was applied when cumulative ETc was ≈12 mm, which corresponded to about every 2 to 3 d in mature plants (mean ETo was 5 to 6 mm·d −1 ). Thus, amounts of water per irrigation event were ≈4 mm (33% ETc), 8 mm (67% ETc), 12 mm (100% ETc), 16 mm (133% ETc), and 20 mm (167% ETc).

Soil water content.

Soil water content (volumetric) in the 0–12 cm of soil profile over the season was measured manually once every 2–3 d (three readings per experimental plot) with a portable time-domain reflectometry (TDR) sensor (CS-620; Campbell Scientific, Logan, UT). The two metallic 12-cm rods of the TDR sensor were inserted vertically within the row between two plants. Soil water content (volumetric) in the 0–30 cm of soil profile was periodically (every 10 min) monitored with TDR sensors (CS-610; Campbell Scientific) connected to a datalogger (CR-10X; Campbell Scientific). The moisture sensors had three metallic 30-cm rods and were inserted vertically within the row between two plants.

Soil nitrate.

Soil samples were taken from each plot at 0- to 20-cm, 20- to 40-cm, and 40- to 60-cm depths on 8 Nov. 2010. Samples were taken at least 0.5 m away from the borders of the plots and from the previous sampling holes. Samples were air-dried and analyzed for nitrate-nitrogen using standard QuickChem Methods (Lachat Quick-Chem 8000 FIA; Zellweger Analytics, Milwaukee, WI).

Plant growth.

Eggplant plant height and stem diameter were measured weekly in three mature plants per plot. Plant samples obtained at the end of the season were dried at 70 °C for several days until constant weight was obtained. Leaf, stem, and vegetative top (leaf + stem) DW of individual plants were determined.

Chlorophyll indices were determined twice a week over the season on six mature, well-exposed, and healthy leaves per plot using a chlorophyll meter (Chlorophyll Meter SPAD-502; Minolta Co., Ltd., Ramsey, NJ).

Leaf gas exchange and PSII efficiency.

Simultaneous measurements of leaf gas exchange (net photosynthesis, g S , transpiration, and internal CO 2 concentration), and fluorescence were determined as PSII efficiency were made with an infrared gas analyzer (LI-COR 6400 IRGA with an integrated 6400-40 leaf chamber fluorometer; LI-COR, Inc., Lincoln, NE). PSII efficiency is the fraction of absorbed PSII photons used in photochemistry and is measured with a light-adapted leaf. Water use efficiency (WUE) was calculated as the ratio between leaf net photosynthesis and leaf transpiration. Air flow rate was set at 300 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 on the reference side. The CO 2 concentration was set at 400 µmol·mol −1 with a CO 2 mixer and a CO 2 tank. Measurements were conducted in developed plants on clear days (photosynthetically active radiation ≈2000 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 ) at 1200–1500 hr Eastern Standard Time in 2010 (6 and 20 Oct. and 9 Nov.) and 2011 (5 Oct.), using two developed and fully exposed leaves per experimental plot.

Leaf mineral nutrients.

Leaf samples (20 fully developed leaves from new growth) from developed plants were dried at 70 °C for 2 d and analyzed for mineral nutrient concentration at the University of Georgia, Agricultural & Environmental Services Laboratories, Athens, GA.

Weather data (air temperature, ETo, and rainfall) were obtained from a nearby University of Georgia weather station (within 300 m).

The harvest lasted from 28 Sept. to 23 Nov. in 2010 and from 23 Sept. to 4 Nov. in 2011. Eggplant fruit were harvested twice per week at commercial stage. Harvested section consisted of 10 plants per plot. Fruit were graded according to U.S. Department of Agriculture standards ( USDA, 2013 ) as marketable or cull and number and weight of marketable and cull fruit were determined. Average fruit weight was derived mathematically from the total weight and the total number of fruits.

Irrigation water use efficiency.

Irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) was calculated by dividing fruit weight (kg·ha −1 ) by irrigation water received by the crop (in mm) for each irrigation treatment.

Agronomic efficiency of nitrogen.

Agronomic efficiency of nitrogen was calculated by dividing total eggplant fresh fruit weight (kg·ha −1 ) by the amount of N (kg·ha −1 ) applied to the crop.

Fruit DW content and harvest index (HI).

Statistical analysis.

Data were analyzed using the General Linear Model and Regression Procedures from SAS (SAS version 9.3, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Data means were separated by Fisher’s protected least significant difference test at 95% confidence and response curves determined by orthogonal contrasts. Percentages were transformed to arcsin values before analysis. For clarity, nontransformed percentage means were used for presentation in tables and figures. Data from all years were pooled if no year × treatment interactions were found.

In 2010, average maximal, mean, and average minimum air temperature for the season were 28.8, 22.6, and 16.4 °C, respectively. Cumulative ETo and rainfall for the season were 370 and 184 mm, respectively. In 2011, average maximal, mean, and average minimum air temperature were 28.6, 22.5, and 16.4 °C, respectively. Cumulative ETo and rainfall for the season were 344 and 256 mm, respectively.

In 2010, vegetative top DW, leaf DW, stem DW, and stem diameter increased with increasing irrigation rate ( Fig. 1 ). Leaf weight ratio (LWR) [leaf biomass as a fraction of vegetative aboveground biomass (mean = 0.529)] decreased with increasing irrigation rate ( r 2 = 0.92; P ≤ 0.05) from LWR of 0.543 at 33% ETc to LWR of 0.493 at 167% ETc, which indicates that plants allocated less biomass to leaves as irrigation rate increased. Bell pepper leaves have reduced leaf thickness at low light and low water stress conditions ( Díaz-Pérez, 2013 ). In 2011, over the season, mean stem diameter was lowest at 33% ETc ( P < 0.05), although final stem diameter was unaffected by irrigation rate ( Table 1 ). Mean seasonal plant height increased with irrigation rate, ranging from 66 cm (33% ETc) to 93 cm (167% ETc); final plant height (4 Nov.) was unaffected by irrigation rate. Mature plant DW (mean = 1.70 kg) was also unaffected by irrigation rate. Growth differences during midseason but not at the end of the season were probably because of high evaporative demand conditions that impacted plant growth at low irrigation rates during midseason. Late in the season, when evaporative demand was reduced, the effect of irrigation rate on plant growth was less detectable. The no treatment effect observed for eggplant in 2011 was likely because study was conducted in a low field that remained moist most of the time, nullifying the treatment effects.

Citation: HortScience horts 50, 11; 10.21273/HORTSCI.50.11.1709

• Download Figure

Plant growth, leaf chlorophyll index (CI), and soil water content (SWC) as affected by irrigation rate in eggplant. Fall of 2011, Tifton, GA.

Reduced eggplant plant growth at irrigation rates below 100% ETo has been previously reported. Eggplant irrigated at 80% pan evaporation, every 8 d, and 70% pan evaporation, every 12 d, had reduction of 18% and 27% in plant height, and 13% and 21% in stem diameter, respectively ( Kirnak et al., 2002 ). In bell pepper exposed to different soil water levels by varying drip emitter spacing, plant height and canopy diameter increased with decreasing emitter spacing (i.e., with increased soil water levels) ( Madramootoo and Rigby, 1991 ).

In 2010, CIs decreased with increased irrigation rate ( P = 0.006), from 60.8 at 33% ETc to 59.0 at 167% ETc. In 2011, CI decreased from 55.8 at 33% ETc to 53.7 at 167% ETc ( Table 1 ). Decreased CI values with increased irrigation rates were likely due to dilution effect of nutrients, since plant growth was enhanced with increased irrigation rates. Decreased CI with increased irrigation rates may also be associated with increased nitrate leaching under high irrigation rates.

In 2010, the effect of irrigation rate on SWC varied with soil depth. At 0- to 30-cm depth, SWC increased with increasing irrigation rates ( Fig. 2 ), whereas at 0- to 12-cm depth SWC was unaffected by irrigation rate. Differences in soil moisture in the different soil depths indicate a higher soil water uptake by plants, because of greater presence of roots at 0–12 cm than at 0- to 30-cm depth; they also indicate that high rates of irrigation (>100% ETc) result in wasted water because much water at 0- to 30-cm depth was not taken up by the crop; and they suggest that soil moisture measurement at 0- to 30-cm depth was more sensitive to detect changes in soil moisture than measurement at 0- to 12-cm depth.

As in 2010, seasonal SWC at 0- to 12-cm depth was also similar among irrigation rates (mean = 13.4%) in 2011. In addition to the high presence of roots at 0- to 12-cm depth, SWC values were similar among treatments in 2011 probably because the study was conducted in a low field, with a nearly level slope, where soil was commonly moist throughout the season, likely due to lateral water movement from upper sections of the field. There was an impermeable clay layer 30- to 40-cm deep in the soil profile that probably allowed water to flow from upper to lower areas within the farm.

Leaf gas exchange.

In 2010, the effect of irrigation rate on leaf gas exchange varied by date ( Table 2 ). Net photosynthesis, g S , and photosynthetic WUE were unaffected by irrigation rate on 6 Oct. 2010. Lack of treatment differences on 6 Oct. was probably attributable to relatively low temperatures on day of measurement (mean temperature = 16.4 °C), resulting in low crop evaporative demand and low crop water stress. Net photosynthesis and g S were lowest at 33% ETc on 20 Oct. and 9 Nov. Water use efficiency was highest and PSII efficiency was lowest at 33% ETc on 20 Oct. The fact that gas exchange variables were not reduced at 67% ETc compared with higher irrigation rates suggests that plants at 67% ETc were likely unaffected by water stress. However, since gas exchange measurements were conducted only in mature plants, late in the season, when evaporative demand was reduced, it is possible that earlier in the season plants may have had experienced increased water stress at reduced irrigation rates, as suggested by the reduced plant growth at reduced irrigation rates. In 2011, leaf net photosynthesis (mean = 28.3 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 ), g S (mean = 0.248 mol·m −2 ·s −1 ), WUE (mean = 4.24 µmol·mmol −1 ), and PSII (mean = 0.189 µmol·mmol −1 ) were unaffected by irrigation rate. Air maximal and minimal temperature on the day of measurement were 27.5 and 11.0 °C, respectively. Lack of differences in gas exchange are consistent with the lack of differences in plant growth among irrigation rates observed in 2011.

Leaf gas exchange and fluorescence as affected by irrigation rate and date in eggplant. Fall of 2010, Tifton, GA.

Irrigation at 33% ETc was probably insufficient to satisfy eggplant water requirements, as suggested by the reduced leaf gas exchange values ( Table 2 ). Reduced irrigation rates can result in decreased gas exchange in solanaceous crops. Transpiration, leaf g S , and leaf net photosynthesis in eggplant were reduced with water stress and effects varied depending on stress severity and duration ( Sarker et al., 2005 ). In habanero pepper ( Capsicum chinense Jacq.), there was reduced g S and net photosynthesis with increased time between irrigations ( Jaimez et al., 1999 ).

Soil nitrate concentration decreased with increasing irrigation rate ( P = 0.002) and soil depth ( P = 0.003), indicating that nitrate leaching to the deepest parts of the soil was enhanced with increased irrigation rates ( Fig. 3 ). Decreased soil nitrate concentration may also be due to high N uptake by the crop, as suggested by augmented vegetative growth with increasing irrigation rate. Nitrate present at 40–60 depth is usually lost as it is not recovered by plants’ roots. Decreased nitrate in 40- to 60-cm zone is thus solely due to leaching.

Foliar mineral nutrient concentrations and CI.

In 2010, foliar N and K concentrations decreased and P increased with increasing irrigation rate ( Table 3 ). Other foliar nutrients concentrations were unaffected by irrigation rate. Nitrogen, K, and CI decreased with irrigation rate, possibly as a result of a dilution effect associated with increased aboveground plant growth. In addition, at high irrigation rates plants likely had reduced access to soil N due to increased nitrate leaching. Plant water stress in eggplant can reduce foliar N, P, and K concentrations compared with well-irrigated plants ( Kirnak et al., 2002 ). In the present study, however, only foliar P was reduced at low irrigation rate.

Foliar mineral nutrient concentrations in eggplant as affected by several irrigation rates. Fall of 2010, Tifton, GA. z

Chlorophyll indices have been used as indirect estimators of chlorophyll and leaf N concentrations ( Liu et al., 2006 ). Crop drought stress may influence leaf morphology (e.g., increased specific leaf weight) in plants ( Larcher, 1995 ); these variations in leaf morphology may also influence CI, making difficult to use CI to estimate leaf N ( Díaz-Pérez, 2013 ). In our study, CI values increased with increasing leaf N ( R 2 = 0.921; P = 0.001), supporting the use of chlorophyll meter to estimate leaf N.

In 2010, fruit number and fruit yields (marketable and total) were lowest at 33% ETc and there were little yield differences among irrigation rates higher than 33% ETc ( Fig. 4 ). Individual fruit weight was also reduced at 33% ETc ( Fig. 5 ). There was a higher correlation between fruit number and fruit yield ( R 2 = 0.94; P < 0.0001) than between individual fruit weight and fruit yield ( R 2 = 0.15; P = 0.027), suggesting that marketable yield was determined more by fruit number than individual fruit weight. In greenhouse-grown eggplant, soil water deficit decreased fruit number but not fruit size ( Chartzoulakis and Drosos, 1995 ). In a study with different levels of irrigation and N fertilizer, eggplant fruit yield was more related with fruit number than with fruit size ( Aujla et al., 2007 ). In another study, soil water deficits also reduced eggplant fruit size, but the effect of drought stress on fruit number was not evaluated ( Kirnak et al., 2002 ). In 2011, irrigation rate had no effect on the number or yields of marketable, cull, and total fruit, or on individual fruit weight ( Table 4 ). There were no significant interactions between harvest dates and irrigation rates. There was also a higher correlation between fruit number and fruit yield ( R 2 = 0.92; P < 0.0001) than between individual fruit weight and fruit yield ( R 2 = 0.185; P = 0.001). Results suggest that eggplant may tolerate moderate water stress, since plants irrigated at 67% ETc produced fruit yields similar to those of plants irrigated at 100% ETc or higher rates. Thus, there is a potential to reduce irrigation rates below 100% ETc without negatively impacting fruit yields.

Fruit yield of eggplant as affected by irrigation rate. Fall of 2011, Tifton, GA.

Irrigation water use efficiency and agronomic efficiency of nitrogen.

Plants received more irrigation water in 2010 than in 2011 as a result of reduced rainfall in 2010 ( Table 5 ). In both years, IWUE decreased with increasing irrigation rate. IWUE was greatly reduced and there were significant effects of irrigation rates on several variables in 2010, but not in 2011. Increased IWUE and increased SWC in 2011 (mean = 13.4% at 0- to 12-cm depth) relative to SWC in 2010 (mean = 7.5% at 0- to 12-cm depth) are probably associated with increased contribution of soil water from rainfall and drainage water from upper areas of the field; in 2011, field used was low and nearly flat.

Irrigation, cumulative rainfall, IWUE, and AEN of eggplant crop grown on plastic film mulch. Fall of 2010 and 2011, Tifton, GA.

Although there were differences in leaf N among irrigation treatments, fruit yield was likely more related to irrigation rate than to leaf N. Total yield showed a quadratic relationship with leaf N ( R 2 = 0.185; P = 0.013); total yield was unaffected by leaf N below 5.1% and was lowest at the highest leaf N (5.3%) occurred at the lowest irrigation rate (33% ETc).

Agronomic efficiency of N increased with irrigation rate in 2010 likely as a result of increased fruit yield associated with improved plant water status; AEN was unaffected by irrigation rate in 2011. AEN values in this study (range 92 to 187 kg·kg −1 N) were lower compared with values of other studies on eggplant (range = 324 to 859 kg·kg −1 N) ( Aujla et al., 2007 ), probably because the harvest period in this study was reduced. Low AEN values may also mean that eggplant crop in this study made inefficient use of N fertilizer, probably in part due to overfertilization. Aujla et al. (2007) reported that irrigation rate and N fertilization rate interacted in drip-irrigated eggplants; they also found that irrigation at 75% pan evaporation and 120 kg·ha −1 N produced the greatest yields, and that AEN increased with increased N fertilization rate.

Fruit DW content and HI.

In year 2010, fruit DW content (mean = 6.2%) was unaffected by irrigation rate. In a study under semiarid conditions, soluble DW or soluble solids in eggplant decreased with increased irrigation rates ( Kirnak et al., 2002 ). In greenhouse-grown eggplant, increased irrigation rates also decreased fruit DW content ( Chartzoulakis and Drosos, 1995 ).

Harvest index was unaffected by irrigation rate (mean HI = 0.32). These data suggest that eggplant is more tolerant to drought than other solanaceous crops ( Behboudian, 1977 ). Our measurements of HI did not include root biomass. However, under water stress, eggplants possibly allocated increased amounts of assimilates for root growth as occurs in other plants ( Larcher, 1995 ). In habanero pepper, an irrigation rate of 20% of available water produced reduced values of HI ( Quintal Ortiz et al., 2012 ). In tomato, there was no difference in total dry biomass and HI between the control and a partial irrigation treatment, but total dry biomass and HI significantly decreased under regulated deficit irrigation ( Lei et al., 2009 ); moderate water stress–induced osmotic regulation under partial root drying conditions, leading to normal water status and the same level of biomass. Eggplant in our study was also able to maintain high fruit yields at moderate levels of water stress, suggesting that, as tomato, eggplant is also able to develop mechanisms to deal with water stress such as osmoregulation.

In conclusion, the results from this research indicate that eggplant may tolerate moderate water stress, since plants irrigated at 67% ETc had no detrimental effects on plant growth and leaf gas exchange and produced fruit yields similar to those of plants irrigated at 100% ETc. Thus, there is a potential to reduce current irrigation rates without negatively impacting fruit yields or quality.

Literature Cited

Allen, R.G. , Pereira, L.S. , Raes, D. & Smith, M. 1998 Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome

Aujla, M.S. , Thind, H.S. & Buttar, G.S. 2007 Fruit yield and water use efficiency of eggplant ( Solanum melongema L.) as influenced by different quantities of nitrogen and water applied through drip and furrow irrigation Sci. Hort. 112 142 148

• Search Google Scholar
• Export Citation

Behboudian, M.H. 1977 Responses of eggplant to drought. I. Plant water balance Sci. Hort. 7 303 310

CAED 2013 2012 Georgia farm gate value report. CAES, Univ. of Georgia, Athens, GA

Calhoun, J.W. 1983 Soil survey of Tift County, Georgia. United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, University of Georgia, GA

Chartzoulakis, K. & Drosos, N. 1995 Water use and yield of greenhouse grown eggplant under drip irrigation Agr. Water Mgt. 28 113 120

Díaz-Pérez, J.C. 2013 Bell pepper ( Capsicum annum L.) crop as affected by shade level: Microenvironment, plant growth, leaf gas exchange, and leaf mineral nutrient concentration HortScience 48 175 182

Díaz-Pérez, J.C. , Granberry, D. , Seebold, K. , Giddings, D. & Bertrand, D. 2004 Irrigation levels affect plant growth and fruit yield of drip-irrigated bell pepper HortScience 39 748

Gaveh, E.A. , Timpo, G.M. , Agodzo, S.K. & Shin, D.H. 2011 Effect of Irrigation, transplant age and season on growth, yield and irrigation water use efficiency of the African eggplant J. Hort. Environ. Biotechnol. 52 13 28

Jaimez, R.E. , Rada, F. & Garcia-Nunez, C. 1999 The effect of irrigation frequency on water and carbon relations in three cultivars of sweet pepper ( Capsicum chinense Jacq), in a tropical semiarid region Sci. Hort. 81 301 308

Karam, F. , Saliba, R. , Skaf, S. , Breidy, J. , Rouphael, Y. & Balendonck, J. 2011 Yield and water use of eggplants ( Solanum melongena L.) under full and deficit irrigation regimes Agr. Water Mgt. 98 1307 1316

Kirnak, H. , Tas, I. , Kaya, C. & Higgs, D. 2002 Effects of deficit irrigation on growth, yield, and fruit quality of eggplant under semi-arid conditions Austral. J. Agr. Res. 53 1367 1373

Larcher, W. 1995 Physiological plant ecology: Ecophysiological and stress physiology of functional groups. Springer, Berlin, Germany

Lei, S. , Yunzhou, Q. , Fengchao, J. , Changhai, S. , Chao, Y. , Yuxin, L. , Mengyu, L. & Baodi, D. 2009 Physiological mechanism contributing to efficient use of water in field tomato under different irrigation Plant Soil Environ. 55 128 133

Liu, Y.J. , Tong, Y.P. , Zhu, Y.G. , Ding, H. & Smith, E.A. 2006 Leaf chlorophyll readings as an indicator for spinach yield and nutritional quality with different nitrogen fertilizer applications J. Plant Nutr. 29 1207 1217

Locascio, S.J. , Olson, S.M. & Rhoads, F.M. 1989 Water quantity and time of N and K application for trickle-irrigated tomatoes J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 114 265 268

Madramootoo, C.A. & Rigby, M. 1991 Effects of trickle irrigation on the growth and sunscald of bell peppers ( Capsicum annuum L.) in southern Quebec Agr. Water Mgt. 19 181 189

Ngouajio, M. , Wang, G.Y. & Goldy, R. 2007 Withholding of drip irrigation between transplanting and flowering increases the yield of field-grown tomato under plastic mulch Agr. Water Mgt. 87 285 291

Ozores-Hampton, M. 2014 Conventional and specialty eggplant varieties in Florida. Horticultural Sciences Department, Univ. of Florida/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Document HS1243. 12 June 2015. < http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/hs1243 >.

Pereira, L.S. , Allen, R.G. , Smith, M. & Raes, D. 2015 Crop evapotranspiration estimation with FAO56: Past and future Agr. Water Mgt. 147 4 20

Quintal Ortiz, W.C. , Perez-Gutierrez, A. , Latournerie Moreno, L. , May-Lara, C. , Ruiz Sanchez, E. & Martinez Chacon, A.J. 2012 Water use, water potential, and yield of habanero pepper ( Capsicum chinense Jacq.) Rev. Fitotec. Mex. 35 155 160

Sarker, B.C. , Hara, M. & Uemura, M. 2005 Proline synthesis, physiological responses and biomass yield of eggplants during and after repetitive soil moisture stress Sci. Hort. 103 387 402

Sezen, S.M. , Yazar, A. & Eker, S. 2006 Effect of drip irrigation regimes on yield and quality of field grown bell pepper Agr. Water Mgt. 81 115 131

Simonne, E.H. , Dukes, M.D. , Hochmuth, R.C. , Studstill, D.W. , Avezou, G. & Jarry, D. 2006 Scheduling drip irrigation for bell pepper grown with plasticulture J. Plant Nutr. 29 1729 1739

USDA 2013 United States standards for grades of eggplant. United States Department of Agriculture

Contributor Notes

Financial support was provided by the Georgia Agricultural Experiment Stations.

We thank John Silvoy, Jesús Bautista, and Nélida Bautista for their invaluable technical support. We also thank Peter Germishuizen from Lewis Taylor Farms, Ty Ty, GA, for donation of eggplant transplants. We appreciate the thorough review of the manuscript by Pat Conner, Tim Coolong, Erick Smith, and the anonymous reviewers.

Mention of trade names in this publication does not imply endorsement by the University of Georgia of products named, nor criticism of similar ones not mentioned. The cost of publishing this paper was defrayed in part by payment of page charges. Under postal regulations, this paper therefore must hereby be marked advertisement solely to indicate this fact.

1 Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] .

  Headquarters:

  1018 Duke Street

  Alexandria, VA 22314

  Phone : 703.836.4606

  Email : [email protected]

© 2018-2024 American Society for Horticultural Science

• [66.249.64.20|162.248.224.4]
• 162.248.224.4

Character limit 500 /500

Pavlov’s plants: new study shows plants can learn from experience

Art writer and Tutor, UNSW Sydney

Disclosure statement

Prudence Gibson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

UNSW Sydney provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

View all partners

The first time I met the Australian evolutionary ecologist Monica Gagliano , she was wearing colourful paisley trousers and was giving an animated talk at a 2014 environmental humanities conference in Canberra.

Despite her passionate presentation, trouble was brewing. Something was not right in the room. A woman beside me in the audience kept shifting her weight. A man to my left had crossed his arms and released several voluble sighs.

Why? Because Gagliano was using phrases such as “plant cognitive ecology”, “learning and communication”. And because she was, and is, opening up areas of knowledge that some might feel threaten the sovereignty of humans over nature.

That day in Canberra three years ago, Gagliano’s time frames were questioned. The frequency of her experiments were interrogated. Her apparatus was cross-examined. Yet, despite resistance, I believe her work is ground-breaking and opens up debate about plant subjectivity and ethics.

Sensitive plants

In a famous 2013 New Yorker article by Michael Pollan, The Intelligent Plant , Gagliano was introduced to readers as someone whose experiments are extending the concept of cognition to the plant world.

The problem she is addressing is that if plants have brain-like functions and make sentient-like decisions, our existing perception of nature and ourselves must change.

These implications need further analysis. But, first: the experiments. What Gagliano did with her Mimosa pudica plants – also called “sensitive” plants – was to custom-build an apparatus whereby the plants could be suddenly dropped a foot or so on a regular basis.

Initially, on dropping, the plant retracted and curled its leaves, but after repeats, it stopped reacting. Not only did it appear to “learn” a behaviour (without a brain, mind you) but it also remembered.

Gagliano repeated the experiment at intervals and found that even after a break of a month or more, the Mimosa would still not retract its leaves after being dropped.

How does this work? According to Gagliano:

Plants may lack brains and neural tissues but they do possess a sophisticated calcium-based signaling network in their cells similar to animals’ memory processes.

Gagliano has published her findings and edited various scholarly books on plant research, ethical implications and changed perceptions. She has collaborated with environmental lawyer Alessandro Pelizzon and others on the language problems of writing about plant life.

There is no vocabulary that can be used to talk about brain-like plant structures beyond mere vascular and survival processes, nor about decision-making, sentience, intelligence, learning and memory in the plant world.

There is much more work to be done by artists and humanists to develop these vocabularies together. Scholars such as Michael Marder , Dalia Nassar , Natasha Myers and myself are working in this field where there may be a realm of sophisticated activity in plant life that humans have not yet even fully comprehended.

A forthcoming book titled The Language of Plants is edited by Gagliano and colleagues, and deals with this complex and provocative problem, following on from her book The Green Thread .

Pavlov’s plants

Gagliano and her colleagues have just published a paper in Nature Scientific Reports that could rock our sense of human “self”.

This is a major coup for the plant scientist, who has suffered rejection from journals, for moving plant physiology into the domain of philosophy, for extending animal studies concepts of sentience to plants and more. Does this caution by journal editors reflect a fearfulness about our human place in the world?

The new paper explains her recent experiments where she sought to show plants can “learn” via classical conditioning, similar to the classic Pavlov’s dogs experiment.

Instead of food as the reward (the unconditioned simulus) and a bell as a neutral cue (the conditioned stimulus), she used light as the reward and air flow as the cue.

Gagliano and her colleagues used the air flow caused by a fan to predict the location and time of light. They found that the plants conditioned by the fan would grow towards the source of the air flow even when the light was not present, but only if they were “trained” to do so. This is like Pavlov ringing the bell and the dogs salivating, even if there was no food around.

Gagliano’s peas, Pisum sativum , also behaved according to a simulated circadian rhythm (temperature and light/dark control) and a sense of time of day, which is known to modulate behavioural processes such as learning in animals.

This experiment appears to show associative learning in plants. Gagliano has shown that plants don’t just respond to light and food in order to survive. They also choose and predict.

These findings will get people asking some tough questions. Do plants, like animals, have consciousness? If plants learn, choose and associate, what does this mean for our ethical relationship with them? Can humans learn from the adaptive capacities of plants?

To respond to light, fans and temperature in this way suggests that plants have far more sophisticated abilities than previously thought. The philosophical and ethical implications of this information are confounding.

It provokes further questions about the plant world that we have historically seen as inert and lacking in agency. With no brain, how can plants have cognition? Yet they exhibit functions we typically only associate with a brain.

Where does all this lead us? Well, into troubled waters, so grab your boat and paddle. We are in for a rough philosophical ride.

• Plant biology

Want to write?

Write an article and join a growing community of more than 181,700 academics and researchers from 4,934 institutions.

Register now

Find Info For

• Current Students
• Prospective Students
• Research and Partnerships
• Entrepreneurship and Commercialization

Quick Links

• Health and Life Sciences
• Info Security and AI
• Transformative Education
• Purdue Today
• Purdue Global
• Purdue in the News

April 10, 2024

‘Citi-Sci: Gardening for Science!’ experiment focuses on gardening preferences and effects on mental health, seeks participants

Gardeners at any level are invited to join Purdue University Extension, the University of Tennessee, Iowa State University and North Carolina State University from May through September for the third year of the citizen-science experiment called “Citi-Sci: Gardening for Science!” (Photo provided by Michael Fidler)

WEST LAFAYETTE, Ind. — Gardeners at any level are invited to join  Purdue University Extension , the University of Tennessee, Iowa State University and North Carolina State University for the third year of the citizen-science experiment called “Citi-Sci: Gardening for Science!” from May through September 2024.

Gardeners or citizen-scientists who participate, dubbed “citi-scientists,” will have the opportunity to grow four different types of plants — two strawberry and two marigold plants — some with edible flowers.

Celina Gomez , associate professor of controlled environment agriculture in Purdue’s Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture and experiment coordinator, seeks to gain information for their industry stakeholders, who are greenhouse growers. She says, “We want to better understand consumer preferences and challenges with gardening. For example, is there value in selling containers of strawberry or marigold plants with different colors versus one color?”

Data will be collected through surveys. Plants will be provided at no cost to citi-scientists helping to gauge gardener preferences and challenges. Along with the plants and other materials needed for the experiment, participants will have access to monthly educational sessions led by researchers from each institution’s extension department. Session topics will cover pest management, healthy cooking and nutrition, and mental health. 

“This experiment is a chance for the community to be involved in science,” says  Michael Fidler , Purdue horticulture and landscape architecture master’s student and graduate research assistant, who leads the experiment with Gomez. “While the data we collect and research we conduct in this field is valuable, we sometimes forget about the human aspect. This is a chance to take part in the scientific process.”

Gomez adds, “This year, we will also focus more on the psychological aspects of gardening, specifically how participating in a community-oriented project like this can positively impact your mental health.”

Those interested in participating can sign up online by April 26. The experiment is open to all, requiring only a small, sunny place for plants to grow from each citi-scientist. If selected for the research project, participants will receive plant pickup dates, location details and more information with additional resources. Contact Gomez at  [email protected] or 765-494-4443 for any questions.

About Purdue University

Purdue University is a public research institution demonstrating excellence at scale. Ranked among top 10 public universities and with two colleges in the top four in the United States, Purdue discovers and disseminates knowledge with a quality and at a scale second to none. More than 105,000 students study at Purdue across modalities and locations, including nearly 50,000 in person on the West Lafayette campus. Committed to affordability and accessibility, Purdue’s main campus has frozen tuition 13 years in a row. See how Purdue never stops in the persistent pursuit of the next giant leap — including its first comprehensive urban campus in Indianapolis, the new Mitchell E. Daniels, Jr. School of Business, and Purdue Computes — at https://www.purdue.edu/president/strategic-initiatives .

Writer/Media contact: Ashvini Malshe, 765-496-7480, [email protected]

Source: Celina Gomez, 765-494-4443, [email protected]  

Agricultural Communications: 765-494-8415;

Maureen Manier, Department Head, [email protected]

Agriculture News Page

Communication

• OneCampus Portal
• Brightspace
• BoilerConnect
• Faculty and Staff
• Human Resources
• Colleges and Schools

Info for Staff

• Purdue Moves
• Board of Trustees
• University Senate
• Center for Healthy Living
• Information Technology
• Ethics & Compliance
• Campus Disruptions

Purdue University, 610 Purdue Mall, West Lafayette, IN 47907, (765) 494-4600

© 2015-24 Purdue University | An equal access/equal opportunity university | Copyright Complaints | Maintained by Office of Strategic Communications

Trouble with this page? Disability-related accessibility issue? Please contact News Service at [email protected] .

NASA Plant Research Offers a Breath of Fresh Air

NASA Technology

Try to name sources of air pollution. Most likely your first thoughts would be things like exhaust from burning coal or driving a car. But, perhaps counterintuitively, the air indoors is as much as 30 times more toxic than the air outside.

One solution, borne out by NASA research, is to bring some of the outside in: plants and associated microorganisms in the soil around them are “nature’s life-support system,” notes a study published by Stennis Space Center in 1989.

So get some houseplants—that’s easy. But the study, led by B.C. Wolverton, head of Stennis’ Environmental Research Lab, was interested in how to maximize the air-scrubbing ability of those plants. After all, space habitats present the toughest possible challenge for ensuring safe, breathable air, since they’re entirely closed systems in an airless vacuum. There’s no chance to get some fresher air by opening a window, and even if engineers were able to build a habitat free from any of the toxins and chemical pollutants we find on Earth, “man’s own waste products would cause indoor air pollution problems,” notes Wolverton.

Wolverton screened a dozen common houseplants from the gerbera daisy to the bamboo palm, and tested their ability to remove a variety of household toxins, like formaldehyde, from a sealed chamber. The goal was to find which plants did the best job with different pollutants.

But perhaps the most important finding, and one that surprised the researchers, was just how, and what part of, the plant was doing the bulk of the filtering: the roots and soil. As part of the experiment, the researchers removed all the leaves and learned that the air-purifying effect was only a tiny bit less than before.

Wolverton and his team used the results to create a design for a plant pot with an activated carbon filter to maximize its air-purifying abilities, based in part on wastewater treatment studies.

The design also incorporated an electric fan beneath the pot to draw in more air and direct it into the soil, where the carbon and roots could do their filtering: “smoke, organic chemicals, pathogenic microorganisms (if present), and possibly radon are absorbed by the carbon filter,” the

study notes.

“Plant roots and their associated microorganisms then destroy the pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and the organic chemicals, eventually converting all these air pollutants into new plant tissue,” it continues.

Technology Transfer

With the results of the study in the public domain, other researchers and engineers over the years have been able to use and adapt them to their own products.

One group to do just that was Hamburg, Germany-based AIRY GreenTech, which was interested in creating a stand-alone system that relied exclusively on the plant, soil, and related microorganisms to do the air filtering, with no need for a carbon filter or a fan.

“There are a lot of articles describing the air-purifying plants used by NASA,” explains founder and managing director Peer-Arne Bottcher; anyone can use those plants in their home. He and his team wanted to capitalize on the second finding, that the most effective part of filtering was happening around the roots. “What we’re doing with our part, our AIRY box, is to scale up the efficiency of the air-purifying plants even further by ventilating the root system.”

It took a lot of engineering, he says, to solve problems like how to water a plant in a pot with ventilation all around the base without all the water pouring out. “We have three patents on our system internationally,” Bottcher says. However, at its core, the design is “all based on the facts and the tests done by Dr. Wolverton and his team.”

The pot is deceptively simple, Bottcher says, but extremely effective.

First, vents around the pot draw air in, and that air gets basic filtration simply by passing through the soil.

The plant itself acts as the “second step,” he says. As Wolverton proved in his research, the plant and the microorganisms that thrive in the soil around its roots extract organic compounds from the air and turn them into nutrients for the plants. “That’s the most exciting part, that’s the reason why humans are able to live on this planet, because plants have purified the air. And we are using this ability of the plant in our pots.”

Different plants are better than others at removing particular pollutants, Bottcher says, and Wolverton’s study results included a list of which plants were best in different circumstances. However, he notes, “the plant is quite flexible in which pollutants are transformed into nutrients,” and it can actually detect the pollutants in a given space and adapt to some extent to make better use of those pollutants.

“The plant needs about two weeks to detect the pollutants and to build the different enzymes to metabolize them,” he says. In the meantime, the plant is also helping improve indoor air quality by humidifying the air, because plants release water vapor as part of photosynthesis and respiration.

And while the goal of the AIRY plant pot was to increase the air-filtration abilities, there is a side benefit for the plant: increased airflow around the roots helps the plant grow better. Add in the special water reservoir that ensures the plant gets as much water as it needs it without spilling through the ventilation holes, and, well, “you don’t need a green thumb,” says Bottcher. “The AIRY system takes care of your plant for you.”

Currently, the company offers two models: an AIRY pot, designed for rooms around 172 square feet or smaller, and a larger AIRY box, designed for rooms around 322 square feet. For larger spaces, the company notes, customers can use multiple pots or boxes.

The company claims its system can neutralize nearly 100 percent of the most dangerous environmental toxins in a room in only 24 hours—though it notes that pollutants continue to evaporate all the while, so the air would never be completely toxin-free.

In the United States, the pots are available for sale through Amazon.com, and the company is looking for additional sales channels. Meanwhile, the products are also available in some 50 countries around the world, with partners in Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America. One distribution company in Chile and Brazil, for example, sells to schools and government facilities.

AIRY also sells directly to multinational companies like United Kingdom-based Ernest and Young, a tax and law firm that has installed plant pots in its offices around the world. “They’re loving it, because it’s very good for the health of the employees,” says Bottcher.

To create its plant pot, AIRY GreenTech used NASA’s findings on the importance of roots and microorganisms around them in the soil for the plant’s ability to extract toxins from the air. The design allows maximum airflow through the soil and around the roots, which increases the air-purifying capacity, while also helping the plant thrive.

Plants not only take in carbon dioxide and return oxygen, but they are exceptionally good at capturing harmful toxins from the air. NASA research has delved into how plants do this, and how to potentially use plants to provide clean air on long-duration space missions.

We sometimes call Earth the “blue planet,” but the green is equally key to supporting life.

Related Stories

• Celebrities
• Science & Tech
• Fashion & Beauty
• Food & Drink
• Home & Garden
• Sports & Fitness
• Travel & Outdoors
• Science & tech
• Conversations

Plants 'scream' while they're being harvested, new study finds

Vegetarians, we're afraid we've got some news that you're probably not going to like…

Plants emit sounds, akin to ‘screams’, when they’re distressed, according to a new study.

They allegedly produce clicking noises that humans can’t hear without the use of scientific equipment, research has found.

The research, which was published in Cell back in 2023, showed that plants produce these noises in times of acute distress.

Lilach Hadany is an evolutionary biologist at Tel Aviv University. Hadany said : "Even in a quiet field, there are actually sounds that we don't hear, and those sounds carry information. There are animals that can hear these sounds, so there is the possibility that a lot of acoustic interaction is occurring.”

"Plants interact with insects and other animals all the time, and many of these organisms use sound for communication, so it would be very suboptimal for plants to not use sound at all."

The findings show that plants which are distressed have incredibly high-pitched popping noises, while unstressed plants do not emit noises. The study’s definition of distressed included plants that were having their stems cut or were dehydrated.

However, it’s not yet clear how the plants produce the noises.

"Now that we know that plants do emit sounds, the next question is – 'who might be listening?'" Hadany said.

"We are currently investigating the responses of other organisms, both animals and plants, to these sounds, and we're also exploring our ability to identify and interpret the sounds in completely natural environments."

It comes after a new study suggested that western, industrial diets may be changing the way humans digest plants .

As modern diets lack fibre the way our bodies break down cellulose, found in fruits and vegetables , is changing.

Sign up for our free indy100 weekly newsletter

How to join the indy100's free WhatsApp channel

Have your say in our news democracy. Click the upvote icon at the top of the page to help raise this article through the indy100 rankings

Jake Paul finally makes key admission about Mike Tyson fight

Gta 6 - live updates as new map with 'panhandle' revealed, lost underwater 'city' discovered in india could rewrite human history, giant lake suddenly reappears 130 years after vanishing, surprising details undercovered in conjoined twin abby hensel's wedding documents, larry david’s 20 funniest ever curb your enthusiasm quotes, usain bolt's ancient running record destroyed by high-schooler, the rock turns on joe biden and refuses to endorse him for president, what is a 'honey trap', plants 'scream' while they're being harvested, internet finds husband who ghosted wife and kids in less than 24 hours, 'disgusting' diddy nickelodeon cameo resurfaces following house raid, the moon 'turned itself inside out' – and scientists now know how, all of the celebrities who have made claims about diddy.

25 years later: Nature still healing from Tri-State tornado that killed 4

by Chelsea Sick, WKRC

MONTGOMERY, Ohio (WKRC) - It's been 25 years since an EF-4 tornado ripped through Blue Ash and Montgomery.

Four people died that day in 1999. The storm had winds in excess of 200 mph., demolishing at least 200 homes and damaging twice that. Despite the devastation of that day in 1999, you may not notice anything out of place when you drive through the area today, that's unless you go on a hike.

"In some areas, it just looked liked somebody took their hand and swiped all the houses down," said Retired Deputy Fire Chief Terry Ott.

Ott was one of the first on scene after the storm hit. He was working for the Deer Park Silverton Joint Fire District. He helped with search and rescue on Cornell Road.

"It was just unbelievable, and you know the initial shock of seeing that. It's like, where do you start?" Ott said.

Homes on Cornell Road have been rebuilt and families have recovered, but 25 years later, nature is still healing.

"We always just assume nature is just going to rebound and resurge and be okay," said Dr. Theresa Culley.

Dr. Culley is a professor of plant biology at the University of Cincinnati. She led UC's long-term study on the UC Harris Benedict Nature Preserve that was damaged in that storm.

Those studies found forests can regenerate after huge storms, but they tend to have fewer native species and more invasive species.

"At the top of that tree, that's a bad plant. That's an invasive [plant] that's called garlic mustard," Dr. Culley said.

Volunteer and student groups periodically visit the preserve to remove invasive species, like honeysuckle. Dr. Culley said that the fewer invasive species, the more native plants, which keep animals in the habitat healthier. She said you find more invasive species in urban preserves because people have invasive ground cover in their gardens.

"When it stays in the yard, it's a great plant. But when it gets into natural areas and it forms these mats and so, that could be a problem," Dr. Culley said.

In cases like this, it's slowing down recovery.

"We have to do a better job of educating," Dr. Culley said.

While the people have rebuilt, Dr. Culley said nature's recovery could be studied for decades to come.