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Constructing a critical thinking evaluation framework for college students majoring in the humanities

Associated data.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Introduction

Education for sustainable development (ESD) has focused on the promotion of sustainable thinking skills, capacities, or abilities for learners of different educational stages. Critical thinking (CT) plays an important role in the lifelong development of college students, which is also one of the key competencies in ESD. The development of a valuable framework for assessing college students’ CT is important for understanding their level of CT. Therefore, this study aimed to construct a reliable self-evaluation CT framework for college students majoring in the humanities.

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and Item analysis were conducted to explore the reliability and validity of the CT evaluation framework. Six hundred and forty-two college students majoring in the humanities were collected. The sample was randomly divided into two subsamples ( n 1 = 321, n 2 = 321).

The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the whole scale was 0.909, and the values of the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for individual factors of the scale ranged from 0.724 to 0.878. Then CFA was conducted within the scope of the validity study of the scale. In this way, the structure of the 7-factor scale was confirmed. Results indicated that the constructed evaluation framework performed consistently with the collected data. CFA also confirmed a good model fitting of the relevant 22 factors of the college students’ CT framework ( χ 2 /df  = 3.110, RMSEA = 0.056, GFI = 0.927, AGFI = 0.902, NFI = 0.923, and CFI = 0.946).

These findings revealed that the CT abilities self-evaluation scale was a valid and reliable instrument for measuring the CT abilities of college students in the humanities. Therefore, the college students’ CT self-evaluation framework included three dimensions: discipline cognition (DC), CT disposition, and CT skills. Among them, CT disposition consisted of motivation (MO), attention (AT), and open-mindedness (OM), while CT skills included clarification skills (CS), organization skills (OS), and reflection (RE). Therefore, this framework can be an effective instrument to support college students’ CT measurement. Consequently, some suggestions are also put forward regarding how to apply the instrument in future studies.

Nowadays, individuals should be equipped with the abilities of identifying problems, in-depth thinking, and generating effective solutions to cope with various risks and challenges caused by the rapid development of science and technology ( Arisoy and Aybek, 2021 ). In this context, critical thinking (CT) is gaining increasing attention. Promoting college students’ CT is an important way of improving their abilities of problem solving and decision making to further enhance their lifelong development ( Feng et al., 2010 ). Although human beings are not born with CT abilities ( Scriven and Paul, 2005 ), they can be acquired through learning and training, and are always sustainable ( Barta et al., 2022 ).

Especially in the field of education, CT should be valued ( Pnevmatikos et al., 2019 ). Students should be good thinkers who possess the abilities of applying critical evaluation, finding, and collating evidence for their views, as well as maintaining a doubting attitude regarding the validity of facts provided by their teachers or other students ( Sulaiman et al., 2010 ). Many countries have regarded the development of students’ CT as one of the fundamental educational goals ( Flores et al., 2012 ; Ennis, 2018 ). CT is helpful for students to develop their constructive, creative, and productive thinking, as well as to foster their independence ( Wechsler et al., 2018 ; Odebiyi and Odebiyi, 2021 ). It also provides the power to broaden their horizons ( Les and Moroz, 2021 ). Meanwhile, when college students have a high level of CT abilities, they will likely perform better in their future careers ( Stone et al., 2017 ; Cáceres et al., 2020 ). Therefore, college students should be capable of learning to access knowledge, solve problems, and embrace different ideas to develop their CT ability ( Ulger, 2018 ; Arisoy and Aybek, 2021 ).

Due to the significant meaningfulness of CT abilities at all education levels and in various disciplines, how to cultivate students’ CT abilities has been the focus of CT-related research ( Fernández-Santín and Feliu-Torruella, 2020 ). Many studies have shown that inquiry-based learning activities or programs are an effective way to exercise and enhance students’ CT abilities ( Thaiposri and Wannapiroon, 2015 ; Liang and Fung, 2020 ; Boso et al., 2021 ; Chen et al., 2022 ). Students not only need the motivation and belief to actively participate in such learning activities and to commit to problem solving, but also need the learning skills to cope with the problems that may be encountered in problem-solving oriented learning activities. These requirements are in line with the cultivation of students’ CT abilities. Meanwhile, research has also indicated that there is an interrelationship between problem solving and CT ( Dunne, 2015 ; Kanbay and Okanlı, 2017 ).

However, another important issue is how to test whether learning activities contribute to improving the level of students’ CT abilities. It is effective to measure students’ CT abilities through using CT measurement instruments. Some CT measurement frameworks have been developed to cope with the need to cultivate CT abilities in teaching and learning activities ( Saad and Zainudin, 2022 ). However, there are still some imperfections in these existing CT evaluation frameworks. For example, most studies on college students’ CT are in the field of science, with very little research on students in the humanities, and even less on specifically developing CT assessment frameworks for college students in the humanities. Only Khandaghi et al. (2011) conducted a study on the CT disposition of college students in the humanities, and the result indicated that their CT abilities were at an intermediate level. However, there are few descriptions of college students’ CT with a background in humanities disciplines. Compared to humanities disciplines, science disciplines seem to place more emphasis on logical and rational thinking, which might cater more to the development of CT abilities ( Li, 2021 ). However, it is also vital for college students in the humanities to engage in rational thinking processes ( Al-Khatib, 2019 ). Hence, it is worth performing CT abilities evaluations of college students in the humanities by constructing a CT evaluation framework specifically for such students. In addition, previous measurements of CT have tended to be constructed according to one dimension of CT only, either CT skills or CT disposition. CT skills and disposition are equally important factors, and the level of CT abilities can be assessed more comprehensively and accurately by measuring both dimensions simultaneously. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop a self-evaluation CT framework for college students that integrates both CT skills and disposition dimensions to comprehensively evaluate the CT ability of college students in the humanities.

Literature review

Ct of college students in the humanities.

CT is hardly a new concept, as it can be traced back 2,500 years to the dialogs of Socrates ( Giannouli and Giannoulis, 2021 ). In the book, How We Think, Dewey (1933 , p 9; first edition, 1910) mentioned that thinking critically can help us move forward in our thinking. Subsequently, different explanations of CT have been presented through different perspectives by researchers. Some researchers think that CT means to think with logic and reasonableness ( Mulnix and Mulnix, 2010 ), while others suggest that CT refers to the specific learning process in which learners need to think critically to achieve learning objectives through making decisions and problem solving ( Ennis, 1987 ).

Generally, for a consensus, CT involves two aspects: CT skills and CT disposition ( Bensley et al., 2010 ; Sosu, 2013 ). CT skills refer to the abilities to understand problems and produce reasonable solutions to problems, such as analysis, interpretation, and the drawing of conclusions ( Chan, 2019 ; Ahmady and Shahbazi, 2020 ). CT disposition emphasizes the willingness of individuals to apply the skills mentioned above when there is a problem or issue that needs to be solved ( Chen et al., 2020 ). People are urged by CT disposition to engage in a reflective, inferential thinking process about the information they receive ( Álvarez-Huerta et al., 2022 ), and then in specific problem-solving processes, specific CT skills would be applied. CT disposition is the motivation for critical behavior and an important quality for the learning and use of critical skills ( Lederer, 2007 ; Jiang et al., 2018 ).

For college students, the cultivation of their CT abilities is usually based on specific learning curriculums ( O’Reilly et al., 2022 ). Hence, many studies about students’ CT have been conducted in various disciplines. For example, in science education, Ma et al.’s (2021) study confirmed that there was a significant relationship between CT and science achievement, so they suggested that it might be valuable to consider fostering CT as a considerable outcome in science education. In political science, when developing college students’ CT, teachers should focus on not only the development of skills, but also of meta-awareness ( Berdahl et al., 2021 ), which emphasizes the importance of CT disposition, i.e., learners not only need to acquire CT skills, such as analysis, inference, and interpretation, but also need to have clear cognition of how to apply these skills at a cognitive level. Duro et al. (2013) found that psychology students valued explicit CT training. For students majoring in mathematics, Basri and Rahman (2019) developed an assessment framework to investigate students’ CT when solving mathematical problems. According to the above literature review, there have been many studies on CT in various disciplines, which also reflects the significant importance of CT for the development of students in various disciplines. However, most studies on CT have been conducted in the field of science subjects, such as mathematics, business, nursing, and so on ( Kim et al., 2014 ; Siew and Mapeala, 2016 ; Basri and Rahman, 2019 ), but there have been few studies on the CT of students in the humanities ( Ennis, 2018 ).

There is a widespread stereotype that compared to humanities subjects, science majors are more logical, and so more attention should be paid to their CT ( Lin, 2016 ). This begs the question, are all students in the humanities (e.g., history, pedagogy, Chinese language literature, and so on) sensual or “romantic”? Do they not also need to develop independent, logical, and CT? Can they depend only on “romantic” thinking? This may be a prejudice. In fact, the humanities are subjects that focus on humanities and our society ( Lin, 2020 ). Humanities should be seen as the purpose rather than as a tool. The academic literacy of humanities needs to be developed and enhanced through a long-term, subtle learning process ( Bhatt and Samanhudi, 2022 ), and the significance for individuals is profound. Hence, the subjects of both humanities and sciences play an equally important role in an individual’s lifelong development. As such, what should students majoring in humanities subjects do to develop and enhance their professional competence? Chen and Wei (2021) suggested that individuals in the humanities should have the abilities to identify and tackle unstructured problems to adapt to the changing environments, and this suggestion is in line with a developmental pathway for fostering CT. Therefore, developing their CT abilities is an important way to foster the humanistic literacy of students in the humanities. Specifically, it is important to be equipped with the abilities to think independently and questioningly, to read individually, and to interpret texts in depth and in multiple senses. They also need to learn and understand the content of texts and evaluate the views of others in order to expand the breadth of their thinking ( Barrett, 2005 ). Moreover, they need the ability to analyze issues dialectically and rationally, and to continually reflect on themselves and offer constructive comments ( Klugman, 2018 ; Dumitru, 2019 ). Collegiate CT skills are taught via independent courses or embedded modules ( Zhang et al., 2022 ). The humanities are no exception. Yang (2007) once designed thematic history projects, as independent courses, to foster students’ disposition toward CT concerning the subject of history, and the results showed that the history projects can support learners’ development of historical literacy and CT. In a word, the humanities also play an important role in fostering the development and enhancement of college students’ CT, esthetic appreciation and creativity, and cultural heritage and understanding ( Jomli et al., 2021 ). Having good CT therefore also plays a crucial role in the lifelong development of students in the humanities.

An accurate assessment of the level of CT abilities is an important prerequisite for targeted improvement of students’ CT abilities in special disciplines ( Braeuning et al., 2021 ). Therefore, it might be meaningful to construct a self-evaluation CT framework for college students in the humanities according to their professional traits.

Evaluating college students’ CT

Given that CT can be cultivated ( Butler et al., 2017 ), more attention has been paid to how to improve students’ CT abilities level in instruction and learning ( Araya, 2020 ; Suh et al., 2021 ). However, it is also important to examine how CT can be better assessed. The evaluation of thinking is helpful for students to think at higher levels ( Kilic et al., 2020 ). Although the definitions of CT are controversial ( Hashemi and Ghanizadeh, 2012 ), many researchers have reached a consensus on the main components of CT: skills and disposition ( Bensley et al., 2016 ), and different CT evaluation frameworks have been developed according to one of the two dimensions. For example, Li and Liu (2021) developed a five-skill framework for high school students which included analysis, inference, evaluation, construct, and self-reflection. Meanwhile, in recent years, the assessment of CT disposition has also attracted the interest of a growing number of researchers. Sosu (2013) developed the “Critical Thinking Disposition Scale” (STDS), which included two dimensions: critical openness and reflective skepticism. The specific taxonomies of the evaluation framework of CT skills and dispositions is shown in Table 1 . As illustrated in Table 1 , there are some universal core items to describe CT skills. For the dimension of CT skills, the sub-dimensions of interpretation, analysis, inference, and evaluation are the important components. Those CT skills are usually applied along with the general process of learning activities ( Hsu et al., 2022 ). For instance, at the beginning of learning activities, students should have a clear understanding of the issues raised and the knowledge utilized through applying interpretation skills. Likewise, there are some universal core items to describe CT dispositions, such as open-mindedness, attentiveness, flexibility, curiosity, and so on.

Taxonomies of the evaluation framework of CT skills and dispositions.

For a good critical thinker, it is equally important to have both dispositional CT and CT skills. Students need to have the awareness of applying CT abilities to think about problem-solving and subsequently be able to utilize a variety of CT skills in specific problem-solving processes. Therefore, we argue that designing a CT self-evaluation framework that integrates the two dimensions will provide a more comprehensive assessment of college students’ CT. In terms of CT disposition, motivation, attentiveness, and open-mindedness were included as the three sub-dimensions of CT disposition. Motivation is an important prerequisite for all thinking activities ( Rodríguez-Sabiote et al., 2022 ). Especially in problem-solving-oriented learning activities, the development of CT abilities will be significantly influenced by the motivation level ( Berestova et al., 2021 ). Attentiveness refers to the state of concentration of the learner during the learning process, which reflects the learners’ level of commitment to learning, playing a crucial role in the development of CT abilities during the learning process. Open-mindedness requires learners to keep an open mind to the views of others when engaging in learning activities. The three sub-dimensions have been used to reflect leaners’ disposition to think critically. Especially in the humanities, it is only through in-depth communication between learners that a crash of minds and an improvement in abilities can take place ( Liu et al., 2022 ), and it is therefore essential that learners maintain a high level of motivation, attentiveness, and open-mindedness in this process to develop their CT abilities. In terms of CT skills, three sub-dimensions were also selected to measure the level of learners’ CT skills, namely clarification skills, organization skills, and reflection. In the humanities, it should be essential abilities for students to understand, analyze, and describe the literature and problems comprehensively and exactly ( Chen and Wei, 2021 ). Then, following the ability to extract key information about the problem, to organize and process it, and to organize the information with the help of organizational tools such as diagrams and mind maps. Finally, the whole process of problem solving is reflected upon and evaluated ( Ghanizadeh, 2016 ), and research has shown that reflection learning intervention could significantly improve learners’ CT abilities ( Chen et al., 2019 ).

Research purpose

CT plays an important role in college students’ academic and lifelong career development ( Din, 2020 ). In the current study on college students’ CT measurement, it can be improved in two main ways.

Firstly, the attention to the discipline cognition related to CT in previous studies is insufficient. Generally, students’ CT abilities can be cultivated based on two contexts: the subject-specific instructional context and the general skills instructional context ( Ennis, 1989 ; Swartz, 2018 ). In authentic teaching and learning contexts, the generation and development of CT usually takes place in problem-oriented learning activities ( Liang and Fung, 2020 ), in which students need to achieve their learning objectives by identifying problems and solving them. According to Willingham (2007) , if you are to think critically, you must have a sound knowledge base of the problem or topic of enquiry and view it from multiple perspectives. Due to the difference in nature of the disciplines, the format of specific learning activities should also vary. Hence, an adequate cognition of the discipline is an important prerequisite for learning activities; meanwhile, college students’ cognition level regarding their discipline should also be an important assessment criterion for them to understand their own level of CT abilities. Cognition refers to the acquisition of knowledge through mental activity (e.g., forming concepts, perceptions, judgments, or imagination; Colling et al., 2022 ). Learners’ thinking, beliefs, and feelings will affect how they behave ( Han et al., 2021 ). Analogically speaking, discipline cognition refers to an individual’s understanding of their discipline’s backgrounds and knowledge ( Flynn et al., 2021 ). Cognition should be an important variable in CT instruction ( Ma and Luo, 2020 ). In the current study, we added the dimension of discipline cognition into the self-evaluation CT framework of college students in the humanities. What’s more, in order to represent the learning contexts of humanities disciplines, the specific descriptions of items are concerned with the knowledge of the humanities, (e.g., “I can recognize the strengths and limitations of the discipline I am majoring in.,” and “Through studying this subject, my understanding of the world and life is constantly developing.”).

Secondly, the measurement factors of CT skills and disposition should be more specific according to the specific humanities background. In previous studies, researchers tended to measure students’ CT in terms of one of the two dimensions of CT skills. CT thinking skills used to be measured from perspectives such as analysis, interpretation, inference, self-regulation, and evaluation. However, in specific learning processes, how should students concretely analyze and interpret the problems they encounter, and how can they self-regulate their learning processes and evaluate their learning outcomes? Those issues should also be considered to evaluate college students’ levels of CT abilities more accurately. Therefore, the current study attempted to construct a CT framework in a more specific way, and by integrating both dimensions of CT disposition and skills. Therefore, what specific factors would work well as dimensions for evaluating the CT abilities of college students in the humanities? In the current study, firstly, students’ disposition to think critically is assessed in terms of three sub-dimensions: motivation, attention, and open-mindedness, to help students understand the strength of their own awareness to engage in CT ( Bravo et al., 2020 ). Motivation is an important prerequisite for all thinking activities ( Rodríguez-Sabiote et al., 2022 ), and it could contribute to the development of engagement, behavior, and analysis of problems ( Berestova et al., 2021 ). Meanwhile, there was a positive relationship between academic motivation and CT. Therefore, in the current study, motivation is still one of the crucial factors. The sub-dimension of attentiveness was also an important measurement factor, which aimed to investigate the level of the persistence of attention. Attentiveness also has a positive influence on a variety of student behaviors ( Reynolds, 2008 ), while the sub-dimension of open-mindedness mainly assesses college students’ flexibility of thinking, which is also an important factor of CT ( Southworth, 2020 ). A good critical thinker should be receptive of some views that might be challenging to their own prior beliefs with an open-minded attitude ( Southworth, 2022 ). Secondly, college students’ CT skills were then assessed in the following three sub-dimensions of clarification skills, organization skills, and reflection, with the aim of understanding how well students use CT skills in the problem-solving process ( Tumkaya et al., 2009 ). The three sub-dimensions of CT skills selected in this framework are consistent with the specific learning process of problem solving, which begins with a clear description and understanding of the problem, i.e., clarification skills. In the humanities, it should be an essential competence for students to understand, analyze, and describe the literature and problems comprehensively and exactly ( Chen and Wei, 2021 ).

We thus constructed a model for evaluating the CT of college students in the humanities (see Figure 1 ). The proposed evaluation framework incorporates three dimensions: discipline cognition (DC), CT disposition, and CT skills. Among them, CT disposition includes the three sub-dimensions of motivation (MO), attention (AT), and open-mindedness (OM), while CT skills include the three sub-dimensions of clarification skills (CS), organization skills (OS), and reflection (RE). In other words, this study aimed to construct a seven-dimensional evaluation framework and to test whether it is an effective instrument for measuring the CT of college students in the humanities.

A model for evaluating the CT abilities of college students in the humanities.

Materials and methods

Research design.

In order to address the two problems of the existing college students’ CT evaluation frameworks mentioned above, a CT self-evaluation framework for college students in the humanities was preliminarily developed in this study, including the following seven factors: discipline cognition (2 items), motivation (5 items), attentiveness (5 items), open-mindedness (5 items), clarification skills (3 items), organization (3 items), and reflection (4 items).

Then, to ensure the content validity of the measurement framework, four experts who have studied CT and five teachers who have worked in the field of humanities were invited to review all items and give feedback. The research team compared the similarities and differences in expert opinions and made joint decisions. Meanwhile, to ensure the popularity, accuracy, and objectivity of the items, 25 college students majoring in humanities participated in the pretest, and the presentation and description of the items was improved according to their feedback. Finally, a questionnaire consisting of 30 items was constructed, including three items for participants’ socio-demographic information (e.g., gender, grade, and subject), two for discipline cognition, five for motivation, five for attention, five for open-mindedness, three for clarification skills, three for organization skills, and four for reflection (as shown in Table 2 ). For each item, a 5-point Likert-style scale (5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree) was used.

Dimensions and items of the college students’ CTS evaluation framework.

Participants and data collection

In the current study, simple random sampling was adopted and the online questionnaire was uploaded on Questionnaire Star 1 (accessed on 18 March 2022), a professional online survey tool widely used in China ( Sarjinder, 2003 ). The link to the online questionnaire was sent to the teachers in the humanities of some colleges in Jiangsu, China. Then teachers sent the link to their students. In the first part of the questionnaire, students were told that they were participating in an anonymous study, the content of which may be published without any commercial use. If they did not want to participate in the survey, they could quit the website of the online questionnaire. Students who agreed to participate in the survey filled in the questionnaire. In addition, to ensure the reliability of the results of the subsequent data analysis, the ratio of the number of questionnaire items to the number of participants should be 1:5, and the larger the sample size the better ( Gorsuch, 1983 ). Therefore, eventually, 654 college students agreed to take part in the study, and completed the online questionnaire. After deleting those questionnaires with the same answer for all items or overly short response times, the effective number of samples was 642, with an effective rate of 98.2%.

The recruited effective sample comprised 642 participants, of whom 67.4% were female ( n  = 433), and 32.6% were male ( n  = 209). Sophomores ( n  = 215, 33.5%) and juniors ( n  = 249, 38.8%) made up most of the total number of participants. Meanwhile, the current study aimed to construct a CT framework for college students in the humanities field; hence, all participants were students in humanities disciplines, such as history ( n  = 187, 29.1%), educational history ( n  = 78, 12.2%), philosophy ( n  = 97, 15.1%), Chinese language and literature ( n  = 221, 34.4%), and pedagogy ( n  = 59, 9.2%). The specific socio-demographic information is shown in Table 3 .

Socio-demographic profile of respondents.

Data analysis

To construct an evaluation framework of college students’ CT skills and to confirm its reliability and validity, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and item analysis were carried out. Firstly, 642 samples were randomly assigned to two groups, with 321 samples in each ( Yurdakul et al., 2012 ) to avoid inflation of the Cronbach’s alpha value or other effects ( Devellis, 2011 ). EFA was used to analyze the first group of samples. CFA was applied to the second sample. Firstly, EFA was conducted in order to determine the underlying factor structure of the CT-evaluation framework and to make decisions about item retention ( Kieffer, 1988 ). During this process, principal component analysis (PCA) was applied as an EFA factor extraction technique ( Vogel et al., 2009 ). CFA was then used to confirm the factor structure of the scale using the second group of 321 samples ( Kline, 2005 ). Lastly, all samples were analyzed to test the differentiation and suitability of the items ( Yurdakul et al., 2012 ). SPSS 18.0 and AMOS 24.0 were applied to analyze the collected data.

SPSS 22.0 was used for conducting EFA, and the maximum variance method was adopted for factor rotation.

Reliability analysis of the scale

Prior to the EFA, sample variance and sample size evaluations were conducted. An evaluation of Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was found to be significant, thus confirming homogeneity of variance ( χ 2  = 9162.198; p  < 0.001). Then, the Cronbach’s alpha value ( Pallant, 2007 ) was applied to evaluate the reliability of the scale, and the results showed that the whole scale had good reliability ( α  = 0.909). Specifically, the Cronbach’s alpha values of the seven factors were 0.724 (DC), 0.771 (MO), 0.878 (AT), 0.839 (OM), 0.819 (CL), 0.755 (OR), and 0.878 (RE), indicating their reliability. The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) value of the questionnaire was 0.907, showing the appropriateness of the EFA ( Kaiser, 1974 ).

Validity analysis of the scale

To confirm the validity of the evaluation dimensions, the method of PCA was applied to extract factors, and maximum variance rotation was used for the EFA. Seven factors were finally obtained. Kieffer (1988) suggested that two strategies should be applied for EFA. Thus, oblique rotation and orthogonal rotation were both used. If the results of the two methods are similar, the results obtained by the orthogonal rotation method can be used. Therefore, in the current study, two methods were both applied for EFA, namely optimal skew and maximum variance orthogonal rotation. The results of the two methods showed no significant difference. This study thus applied the results of the maximum variance orthogonal rotation method. MO5, OM4, and OM5 were removed since their maximum factor loadings were not in line with their initial evaluation dimension ( Conway and Huffcutt, 2016 ). In addition, the factors with an eigenvalue higher than 1 were picked. Items with a factor loading of less than 0.4 and with inconsistent content were removed through the multiple orthogonal rotations ( Zhao et al., 2021 ). There were 25 items with eigenvalues greater than 1 and independent factor loadings greater than 0.5 which were retained ( Fabrigar et al., 1999 ). Table 4 presents the results of the component transformation matrix. Finally, seven factors were selected, with a cumulative variance contribution of 71.413% ( Conway and Huffcutt, 2016 ). The eigenvalues and cumulative variance contributions of the seven factors are shown in Table 5 .

The factor analysis of college students’ CT framework ( N  = 321).

The eigenvalues and contribution rates of the five factors in the model.

The first-order CFA was adopted to determine the validity, convergence, and identifiability of the framework in this study ( Kline, 2005 ). CFA was used to explore the relationships between each factor, and then to construct the evaluation framework of humanities college students’ CT.

Fitting validity analysis for the framework

As shown in Figure 2 , first-order CFA was conducted. According to Hair et al. (2014) , items that do not meet the standard load (<0.5) must be eliminated. The absolute and relative fitting indexes were applied to verify the framework fit. The Chi-square/ df in this research was 3.651, and the value of RMSEA was 0.044 (<0.08; Liu et al., 2021 ). In addition, the goodness-of-fit index (GFI) and adjusted fitness index (AGFI) were 0.923 and 0.906 respectively, which both met the reference standard proposed by Foster et al. (1993) . Moreover, consistent with Hair et al. (2014) recommendations, the normed fitness index (NFI), comparative fitness index (CFI), incremental fitness index (IFI), and relative fitness index (RFI) were 0.975, 0.982, and 0.972 (>0.9). In addition, the values of simplifying the specification fitness index (PNFI), and streamlining fitness indicator (PGFI) were more than 0.5. Therefore, these results indicated the good fitting validity of the framework ( Table 6 ).

The first-order CFA model.

The fitting index of the evaluation framework.

Convergence validity analysis for the framework

The CFA results are shown in Table 7 . The comprehensive reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) were used to test the construct validity of the framework. According to Hair et al. (2014) , the CR value of all items should be more than 0.7. Thus, the CR of the 22 remaining items was good. What is more, Fornell and Larcker (1981) pointed out that if the AVE is higher than 0.5, the framework shows good convergence validity. Therefore, the results in Table 5 show that this evaluation framework has high validity and is reasonable.

Results of the confirmatory factor analysis.

Discriminant validity analysis of the framework

The discriminant validity of the framework could be ensured by testing the correlation matrix among dimensions. Schumacker and Lomax (2016) proposed that in the structural discriminant validity analysis of tools, the AVE square root of all factors must be more than the absolute value of the Pearson correlation coefficient between two factors in order to be recognized as having discriminant validity. Therefore, as shown in Table 8 , the result of structural discriminant validity analysis indicated that this framework had good discriminant validity.

The results of interrelated coefficient matrix and square roots of AVE.

***Significant at the 0.001 level; **Significant at the 0.01 level; *Significant at the 0.05 level.

Item analysis

Item analysis was conducted to determine how well the items discriminate between college students with high abilities and those with low abilities in terms of CT within the scope of the item validity of the CT-evaluation scale form. In order to accomplish this goal, item discrimination statistics were calculated based on the differences between the lowest group means of 27% and the highest group means of 27% of the participants determined according to the scores of each item and to the total scores of the scale ( Aridag and Yüksel, 2010 ). Therefore, first, the total scores for everyone were calculated by using the scale. This was followed by the calculation of total scores that were then ranked from the highest to the lowest. Of all the participants constituting the study group ( N  = 642), 27% (174) of them who had the highest scores were determined to be the higher group, and 27% of all the participants who had the lowest scores were determined to be the lower group. The independent samples t -test was applied for the purpose of statistically testing the difference between the mean scores of the two groups. The results obtained are presented in Table 9 . Further, items with dimensional Pearson correlation coefficients and standardized factor loadings that did not reach the standard value (less than 0.4 and 0.45 respectively) were eliminated. Finally, for the remaining 22 items, the decisive values were higher than 0.3, and the gross interrelated coefficient between questions and items was higher than 0.4. Overall, the item analysis results showed that the remaining 22 items reached the standard.

t -test results for the item means of the high-low-27% group.

CT is one of the key competencies that college students need to acquire ( Bandyopadhyay and Szostek, 2019 ). This study aimed to construct a self-evaluation CT framework for college students in the humanities. In the initial framework, three dimensions and 27 items were conceived; then EFA was conducted, and items with independent factor loadings below 0.5 were excluded ( Fabrigar et al., 1999 ). As a result, 25 items were retained for CFA. The results showed that three items should be eliminated because of their lower standard load (less than 0.5). Subsequently, the evaluation model with 22 items had an acceptable fitting index; meanwhile, good convergence and discriminant validity of the framework was also shown by calculating CR, AVE, and the square roots of AVE. Finally, to verify the suitability and distinctiveness of the constructed items, item analysis was conducted. The result showed that for the remaining 22 items, the decisive values were higher than 0.3, and the gross interrelated coefficient between questions and items was higher than 0.4, so the remaining 22 items reached the standard. Therefore, the final self-evaluation CT framework is a 22-item instrument, measuring three dimensions and six sub-dimensions: discipline cognition, CT disposition (open-mindedness, motivation, and attentiveness), and CT skills (reflection, organization skills, and clarification skills).

Compared to previous studies about the construction of an assessment framework for CT, this study focused on three important issues: the CT abilities of college students majoring in the humanities was the focus of this study; both CT skills and CT dispositions were included; and more specific dimensions of CT were the core measurement factors. In previous CT assessment frameworks, students in the disciplines of science (mathematics, business, nursing, engineering, etc.) were often the main subjects of study ( Kim et al., 2014 ; Michaluk et al., 2016 ; Siew and Mapeala, 2016 ; Basri and Rahman, 2019 ), while college students majoring in the humanities have received less attention. However, CT as a guide of belief and action ( Gyenes, 2021 ) is an important ability for college students in all fields ( Davies, 2013 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ). In humanities subjects, research has shown that independent thinking skills are valuable indicators of students’ discipline-specific abilities in humanities subjects ( Bertram et al., 2021 ). College students in the humanities need CT abilities to identify problems and find critical solutions ( Baş et al., 2022 ). Meanwhile, the assessment instrument developed in this study added the dimension of disciplinary cognition, which is considered a prerequisite to help college students have a clear idea of their subject background. Therefore, the CT assessment framework provided a practical method for teachers and learners in the humanities to investigate the level of their CT abilities. For example, in the discipline of history, thematic history projects could be applied to foster students’ CT abilities in authentic history teaching contexts ( Yang, 2007 ). In order to verify whether the projects help to improve learners’ CT abilities, this CT evaluation framework can be applied before and at the end of the project to determine whether there are differences in learners’ levels of CT abilities before and after learning. Likewise, in philosophy classroom, philosophical whole-class dialog can be useful teaching strategies to activate learners to think critically about moral values ( Rombout et al., 2021 ). Learners in dialogs must take others’ perspectives into account ( Kim and Wilkinson, 2019 ), which is in line with the sub-dimension of open-mindedness in the current CT evaluation framework. Hence, the CT evaluation framework can also be applied in specific disciplines.

In addition, in the current CT evaluation framework, both CT skills and CT dispositions were included, and more specific dimensions of CT were the core measurement factors. In terms of CT disposition, it reflects the strength of students’ belief to think and act critically. In the current evaluation instrument, the three sub-dimensions of motivation, open-mindedness, and attentiveness are the evaluation factors. The cultivation of college students’ CT abilities is usually based on specific educational activities. When college students get involved in learning activities, there are opportunities for them to foster their CT abilities ( Liu, 2014 ; Huang et al., 2022 ). An important factor influencing student engagement is motivation ( Singh et al., 2022 ), which has an important effect on college students’ behavior, emotion, and cognitive process ( Gao et al., 2022 ). Hence, it makes sense to regard motivation as a measure factor of CT disposition, and it is crucial for college students to self-assess their motivation level in the first place to help them have a clear insight into their overall level of CT. The sub-dimension of attentiveness was also an important measurement factor, which aimed to investigate the level of the persistence of attention. Attentiveness also has a positive influence on a variety of student behaviors ( Reynolds, 2008 ), while the sub-dimension of open-mindedness mainly assesses college students’ flexibility of thinking, which is also an important factor of CT ( Southworth, 2020 ). A good critical thinker should be receptive of some views that might be challenging to their own prior beliefs with an open-minded attitude ( Southworth, 2022 ). CT skills were then assessed in the following three sub-dimensions of clarification skills, organization skills, and reflection, with the aim of understanding how well students use CT skills in the problem-solving process ( Tumkaya et al., 2009 ). The three sub-dimensions of CT skills selected in this framework are consistent with the specific learning process of problem solving, which begins with a clear description and understanding of the problem, i.e., clarification skills, followed by the ability to extract key information about the problem, to organize and process it, and to organize the information with the help of organizational tools such as diagrams and mind maps. Finally, the whole process of problem solving is reflected upon and evaluated, and research has shown that reflection learning intervention could significantly improve learners’ CT abilities ( Chen et al., 2019 ).

In other words, the self-evaluation framework of college students’ CT constructed in this study focused on the investigation of college students in the humanities, and the descriptions of specific items combined the characteristics of the humanities. What’s more, because there are some differences in the extent to which students apply specific CT skills and are aware of how to use CT to solve problems based on their different disciplinary backgrounds ( Belluigi and Cundill, 2017 ), the construction of the CT assessment framework for college students provides a practical pathway and a more comprehensive instrument for assessing the CT abilities of college students majoring in the humanities, and a research entry point was provided for researchers to better research the CT of college students majoring in the humanities.

Based on a previous literature review of CT, this study further investigated the necessity of college students’ CT to construct a framework for evaluating the CT of college students in the humanities, and to test its effectiveness. The EFA, CFA, and item analysis methods were conducted in this study to construct a three-dimensional college students’ CT self-evaluation framework. The results indicate that the framework constructed in this study has good reliability and validity. Finally, a framework with three dimensions (discipline cognition, CT disposition, and CT skills) and seven sub-dimensions (discipline cognition, motivation, attentiveness, open-mindedness, reflection, organization skills, and clarification skills) totaling 22 items was developed.

Implications

The main significance of this study is reflected in three aspects. Firstly, the current study constructed a CT-evaluation framework for college students majoring in the humanities. The results of the EFA, CFA, and item analysis supported the reliability and validity of the three-dimensional framework which indicates that it consists of discipline cognition, CT disposition, and CT skills. The specific assessment factors not only integrate the two dimensions of CT (skills and disposition), making the assessment framework more comprehensive, but also integrate the dimension of discipline cognition, enabling specific measures to be developed based on specific disciplinary contexts, ensuring that CT is assessed more accurately and relevantly. Second, the CT-evaluation framework can be applied in specific instruction and learning contexts. It is well known that CT has become one of the abilities in the 21st century. In instruction and learning, specific instructional strategies and learning activities should be purposefully applied according to specific humanistic backgrounds. Prior to undertaking specific teaching activities, it is worth having a prerequisite understanding of college students’ level of CT abilities by inviting students to complete the self-evaluation CT competence instrument. Likewise, after the learning activities, it is also an important instrument to evaluate the effectiveness of learning activities in terms of cultivating college students’ CT abilities. Finally, the construction of the CT assessment framework for college students provides a practical pathway for assessing the CT abilities of college students majoring in the humanities, and a research entry point was provided for researchers to better research the CT of these students majoring in the humanities in the future.

Limitations and future work

There are two main limitations of this study. First, the sample in this study was from one area and was selected by random sampling, which cannot cover all the college students in the major. More and larger representative samples will be needed in the future to assess the extent to which the findings are applicable to other population groups to confirm the conclusions of the study. In addition, this evaluation framework of college students’ CT is still in the theoretical research stage and has not yet been put into practice. Therefore, the framework should be practically applied in further research to improve its applicability and usability according to practical feedback.

Data availability statement

Ethics statement.

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

QL: conceptualization. SL: methodology. SL and ST: writing—original draft preparation. SL, XG, and QL: writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This study was supported by the School Curriculum Ideological and Political Construction Project (no. 1812200046KCSZ2211).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of inter.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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• Open access
• Published: 14 September 2022

Adaptation and validation of a critical thinking scale to measure the 3D critical thinking ability of EFL readers

• Moloud Mohammadi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7848-1869 1 ,
• Gholam-Reza Abbasian   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1507-1736 2 &
• Masood Siyyari 1  

Language Testing in Asia volume  12 , Article number:  24 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Thinking has always been an integral part of human life, and it can be said that whenever humanity has been thinking, it has been practicing a kind of criticizing the issues around. This is the concept of critical thinking that enhances the ability of individuals to identify problems and find solutions. Most previous research has focused on only one aspect of critical thinking that is critical thinking skills, while two other dimensions of criticality and critical pedagogy should have also been included. In order to assure of the validity of the instrument designed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach, under review), it was first adapted and then SEM modeling was used. Examination of the results of factor analysis and modeling of SEM showed that the model satisfied the fit indices ( χ 2 /df, CFI, TLI, RMSEA), and all the factor loads are greater than 0.4 which represent that the items are defined properly. This research suggested a SEM modeling of critical thinking skills, composed of six factors measured by twenty-two indices. The results of the PLS-SEM CFA represented that it is a valid structural model to measure a critical thinking of EFL readers at three levels.

Introduction

Recent research on reading has represented that, although it is generally established as the first skill in language learners, it is a complex cognitive activity for individuals to perform well in learning and obtaining sufficient information from the target community (Shang, 2010 ). According to Krathwohl ( 2002 ), the cognitive domain is divided into two parts: first is the knowledge (including real, theoretical, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge) and then the cognitive process (including recalling, comprehending, applying, examining, evaluating, and creating). In defining this skill, Chamot ( 2004 ) holds that reading is the process of activating language-acquired knowledge and skills to access information and transfer them. Swallow ( 2016 ) looks at it as a three-dimensional construct including content, perception, and understanding through thinking, metacognition, and meaning construction (Gear, 2006 ).

According to Rashel and Kinya ( 2021 ), the focus of education in this competitive period of time is on higher-level thinking skills (including critical thinking) rather than low-level thinking skills, and research into measuring critical thinking skills is growing. In the eyes of Ennis ( 2011 ), critical thinking ability is defined as clear and rational thinking that includes engaging in reflective and independent thinking. Moon ( 2008 ) and Willingham ( 2007 ) emphasized that the development of critical thinking in individuals is the goal of higher education and can be recognized as the primary goal of learning. Paul and Elder ( 2002 ), in describing a critical thinker, stated that in the eyes of such a person, all four skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening are methods of skilled higher-order thinking. Such a person, while reading the text, finds it a representation of the author’s thinking and therefore tries to align with his point of view. In this regard, Din ( 2020 ) emphasizes that since a critical thinker has the ability to understand beyond the content of a text, they tend to react to the content being studied. Moreover, the tendency towards implementing critical thinking programs in the English language teaching context has increased as well (Heidari, 2020 ; Liu & Stapleton, 2014 ).

Beside the theory-wise investigations, there are a couple of studies with practical direction. Some research has examined the role of critical thinking in learning a language (e.g., Akyuz & Samsa, 2009 ; Willingham, 2007 ), others focused on the thinking strategies used by language learners in improving reading skills (Shang, 2010 ) or the relationship between critical thinking and language learning strategies (Nikopour et al., 2011 ). A few studies confirmed the relationship between critical thinking ability and reading comprehension (e.g., Eftekhary & Besharati Kalayeh, 2014 ). In such area, a limited number of studies have relied on the participation of the academic community (Hawkins, 2012 ; Hosseini et al., 2012 ), and this study is also innovative in this respect. It can be inferred that in most of these studies, critical thinking is limited to the use of definite basic skills (compare and contrast, conclusion, inferencing, etc.). According to Facione ( 1990 ) and Rashel and Kinya ( 2021 ), most research on this topic has focused on general critical thinking skills (but not expertise), although these skills have been of interest for years. But, is it enough to just use these skills to understand a content? Is critical thinking summarized in terms of several sub-skills? Where and how is the role and impression of society reflected in critical thinking or critical reading? Does learning these sub-skills alone indicate the internalization of critical thinking and reading in individuals? These key questions have been left intact mainly due to a lack of specific and valid instrument, as a rationale behind this very study.

The novel point in the present study is that, despite the existence of the one-dimensional attitude towards critical thinking (Facione, 1992 ; Kember et al., 2000 ), it tries to highlight the concept of a three-dimensional critical thinking in academic context and in this regard developed a tool for measuring its subscales (and not just individual skills). Such a tool can measure the real needs of the next generation with evidence of real-life multifaceted critical thinking issues. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity of the questionnaire developed for assessing three-dimensional critical thinking skills in EFL readers. Moreover, the application of the partial least squares method (PLS-SEM) in the development and validation of the proposed model has also made this research innovative. The objectives of this study were (1) to assess the validity of the items introduced in the questionnaire, (2) to investigate the relationship between and among the identified components, and (3) to determine the validity and reliability of the questionnaire designed to assess three-dimensional critical thinking skills in EFL readers. The contribution of this article in the literature is to illustrate the importance of critical thinking both in personal and sociocultural aspects, to evaluate and validate the tool that was developed to measure the components of three-dimensional critical thinking (proposed by the same researchers), to provide the model fit indices for factor analysis, and to adapt the instrument to the conditions of English language readers. Therefore, an attempt was made to briefly introduce the components of the proposed model, and then to discuss the validation method of the developed instrument to measure these components, and finally to report the validation results of the introduced instrument. The pedagogical implications of this study include the following: using the presented concepts in research centers to identify and introduce the method of teaching and developing each of the sub-skills of critical thinking in different societies; identifying differences in instructional approaches for each of the sub-skills; applying both concepts (i.e., three-dimensional critical thinking and reading) in other areas and assessing the generalizability of findings; and reviewing the previous literature by looking at all three dimensions introduced and evaluated in order to identify their strengths and weaknesses in this regard.

Literature review

Today that critical thinking is more prominent in language teaching than ever (Li, 2016 ; Van Laar et al., 2017 ), there is a wealth of research on the need and importance of fostering such thinking in language classrooms (Zhao et al., 2016 ), representing that developing such thinking facilitates the language acquisition (Wang & Henderson, 2014 ; Wu et al., 2013 ), and equips learners with such self-criticism that it develops analytical and reflective view of themselves and their environment in learners (Moghadam et al., 2021 ). Brookfield ( 2019 ), Dekker ( 2020 ), Haji Maibodi and Fahim ( 2012 ), and Zou and Lee ( 2021 ) acknowledged that teachers who emphasize the education and application of critical thinking increase awareness and understanding of socio-cultural concepts in learners. In this regard, Crenshaw et al. ( 2011 ) stated that encouraging language learners to participate actively in thinking activities is essential, and McGregor ( 2007 ) and Rezaei et al. ( 2011 ) emphasized that engaging teachers and language learners in thinking and reflecting on the views and assumptions presented in a text are among the essential steps in the development of critical thinking in individuals. Rezaei et al. ( 2011 ) acknowledged that learners’ participation in critical thinking processes during teaching is done through asking questions and providing answers, discussing topics, asking for explaining or elaborating on opinions, and so on. They also emphasized the need to provide teachers with accurate and comprehensive knowledge of critical thinking before attending such classes. In addition, Tehrani and Razali ( 2018 ) and (Li, 2016 ) have suggested that critical thinking training should begin at early ages and in the natural process of learning the target language. However, despite the importance and emphasis on its development, little progress has been made in its application and integration in education (Li, 2011 ; Pica, 2000 ), whose reasons, according to Lin et al. ( 2016 ) can be found in its challenging-widespread nature and ambiguous details of its components.

The traditional definitions of critical thinking by philosophers do not necessarily assist individuals to become a critical citizen/being. However, the core characteristics of critical thinking introduced in these definitions remain fundamental to what is meant by critical thinking on (Bali, 2015 ; Davies, 2015 ; Davies & Barnett, 2015 ; Renatovna & Renatovna, 2021 ; Widyastuti, 2018 ; Wilson, 2016 ). Considering critical thinking as a very pivotal learning skill, the acquisition of related skills in the traditional attitude was limited to practices of certain types of skills such as inferencing, reasoning, and analyzing (Davies, 2015 ). He emphasizes that one of the weaknesses of the traditional sense of critical thinking, which is crystallized in the critical thinking movement, is the lack of formation of the important component of action. This is worth mentioning that paying less attention to the topics related to critical thinking in higher education may result in a lack of having a proper and well-defined practical (and even theoretical) instruction, and as it was mentioned by Paulsen ( 2015 ), little advancement can be formed if critical thinking remains vague.

A model of critical thinking in higher education is suggested by Davies ( 2015 ) in which the basic focus is on critical rationality and critical character of individuals. He presumes six distinct dimensions for critical thinking including critical argumentation, critical judgment, critical dispositions, critical actions, critical social relations, and critical creativity or critical being. Each of these dimensions plays a significant role in the comprehensive model of critical thinking (Davies, 2015 ; Davies & Barnett, 2015 ).

There are many well-developed models of critical thinking which might be called “philosophical” models of critical thinking. These models might be dispersed on a continuum from the taxonomy of pedagogical objectives (e.g., Airasian et al., 2001 ; Bloom, 1956 ) to the APA Delphi Report and Paul-Elder models (e.g., Paul & Elder, 2002 ; Sadler, 2010 ) and also to the model of critical thinking by Ennis ( 1991 ) according to which the main emphasis is on cognitive decision-making. However, Davies ( 2015 ) represented that these models are utilized mostly in the case of educating for critical thinking in which the main goal is providing learners with activities based on which they can improve their basic judgment and decision-making ability, while critical thinking is a multidimensional concept containing both personal and social aspects. In endorsing and supporting the use of the term multidimensional in relation to the concept of critical thinking, some of the existing challenges can be mentioned. Lun et al. ( 2010 ) and Manalo and Sheppard ( 2016 ) stated that a specific level of language proficiency is expected to accomplish such thinking. Similarly, Peng ( 2014 ) stated that for students, language deficiency is one of the main reasons of cognitive barriers that prevents them from practicing critical thinking. Explaining the other challenges, Liang and Fung ( 2020 ) and Merrifield ( 2018 ) stated that the subject of culture is effective in applying and practicing such thinking. For example, factors such as a significant decline in the quality and quantity of social interactions and intense attention to the social status of an individual in a group (Suryantari, 2018 ), some considerate social standards explicitly in eastern setting (Bag & Gürsoy, 2021 ), socio-cultural factors (Imperio et al., 2020 ; Shpeizer, 2018 ), fear of being ridiculed during expressing an opinion (Tumasang, 2021 ), epistemic belief in the certainty of knowledge (Kahsay, 2019 ), the emphasis on teacher-centered language classes (Fahim & Ahmadian, 2012 ; Hemmati & Azizmalayeri, 2022 ; Khorasani & Farimani, 2010 ), or weakness in CT experiences due to the lack of inductive education in Iranian context (Birjandi et al., 2018 ), reduce the natural learning ability of developing such skill as well as the power of induction—especially in adults (Dornyei, 2010 ). Therefore, the subject of language learning, whether in a foreign or a second language context, complicates the issue of cultivating critical thinking in such a way that its development cannot be limited to learning a few individual skills. In this regard, Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ) attempted to bring together a set of perspectives, thus identified three broad perspectives on critical thinking in the literature. These perspectives are often opposed to each other, while overlapping and significantly merging with each other (Frykholm, 2020 ; Ledman, 2019 ; Shpeizer, 2018 ; Wilson, 2016 ; Wilson & Howitt, 2018 ). Shpeizer ( 2018 ) also emphasized that this mutual influence and the lack of transparency in the boundaries of each of the three areas have made the concept of critical thinking confusing and perhaps daunting for English teachers.

In addition, understanding the nature and dimensions of critical thinking in order to evaluate it is also of crucial importance. Assessing an individuals’ critical thinking requires a measuring instrument that can precisely and perfectly determine the true conditions. From the result of the literacy study, one can find some instruments to measure critical thinking skills and abilities of students each with their specific perspectives, definitions of criteria, and priorities. Among these instruments are California Critical Thinking Skill Test (CCTST) by Facione ( 1992 ); Critical Thinking Questionnaire by Kember et al. ( 2000 ); Ricketts ( 2003 ) questionnaire; Critical Reading Scale by Zhou et al. ( 2015 ); and Critical Thinking Inventory by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ). The designed questionnaire by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ), unlike previous tools, addresses all the three dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., individual skills, criticality, and critical pedagogy).

Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ), getting insights from Davies ( 2015 ) and Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ), represent that critical thinking is composed of both personal critical thinking skills, and those skills gained at the criticality level and critical pedagogy level. The levels, movements, and skills of each of the levels introduced in their study are presented in the figure below.

As shown in Fig. 1 , as one moves from the center to the outside (the surface), the stages of critical thinking development appear, according to which this process begins with the development of individual critical thinking skills, the criticality movement, and then the critical pedagogy movement. This figure includes the XY plane (page drown on x and y diagrams), indicating the measurement subscales; YZ plane (page drown on y and z diagrams) represents individual and socio-cultural dimensions; and the XZ plane (page drown on the x and z diagrams) is different movements.

The model of critical thinking movements, skills and abilities, and assessing criteria extracted from Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review )

The model represents that in order to improve critical thinking in a person, it is necessary to consider both individual and socio-cultural aspects. In this figure, the X-Z page represents various dimensions of critical thinking, the Y-Z page represents cognitive-developmental skills, and the X-Y page shows sub-skills of each layer (i.e., assessing criteria in this study). Aspects and skills of the three-dimensional critical thinking which were previously introduced by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) are briefly explained in Table 1 .

Critical thinking and criticality are the most interwoven concepts with language skills acquisition in general and processing and development of reading skills in particular. And of course, developing skills related to each of these two movements requires critical pedagogy. According to Haji Maibodi ( 2014 ), reading comprehension refers to the ability to construct meaning through thinking, before, during, and after reading the text, as well as integrating the information presented in the text with one’s prior knowledge. She also stated that different types of texts with different levels of difficulty and various topics are available to people to be encouraged to read and thus gain new knowledge and strengthen their reading skills. As people go through this process, they realize that in order to understand the texts they read as much as possible, they have to use thinking skills (Haji Maibodi, 2014 ), and this thinking takes different forms and the implementation of each and requires skills that are called critical thinking skills. Haji Maibodi ( 2014 ) also emphasized that practical teaching of reading comprehension requires the development of the ability to understand, analyze, and recognize various components of a text.

Reading is viewed as the most crucial academic skill for foreign language learners which can facilitate their professional progression, social success, and personal development. Reading skill is defined by Berardo ( 2006 ) as a dynamic and complex phenomenon and is considered as a source of gaining language input since it is a receptive skill based on which there should be an interaction among the author of the text, his/her message, and the reader in order to comprehend it. Therefore, in order to read, comprehend, and respond to a written content, the reader is expected to have some certain skills and abilities including reading to grasp the message of each line and paragraph, reading to find the existing relationship between the paragraphs, understanding the basic message of the author, and finding the most appropriate answer to the idea of the writer (Berardo, 2006 ). According to Berardo ( 2006 ), stages of reading require readers to apply a higher order of thinking called “critical reading” by Bloom ( 1956 ). According to Hall and Piazza ( 2008 ), critical reading skill is still one of the skills which helps learners gain success in academic courses whilst it is still vague to many teachers and they usually fail to develop such skill in their students. They represent that if students lack the skill to analyze and challenge written content in the classroom environment, then they will face many problems in understanding and questioning their living environment and society.

Wallace ( 2003 ) and Sweet ( 1993 ) approach the critical reader as an active reader who is able to ask questions, to recognize, analyze, and confirm evidences; to detect the truth; to understand tone, bias, and persuasion; and to judge them throughout the reading process. Khonamri and Karimabadi ( 2015 ) state that in order to have an effective reading, readers should have the ability to read with their critical eyes, i.e., they have to read and evaluate a text for its intentions and the reasons behind it, that is the ability to think critically.

Critical reading, as the key player in the development of core language skills, involves activities such as reasoning, questioning, evaluation, comparison, and inference (e.g., Adalı, 2010 ; Adalı, 2011 ; Söylemez, 2015 ). Regarding critical reading, Nemat Tabrizi and Akhavan Saber ( 2016 ) emphasized that this skill plays an important role in the formation of democratic societies since it makes people decide what they accept as reality, only after reviewing, analyzing, and comparing the content presented with their knowledge and values of their internal-external worlds.

Instrument validation

Measurement validation in the eyes of Zumbo ( 2005 ) is a continuous process in which evidence is collected to support the appropriateness, significance, and usefulness of the inferences derived from scores obtained from a sample. He also emphasizes that the method and process of validation is important in the construction and evaluation of tools related to social sciences, behavioral, health, and humanities, since without the implementation of this process, any conclusions or inferences from the obtained scores are meaningless.

Many have argued that in the contemporary view, the main purpose is to extend the conceptual framework and power of the traditional vision towards validity (Johnson & Plake, 1998 ; Kane, 2001 ; Messick, 1989 ; Messick, 1995 ), according to which validity is not one of the characteristics of measuring tools anymore, but the characteristics of inferences made on scores that can be examined in the form of a continuum (valid/invalid dual is no longer considered). In this view, construct validity is the only and the most important feature in validation, and there are only different sources of evidence to prove the validity of inferences. Zumbo ( 2005 ) stated that the calculation of validity using statistical methods such as correlation is not acceptable, and it is necessary to provide a detailed theory and support for it, including analysis of covariance matrices between experimental data and covariance structure model. From the study of previous research, it can be seen that the two categories of models are introduced as key for validation, which are confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which has a lengthy and rich history in research (for example, Byrne, 1998 ; Byrne, 2001 ; Kaplan, 2000 ) and Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) that have been generalized to linear structural equation models by integrating structural equation modeling and item response theory (Ullman, 2001 ). The multidimensional and hierarchical representation of the skills needed for critical thinking at each level is primarily based on theoretical reasoning (by Davies, 2015 ; Davies & Barnett, 2015 ; Frykholm, 2020 ; Ledman, 2019 ; Shpeizer, 2018 ), as mentioned in the previous paragraphs.

Accordingly, this study was an attempt to adapt and assure of the validity of the questionnaire proposed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) in order to measure criteria introduced in Fig. 1 , XY plane (see Appendix A for the validated version). A review of previous studies showed that previous research has only examined individual skills and examined various subskills in this area. None of the studies have provided a comprehensive scale, consisting of both individual and socio-cultural factors, and the validation of a common scale for measuring the set of factors. Regarding this, the present study assessed the three-level scale of critical thinking and validates the proposed model. In this study, a measurement and structural model according to the previous literature and the method of factor analysis is proposed. This research is innovative because it uses the partial least squares method (PLS-SEM) and various software to validate the proposed model. The PLS method relies on a series of consecutive ordinary least square (OLS) regressions; thus, it eliminates the necessity of having a normal distribution of observations. OLS indicates the compatibility of the partial least squares method with small samples and is suitable for the conditions of this research (Farahani, 2010 ). On the other hand, given that PLS assumes that all blocks are linear combinations of their reagents, common problems such as nonlinear solutions and uncertainty of the factors that occur in covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) techniques do not occur (Pirouz, 2006 ). Researchers aimed to answer the following question:

RQ. To what extent is the newly developed rating description a valid measure of critically thinkers’ reading ability?

Methodology

In this study, an attempt was made to validate the three-dimensional critical thinking instrument developed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) to assess critical thinking in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) readers (Tables 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , and 6 ).

Participants

In order to answer the research question, 89 Iranian EFL under-graduate students (age range 18 to 35) were selected for the development and validation of a reading skill-oriented critical thinker measurement instrument. The participants were members of intact classes (with the aim of involving individuals with diverse abilities), and the homogeneity of the classes was also assessed via Preliminary English Test (PET score above 147). Due to the fact that the participants cooperated with the researchers during different phases of the study, the implementation steps were introduced to them, ethical approval was given, participants were assured of not publishing personal opinions to the third person/parties, and the final results were communicated to them.

Instruments

Critical thinking inventory: The CTI, by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ), contains 59 items of 5-point Likert type to measure the factors of argumentation (15 items), judgment (5 items), disposition (9 items), criticality (12 items), social cognition (9 items), and creativity (9 items number) in 50 min. The minimum score of the questionnaire is 59 and the maximum is 295, and the participants were asked to respond within 60 min. The CR and AVE were reported in the work as 0.97 and 0.687 (see Table 7 ).

Preliminary English Test (PET): This test was used to select groups of participants who have similar language proficiency. It is an official intermediate English language test (designed by Cambridge ESOL examinations) with the maximum achievable score of 170. This test includes sections of reading (five parts, thirty-five items, scoring range of 0–35), writing (three parts, seven items, scoring range of 0–15), listening (four parts and twenty-five items, scoring range of 0–25), and speaking (four parts of face-to-face interview questions, scoring range of 0–25). Two raters were asked to assess the test to be assured of interrater consistency of scores. The intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) test was run to determine if there was an agreement between raters’ judgment on the scores. A high degree of reliability was found between the scores ( F (88, 88)= 146.08, p < .000) with the average measure ICC of .982).

Initially, the written informed consent was obtained from the participants. Then, PET test was used to ensure the homogeneity of the participants and those with similar performance were selected for this study. Next, participants were asked to respond questions to assess CTI validity. After collecting data, the relationships between the elements, skills, and concepts introduced in the questionnaire (see Table 1 ) were assessed. For this purpose, the validity testing of the model was conducted through CFA method of evaluating and comparing alternative models: CFA of the measurement model (first-order model) and CFA of the structural model (second-order model). In this study, in order to increase statistical power, researchers tried to use predictor variables (i.e., AWC, QAR, classic instructions), considering less operating levels for continuous variables, utilizing continuous variables instead of polarizing or grouping them, defining focused hypothesis tests, crossing the extracted factors, etc., which are described in Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ). The scale validation in this study included a PLS-SEM analysis technique due to the abnormal distribution of the data gathered (Afthanorhan, 2013 ) and the model validation included the following tests:

Analysis of the convergent validity

Test of discriminatory validity

Test of construct validity.

Data analysis

After collecting the data of the designed inventory in SPSS, the collected data related to the validity of the questionnaire were transferred to SmartPLS software to validate the proposed model through model validation techniques (FIT, GFI, RMR, etc.), SEM, CR, and AVE estimation. The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical issues and privacy restrictions.

In order to find the answer to the research question, a CFA-based approach was used as an MTMM technique to estimate the validity of the designed instrument (Bentler, 2000 ; Byrne, 2006 ; Koch et al., 2018 ). For this purpose, different types of validity of the developed inventory were evaluated.

Internal validity

Face validity: Face validity depends on the judgment of the constructor of the test and was approved according to the Advisor’s opinion.

Content validity: Various aspects of the structure are examined. Content validity was confirmed by the Advisor.

Criterion-related validity (both concurrent validity and predictive validity): In order to appraise the predictive validity, this instrument should be evaluated over a long period of time, for example, once at the beginning of the undergraduate course and then, again at the end of the fourth year, and then compare its performance in predicting the results with current results. To measure concurrent validity, it is necessary to examine this tool in a completely different content and on a completely different group of learners (at the same time).

Construct validity: The category is focused on the structure of the questionnaire. In order to measure the next three criteria, Smart PLS software was used.

Convergent validity: Estimation of CR and AVE

Discriminate (Divergent) validity: Confirmatory factor analysis ( t value)

Construct validity: Model validation (SRMR)

In examining the introduced validity criteria, the results of (a) checking the suitability of factor loads, (b) investigating structural equation model, and (c) estimating Goodness of Fit were investigated as follows:

At the beginning, in order to investigate the effect of items and factor loads in measuring the desired structure, the model parameters and their significance were calculated (Fig. 2 ).

Measurement model test

It is observed that all factor loads are more than 0.4 and are significant. Therefore, the studied items have a significant effect on the measurement of the structure (Table 2 ).

The model parameter table accurately shows that the p value and t value measures are respectively, less than .001 and more than 1.96, representing a good value. In the following table, the measures of the overall hypothetical fitted model (i.e., goodness-of-fit indicators) are calculated (Table 3 ).

According to the results, both GFI and AGFI value are more than 0.80; RMR values are close to .00; X 2 /df ratios are less than 5; and RMSEA estimates are less than 0.08 indicating reasonable errors for approximation in the society. Therefore, all indicators are in the desired range, so the results of the model are trusted and valid and can be used, in general. It should be noted that variables with less than three items cannot be fitted and accurate calculation of their indicators are not possible. In the following, the results of detailed analysis of the model and determination of validity indicators are presented.

Next, the data analysis algorithm in Smart PLS software is displayed. In this algorithm, after model formation and confirmatory factor analysis, it is the time to examine the structural model in three areas:

Measurement model test: To evaluate the validity and reliability of each structure, the AVE (average variance extracted) and CR (composite reliability) are calculated, respectively (Table 4 ).

Therefore, according to the results, the validity criterion is more than 0.4 and the reliability criterion for this structure is close to 0.7, so it can be said that in terms of convergent validity criteria, all structures are in the desired range (Fig. 3 ).

Structural equation modeling: The results of confirmatory factor analysis of the model represented that:

Structural equation modeling results

It can be seen that all items have a significant effect ( p <0.001) on the structure. This shows that the items related to each structure measure the desired structure well (Table 5 ).

The estimation of the model parameters represents that p values are lower than .001, and t values are greater than 1.96, meaning that the path is significant at the .05 level, meaning that its estimated path parameter has a significant effect on the structure (Ullman, 2001 ). This shows that the items related to each variable measure the desired structure well.

Goodness of fit: For the purpose of conducting confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), as an MTMM technique to assess divergent validity of the model, goodness-of-fit indices were estimated as follows (Table 6 ):

According to the obtained indicators, it can be seen that AGFI is greater than 0.80, x2/df ratio is less than 3, RMSEA value is less than .08, and CFI is greater than .95 which means that there is a great satisfactory fit. All in all, this can be concluded that the indicators are in the desired range and the results of the model are reliable. Finally, the results of confirmatory factor analysis confirm the relationships and structure of the model, investigating the validity and reliability of the structure (Table 7 ):

Investigation of the significance of covariance relations also shows that all covariance relationships between structures have a p value less than the error level of 0.05, and the relationships are significant. The advantage of composite reliability over Cronbach’s alpha is that the reliability of structures is not computed definitely; rather, it is obtained through evaluating the correlation of existing structures with each other. In this method, indicators that have a higher factor load are more important. Therefore, both criteria are used to better measure the reliability of this type of models. Moreover, the common measure for creating convergent validity at the structural level is the mean extracted variance (AVE). This criterion is defined as the equivalent to the share of a structure. Acceptable values for CR is over .70, and the excellent value for AVE is over .50.

Considering that the second generation of structural equation modeling is based on the variance approach, and in order to ensure the values of covariance and provide a complete report, the covariance relationships in this model were also examined and the results were reported (Table 8 ).

As it turns out, all covariance relationships between structures have a p value less than the 0.05 error level and a t value greater than 1.96, meaning that the relationships between latent variables are meaningful.

Campbell and Fiske ( 1959 ) and Langer et al. ( 2010 ) stated that CFA is an analysis for construct validity. Putting the results observed in steps 2 and 3 together, it can be concluded that all the three absolute fitness indices, parsimony fit indices, and incremental fit indices have desirable values in the model, and this theoretical model is consistent with its experimental model, and therefore, the divergent validity of this structure is confirmed. The results of calculating the reliability of the inventory were also presented in “instrumentation” section. Therefore, combining the results of covariance analysis and the three-level analyses, it can be seen that this questionnaire is valid and reliable.

Since there is little agreement on the nature and dimensions of the term critical thinking (Facione et al., 2000 ; Frykholm, 2020 ), the researchers of this study decided to provide a comprehensive picture of its various dimensions and develop a valid tool for its measurement. Frykholm ( 2020 ) believes that no educator has proposed a comprehensive definition and model of critical thinking, and it can be said that most previous studies have focused only on a few limited skills of critical thinking. However, the results of the interviews in the first phase of this study (Mohammadi et al., Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach, under review ) clearly showed that the socio-cultural dimensions—if not more—are as important as the individual skills dimension. And by approaching the proposed model of the present study to the model of Davies ( 2015 ) and Ledman ( 2019 ), it can be inferred that the comprehensive model is well suited to the set of skills, judgments, and activities (especially for investigating and questioning tasks of receptive skills) as well as expressing desires or attitudes (expressing ideas, creativity, analysis, and other productive skills). In review, the main objectives of this study were to investigate the validity of items and components of the model and also the validity of the tool designed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) to assess three dimensional critical thinking in EFL readers based on which the following results were identified.

Examining the values obtained from the data, it was observed that the data distribution was not normal. Therefore, in order to assess the validity of this tool, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and PLS-SEM was used in SmartPLS software because this method is suitable for abnormal data (Hair et al., 2014 ) and makes it possible to examine complex models with multiple exogenous and endogenous constructs as well as index variables (Hair Jr. et al., 2010 ; Hair et al., 2014 ; Hair et al., 2019 ). The study of structural equation modeling and covariance relationships and also model evaluation indices clearly showed that the components were selected correctly, the relationships between the components of the model were defined properly and the questionnaire items were well designed, and in this way, the study has reached its objectives.

The six-factor and twenty-two items scale that was proposed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) has been validated using a hybrid technique mainly due to the existence of abnormally distributed data. Results indicated that the PSL-SEM CFA represented the best fit to the proposed model, in terms of factor loadings. The findings of the first phase of this study indicated the existence of validity between the factors introduced in the three-level model of critical thinking. From the results obtained in this phase, it can be seen that focusing on all the skills and abilities introduced (i.e., argumentation, judgment, disposition, action, social cognition, and creativity) is important in developing critical thinking in English readers.

Discussing the elements of the first movement, a comparison on the criteria was introduced in this study with the ones mentioned in Kaewpet ( 2018 ); this can be said that the same measures were mentioned by EFL learners. Focusing on factors of judgements, the elements of buck-passing and vigilance were extracted which were also mentioned by Mann et al. ( 1997 ). They also referred to hypervigilance and defensive avoidance which were not mentioned by EFL learners. The last skill of the first movement was disposition which was assessed based on innovativeness, maturity, and engagement as introduced by Ricketts ( 2003 ).

In the second movement of developing critical thinking, it was referred to criticality which was mentioned by learners in terms of habitual action, understanding, reflection, and critical reflection. These factors were also used by Kember et al. ( 2000 ). The findings of this section, contrary to the view of Shpeizer ( 2018 ), in which the two concepts introduced in the first and second movements were considered the same without considerable distinctions, clearly showed that the second movement involves the development of critical actions (and the introduced sub-actions) in individuals, while the first movement does not focus on the development of action skills in individuals. The findings of this study also confirm the views of Wilson and Howitt ( 2018 ) based on which they acknowledged that critical thinking in this movement is self-centered and manifests itself in the form of introspection, self-adjusting, and metacognition. The set of abilities acquired at this stage will make a person a prosperous learner, specialist, and scholar, while the first movement focuses on the application of rational-argumentative thinking in the form of training methods and with the aim of improving exactness, proficiency, and creativeness in individuals. Similarly, Ledman ( 2019 ) considers this dimension as disciplinary criticality based on which the thinking tools and habits of mind promote epistemological structures.

And the third movement in this study, namely critical pedagogy movement, was composed of the two layers of social cognition and creativity. The first layer was assessed based on factors such as social competence, literacy, cultural competence, and extraversion. The findings of this section are very similar to Pishghadam et al. ( 2011 ) criteria in which factors of social competence, social solidarity, literacy, cultural competence, and extraversion were introduced as basic criteria in measuring social cognition. But these findings are in contrast with criteria introduced by Pishvaei and Kasaian ( 2013 ) among which are tenets of monolingualism, monoculturalism, native-speakerism, native teacher, native-like pronunciation, and authenticity of native-designed materials quantitatively. Reasons for such a difference may include the nature of the classes, the objectives of the courses, and the interlocutors/participants. These findings are consistent with the works of Davies ( 2015 ) and Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ) who predicted that critical thinking is not only limited to individual critical thinking skills but also other dimensions such as socio-cultural dimensions and critical pedagogy should also be considered. The last layer was creativity which was assessed based on factors of fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration which were also mentioned by O’Neil et al. ( 1992 ) and Abedi ( 2002 ).

Discussing this movement, the introduced elements of this dimension confirmed the orientations taken by Davies ( 2015 ), Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ), Rahimi and Asadi Sajed ( 2014 ), and Shpeizer ( 2018 ) based on which critical pedagogy have impact on critical thinking. According to Shpeizer ( 2018 ), the fundamental difference between the two schools of critical thinking discourse and the critical pedagogy is in the contrast between the sociocultural as well as political and moral tendencies in this school and the apparent neutral tendencies of the school of critical thinking. According to Shpeizer ( 2018 ) and Freire ( 1993 ), in the former, it is not possible to intercept epistemology and politics, and if there is a critical approach, then people’s awareness of power relations and structural inequalities of the societies will be aroused. Shpeizer ( 2018 ) adds that, advocates of critical thinking believe that this approach is incompatible, inconsistent, and hazardous since it initially creates uncertain assumptions about a society and thus diverts us from the path of truth-seeking and enlightenment required by a critical thinker. And perhaps the main reason for the slow and one-dimensional movement of critical thinking during all the years can be found in this point. According to Shpeizer ( 2018 ) and Rahimi and Asadi Sajed ( 2014 ), the proponents of critical pedagogy development argue that since social, political, and educational structures in different societies hitherto run in an inequitable and oppressive manner, disregarding such conditions (which undoubtedly construct the lives and thoughts of individuals) makes objective critical development—and consequently, the progress of community members and communities—impossible. They emphasized that to develop critical pedagogy, it is not possible to teach rational and critical thinking skills and tendencies in individuals without regard to other dimensions such as awareness of cultural, political, and religious. The findings are also in line with Ledman ( 2019 ), who states that moral education (the name chosen for the third dimension) emphasizes the need to develop the capacity for moral thinking and judgment independent of official orders and requirements. Finally, by matching the findings of this study with the study of Davies ( 2015 ) and Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ), it can be concluded that critical thinking can be defined in three complementary layers; critical thinking skills, criticality, and critical pedagogy. And the more one strives to become more capable in thinking critically, the more s/he moves from gaining initial-personal skills (critical thinker) to socio-cultural skills (critical being).

Regarding the methodology of the study, as explained, due to the fact that the distribution of data obtained from the questionnaire was not normal, the PLS-SEM method was used as a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) technique. The validation of the model used in this study is based on theoretical and experimental concepts developed in the previous study (Mohammadi et al., Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach, under review ). The model validity test was performed in the framework of SEM approach of CFA based on which the investigation of the first degree model (same as the measurement model), and the second degree model (same as the structural model) was conducted. Examination of the absolute values of skewness and Kurtosis as well as data distribution showed that the distribution was not normal; therefore, PLS-SEM confirmatory factor analysis was performed to determine the structural validity of the scale (Mâtă et al., 2020 ). In addition, the modeling approach is suitable for complex models with multiple endogenous and exogenous index structures and variables (Hair et al., 2014 ). Also, due to the fact that the sample size in this study is more than the minimum recommended value (i.e. 50), so the most appropriate method for model analysis was considered (Mâtă et al., 2020 ).

The results of this study provided the next implications: this study investigated a framework of assessing EFL readers who has critical thinking in the three main streams of individual skills, critical pedagogy, and criticality. The results showed that in each of these three main streams, there are criteria that can be used to assess learners’ abilities; Students were interviewed in different phases of the study and offered a variety of views not only on their attitudes toward critical thinking, but also on their perceptions of teaching instructions and the strengths and weaknesses of each, which can provide insights towards designing and implementing critical thinking training sessions; a review of previous literature on three-dimensional critical thinking provided a comprehensive overview of its strengths and weaknesses, as well as the supporters and opponents and finally, the findings of this study were a true validation of the studies confirming the views of all those who agree with the three-dimensional approach to critical thinking under any heading; using the presented concepts in research-academic institutions to identify the most suitable training methods of each of the sub-skills of critical thinking in different societies is very helpful. Given that this study was conducted only in the field of English language and in the university context, its application in other educational spaces and for people with different academic backgrounds and identifying differences in the application of various instructions for each of the sub-skills will be very effective. It is possible to apply both concepts (i.e., three-dimensional critical thinking and reading) in other areas to assess the generalizability of findings. An interesting finding was that in some cases, students engaged in group discussions sometimes returned to their first language, which could be a consequence of poor language proficiency. In such circumstances, Lun et al. ( 2010 ) have suggested that in order to promote critical thinking, the emphasis on language processing should be reduced or, on the recommendation of Ko ( 2013 ), teachers should first describe the task in order to prepare students and initialize the analysis and then ask them to complete it. The validity of the criterion proposed in the previous study (Mohammadi et al., Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach, under review ) was evaluated through structural equation modeling, which is a new method and has a very limited history in language studies. This study showed that the method can be used to evaluate path analysis/regression, repeated measures analysis/latent changes modeling, and confirmatory factor analysis.

This study was designed and conducted to confirm the subscales introduced by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) in determining the critical thinking ability in three different layers (i.e., individual critical thinking skills, criticality, and critical pedagogy) through assessing the validity of the proposed questionnaire. The model studied in this study well confirmed the relationship between the factors identified in previous studies and the proposed model with six scales and twenty-two subscales showed a good fit representing that argumentation, judgment, disposition, action, social cognition, and creativity are proper components for measuring three-level critical thinking in language learners.

The results of assessing the validity of CTI through CFA represented that all the three absolute fitness indices, parsimony fit indices, and incremental fit indices have desirable values in the model, and the proposed model is consistent with its experimental model; meaning that the divergent validity of the structure is confirmed. Therefore, combining the results of covariance analysis, the three-level analyses, and the reliability calculations, it can be seen that the questionnaire is valid and reliable. This represents that a critical thinker EFL reader is an individual with the ability to make argumentation (i.e., to find relevance, provide reasoning, recognize language use, comprehend the text’s organization, and distinguish author’s voice), to make judgement (i.e., to pass the buck and vigilant), to provide dispositions (i.e., to innovate, be mature, and engage in doing activities), to act (i.e., to form habitual actions, to understand, to be reflective, and to have critical reflection towards issues), to have social cognition (i.e., to have social competence, literacy, cultural competence, and be extrovert), and to be creative (i.e., to be able to elaborate, be flexible, have fluency, and propose original ideas).

Future research can introduce the extent and manner of internalization of the introduced skills and the effectiveness of different internalization methods. In addition, it should be noted that in this study, the views of language learners were examined. It is necessary to examine the introduced criteria also from the point of view of teachers and administrators in order to answer questions such as the following: Are teachers’ perceptions different from students? If so, what are the differences? What are the effective strategies in teaching these criteria? This type of research can also determine whether students, teachers, and planners have the same understanding of the concepts as well as the strategies used in the classroom. And whether their understanding of the criteria introduced in the first language is the same as in the second language? Moreover, due to the distribution of the gathered data in this study, the factor analysis method with partial least squares (PLS) approach was used. Subsequent researchers can use other analysis programs, such as LISREL or AMOS, for structural analysis relying on larger communities.

Finally, it is necessary to mention that the generalization of the results of this study to other fields and research communities is not possible due to the limited number of participants and its specific field, and it is recommended that first the necessary research efforts be made to apply this scale in different educational fields and societies in order to have more strength and generalizability.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical issues and privacy restrictions, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Three dimensional

Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index

American Philosophical Association

Argumentation

Average variance extracted

Covariance-based structural equation modeling

Confirmatory factor analysis

Comparative Fit Index

Composite reliability

Critical thinking inventory

Cultural competence

English as a Foreign Language

Goodness of Fit Index

Multiple indicators multiple causes

Ordinary least square

Preliminary English Test

Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Reflective thinking

Root mean squared residual

Root mean square error of approximation

Structural equation modeling

Social cognition

Social competence

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

Standardized root mean squared residual

Tucker-Lewis Index

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Mohammadi, M., Abbasian, GR. & Siyyari, M. Adaptation and validation of a critical thinking scale to measure the 3D critical thinking ability of EFL readers. Lang Test Asia 12 , 24 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-022-00173-6

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The Development of Critical Thinking Attitudes Scale

This research aims to develop an independent scale that measures the critical thinking attitudes of classroom teacher candidates. The research was designed in a screening model. The universe of the research was composed of 384 prospective teachers who are studying in the education faculties of a university in the western part of Turkey, in the sample classroom teacher and preschool teacher departments. Explanatory and confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the obtained data. According to research findings, &quot;Critical Thinking Attitude Scale (CTAS)&quot; is a valid and reliable measurement tool consisting of 19 items and 5 sub-dimensions (Information Acquisition Willingness, Reasoning, Discovery, Evidence-Based Decision Making, Self-Regulation). The validity of the construct obtained by confirmatory factor analysis with the data was tested. The maximum score that can be obtained from the scale is 95 and the minimum score is 19. The scale is suitable for use in the 17-25 ag...

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Serap YILMAZ

This research aims to develop an independent scale that measures the critical thinking attitudes of classroom teacher candidates. The research was designed in a screening model. The universe of the research was composed of 384 prospective teachers who are studying in the education faculty of a university in the western part of Turkey. In the sample of the research was composed; classroom teacher and preschool teacher departments. Explanatory and confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the obtained data. The validity of the construct obtained by confirmatory factor analysis with the data was tested. According to research findings, "Critical Thinking Attitude Scale (CTAS)" is a valid and reliable measurement tool consisting of 19 items and 5 sub-dimensions (Information Acquisition Willingness, Reasoning, Discovery, Evidence-Based Decision Making, Self-Regulation). The maximum score that can be obtained from the scale is 95 and the minimum score is 19. The scale is suitable for use in the 17-25 age groups.

A. Seda Saracaloğlu

This study was aimed to investigate the prospective teachers' critical thinking attitudes and locus of control. In this research, survey method was used. The population consisted of prospective teachers who are student at Mugla University, Pamukkale University and Adnan Menderes University. Sample consisted of 155 first grade and 151 fourth grade students. Data were collected by " Critical Thinking Scale " that was developing by researchers and " Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale ". In the study, correlation coefficient and independent samples t-test were made use of as statistical techniques. Findings show that positive and low correlation between critical thinking and locus of control scores and students' critical thinking scale total scores and subscale scores are low out of " decide based upon evidence " subscale. At the end of the study, it was seen that students are external oriented. Fourth grade male students' locus of control scores is higher than the female students'. External oriented students' critical thinking scores are higher than internal oriented students' scores. SUMMARY Purpose and Significance: This study was aimed to investigate the primary school teachers' critical thinking attitudes and locus of control and determine relationship between them. Methods: The study is based on descriptive research design. The population consists of first and fourth grade students at Adnan Menderes University, Mugla University and Pamukkale University. 306 students (155 first grade and 151 fourth grade) at Adnan Menderes University, Mugla University and Pamukkale University, Faculty of Education, departments of primary school teacher were included in the sample. Two scales were used as a data gathering instrument. Critical Thinking Scale is developing by researcher and Internal-External Locus of Control Scale was developed by Rotter in 1966.Dağ (1991) adapted this scale to Turkish. In the study, mean, standard deviation, correlation coefficient and independent samples t-test were made use of as statistical techniques. Results: As a result of this research prospective teachers are external oriented. First grade female students' locus of control scores are 17.45 and male students' locus of control scores are 17.32. Scores are above 23 and it means students are external oriented. Fourth grade male students' locus of control scores is higher than the female students'. Findings show that students' critical thinking scale total scores and subscale scores are low out of " decide based upon evidence " subscale. Correlation between critical thinking scale scores and locus of control scores is significant, positive and low correlation. But there is no significant relationship between locus of control scale and " recognizing problem " subscale. In this study, mean of locus of control scale score was calculated. Student whose score lower than mean called " internal oriented " and whose score upper than mean called " external oriented ". T-test was used to analyze these groups' critical thinking scores. External oriented students' scores are higher than internal oriented students' critical thinking scores. Discussions: In this study, relationship between critical thinking and locus of control was investigated. There is meaningful, positive and low correlation between critical thinking and locus of control. There is no differences were found terns of gender. This finding is parallel with other research findings (Saracaloğlu at all, 2005). Locus of control scores is among 16.64-17.40. It means that prospective teachers are external oriented. On the other hand teachers take decision based upon evidence. It is desired teacher qualification that investigating evidences but being external oriented isn't desired qualification. According to the Dönmez (1975) being internal oriented person who can control itself is a positive personality qualification and being external oriented person who believe power keep control of somebody else is a negative personality qualifications. Critical thinking is an attitude and locus of control is a personality and according to the findings there is a relationship between them. So there

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International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE)

özkan çelik

A. Seda Saracaloğlu , Serap Yılmaz Özelçi

Özet Araştırmanın temel amacı sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının eleştirel okuma öz-yeterlik algılarını belirlemektedir. Tarama modelinde desenlenen araştırmanın evrenini Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi sınıf öğretmenliği lisans programı birinci ve dördüncü sınıfta öğrenim görmekte olan öğretmen adayları oluşturmaktadır. Örneklemde ise evrende yer alan 175 sınıf öğretmeni adayı yer almaktadır. Araştırmaya ilişkin veriler Küçükoğlu (2008) tarafından geliştirilmiş olan " Eleştirel Okuma Becerisine İlişkin Öz-yeterlik Algısı Anketi " kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Verilerin analizinde betimsel istatistikler kullanılmış ve öğretmen adaylarının her bir maddeye ilişkin görüşleri açıklanmıştır. Araştırma bulgularına göre öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel okumaya ilişkin öz-yeterlik algıları düşüktür. Öğretmen adayları ölçme aracında yer alan " okumaya ilişkin " ifadelerin çoğunluğuna " katılmıyorum " yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. Birinci sınıf öğretmen adaylarının yaklaşık üçte biri (% 32) okumayı sevdiklerini belirtirken yine yaklaşık üçte biri (% 31,1) okumayı sıkıcı bulduklarını belirtmişlerdir. Ayrıca öğretmen adaylarına göre gazete, dergi, roman gibi yazınsal eserlerin okumasında temel amaç " vakit geçirme-boş zaman değerlendirme " ve " kültürlenme " dir. Ders kitabı, araştırma metni gibi eserlerin okunmasında temel amaç ise " bilgi edinme " , " araştırma " ve " öğrenme " dir. Abstract The aim of the study is to determine the perceptions of teacher candidates' critical reading self-efficacy perception. The study was designed as a descriptive model. The universe of the study consists of first and fourth grade teacher candidates studying at Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education Classroom Teaching Department. 175 teacher candidates who were in the universe get involved in the sample. The data was collected by the "Self-Efficacy Perception Questionnaire about Critical reading skills" which was developed by Kucukoglu (2008). Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data and opinions were explained for each item. According to the research findings, teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy for reading were critically low. Teacher candidates reported "disagree" opinion for the most items about reading in the data collecting instrument. Approximately one third of first-class teacher candidates (32%) stated they love to read again and about one-third (31.1%) stated that they found reading boring. In addition, pre-service teachers' purpose of reading newspapers, magazines, novels and literary works is "leisure-time / spending time" but main purpose of reading text book and research report is learning.

Ilke Evin Gencel

Pre-Service Preschool Teachers’ Reading Habits, Attitudes, and Experiences as Predictors of Their Level of Competence in Selecting Children’s Illustrated Storybooks

Dilek Altun

Hikâye dinleme ve okuma, çocukların hem ev içi hem de okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarında gelişimlerinin eğlenerek desteklendiği önemli etkinliklerden biridir. Çocuklara sunulacak zengin içerikte, kaliteli çocuk kitapları çocukların gelişimlerini desteklemek adına büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu nedenle, okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin piyasada yayınlanan kitaplar arasından çocukların gelişim düzeylerine uygun kitapları seçmeleri önem taşımaktadır. Öğretmen adaylarının okuma tutumları ve alışkanlıklarına bağlı olarak kitaplar hakkında kazandıkları deneyimlerin resimli çocuk kitapları seçme yeterlilikleri üzerine etkisi olabileceği düşünülmektedir. Bu çalışma kapsamında öğretmen adaylarının kişisel okuma kültür ve deneyimlerinin resimli çocuk kitabı seçme yeterlilikleri olan ilişkisinin incelemesi hedeflenmiştir. Çalışmanın katılımcıları 213 (Kadın: 173, Erkek: 42) okul öncesi öğretmen adayıdır. Çalışmanın verileri ölçek ve demografik bilgi formu kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, öğretmen adaylarının kişisel okuma alışkanlıkları, okuma tutumları, üniversite eğitimleri boyunca okudukları çocuk kitabı sayısı ve çocuk edebiyatı dersi almaları ile resimli hikâye kitabı seçme yeterlilikleri arasında anlamlı ilişki bulunmaktadır. Listening to and reading stories are important activities for children’s development, and they can be supported in pleasant ways both at home and at preschool institutions. Thus, quality children’s books with rich content are important for supporting preschoolers’ development. Therefore, it is important for preschool teachers to choose books that are appropriate for the development level of children. It is thought that the book experiences of the pre-service teachers depend on their reading attitudes and that their habits may influence their competence when selecting picture books for children. This study aimed to examine the relationship between pre-service teachers’ personal reading culture and experiences and their competence in selecting picture books for children. Participants of the study totaled 213 (female, 172; male, 41) pre-service preschool teachers. The results of the study revealed that there is a significant relationship between pre-service teachers’ personal reading habits, reading attitudes, the number of children’s books they read during their university education, and the children’s literature courses they take at the university and their competence in selecting children’s picture books.

International Journal of Research in Education and Science

This study aims to investigate the relationship between pre-service form, elementary mathematics and elementary science teacher’s STEM awareness and questioning skills. In addition to this aim, whether differences existed or not was also investigated in terms of the gender, class level and department variables. A total of 195 pre-service teachers participated in the study from the 3rd and 4thyears in the fall semester of the academic year of 2019-2020. The STEM Awareness and Questioning Skills Scales were used in this correlation study. Non-parametric tests were used in data analysis. For the STEM awareness positive opinion dimension, statistically significant differences were found in favour of the 4thyear participants. For the questioning skills knowledge control dimension, a statistically significant difference was found according to the gender in favour of the male participants. A medium-level positive relationship was found between the STEM awareness positive opinion dimension ...

Gülsüm Orçan

Ilke Evin Gencel , A. Seda Saracaloğlu , Mehmet Altın

INVESTIGATION OF SOCIAL VALUES AND LEVEL OF CRITICAL THINKING OF PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS Abstract This research aiming to investigate social values and the level of critical thinking was carried out on prospective teachers from Adnan Menderes University (n=488) and from Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University (n=994). 64,7% of the students are female (n=643), and 35,3% of the students are male (n=351). Participants have attended to one of the science teaching, social sciences teaching, music teaching, primary school teaching and psychological counseling and guidance. The sample of the research was determined by convenience sampling technique. The research data was collected with “Multidimensional Scale of Social Values” (Bolat, 2013), “Scale of Critical Thinking” (Semerci, 2000) and Form of Personal Information. Multidimensional Scale of Social Values consists of six sub-dimensions and 42 items. Scale of Critical Thinking was prepared on likert type, and it consists of 55 items. SPSS 21.00 was used for analysis of the research data. One-way analysis of variance, t-test and coefficient of correlation were used for analysis of the data. As multidimensional social values of the prospective teacher were analyzed, it was determined that several values became distinct in terms of university, gender, age group, department, parent education, use of social media and reading extracurricular book. As for critical thinking, it was determined that it became distinct in terms of age group, parent education and extracurricular book. At this research, the values of the prospective teachers are respectively traditional, religious, scientific, occupational, political and familial. Consequently, it was revealed at the research that prospective teachers’ level of critical thinking is high and level of social values are medium. Also, a medium-level relation (.40) between critical thinking and social values was found.

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