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Literatures review: Analysis of Safety Management System Standards

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Proceedings of the XXII Edition Summer School “Francesco Turco” Industrial Systems Engineering

Antonio Latora

An appropriate approach to manage Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) is to develop management systems, which can integrate safety into the ordinary and overall management of the company. The Safety Management Systems (SMS) represents now the main instrument adopted in medium to large-sized companies, in order to minimize the occurrence of accidents and occupational diseases. The auditing phase allows the feedback necessary to reinforce, maintain and develop the ability to reduce risks and to ensure efficiency and effectiveness of the SMS. In addition, the correct operation of the SMS requires an information flow across the development, implementation and maintenance stages and the auditing/reviewing stage, in order to manage and control safety performances and to highlight any deviation from the safety improvement program. The aim of the research is to assess the capability of the OHS management system adopted in a medium enterprise operating in the industrial sector of soft drinks bottling. The current SMS complies with OHSAS 18001 standard requirements, but its structure is so singular that external auditors repeatedly challenged its effectiveness. The critical aspect is the assignment of priorities to safety interventions that is currently based on corrective factors applied to the medium risk level of each risk category. A multi-criteria decision process based on Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was proposed to the company by using both the traditional AHP method and a hybrid model based on Value-AHP, which is easier to understand and to apply in the company safety management routine. A three levels hierarchy was identified by considering the priority of interventions as the general objective of the assessment, four criteria for the accounting policies and eight macro-alternatives of risk categories. The result is an integrated management system able to track all risk categories, efficiently addressing the safety improvement program.

Journal of Safety, Health, and Environmental Research

Health and safety management system (HSMS) document reviews show occupational health and safety policies as a primary system element. One way that companies operationalize tasks and communicate expectations to their employees is through their health and safety policies. As a result, policies should be visible and clearly promote desired practices. However, limited research exists on the quantity and scope of health and safety practices within company policies. In response, this study analyzed the publicly available health and safety policies of 26 mining companies to determine the quantity of health and safety practices that mining companies encourage in relation to the plan-do-check-act cycle. A thematic content analysis of the policies identified elements and practices within the text. On average, companies communicated information on about seven elements (range 1 to 14, SD = 3.49) and discussed 15 practices (range 2–34, SD = 9.13). The elements in which companies highlighted the most practices were risk management, emergency management, leadership development, and occupational health. A discussion of the policy trends shows areas that mine sites can improve upon within their plan-do-check-act cycle, in addition to encouraging the use of both leading and lagging indicators when checking and acting to manage health and safety performance.

Journal of Chemical Health and Safety

Charles Geraci

Rakesh Maharaj

In today’s environment, where financial pressures are constraining businesses worldwide, it is vital to challenge the corresponding increase in occupational risk. The focused role of the safety professional in the face of this ubiquitous economic downturn is now more important and challenging than ever. Business Managers will be scathing of business cases for safety programmes where their basis is anecdotal and corresponding investment merely for worker protection may be considered unnecessary. To overcome such perceptions, the safety professional’s ability to demonstrate a tangible relationship between improved safety and business performance is critical. Conventional arguments that present safety as a function of loss control must be challenged. Many researchers have been grappling with this since the mid 1990s according to Veltri et al (2007). Contributing to this body of knowledge, by evaluating the principles of applied systems thinking, this paper contends that the art and science involved in creating a contributory relationship between safety performance and business performance is no longer elusive.

Ikhwan Muhammad

Complex arguments continue to be articulated regarding the theoretical foundation of health and safety management system (HSMS) performance measurement. The culmination of these efforts has begun to enhance a collective understanding. Despite this enhanced theoretical understanding, however, there are still continuing debates and little consensus. The goal of the current research effort was to empirically explore common methods to HSMS performance measurement in mining organizations. The purpose was to determine if value and insight could be added into the ongoing approaches of the best ways to engage in health and safety performance measurement. Nine site-level health and safety management professionals were provided with 133 practices corresponding to 20 HSMS elements, each fitting into the plan, do, check, act phases common to most HSMS. Participants were asked to supply detailed information as to how they (1) assess the performance of each practice in their organization, or (2) would assess each practice if it were an identified strategic imperative. Qualitative content analysis indicated that the approximately 1200 responses provided could be described and categorized into interventions, organizational performance, and worker performance. A discussion of how these categories relate to existing indicator frameworks is provided. The analysis also revealed divergence in two important measurement issues; (1) quantitative vs qualitative measurement and reporting; and (2) the primary use of objective or subjective metrics. In lieu of these findings we ultimately recommend a balanced measurement and reporting approach within the three metric categories and conclude with suggestions for future research. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Syea Ghazaly

Safety Science

Peter Hasle

Emily Haas , cassandra hoebbel

Research continues to investigate barriers to managing occupational health and safety behaviors among the workforce. Recent literature argues that (1) there is a lack of consistent, multilevel communication and application of health and safety practices, and (2) social scientific methods are absent when determining how to manage injury prevention in the workplace. In response, the current study developed and tested a multilevel intervention case study at two industrial mineral mines to help managers and workers communicate about and reduce respirable silica dust exposures at their mine sites. A dust assessment technology, the Helmet-CAM, was used to identify and encourage communication about potential problem areas and tasks on site that contributed to elevated exposures. The intervention involved pre-and post-assessment field visits, four weeks apart that included multiple forms of data collection from workers and managers. Results revealed that mine management can utilize dust assessment technology as a risk communication tool to prompt and communicate about healthier behaviors with their workforce. Additionally, when workers were debriefed with the Helmet-CAM data through the device software, the dust exposure data can help improve the knowledge and awareness of workers, empowering them to change subtle behaviors that could reduce future elevated exposures to respirable silica dust. This case study demonstrates that incorporating social scientific methods into the application of health and safety management strategies, such as behavioral modification and technology integration, can leverage managers' communication practices with workers, subsequently improving health and safety behaviors.

Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries

The process industry has made major advancements and is a leader in near-miss safety management, with several validated models and databases to track close call reports. However, organizational efforts to develop safe work procedures and rules do not guarantee that employees will behaviorally comply with them. Assuming that at some point, every safety management system will need to be examined and realigned to help prevent incidents on the job, it is important to understand how personality traits can impact workers' risk-based decisions. Such work has been done in the mining industry due to its characteristically high risks and the results can be gleaned to help the process industry realign goals and values with their workforce. In the current study, researchers cross-sectionally surveyed 1,334 miners from 20 mine sites across the United States, varying in size and commodity. The survey sought to understand how mineworkers' risk avoidance could impact their near miss incidents on the job-a common precursor to lost-time incidents. Multiple regressions showed that as a miner's level of risk avoidance increased by 1 unit in the 6-point response scale, the probability of experiencing a near miss significantly decreased by 30% when adjusting for relevant control variables. Additionally, a significant interaction between risk avoidance and locus of control suggested that the effect of risk avoidance on near misses is enhanced as a miner's locus of control increases. A one-unit increase in locus of control appends the base effect of risk avoidance on near misses with an additional 8% decrease in the probability. Findings are discussed from a near-miss safety management system perspective in terms of methods to foster both risk avoidance and locus of control in an effort to reduce the probability of near misses and lost time at the organizational level within the process industry and other high-hazard industries.

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Safety Management Systems (2003)

Chapter: chapter two - literature review.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

5 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW NATIONAL STUDIES Four national studies are addressed in this section. They are Safety Management System: A National Status (3), Safety Management System Update Survey (4), Transporta- tion Infrastructure: States’ Implementation of Transportation Management Systems (5), and a survey conducted as part of NCHRP Project 17-18(05), Integrated Management Process to Reduce Highway Injuries and Fatalities Statewide (6). A Look at the National Status The Safety Management System: A National Status (3) was conducted in cooperation with TRB Committee A3B01, Transportation Safety Management. The purpose of the survey was to gain a national perspective on progress to- ward the development and implementation of each state’s SMS. Fifty-one surveys, including one from the District of Columbia, were returned between June and August 1995. The following conclusions were drawn from the survey: • All states plus the District of Columbia had identified a focal point for the SMS, with 85% found in a DOT or equivalent department. • Most states were using an administrative structure com- posed of a coordinating or executive committee and subcommittees representing a broad-based group of in- dividuals from a variety of agencies and organizations. • More than 80% of the states had developed a mission statement, goals, or major objectives to guide the SMS implementation process. • Sustained commitment to the SMS was seen as struggling in some states, whereas others were using memorandums of agreement or understanding to help sustain support from the various safety partners. • States were using a variety of methods to share informa- tion about the SMS initiative, including computer-based electronic mail, the Internet, workshops, safety program resource books, brochures, and newsletters. • To help deal with the staffing shortage created by the extra work involved in the SMS, 32 states elected to hire consultants. These consultants were asked pri- marily to help with the development of the work plan, resource book, surveys, and workshops. • The primary funding source for the SMS develop- ment was a combination of federal and state money. • Positive outcomes from the SMS process were re- ported by 49 (96%) of the state officials who devel- oped and implemented their systems. • Major barriers to the development and implementa- tion of the SMS were funding, adequate staff, juris- dictional battles, data issues (availability, accuracy, timeliness, jurisdiction, and technical problems be- tween agencies that control data collection and analy- sis), and sustained commitment to the initiative. Appendix A features a summary of the state reports on SMS program elements. A Look at Implementation In 1997, the U.S. General Accounting Office released a Report to Congressional Committees entitled the Transpor- tation Infrastructure: States’ Implementation of Transpor- tation Management Systems (5). The report identified • The status of the states’ development and imple- mentation of the six systems for managing highway pavement, bridges, highway safety, traffic conges- tion, public transportation facilities and equipment, and intermodal transportation facilities and sys- tems; • How the states expect to use the systems; and • The factors that have facilitated or hindered the de- velopment and implementation of the systems. General information about the development and imple- mentation of the systems was collected in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. More detailed in- formation was collected from seven states (Maryland, Michigan, Montana, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, and Texas) selected for case studies because of their ex- periences in developing, implementing, and using the sys- tems. Additional but less comprehensive information was collected from Colorado, Florida, and Missouri. General findings are as follows: • As of September 1996, approximately one-half of the states were moving forward with all six transporta- tion management systems, even though they were no longer mandatory. The remaining states were devel- oping or implementing at least three of the systems. • All states were implementing the pavement manage- ment system, and nearly all states were implementing the bridge, safety, and congestion management systems. • Nationwide, more than half of the states plan to inte- grate the management systems. States recognize that

6 to obtain the optimum use from the systems, they need to be integrated. • Mandating of the systems had several outcomes, in- cluding providing a catalyst to develop and imple- ment the new systems and to obtain high-level sup- port and top-priority status. • Removal of the mandate has had various results. Several states are continuing their efforts because they view the systems as beneficial to the decision- making process, whereas others have lessened sup- port for further developing certain systems. • Some states reported that the failure to issue a clear and timely rule on management systems following the 1991 mandate had caused difficulties in imple- menting the public transportation, congestion, and in- termodal management systems. The following points summarize the General Account- ing Office report conclusions specific to the status of SMS development and implementation: • As of September 1996, 48 states, the District of Co- lumbia, and Puerto Rico were developing SMSs. • South Carolina and Ohio reported that they were not currently implementing their systems. • At least 30 states included all public roads or all state-maintained roads in their systems. Two states were including only National Highway System roads. • The composition of an SMS takes many forms— from an administrative structure composed of a coor- dinating or executive committee and subcommittees representing many agencies to a large database that merges safety information from a number of sources. A Look at Updates In 2000, a second national study, Safety Management Sys- tem Update Survey (4), was undertaken in conjunction with the TRB A3B01 Transportation Safety Management Com- mittee. The purpose of this study was to collect informa- tion to update the status of each state’s highway SMS. Be- cause Section 205 of the National Highway System Designation Act of 1995 made SMSs optional, implemen- tation status was of interest. Survey data were collected in late 2000, with follow-up contacts made in November 2001 to confirm the status of responses. Forty-nine states and the District of Columbia submitted surveys. The study was not published, but the results are worthy of review. The following points summa- rize these results: • Twenty-six states indicated having both an interdisci- plinary committee and an SMS. States indicating that they had only an SMS or an interdisciplinary com- mittee numbered six and eight, respectively. Ten states reported having no SMS or interdisciplinary committee. • SMSs were found to be active at both the state and local levels in 15 states. • Of the 34 states having coordinating committees, 25 were established as a result of the ISTEA mandate, and 30 meet at least three times each year. • Seventy-four percent of the coordinating committees had mission statements, 70% had major goals, and 68% had strategies or objectives. Eighteen states used a subcommittee structure. • Law enforcement, engineers, state highway safety of- fice representatives, health professionals, and state agencies were represented on 75% of the coordinat- ing committees. Community volunteers and construc- tion industry representatives were least likely to par- ticipate on these committees. • Major activities undertaken by the coordinating committees included development of a strategic plan, review of state safety data, formulation of safety leg- islation, and planning of state safety conferences. • Improved communication and coordination between safety agencies and organizations, as well as joint legislative efforts, were the most frequent positive outcomes noted by the respondents. • Resources, jurisdictional issues, coordination, politi- cal factors, time, and leadership barriers have im- peded the effectiveness of the states’ SMS and coor- dinating committees. • Key elements identified as maintaining the momen- tum of a coordinating committee and/or SMS were commitment and buy-in from key agency leadership, regular meetings, development of a strategic action plan, a mission statement, and activities that commit- tees would cite as victories. • Of those states not having an SMS or coordinating committee, 80% reported that the regulation’s change from required to optional was the major reason that these efforts were abandoned. Appendix B features a summary of selected responses from this survey. A Look at Integrated Management A third national study, NCHRP Project 17-18(05), Inte- grated Management Process to Reduce Highway Injuries and Fatalities Statewide, was undertaken by iTRANS in 2001 (6). The study questionnaire collected information in the categories that make up an integrated management sys- tem, including the mission statement, safety management, safety champions, funding, safety initiatives, resource allo- cation decision making, legislation, analysis, and data- bases. With 40 responses, a picture was developed that

7 shows the importance of these elements in the various state management processes. The existence of a safety champion (an individual and not a group) was recognized as “very important.” Follow- ing the implementation of the process, states cited improve- ments observed, which included attaining greater cooperation between agencies; serving as a focal point for safety advo- cates; enhancing communication among enforcement, en- gineering, education, and emergency services; stimulating safety concerns across multiple agencies; and serving as a catalyst for devising new safety initiatives. When asked about the importance of factors that trigger new safety initiatives, states identified federal and state funding and legislation as the main factors. A high-profile event, collision, or crash (e.g., high fatality school bus crash), a program being promoted by a high-profile indi- vidual, and successful implementation of the initiative in other states, were also considered of importance. Quantitative analysis received the highest rating in de- ciding which safety countermeasures to apply. Internal ex- pert opinion was rated more important than the opinion of external experts. Internal safety management processes fell slightly below “important” in the rating. The iTRANS questionnaire asked the additional ques- tion, “Once issues have been identified, could you describe briefly the decision making process as to how funding is allocated to engineering, enforcement, education, or emer- gency medical services with regard to safety initiatives?” Iowa and Louisiana had an SMS component in their re- sponses, whereas Maine, Indiana, Michigan, Nebraska, New York, and Washington mentioned a coalition, partner- ship, team, or collaboration among various groups in their decision-making process. The responses are presented in Appendix C. On average, the benefit of a software package that ac- cepts standardized input for safety analysis was not per- ceived to be much different than documentation of analyti- cal methods for safety analysis, in regard to the question about the benefit of various resources to safety analysis. Overall, the respondents rated the completeness of their da- tabases as “good.” The main components of the Integrated Safety Man- agement System (ISMSystem) developed in conjunction with NCHRP 17-18(05) are leadership, mission and vision, organizational structure, integrated safety management process, resources, and tools and related documentation. Figure 1 depicts the relationship between the different components and conveys the order of development in- volved in building an ISMSystem. The ISMSystem works within and depends on an external environment that in- Exter Mission & Vision Integrated Safety Management Process Leadership Tools Organizational Structure nal Environment Legislation & Funding Resources FIGURE 1 Components of the Integrated Safety Management System (ISMSystem). [Source: iTRANS, NCHRP Report 501: Integrating Management Process to Reduce Highway Injuries and Fatalities Statewide (6).] cludes legislation and funding. Fundamental to the ISMSystem is an interdisciplinary organizational structure, formed through a coalition of highway safety agencies, that allocates different responsibilities to specific groups of people who must work together to maximize safety. Other personnel resources include an operations man- ager (for day-to-day management), task teams that develop strategies and action plans for implementation, and the risk analysis and evaluation group to undertake analyses of highway data to support the decision-making process. The tools necessary to implement the system include the methodologies for identifying crash concerns and evaluating strategies, impact and process performance evaluation meth- ods, optimization approaches, best practice suggestions for maintaining databases, and recommendations for improv- ing interagency coordination and communication (6). NATIONAL REPORTS Several national reports addressing SMSs are available. They include workshop proceedings, good practice re- views, and study tour summaries. This section summarizes several of these key reports. Management Approach to Highway Safety: A Compilation of Good Practices The FHWA developed the initial guidance document in January 1991, with a subsequent revision in April 1991,

8 and a final document completed in December 1991 (7). The purpose was to provide general guidance for develop- ing and implementing a management approach to high- way safety. It outlined eight key elements in the man- agement approach to highway safety to ensure that processes and programs are effectively coordinated and carried out. • Goals—Long- and short-term highway safety goals establish a means for resource allocation. • Accountability—This is an essential management tool for tracking implementation of highway plans and comparing progress with established goals. • Training—Personnel with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to carry out identified responsibilities are es- sential. • Monitoring and evaluation—The design, operation, maintenance, and process reviews determine whether or not the safety processes and improvements are having the desired effects. • Integrated database—An analysis of timely and accu- rate data is necessary to identify safety problems and to select and implement effective accident counter- measures. • Safety analysis—These analyses include accident and operational investigations. • Coordination—Intraagency and interagency coordi- nation will enhance the implementation and man- agement of a comprehensive highway plan. • Technology and information exchange—Proactive research and technology and information exchange provide many opportunities for addressing changes and improving safety. Safety Management System Workshop Proceedings: Managing Mobility Safely From September 17 to 19, 1991, a Safety Management System Workshop was held in Williamsburg, Virginia. The purpose of the workshop was to enable participants to pro- vide guidance for the development and implementation re- quirements of an SMS. The workshop also focused on the experiences of Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Washington in working with the draft Management Approach to Highway Safety in the development of their respective SMSs. The resulting report, Safety Management System Workshop Proceedings: Managing Mobility Safely (8), outlined sev- eral key points resulting from this effort. • The Management Approach to Highway Safety— Good Practices Guide (with minor changes) is a good foundation on which to build an SMS. • Safety management is a workable and useful concept, but it should be implemented not as a new stand- alone system, but as one that integrates safety deci- sions into a state’s overall highway management process. • SMS requirements must be flexible enough to con- form to various organizational structures of the states; they must also be prescriptive and specific enough to ensure safety objectives are achieved. • Coordination must be strongly advocated and prac- ticed within the highway agency and with other agencies and groups having the common goal to im- prove highway safety. Highway agencies need to en- sure this coordination is carried out. Safety Management System: Implementation Workshop Proceedings The FHWA and the National Highway Traffic Safety Ad- ministration hosted a national Safety Management System Workshop on January 20 and 21, 1994. The workshop ad- dressed the issue of what can be done within the limits of the law and the regulations to effectively implement an SMS. Those persons designated as the state’s SMS focal points were invited to attend the workshop. Representa- tives from select metropolitan planning organizations, counties, cities, other federal agencies, highway-user advo- cacy groups, police, emergency medical groups, and motor vehicle administrators also participated. A total of 258 in- dividuals attended the workshop. The goal of the workshop was to have all jurisdictions start in the same direction. Therefore, it addressed what can be done within the limits of the law and the regulations to effectively implement an SMS. There seemed to be a general consensus on the follow- ing items (9): • The SMS was a process for managing highway safety activities, not a plan itself. • The SMS process would not be easy, but it would be worthwhile. • Limited resources are a big problem. • Each SMS would be state-specific, responding to the resources available and the needs in each state. • Proposed guidelines should remain just that and not become mandates. • A uniform system of data records and electronic for- matting was seen as necessary and was proposed. • Data within a state and between states should be han- dled uniformly. • The SMS is a safety effort and not a data collection— only a program. A copy of the draft of Safety Management Systems: Good Practices for Development and Implementation (10) was distributed and reviewed.

9 FHWA Study Tour for Highway Safety Management Practices in Japan, Australia, and New Zealand A U.S. study team examined safety management practices in Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. The visit, conducted from June 10 to June 26, 1994, had as its purpose “ . . . to assess Safety Management Systems (SMS) in the three countries, their programs or components and technolo- gies of SMS activities including people, vehicles, and roads; compile the information; and identify effective strategies for implementation in the United States of America” (2). Japan was investing in information technology to achieve quantum gains in highway safety, whereas Austra- lia and New Zealand used a networking method to include relevant safety stakeholders in the process of decision making to develop and implement highway safety pro- grams, as well as a safety audit process. The report concluded that the major transferable safety management finding of the tour was the management phi- losophy observed in all three countries, namely that of networking and building consensus among stakeholders in the search for solutions to traffic safety problems (2). Safety Management Systems: Good Practices for Development and Implementation This document evolved from a draft document entitled Safety Management Systems: Good Practices for Devel- opment and Implementation (10) produced by the FHWA in November 1993. A subsequent revision was done in Au- gust of 1994, with this expanded document released in May 1996. The purpose of the document was to provide general guidance to managers and safety specialists on the formu- lation of an SMS. The guidance is flexible, recognizing that the development and implementation of an SMS is an evolving process. The document emphasized that because each state is unique, there is no one correct way to develop and imple- ment an SMS. However, the following five major areas should be considered: 1. Coordinating and integrating broad-based high- way safety programs; 2. Developing processes and procedures to ensure that the major safety problems are identified and addressed; 3. Ensuring early consideration of safety in all highway transportation programs and projects; 4. Identifying safety needs of special user groups; and 5. Routinely maintaining and upgrading safety hardware, highway elements, and operational fea- tures. It was further suggested that within each of these five major areas, eight elements should be incorporated, as ap- propriate. 1. Establishment of short- and long-term highway safety goals to address both existing and antici- pated safety problems. 2. Establishment of accountability by identifying and defining the safety responsibilities of units and positions. 3. Recognition of institutional and organizational initiatives through identification of disciplines in- volved in highway safety at the state and local levels; assessment of multiagency responsibilities and accountability; and establishment of coordi- nation, cooperation, and communication mecha- nisms. 4. Collection, maintenance, and dissemination of data necessary for identifying problems and de- termining improvement needs. 5. Analysis of available data, multidisciplinary and operational investigations, and evaluations of ex- isting conditions and current standards to assess highway safety needs, select countermeasures, and set priorities. 6. Evaluation of the effectiveness of activities that relate to highway safety performance, to guide fu- ture decisions. 7. Development and implementation of public in- formation and education activities to educate and inform the public about safety needs, programs, and countermeasures that affect safety on the na- tion’s highways. 8. Identification of skills, resources, and current and future training needs to implement the state’s ac- tivities and programs affecting highway safety; development of a program to carry out necessary training; and development of methods for moni- toring and disseminating new technology and in- corporating effective results (10). Continuous improvement in reducing the number and severity of crashes, as well as the medical and financial consequences is the primary goal of the SMS. The agencies should have an internal quality control system, or a self- assessment process, that ensures continuous improvement and compliance with the goals of the SMS. The self- assessment should not only measure the level of effort, but what is actually being accomplished as a result of that ef- fort (10).

10 • Builds on two basic parts—a collaborative process represented by a standing local agency SMS committee and an eight-element decision-making process. STATE AND LOCAL GUIDES Two publications are discussed in this section: Local Agency Safety Management System (11), developed for lo- cal agencies by the Washington State DOT and Toolbox of Highway Safety Strategies (12), sponsored by the Iowa High- way Safety Management System Coordinating Committee. The eight elements of a local agency SMS are outlined in Table 1. TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF EIGHT ELEMENTS OF SAFETY Local Agency Safety Management System M ANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Element Description Local policy Establishes policy and responsibilities. Data collection Provides information to support decisions and monitors their results. Data analysis Converts field data into usable information to assist decision makers. System output Presents the analyzed and processed data in a format that is usable to decision makers. Project prioritizing and program development Includes final prioritizing of transportation safety needs, selecting cost-effective solutions, and adopting safety policies, standards, procedures, and programs. Program implementation Carries out funded projects resulting in safety enhancements and educational, enforcement, and emergency services programs. Performance monitoring Measures and analyzes results of transportation decisions, countermeasures, and programs for future work program development. Annual safety reporting Annual report of safety system work efforts, expenditures, and system performance. The purpose of this document is to provide Washington’s local agencies with a resource for implementing the Wash- ington State SMS (11). The document is divided into three sections: Overview—Your Safety Management System; The SMS Process: How an SMS Works; and Tools to Get Your SMS Started. The primary goal of the local agency SMS is to prevent and reduce the number and severity of roadway collisions, transportation-related injuries, and property damage (11) (Figure 2). The local agency SMS does the following: • Provides a process for obtaining objective informa- tion that helps agencies identify and prioritize safety needs and choose cost-effective strategies to improve the safety of their transportation systems; • Involves the roadway, human, and vehicle elements; • Identifies methods for addressing safety issues in the engineering, education, enforcement, and emergency service areas; and Toolbox of Highway Safety Strategies The Iowa initiative is not a “how-to” manual for develop- ing an SMS, but a highway safety resource product of the Iowa SMS Coordinating Committee members and friends. Adopting most of the content areas modeled in the AASHTO Strategic Highway Safety Plan, the Toolbox of Highway Safety Strategies was developed as Iowa’s own compilation of problem definitions, data, and potential so- lutions. The purpose of the toolbox is to assist and inspire Iowa’s highway safety professionals, policymakers, and citizens in implementing ways to improve highway safety, thereby reducing death, injury, and economic loss on Iowa’s roadway system (12) (Figure 3). The toolbox contains the following materials: • Toolbox notebook contents—The Iowa SMS Toolbox of Highway Safety Strategies (300+ pages in a 3- hole-punched format); FIGURE 2 Local Agency Safety Management System (11). (Source: Washington State DOT, 1998.)

11 • Law, policy, and enforcement changes; • Education and public awareness to influence driver behavior; • Roadway design changes systemwide or in high- crash-incident locations/segments; • Technology applied to assist drivers or enhance roadways; • Availability and delivery of emergency and medical services; • Data collection and analysis; and • Planning and management. The document is organized into three parts: • Potential strategies for highway safety improvement, organized into chapters on drivers, other users, high- ways, emergency response, and planning and man- agement; • Resources, including primary contributors and key organizations; and • Appendixes providing graphs and trends of Iowa crash data and summary findings of the Iowa SMS Public Opinion Survey. FIGURE 3 Toolbox of Highway Safety Strategies (12). (Source: Iowa Highway Safety Management System, Iowa DOT 2002.) In addition to the printed and CD-ROM versions, the Iowa SMS Toolbox of Highway Safety Strategies and “Highway Safety Strategies for Iowa—Executive Sum- mary of the Iowa SMS Toolbox” are located on the SMS website at www.IowaSMS.org. • Summary booklet—“Highway Safety Strategies for Iowa—Executive Summary of the Iowa SMS Tool- box” (20 pages); • Endorsement—Statement of Iowa’s Commitment to Highway Safety; • CD-ROM—Electronic versions of the Iowa SMS Toolbox of Highway Safety Strategies and “Highway Safety Strategies for Iowa—Executive Summary of the Iowa SMS Toolbox”; and SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW As was discussed, the principles of an SMS process have their foundation in both guides and guidelines focusing on the enhancement and management of highway safety, as well as federal legislation. National studies revealed that the SMS process has brought about many positive out- comes, particularly the enhancement of coordination, co- operation, and communication among key highway safety stakeholders. Successful SMS state initiatives continue to thrive in the absence of a legislative mandate. • SMS “tool” with interchangeable screwdriver heads. The Iowa SMS toolbox reinforces the safety goals, poli- cies, and actions of highway safety agencies and practitio- ners by identifying many alternative actions that could be considered for implementation over the next 10 to 20 years. It also identifies some specific implementation steps that could be completed sooner (12). The document offers a range of potential solutions, including the following:

TRB’s National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Synthesis Report 322: Safety Management Systems (SMS) provides an overview of current transportation agency practices, recent literature findings, and reviews of two model state SMS initiatives. According to the report, benefits derived from the SMS process are increased coordination, cooperation, and communication among state agencies and improvements to data analysis and collection procedures, as well as collaborative strategic plans.

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Systematic Literature Review on Indicators Use in Safety Management Practices among Utility Industries

Affiliations.

• 1 Centre for Research in Development, Social and Environment (SEEDS), Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43650, Malaysia.
• 2 Department of Occupational Safety and Health Malaysia, Ministry of Human Resources, Government Administrative Centre, Putrajaya 62530, Malaysia.
• 3 Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Tadulako, Palu 94118, Indonesia.
• 4 Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Tadulako, Palu 94118, Indonesia.
• PMID: 35627731
• PMCID: PMC9140665
• DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19106198

Background: Workers in utility industries are exposed to occupational accidents due to inadequate safety management systems. Accordingly, it is necessary to characterize and compare the available literature on indicators used in safety management practices in the utility industries.

Methods: The systematic literature review was based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis statement. This study considered 25 related studies from Web of Science and Scopus databases.

Results: Further review of these articles resulted in three mains performance indicators; namely, driven leading indicators, observant leading indicators, and lagging indicators consisting of 15 sub-indicators.

Conclusions: Future studies should consider researching a more comprehensive range of utility industries, measuring subjective and objective indicators, integrating risk management into safety management practices, and validating the influence of leading indicators on safety outcomes. Further, researchers recommend including accidents, fatalities, lost time injuries, and near misses in safety outcomes.

Keywords: lagging indicators; leading indicators; occupational safety and health; safety management practices; safety performance.

Publication types

• Systematic Review
• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Accidents, Occupational / prevention & control
• Organizations
• Risk Management
• Safety Management*

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• Int J Environ Res Public Health

Safety Management and Safety Performance Nexus: Role of Safety Consciousness, Safety Climate, and Responsible Leadership

Farida saleem.

1 Department of Management, College of Business Administration, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia

Muhammad Imran Malik

2 Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Attock Campus, Attock 43600, Pakistan

Associated Data

The data will be available on request from the corresponding author.

Drawing from social system theory, social identity theory, and social exchange theory, this study examines how safety management practices are linked with employee safety performance through safety consciousness and safety climate. Furthermore, responsible leadership is introduced as a boundary condition in the safety consciousness—safety performance and safety climate—safety performance relationships. Data were collected from employees belonging to pharmaceutical firms located in different industrial zones of Lahore, Pakistan. The support is found for full mediation of safety consciousness and safety climate for the safety management and safety performance relationships. Responsible leadership moderates the safety consciousness—safety performance and safety climate—safety performance relationships so that when the safety climate is weak or the safety consciousness is low, a high level of responsible leadership enhances safety performance.

1. Introduction

Occupational safety and safety performance can provide competitive advantage to the firms [ 1 ] and have has become a prominent area of research in the last three decades [ 2 , 3 ]. The focus of this research is to identify safety-related outcomes and to provide guidance for improving health and safety in organizations. An inadequate safety management system is the root cause of the majority of industrial disasters [ 4 ]. Hence, organizations’ adoption of safety management systems is linked with their attempt to achieve performance excellence. Safety performance is one of the key factors for gaining a competitive advantage in today’s rapidly globalizing world. Effective preventive measures like safety management systems or behavior-based system approaches can help in the reduction in occupational accidents.

According to the most recent data on workplace health and safety, there are currently 2 million people who believe their illnesses were made worse by their employment, and each employee loses an average of 30 million days (1.3 days) every year because of illness or injury [ 5 , 6 ]. This is a result of potential carelessness on the part of the companies in maintaining safety procedures. Some businesses fail to give health and safety the priority it needs, despite the clear necessity for proactive management. This could be the result of insufficient staff resources or a lack of expertise, skills, and motivation. However, employee safety management and alertness are the keys to reducing the ratio of work-related illnesses and accidents at work. Safety management relates to the real procedures, duties, and responsibilities involved in staying safe [ 7 , 8 ]. Safety consciousness, on the other hand, is the awareness of risks and the vigilance for danger. It has a strong influence on the actions of an individual because of his desire to remain alive and uninjured. There is always a need to develop safety consciousness because most injuries can be traced to someone’s lack of safety consciousness [ 3 , 9 ]. It is a key predictor of safety outcomes that has attracted limited attention.

According to Kirwan [ 8 ], safety management is related to all practices that are associated with remaining safe, which includes actual practices, roles, and functions. Safety management is a sub-system of organizational management systems that are integrated into the organization and has a focus on controlling the hazards that can negatively affect the health and safety of employees [ 4 ]. Safety management systems not only implement policies and procedures, activities that are required to control the hazards, but also comply with the existing legislation applicable to the organization. The safety management system is an important antecedent of a safety climate [ 3 , 4 ] and the development of safety consciousness in employees. A safety climate is the shared perception of employees regarding the state of safety of their organization [ 10 ]. Similarly, safety consciousness is the awareness of an individual regarding the safety issues and concerns of an organization [ 11 ]; this awareness can be at both cognitive and behavioral levels [ 4 ]. Neal et al. [ 12 ], and Vinodkumar and Bhasi [ 4 ], have considered safety climate as a factor that influences the safety performance (including safety compliance and safety participation) of an organization. de Koster et al. [ 13 ] identified safety consciousness as an antecedent of the safety performance of employees in an organization. Based on social system theory (SST), social identity theory (SIT), and social exchange theory (SET), safety consciousness and safety climate are both proposed as mediators for the safety management and safety performance relationship.

A responsible leadership role in safety management and performance relationship is implicit as the majority of organizations’ central goal is to ensure the value of safety is in the minds of employees [ 14 ]. The personality, values, and choices that employees make, the people they trust, the appeals they respond to, and the way they invest their time and energy in an organization are the outcomes of the values of leadership [ 14 , 15 ]. Based on social identity theory (SIT) and social exchange theory (SET), responsible leadership is proposed as moderator for the safety consciousness and safety performance and safety climate and safety performance relationships.

The importance of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), especially in developing countries, cannot be denied. SMEs are considered a major contributing sector to the economic development of emerging and developing economies. Similar to other developing and emerging economies, most businesses in Pakistan are SMEs [ 16 , 17 ]. According to one report, about 99% of economic establishments are SMEs and their GDP contribution is 40% with 26% exports from the manufacturing sector [ 18 ]. The majority of firms in the pharmaceutical industry of Pakistan are SMEs [ 19 ]. Even though safety management and its outcomes have been researched and reported from various parts of the world, there is not much evidence available from small and medium-sized pharmaceutical firms in Pakistan, where safety performance is yet to get the priority it deserves.

The aim of the current investigation is to identify the impact of safety management practices on safety performance while taking safety consciousness and safety climate as mediators and responsible leadership as the moderator in pharmaceutical firms in Pakistan. This investigation is attempting to contribute to the literature in three ways: first, by empirically investigating a comprehensive mediated moderation model of safety management and safety performance; second, by generalizing the safety management and safety performance investigations that are majorly focused on developed countries to a developing country; and last, by focusing on the pharmaceutical industry of Pakistan.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical foundations for this study come from three theories, namely social systems theory, social identity theory, and social exchange theory. The social system theory [ 20 ] holds social behavior as the result of the interaction of the institution’s role and expectations and individual personality and needs [ 21 , 22 ]. In an organization, organizational behaviors are products of interaction between the organizational factors and individual factors. The safety management practices adopted by the organizations in terms of safety-policy making, safety training, safety communication, and preventive planning lead to developing a safety climate that further boosts safety performance. Skyttner [ 23 ] stated that the emergence of anything results from the interaction of independent parts when they stop being independent and start to influence each other; therefore, it is posited that when individuals come together (the leader and employees) and develop a common sense of implementing safety in the organization it creates a safety climate in the organization, thus satisfying the social systems approach. It is noted that when individuals adopt safety practices, they try to achieve safety synergy [ 24 ], reflecting the social systems approach. Individual after individual following the safety standards combine together and make it a success.

Similarly, according to social identity theory, positive CSR perceptions (safety management, safety consciousness, safety climate, and safety performance) enhance organizational identification. This leads to the desire to maintain this positive identity and group membership, which later on translates into commitment. In safety-oriented organizations, the people feel safe and tend to retain their jobs for longer times.

The theory of social exchange [ 25 ] postulates that in any social interaction where one party acts in a manner that benefits a second party, a mutual expectation will emerge that obligates the second party to reciprocate, at some later stage, by acting in a way that benefits the first party [ 26 ]. The social exchange theory (SET) is a theory that describes relationships as result-oriented social behavior. It is based on the reciprocity of the behaviors. The social behavior in the interaction of organization and employees is used for a cost–benefit analysis to create a win–win situation [ 27 ]. In this situation of give and take, this study argues that responsible leaders, by virtue of taking care of the stakeholders [ 28 ], will ensure the formulation of effective health and safety policies and procedures, provide the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities, provide support on such policies and procedures, communicate performance standards, and promote a safety climate. As suggested by the social exchange theory [ 25 ], responsible leaders will be fostering a trusting relationship among employees (as stakeholders) through their proactive participation in ensuring the implementation of health and safety procedures, thereby acting as role models of health and safety rules and regulations [ 29 ]. Moreover, it is noted that socially responsible behaviors such as safety behaviors cannot be implemented without the influence of the leaders [ 30 ]. Under such arguments, it is posited that when employees get something of value from their leaders, they try to give it back through their hard work and by following the practices they require from them to ensure performance targets. The employees who take training from their responsible leaders tend to stand with them and try their best to practice safety at the workplace, thus enforcing the social exchange. The proposed research framework is presented in Figure 1 .

Proposed Research Framework.

2. Literature Review

2.1. safety management and safety consciousness.

According to Barling et al. [ 11 ], safety consciousness consists of two components: the cognitive component and the behavioral component. This indicates that the idea goes beyond only being aware of safety risks and that taking necessary action is important too [ 31 , 32 ]. Furthermore, in the organizations, the modeling of behaviors depends upon demands put forth by the top managers. The managers emphasize the importance of health and safety policies and procedures and will inspire subordinates to ponder safety, hence increasing their safety consciousness [ 33 ]. Similarly, safety management requires clear communication of the health and safety policies. This requires the provision of training to the employees to enhance their subordinates’ consciousness. Studies suggest that consciousness is an important predictor of safety behaviors.

The main goal of safety management is to prevent workplace injuries, illnesses, and deaths, as well as the suffering and financial hardships of the organizations [ 34 ]. The recommended practices use a proactive approach to managing workplace safety and health, instead of using the reactive ones, i.e., problems are addressed only after a worker is injured or becomes sick. These recommended practices recognize that finding and fixing hazards before they cause injury or illness is a far more effective approach [ 35 ].

The rate of accidents can be minimized through safety management and consciousness. This relationship forms a pattern that affects the well-being of all workers. The factor of luck may distort the pattern, but over a long period of time the pattern remains unchanged [ 36 ]. The employees are required to perform in a safer way that would not harm themselves and their co-workers [ 37 ]. Common causes of error may include time pressure, mental pressure, fatigue, being new to the task, distractions, and overconfidence.

The safety management practices enforced through safety policies, plans, procedures, training, and frequent safety communication enable people to avoid accidents [ 13 , 38 ]. The push to follow the safety practices from the managers adds to the consciousness. This consciousness as mindfulness brings positive results for individuals and organizations. Safety-conscious workers are more likely to notice potential risks, make unbiased judgments, and control their unsafe or risky behaviors [ 39 , 40 ]. Bahari [ 41 ] conducted a safety-related study and found that the employees’ safety can be improved by employees’ understanding of safety, knowledge about safety, and the skills necessary to ensure safety. Moreover, the management’s attitude and actions toward safety were found to be crucial in improving organizational safety.

Accidents at work generally occur because of deficient knowledge or training, deficient supervision, and deficient procedures to carry out task safety [ 42 ]. The organizations can prevent the dangers via a safety policy implementation across the organization by setting safety objectives. This enables employees to achieve the set safety objectives, which directly means facing low risks and damage [ 43 ]. At the same time, preventive planning is a key to ensuring safety in organizations [ 44 ].

An effective way to promote safety management is safety communication. Pandit et al. [ 45 ] found safety communication to be an effective way of promoting safety management in the organization and poor safety communication can lead to disasters. It is also noted that when not only the managers but also the employees do not communicate frequently about the hazards involved in their work and possible preventive measures to be taken, this leads them to unexpected injuries. Safety training is equally important and enables employees to learn the relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities to tackle possible dangers [ 9 ]. The social systems theory posits that when components of a system combine and work in the same direction, they achieve a synergetic safety working (see Figure 1 ). Therefore, the hypothesis developed is:

There is a positive impact of safety management on safety consciousness .

2.2. Safety Management and Safety Climate

Management concern for safety develops the safety climate. The safety climate is the perceptions and attitudes of the organization’s workforce about surface features of the culture of safety in the organization at a given point in time [ 46 ]. Safety management is the adoption of practices to reduce errors, which fosters a safe climate in the organization. A better safety climate in an organization is associated with committing fewer errors and better outcomes.

Anticipated benefits would stem from the ability of organizations (use of safety practices) with strong safety climates to cultivate behaviors that enhance collective learning by addressing unproductive beliefs and attitudes about errors, their cause and cure [ 47 ].

According to Mearns et al. [ 48 ], the organizations that want safe operations have to ensure a safe climate. Research has focused on supervisors as role models for instilling safety awareness and supporting safe behavior [ 48 ]. Involvement of the workforce in safety-decision-making has also received attention [ 49 ]. These things require a consideration of the safety philosophy of upper management and the safety management system of the organization. Organizations with lower accident rates were characterized by the presence of upper managers who were personally involved in safety activities, the prioritization of safety in meetings and in decisions concerning work practices, and the thorough investigation of incidents [ 48 , 50 ]. The accumulation of the safety practices and compelling employees to follow the safety measures while at work makes a safety climate in the organization.

Guo et al. [ 51 ] noted that the climate can be developed through management emphasizing safety practices. A safety climate consists of social support, management safety commitment, knowledge of safety, and pressure of production. Management’s commitment to safety has a direct relationship with social support [ 52 ]. Hence, management should establish clear policies on safety and safety issues that encourage people to follow safety standards. The present study posits that the managers with safety concerns will ensure the formulation of effective health and safety policies and procedures, provide necessary training on such policies and procedures, communicate performance standards, and promote a safety culture [ 53 ].

The safety climate is the shared perceptions of employees about the importance of safety within the organization. This is developed when the individual parts work together and develop a common sense of safety in the organization to make a system, as per social systems theory (see Figure 1 ). In the light of such arguments the hypothesis developed is:

There is a positive impact of safety management on safety climate .

2.3. Safety Climate and Safety Performance

Griffin and Neal [ 54 ] argued that employees’ perceptions of the policies, procedures, and practices relating to safety comprise the safety climate. The safety climate acts as a frame of reference for the behavior and attitudes of individuals and groups of employees, and it is argued that it will also affect their accident involvement. The employees with more favorable safety perceptions (indicating a positive safety climate) are less likely to engage in unsafe acts [ 55 ]. Safety performance is defined by Neal et al. [ 12 ] as the level of safety compliance and safety participation. Safety compliance means “adhering to safety procedures and carrying out work in a safe manner”, and safety participation means “helping co-workers, promoting the safety program within the workplace, demonstrating initiative and putting effort into improving safety in the workplace” (p. 101).

Humans play an important role in the occurrence of workplace accidents, but the safety climate can achieve excellence in prevention [ 56 ]. At the individual level, the safety climate is concerned with employees’ understanding of safety stimuli such as practices, procedures, and policies in the workplace. The safety climate, in fact, serves as a benchmark for directing and guiding suitable and adaptive safety behavior [ 57 ].

Guo et al. [ 51 ] believe that if individuals have favorable perceptions of safety, they are less likely to act unsafely on site. As a result, accident rates are likely to decline. As such, a safety climate can cause a profound change in employees’ behavior and mentality, leading to true safety implementation, thus enhancing safety performance. Borgheipour et al. [ 52 ] found a positive result for a safety climate influencing safety performance. The safety climate inculcates danger-avoiding practices and improves safety performance. The safety climate encourages employees to learn safety practices, thus fostering safety performance.

Jafari et al. [ 58 ] worked on the development of the safety climate scale and found 10 dimensions, namely management commitment, workers’ empowerment, communication, blame culture, safety training, job satisfaction, an interpersonal relationship, supervision, continuous improvement, and a reward system, to be effective in making the safety climate. Management commitment to safety and safety training make people capable of better safety performance. Eskandari et al. [ 59 ] developed a scale for measuring safety performance. They considered three factors for their examination, such as the organizational factors, the environmental factors, and the individual factors. They found organizational factors had the highest contribution toward safety performance. A safe climate is rightly considered an organizational factor that encompasses a common understanding of safety among employees.

A safety climate, that is, the common perceptions and attitudes of the employees about ensuring safety practices in the organization at a given point in time [ 46 ], leads to minimizing errors at work. This further leads to efficient working and low waste-age of resources, thus ensuring safety performance in the organization. Clarke [ 60 ] stated that the assumption underlying the link between an organizational safety climate and the accident rate is that climate provides guidance on suitable organizational behavior, so that a more positive climate encourages safe behaviors through organizational rewards (e.g., recognition and feedback for making safety suggestions), while a more negative safety climate reinforces unsafe behaviors by removing incentives to improve safety (e.g., prioritizing production over safety), which, in turn, are related to the occurrence of workplace accidents.

The social identity theory posits that positive corporate responsibility perceptions like providing safety training to the stakeholders, i.e., employees, having frequent communication, and so forth, leads to safety performance. The safety ensured in work leads to organizational identification. People tend to work in the organizations characterized by safety [ 61 ]. The hypothesis developed is:

There is a positive impact of a safety climate on safety performance .

2.4. Safety Consciousness and Safety Performance

The employees’ knowledge about safety standards encourages them to ensure safety performance. Worker engagement in safety may systematically act to reduce the probability of human errors from occurring by making workers more involved with and aware of their tasks/surroundings and associated risks, as well as the error traps that could be present. Thus, increased levels of worker engagement in safety activities could possibly be related to increased safety performance as measured by standard safety outcomes, i.e., accident rates [ 38 ].

Knowledge about safety standards and practices leads to enhanced levels of cognitive engagement [ 62 ]. The employees display focus, attention, and concentration on the safety aspects of the job. By displaying safety behavior, the employees working in the organization are known to be safety-minded people. Safety mindedness leads to leading others by example. They are the ones who are fond of continuous learning. They respond to feedback quickly and have strong communication skills. Safety-conscious people try not to harm others and make people learn safety practices by adopting safety organizational citizenship behaviors [ 63 ]. A positive safety climate is developed when the employees have a perception of management safety values and commitment to safety [ 48 ].

Safety consciousness refers to an “individual’s own awareness of safety issues” [ 11 ]. This awareness works on both a cognitive and a behavioral level. Cognitively, safety consciousness means being mentally aware of safety in your work and knowing what behaviors foster operational safety. Behaviorally, safety consciousness enacts the behaviors that foster operational safety. Safety consciousness can be separated from the safety climate in a manner that safety consciousness is about the safety of oneself, whereas a safety climate is about the safety of the whole workplace in the organization. We argue that the extent to which the individuals are aware of the safety hazards and are aware of possibly avoiding them indicates whether they are in a better position to minimize the accidents, i.e., the safety performance. Safety performance is the extent to which companies are able to prevent accidents and errors.

Kelloway et al. [ 64 ] argued that if anything could reduce the chances of accidents, it would be employees’ awareness of issues that threaten safety, their knowledge of how to prevent them, and their behaviors oriented toward preventing them (i.e., safety consciousness). Safety consciousness comes from the segments of the organization working together. Individuals, when seeing one another following the safety principles, tend to adopt safe work practices, which thus resembles the social systems theory. In light of the above arguments, the hypothesis developed is:

There is a positive impact of safety consciousness on safety performance .

2.5. Responsible Leadership as Moderator for Safety Consciousness and Safety Performance

Clarke [ 60 ] noted that “there is very limited understanding of the impact of leadership styles on safety outcomes” (p. 1175). Except for a transformational leadership style, empowering leadership, and safety leadership, which drew more research attention, leadership styles have not been adequately investigated in this context [ 65 , 66 , 67 ]. Many argue that leaders are the prime drivers of high-reliability organizations (i.e., [ 68 ]). For example, top management is often responsible for the implementation of safety-enhancing systems and the development of a safety-oriented culture. When the responsible leaders weigh different stakeholder claims before deciding, it helps in building trust and people feel free to share their safety problems and seek solutions. This enhances safety consciousness and ensures safety performance. Rare evidence is available in the literature explaining responsible leadership with relation to safety outcomes. However, it is possible that when the leaders act as role models, as per social exchange theory, the people adopt the same behaviors as their role models [ 69 ]; this boosts safety compliance and performance.

Abbas et al. [ 70 ] argued that employees are the critical stakeholders of organizations and are responsible for protecting the organizational environment via their safety mindfulness and interpersonal interaction. The safety of mindfulness and interactions are shaped by the responsible leader’s powerful forces of protection, acquisition, connection, and understanding [ 71 ]. In the presence of reinforcement from the responsible leaders, this mindfulness further leads to better safety performance.

Responsible leadership significantly moderates the relationship between safety consciousness and safety performance .

2.6. Responsible Leadership as Moderator for Safety Climate and Safety Performance

Leaders demonstrate normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships and promote such conduct to subordinates through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making [ 72 ]. Rare evidence is available for responsible leaders influencing the safety outcomes. However, this mechanism can be explained as responsible leadership being characterized as involving stakeholders in decision-making and looking after their demands. Moreover, he has an idea of the consequences of his decisions on the stakeholders. This enables the employees to get involved in the safety procedures and they conduct periodic checks on the execution of the prevention plans. Furthermore, they participate in evaluating the risks. This premise is based on the social exchange theory. The positive exchanges taking place between the leader and the employees lead to compliance as a matter of showing gratitude. The hypothesis developed is:

Responsible leadership significantly moderates the relationship between safety climate and safety performance .

3. Methodology

The population of the current study includes small and medium-sized pharmaceutical firms located in industrial zones of Lahore, Pakistan. A list of 100 small and medium-sized pharmaceutical firms operating in the industrial zone near Lahore, Pakistan was compiled. The criteria of the National SME Policy 2007 of Pakistan, “an enterprise with an employment size up to 250, capital of Rs. 25 million and annual sales up to Rs. 250 million”, was used for defining an SME. Out of 100 firms, 37 agreed to participate in the study; hence, these 37 firms were contacted for data collection. CEO, plant manager, production manager, quality assurance manager, quality control manager, pharmacists, technical staff, and assistant managers were contacted via Google Forms, which was shared either through email or WhatsApp. A total of 209 fully completed self-report surveys were received and used for data analysis.

3.1. Data Collection

Self-administered survey forms were used for data collection. The purpose of the survey was to analyze the behavior of respondents toward the safety management practices, safety climate, level of safety consciousness, and safety performance of their firm and responsible leadership. A non-probability, convenience sampling technique was employed for respondent selection and data collection.

3.2. Instrumentation

For the measurement of safety management, an 18-item scale was adopted from Beatriz Fernández-Muñiz et al. [ 73 ]. The safety management scale has four subcategories, namely safety policy, training in safety, communication in prevention issues, and preventive planning. For the measurement of safety consciousness, a seven-item scale was adopted from Westaby and Lee [ 9 ]. Item samples are “I always take extra time to do things safely” and “People think of me as being an extremely safety-minded”. A safety climate scale was adopted from Beatriz Fernández-Muñiz et al. [ 73 ] with seven items. Sample items are “Periodic checks conducted on execution of prevention plans and compliance level of regulations” and “Accidents and incidents reported, investigated, analyzed, and recorded”. The variable safety performances were measured with the help of an eight-item scale developed and used by Beatriz Fernández-Muñiz et al. [ 74 ]. Similarly, a scale of responsible leadership with five items was adopted from Voegtlin [ 75 ]. Sample items are “My direct supervisor demonstrates awareness of the relevant stakeholder claims” and “My direct supervisor considers the consequences of decisions for the affected stakeholders”. The survey instrument/questionnaire is attached in Appendix A .

4. Data Analysis

4.1. descriptive analysis.

Majority of data collected were from males. Out of 209 responses, 128 were males, while the remaining 81 were females. Similarly, the majority of respondents were of the age group between 30–39 and were from lower- to middle-level management categories; 14% were holding undergraduate degrees, 67% had master’s degrees, and the remaining 18% had higher-level degrees.

4.2. Common Method Variance

Self-reported data raise the issue of the potential effect of common method variance (CMV) [ 76 ]. Prior to hypothesis testing, CMV was tested using Harman’s one-factor test by loading all items into a single factor. The results revealed that 33% of the variance is explained by the single factor that is below the recommended threshold value of 50%. The result revealed that the data are free from CMV.

4.3. Scale Validation

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), also known as the measurement model, was used as an analytical strategy for the validation of the scale. CFA was conducted using AMOS 17. SM 18, and SP 7 was removed at this stage as it was not successfully loaded into its latent construct. The results of CFA provided acceptable model-fit indices and are presented in Table 1 .

Results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

β: standardized coefficient; alpha: Cronbath’s alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted.

4.4. Statistical Assumptions

The statistical assumptions including normality, reliability, and validity of the collected data were checked before hypothesis testing.

4.4.1. Normality Analysis

Univariate normality can be accessed through skewness and kurtosis indices, which should lie between the absolute value of 3 and 10, respectively [ 77 ]. The skewness values for the current data lies between −1.888 and 0.210, while kurtosis values were between −0.928 and 3.05, hence showing univariate normality in the dataset.

4.4.2. Reliability Analysis

Internal consistency and reliability of the dataset was checked using both Cronbatch’s alpha values and composite reliability. The alpha values were calculated using SPSS 20, while composite reliability measures were obtained through CFA output. The overall scale provided the alpha of 0.911 while the alpha values were between 0.903 and 0.973 and composite reliability values were between 0.907–0.975 for each latent construct. The Cronbatch’s alpha and composite reliability values for each latent construct presented in the model are given in Table 1 .

4.4.3. Validity Analysis

Convergent validity can be achieved by getting the loadings of observed variables on their respective latent constructs significant ( p < 0.001) and the squared multiple correlation value of each observed variable greater than 0.5. The validity analysis results indicated that the dataset was valid for further analysis. The values of squared multiple correlation are presented in Table 2 .

Descriptive statistics and correlations.

* correlation significant at 0.05. ** correlation significant at 0.01 shared variance are in parenthesis. AVE is on diagonal.

Similarly, the discriminant validity for the dataset was evaluated using the criteria presented by Fornell and Larker [ 78 ], where the shared variance of any construct should not be greater than the average variance extracted (AVE). The AVE value for every variable was greater than the shared variance of all variables, hence indicating a discriminant validity of the data.

4.5. Hypotheses Testing

All proposed hypotheses were tested using PROCESS Macro by Hayes [ 79 ]. PROCESS Macro was preferred over other analytical techniques because of its robustness and bootstrapping approach. The PROCESS Macro provides biased corrected 95% CI and can simultaneously analyze the moderation and mediation effect for complex models.

We have used an incremental approach to test our hypotheses, where at the first step we assessed two mediation models by taking safety consciousness and safety climate as mediators. After that, two moderation models taking safety consciousness and safety climate, respectively, were analyzed. Finally, the full mediation moderation model was assessed. In total, five models using PROCESS Macro have been analyzed.

4.6. Mediation Model

To test the first set of proposed hypotheses, PROCESS Macro (extension in SPSS) by Hayes [ 79 ] Model No. 4 was used. The results identified that SM has insignificant direct effect (B = −0.0641; p > 0.10) on SP. However, the indirect effect through SC is significant (B = 0.086; p < 0.10), hence identifying full mediation. Similarly, for safety climate as mediator, the SM has insignificant direct (B = −0.047; p > 0.10) and significant indirect effects (B = 0.069; p < 0.10) through safety climate, providing support for full mediation. The results of PROCESS Model 4 are presented in Table 3 and Table 4 .

Five thousand bootstrap results for direct and indirect effects. PROCESS Model 4 (safety consciousness as mediator).

SM: safety management; SP: safety performance: SC: safety consciousness; * p < 0.10.

Five thousand bootstrap results for direct and indirect effects. PROCESS Model 4 (safety climate as mediator).

SM: safety management; SP: safety performance: SCL: safety climate; * p < 0.10.

4.7. Moderation Analysis

PROCESS Macro (extension in SPSS) by Hayes [ 79 ] Model No. 1 was used to test the proposed moderation hypotheses for responsible leadership. PROCESS Macro by Hayes [ 79 ] was preferred over simple regression analysis using interaction term and structural equation modeling because of its robustness. PROCESS Macro uses a bootstrapping approach with biased corrected at 95% confidence intervals that calculates the Johnson-Neyman outputs for the interaction term. The variables that define product term were first mean centered. Conditioning values at mean and ±1SD and Johnson-Neyman outputs for the interaction graph were also calculated. We have used a separate PROCESS Model No. 1 for safety consciousness and safety climate. The result of PROCESS Model 1 are presented in Table 5 .

Five thousand bootstrap results for PROCESS Model No. 1, simple moderation analysis.

SM: safety management; SP: safety performance: SCL: safety climate; SC: safety consciousness; RL: Responsible Leadership * p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05.

The results identified that the interaction terms for both SC (B = −0.163 *; p < 0.01) and SCL (B = −0.117 **; p < 0.05) were significant and there was no zero in the lower and upper bound of the 95% confidence interval. Interaction graphs for low and high (Mean ± SD) values of SC and RL and SCL and RL were plotted. The interaction graph of the SC and RL relationship (shown in Figure 2 ) suggests that RL significantly enhances the relationship between safety consciousness and safety performance when safety consciousness is low. The role of RL as moderator is significant at low levels of safety consciousness, and it becomes insignificant when safety consciousness is high. Similarly, for safety climate, in the interaction graph of the RL and SCL relationship (shown in Figure 3 ), RL is significant at low levels of safety climate. The slope test shows that the presence of RL enhances the positive relationship of SP and SC and SP and SCL when SC and SCL are low.

Interaction plot for responsible leadership and safety consciousness.

Interaction plot for responsible leadership and safety climate.

4.8. Mediated Moderation Analysis

Finally, to test mediation and moderation simultaneously, we have used PROCESS Macro Model No. 14 with 5000 bootstraps sampling and 95% biased corrected confidence intervals. We have run PROCESS Model No. 14 twice, one with safety consciousness as a mediator and one with safety climate as mediator. The results of moderated mediation analysis identified that there is a significant indirect effect of SM on SP through both SC and SCL. Out of the two proposed mediators, only safety consciousness has a significant index of mediated moderation (index = −0.457; LB: −0.1053; UB: −0.0069). Similarly, the conditional indirect effects (indirect effects in presence of moderators) of SM on SP were significant. The results of PROCESS Model No. 14 are presented in Table 6 .

Five thousand bootstrap results for PROCESS Model No. 14, mediated moderation analysis.

SM: safety management; SP: safety performance: SCL: safety climate; SC: safety consciousness RL: Responsible Leadership, * p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05.

5. Discussion

Due to the considerable human and monetary costs associated with workplace accidents, it is important to study various factors that help reduce mishaps [ 80 ]. Various factors are examined to test the framework of this study. The results show a positive relationship between safety management and safety consciousness (Hypothesis 1) in the workplace. This study supports the findings of the earlier studies [ 81 , 82 ]. The employees are required to perform in a safer way that would not harm themselves and their co-workers [ 37 ]. This consciousness can be enhanced through developing a plan for work, reporting all the possible hazards, safety training, reporting all the hazards that actually occurred during the work, accepting the responsibility for any misconduct and taking measures to avoid them in the future, and teaching ourselves and our colleagues about preventing the accidents [ 38 ].

The safety standards and procedures enforced by the organization keep employees in touch with the use of safety procedures and can avoid dangerous situations [ 9 ]. Safety management can be made effective through safety policy, as a part of safety climate (Hypothesis 2). The policy helps coordinate the other HR policies to ensure employees’ well-being. The written policies show the management’s concern for safety and this written document reminds the employees about the safety standards to be implemented while at work. The written documents also provide the procedures to follow to avoid any possible health hazards [ 13 ]. The policies available lead to continuous improvements in the workplace and save all from the dangers. Another important component of safety management is the priority of providing training to the employees to avoid any uneven situation at the workplace. The avoidance of dangerous situations and compelling others to be safe by themselves and keep others safe becomes mandatory while working, thus boosting safety consciousness [ 41 ].

The managers who provide safety training as a part of a safety climate, as a priority to learn safety measures, provide an opportunity to make a safe competitive environment that is safety performance (Hypothesis 3). People try to learn as much as they can to avoid accidents, thus adding to their safety consciousness [ 41 ]. The organizations must communicate about the risks associated with work. Frequent communications can help in two ways. First, the employees become aware of the hazards associated with their work, and, second, if anything goes wrong it will be well-communicated in time to reduce the damage as much as possible [ 45 ]. Better safety management frequently transmits the principles and rules of action. This makes people mindful of safety. Preventive planning is another way to add timely emergency plans that can reduce the possible level of danger at the workplace. Involving employees in making preventive plans can enable people to think of their safety, thus making people conscious of their safety. In short, policies, training, communication, and preventive planning collectively motivate employees to remain conscious of their workplace safety for positive outcomes [ 44 ] (Hypothesis 4).

The results of this study found a positive impact of safety management on the safety climate. Safety training, communication, preventive planning, and policy-making are important for developing a common sense of safety in the organization [ 41 ]. A written declaration available to and signed by all workers reflects management’s concern for safety. This puts compulsion on the employees to develop a safe climate. Moreover, the safety policy puts emphasis on commitment to continuous improvement. This leads to conducting periodic checks on the execution of prevention plans [ 81 ].

The continuous and periodic training of employees enables them to apply their safety knowledge, skills, and abilities in a manner that saves themselves and their co-workers [ 9 ]. This also helps to keep procedures in place and to check the achievement of the objectives set. Similarly, the instruction manuals or work procedures elaborated can help employees prevent accidents. The frequent communication for transmitting the principles and rules of action leads to collective awareness [ 45 ]. Moreover, the written circulars and meetings inform workers about risks associated with their work and how to prevent possible accidents. Similarly, the written circulars and meetings force employees to conduct systematic inspections periodically. This ensures the effective functioning of the whole system.

Organizations that focus on emergency plans by practicing responsible leadership can protect employees from harm. Effective organizations always have emergency plans in place. The prevention plans are based on an assessment of the risk and employees are empowered to know the possible degree of risk. They keep themselves aware of the risks and try their best to be alert while assuming risky tasks [ 43 ] (Hypothesis 6).

The results show a positive impact of the safety climate on safety performance, i.e., consistent with the results [ 52 , 58 , 59 ]. The improvement in the safety climate means reducing potential safety threats. The employees conduct periodic checks as a result of the frequent communication and training provided to them. This enhances the compliance levels and ensures safety in the workplace [ 81 ]. The timetables available for the safety checks support compliance. The periodic checks of the procedures and equipment to use keep track of the personal protection equipment and keep the inventory up to date. That further strengthens the safety performance. The predetermined plans enable employees to improve working conditions by following the standard operating procedures and minimizing the errors involved. The minimized errors save time and other resources from wastage [ 47 ].

The results confirm the positivity in the relationship of these two variables, such as the findings of Lee et al. [ 82 ] and Wong et al. [ 81 ]. The higher the knowledge of the safety standards, the greater the application of the safety standards can be ensured. Moreover, one who is convinced about the use of safety procedures can compel himself and others to remain safety-minded [ 63 ]. At times it becomes difficult for the employees to use the safety equipment, but the policies and rules enforce the adoption of safety measures. The employees who remain involved in the evaluation of the safety risks tend to show discomfort when they see other people acting dangerously [ 44 ].

In the safety-enforced environment, the employees are compelled to make sure that other people do the things that are safe and healthy. Participation in setting the safety objectives and improving safety practices also gives a sense of ensuring collective safety at the workplace by inculcating safety-mindedness [ 52 ]. Compliance with the safety standards encourages employees to avoid dangerous situations. Participation of employees in the risk evaluations and safety inspections, and in making suggestions about improving the safety situation at the workplace, compel them to do the safest possible things as the best strategy [ 38 ].

Results found that responsible leadership is significant when the safety consciousness and safety performance relationship is low. The leaders play important roles in shaping safety behaviors (Hypothesis 5). As per the social exchange theory, socially responsible behaviors such as safety behaviors cannot be implemented without the influence of the leaders [ 30 ]. The leader’s concern to take care of the stakeholders makes a stronger bond to keep closely in touch with the employees. The employees keep in touch with the leaders and share their concerns and problems about safety. The leader guides them and involves them in decision-making and setting the safety parameters. This involvement and the knowledge of the safety practices enhance the consciousness of employees and they become capable of avoiding accidents.

The results show that responsible leadership is a moderator for the safety climate and safety performance relationship (Hypothesis 6). The social exchange theory supports the leader’s involvement in shaping the safety climate. The leaders who make people learn and develop a common sense of safety in the organization help people learn and retain the knowledge. This further leads to ensuring safety performance. Based on social identity theory and social exchange theory, this study aims to investigate the mechanisms underlying the responsible leadership, safety consciousness, and safety performance relationship.

Responsibility is one of the essential components of effective leadership in the field of organizational management [ 83 ]. Due to a lack of leadership accountability in today’s accident-prone climate, businesses are experiencing a crisis of low trust. Lack of trust by employees make them pay less attention to the safety instructions given by their leaders, which leads to mishaps and a loss of health and safety. As a result, executives need to act more responsibly toward employees and other stakeholders. The socially responsible leaders are more effective and have greater impact on the organizations than other leadership styles [ 84 ]. As per social identity theory, the people are inclined to categorize themselves and others into social groups and establish a positive self-concept by identifying with groups that enhance their self-esteem.

Furthermore, individuals tend to boost their self-image by identifying with organizations recognized for their social engagement and responsibility [ 85 ], which subsequently motivates employees to strive for organizational safety objectives.

Additionally, people tend to feel better about themselves when they associate with organizations that are known for their social responsibility, such as with a safety climate [ 85 ]. This inspires employees to work toward the achievement of organizational safety objectives.

Furthermore, social exchange theory posits that individuals’ voluntary actions are motivated by the returns they expect from others [ 25 ]; the responsible leaders take care of the stakeholders and in return the employees take care of the leaders and try to oblige them by following the safety standards, thus showing safety performance.

6. Conclusions

Three theories are supported through this examination: the social identity theory, the social systems theory, and the social exchange theory. Safety consciousness and safety climate are necessary for showing safety performance. Moreover, responsible leadership is the key to achieve better safety performance in the organization when the safety climate is weak or safety consciousness is low.

7. Implications

The following practical implications can be drawn from this investigation for the managers and policymakers. Prevention of accidents is only possible through inculcating safety consciousness, a safety climate, and safety performance in the organizations with responsible leaders who can enforce and implement safety standards in the organization through policy making, planning, training, and communication.

Safety management practices have a direct effect on the safety consciousness of the employees. Safety management can foster safety consciousness by means of policy-making, training, communication, and preventive planning that possibly protect the organizations from accidents and disasters. Employees with safety consciousness have a greater chance to avoid accidents and can remain healthy to perform without errors. The higher the level of consciousness, the greater will be the safety practices applied while doing work. Merely the presence of safety equipment or kits is not necessary, but the employees must have the tendency to remain safe and use the kits available to prevent dangers associated with their work.

The direct influence of management commitment on safety compliance can be considered as a result of the individual wisdom of the employees, earned from the overall interest shown by the management toward the safety of their employees, to protect themselves from accidents. Safety performance can become a priority for the employees by having the management’s strong concern for safety. The role of responsible leadership is significant for developing safety consciousness, a safety climate, and safety performance of employees. The traits of responsible leadership should be developed in other top managers to prevent accidents.

8. Limitations

Like other research studies, this study has a few limitations. First, only a single sector/organization was selected for the study, which provided a limited sample size. Therefore, one should be cautious in generalizing the results of this study to other industries/sectors/organizations. Second, the companies with poor safety practices may have been reluctant to provide an original response to the questionnaire; therefore, there may be an influence from selection bias. Third, the survey itself was cross-sectional. A future longitudinal study could provide stronger support for causal relationships between safety climate and safety outcomes vis-a-vis the responsible leadership style used for the study.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Prince Sultan University for providing APC for this article.

Appendix A. Survey Questionnaire

Safety consciousness adopted from and Westaby Lee [ 9 ]

• I always take extra time to do things safely.
• People think of me as being an extremely safety-minded person.
• I always avoid dangerous situations.
• I take a lot of extra time to do something safely even if it slows my performance.
• I often find myself making sure that other people do things that are safe and healthy.
• I get upset when I see other people acting dangerously.
• Doing the safest possible thing is always the best thing.

Safety compliance and performance adopted from Beatriz Fernández-Muñiz et al. [ 74 ]

• I always comply with the safety standards and procedures.
• I am convinced about the importance of the safety procedures.
• I use the personal protection equipment even if it is uncomfortable.
• I participate in setting objectives and drawing up plans to improve safety.
• I participate in evaluating risk.
• I participate in the safety inspections.
• I make suggestions about how to improve the working conditions.
• I frequently discuss safety problems with their superiors.

Safety climate adopted from Beatriz Fernández-Muñiz et al. [ 73 ]

• Periodic checks conducted on execution of prevention plans and compliance level of regulations.
• Standards or pre-determined plans and actions are compared, evaluating implementation and efficacy in order to identify corrective action.
• Procedures in place (reports, periodic statistics) to check achievement of objectives allocated to managers.
• Systematic inspections conducted periodically to ensure effective functioning of whole system.
• Accidents and incidents reported, investigated, analyzed, and recorded.
• Firm’s accident rates regularly compared with those of other organizations from same sector using similar production processes.
• Firm’s techniques and management practices regularly compared with those of other organizations from all sectors, to obtain new ideas about management of similar problems.

Safety management adopted from Beatriz Fernández-Muñiz et al. [ 73 ]

• (1) Firm coordinates its health and safety policies with other HR policies to ensure commitment and well-being of workers.
• (2) Written declaration is available to all workers reflecting management’s concern for safety, principles of action and objectives to achieve.
• (3) Safety policy contains commitment to continuous improvement, attempting to improve objectives already achieved.
• (1) Worker given sufficient training period when entering firm, changing jobs or using new technique.
• (2) Training actions continuous and periodic, integrated in formally established training plan.
• (3) Training plan decided jointly with workers or their representatives.
• (4) Firm helps workers to train in-house (leave, grants).
• (5) Instruction manuals or work procedures elaborated to aid in preventive action.
• (1) There is a fluent communication embodied in periodic and frequent meetings, campaigns or oral presentations to transmit principles and rules of action.
• (2) Information systems made available to affected workers prior to modifications and changes in production processes, job positions or expected investments.
• (3) Written circulars elaborated on and meetings organized to inform workers about risks associated with their work and how to prevent accidents.
• (1) Prevention plans formulated setting measures to take on basis of information provided by risks assessment in all job positions.
• (2) Standards of action or work procedures elaborated on basis of risk evaluation.
• (3) Prevention plans circulated among all workers.
• (4) Firm has elaborated emergency plan for serious risks or catastrophes.
• (5) Firm has implemented its emergency plan.
• (6) All workers informed about emergency plan.
• (7) Periodic simulations carried out to check efficacy of emergency plan.

Responsible leadership adopted from Voegtlin (2011) [ 75 ]

• My direct supervisor demonstrates awareness of the relevant stakeholder claims.
• My direct supervisor considers the consequences of decisions for the affected stakeholders.
• My direct supervisor involves the affected stakeholders in the decision-making process.
• My direct supervisor weighs different stakeholder claims before making a decision.
• My direct supervisor tries to achieve a consensus among the affected stakeholders.

Funding Statement

The APC was funded by Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.S. and M.I.M.; methodology, F.S.; software, F.S.; validation, F.S. and M.I.M.; formal analysis, F.S.; investigation, F.S.; resources, F.S. and M.I.M.; data curation, F.S. and M.I.M.; writing—original draft preparation, F.S. and M.I.M.; writing—review and editing, M.I.M.; visualization, F.S. and M.I.M.; supervision, F.S. and M.I.M.; funding acquisition, F.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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A Review of Research Topics of Safety Management Systems

Chenggong Guo 1 , Feng Jiang 2 , Tao Chen 3 and Ying Li 3

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd Journal of Physics: Conference Series , Volume 1827 , 6th International Conference on Electronic Technology and Information Science (ICETIS 2021) 8-10 January 2021, Harbin, China Citation Chenggong Guo et al 2021 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1827 012052 DOI 10.1088/1742-6596/1827/1/012052

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1 State Grid Jiangsu Electric Power Co., Ltd., Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210024, China

2 State Grid Xuzhou Power Supply Company, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221005, China

3 School of Engineering & Technology, China University of Geosciences-Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China

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Safety management systems(SMSs) is a systematic safety management method, which is widely used and researched all over the world. This article reviews the current literature of safety management systems, summarizes and analyzes eight important research topics at the theoretical level, practical level, and standard level, including analysis of the connotation and extension, effectiveness analysis, integration of a safety management system and other systems, steps and content of construction, evaluation, comparison and selection of standards. Furthermore, based on the above analysis results and the current status of the application of safety management systems in China, two recommendations on important research directions are proposed. The research indicates that in order to improve the application effect of safety management systems in Chinese enterprises, we should concentrate on the basic theoretical research. Three questions need to be answered urgently at this stage: "What is a safety management system (SMS)?", "Why does it fail?" and "How to improve?".

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• Open access
• Published: 13 July 2023

Influence of psychosocial safety climate on occupational health and safety: a scoping review

• Mustapha Amoadu 1 ,
• Edward Wilson Ansah 1 &
• Jacob Owusu Sarfo 1  

BMC Public Health volume  23 , Article number:  1344 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Creating a healthy, decent and safe workplace and designing quality jobs are ways to eliminate precarious work in organisations and industries. This review aimed at mapping evidence on how psychosocial safety climate (PSC) influence health, safety and performance of workers.

A literature search was conducted in four main databases (PubMed, Scopus, Central and Web of Science) and other online sources like Google Scholar. A reference list of eligible studies was also checked for additional papers. Only full-text peer-reviewed papers published in English were eligible for this review.

A search in the databases produced 13,711 records, and through a rigorous screening process, 93 papers were included in this review. PSC is found to directly affect job demands, job insecurity, effort-reward imbalance, work-family conflict, job resources, job control and quality leadership. Moreover, PSC directly affects social relations at work, including workplace abuse, violence, discrimination and harassment. Again, PSC has a direct effect on health, safety and performance outcomes because it moderates the impact of excessive job demands on workers’ health and safety. Finally, PSC boosts job resources’ effect on improving workers’ well-being, safety and performance.

Managers’ efforts directed towards designing quality jobs, prioritising the well-being of workers, and fostering a bottom-up communication through robust organisational policies, practices, and procedures may help create a high organisational PSC that, in turn, promotes a healthy and decent work environment.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Every job has tremendous inherent health, safety and well-being challenges, thus, creating a safe and decent work for improved health and safety outcomes becomes eminent [ 1 , 2 ]. For instance, pprecarious jobs and work environment are detrimental to the health and safety of workers and place huge financial burden on workers and their organisations [ 2 ]. Occupational incidents do not affect only workers and their families, but have a huge burden on society through impaired productivity and increased use of healthcare and cost [ 3 , 4 ]. According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO) working conditions are worsening globally, and majority of workers are found in precarious employment [ 1 ], which is responsible for about 7,600 deaths daily [ 1 ]. Therefore, occupational health and safety (OHS) remains the key factor to restoring dignity at work and improving worker health outcomes, to meet the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 8, which seeks to eliminate all forms of precarious work and ensure a decent and safe workplace for all [ 1 ]. However, robust research designs and reviews are needed to map quality evidence to inform interventions and policies aimed at creating such a safe and decent work for all workers.

Evidence from the World Health Organisation (WHO) and ILO shows that in 2016, about 1.9 million deaths occurred globally due to occupational accidents and injuries [ 5 ]. Again in 2017, about 2.78 million workers died from occupational-related accidents and injuries [ 6 , 7 ]. Thus, globally, about 7,600 workers died daily in 2017 due to precarious and unhealthy working conditions, but this affects poor developing nations disproportionately. For instance, the African region recorded the highest global occupational communicable diseases among over one-third of its working population and 20% of its workforce has experienced serious work-related accidents [ 1 ]. These unfortunate trends of statistics are frightening and might be as a result of insufficient safety regulations and enforcement as well as emerging industries and technological advancements which may require updated safety protocols and training [ 1 ]. Also, these figures give the indication that most workers, especially those in developing countries do not have access to a decent, safe and healthy workplace [ 5 , 8 ]. Perhaps, global economic pressures are forcing some industries and organisations to focus on cost-cutting and increase productivity instead of protecting the well-being and safety of their workers [ 1 ]. There is the need for adequate measures and pragmatic steps taken by national regional and global bodies to guarantee decent, safe, and healthy workplace for all workers [ 5 , 8 ]

Evidence shows that global occupational morbidity and mortality from psychosocial hazards keep increasing, something that need urgent attention [ 5 , 8 ]. Psychosocial working conditions or exposure to psychosocial hazards by workers, to a greater extent, is dependent on the interplay between job demands and job resources (job design) [ 9 , 10 ]. Most work stress models such as the job demand-resource, job demand-control and effort-reward imbalance argue that work environments with high job demands and fewer job resources expose workers to impaired health outcomes that lead to impaired performance and less productivity [ 11 ]. Psychosocial safety climate (PSC) has been the basis for job designs and improving social relations at work, perhaps it is capable of prioritising the well-being and safety of workers [ 12 ]. Besides, PSC is capable of buffering the effect of high job demands on workers’ health and safety [ 11 ].

In organisations with high PSC, the well-being and safety of workers are prioritised [ 11 , 12 ], commitments and efforts are made by senior management to involve and leverage workers’ participation in designing jobs and programmes that help create a safe and healthy work environment for improved well-being, safety and productivity [ 12 ]. Empirical evidence from work stress, organisational psychology and safety science showed PSC as a unifying framework for dealing with work stress [ 11 ]. While there is a growing body of research work exploring PSC, not enough is understood about its importance and application to psychosocial working conditions, health and safety, and performance of workers. Hence, this review maps evidence on the influence of PSC on psychosocial working conditions, health and safety, and performance, thus, to inform workplace policies and actions that create a safe, decent and healthy workplace for all workers to achieve SDG 8 and improve organisational performance.

The authors carried out this scoping review using the guidelines by Arksey and O’Malley [ 13 ], by identifying and stating the research questions, identifying relevant studies, study selection, data collection, data summary and synthesis of results, and consultation. Two research questions guided this review. (1) What is the influence of PSC on (a) psychosocial work factors, (b) health and safety outcomes of workers, and (c) performance and productivity outcomes? (2) what is the moderating role of PSC in the health erosion and motivation pathways?

Authors created a search technique that employed a combination of controlled vocabularies like Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and keywords for each of the four major electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Central and Web of Science) to address the research questions and map relevant literature. Table 1 illustrates the search strategy conducted in PubMed. The search strategy used in PubMed was then modified for search in other databases. The authors used four key words in their search strategy (1) psychosocial safety climate, (2) psychosocial work factors, (3) Health and safety and (4) performance.

Additional searches were conducted in Google, Google Scholar, JSTOR, Emerald, and Taylor and Francis to gather adequate and relevant peer-reviewed papers for this review. Reference lists of eligible full-text articles were also searched for additional papers. A chartered librarian was consulted during the search for literature and data screening process. The authors started the search for papers on December 5, 2022, and ended on March 29, 2023. The authors developed eligibility criteria for data screening. Studies published in the year 2010 and later were included because we were interested in studies that explored PSC using PSC-12 and that PSC-12 was published in 2010 [ 12 ] (See Table 2 for details on eligibility criteria).

The Mendeley software was used to remove duplicates. Abstracts and full-text records were screened and papers selected based on eligibility criteria. Data from eligible papers were extracted independently by MA and reviewed by EWA and JOS. Disagreements among authors during the data screening and extraction phases were resolved during weekly meetings to ensure accuracy in extracted data. Data extracted included authors, purpose of the study, design, population, sample size, measure for PSC, and study outcomes. These data were relevant to help map evidence to answer the research questions and make relevant recommendations for future studies. Extracted data is presented in Table S 1 . The authors read through the final extracted data, organised data into themes and results presented and discussed.

Search results

The results from the four main databases yielded 13,669 records and additional search produced 42 records. After removing duplicates (2,490 records) using the Mendeley software, 11,221 records were available for screening. After removing non-full text and records irrelevant to the review, 156 full-text records were available for further screening. Checking of reference lists of full-text records produced additional 24 records. Thus, 180 records were finally screened. Finally, 87 full-text records were excluded, the remaining 93 were included in the thematic synthesis (See Fig.  1 for search results and screening process).

PRISMA flow diagram of search results and screening process

Study characteristics

Most reviewed studies used a cross-sectional survey design (See details in Fig.  2 ), and were conducted among workers in Australia (30) and Malaysia (24) [See details in Fig.  3 ]. The general working population, healthcare workers and workers in academia remained the most explored groups using PSC (See Fig.  4 for more details). Most of the reviewed studies were published in the year 2022 (See Fig.  5 for more details).

Study designs of reviewed studies

Map showing countries and continents where reviewed studies were conducted

Occupational groups explored by reviewed studies

Number of studies based on the year of publication

Findings from this review were reported based on the two research questions, and into four sections; (1) influence PSC on psychosocial work factors, (2) influence of PSC on health and safety, (3) influence of PSC on performance outcomes and (4) the moderating effect of PSC.

Influence of PSC on psychosocial work factors

Three sub-themes were developed from the findings of the reviewed studies. The themes are job demands, job resources, and hostile work factors.

Job demands

Evidence is strongly established in the literature that PSC is negatively and significantly associated with job demands [ 12 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. PSC has a significant and negative association with cognitive demands [ 20 ], psychological demands [ 15 , 21 , 22 , 23 ], emotional demands [ 22 , 24 , 25 , 26 ], quantitative demands [ 27 ], work intensification [ 28 ], work pressure [ 25 , 29 ], conflicting pressure [ 30 ], workload [ 25 ], long-working hours [ 31 ], hindrance demands [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ], challenge demands [ 32 ] and compulsive working [ 37 ]. However, a reviewed study found no significant association between PSC and challenge hindrance [ 36 ]. Job insecurity [ 38 ], work-family conflict [ 14 , 38 , 39 , 40 ], effort-reward imbalance [ 41 ] and family-work conflict [ 39 ] are reduced in high PSC context.

• Job resources

Job resources are high in a positive PSC context at various occupational settings [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 21 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ]. Key job resources such as job control [ 26 , 46 , 47 ], decision authority [ 21 ], decision influence [ 48 ], skill discretion [ 21 , 25 ], co-worker support [ 38 ], supervisor support [ 22 , 46 ], managerial support [ 49 ], organisational support [ 50 ] and organisational rewards [ 22 , 51 ] were found to have a positive and significant association with PSC. Furthermore, workers in a high PSC work environment were more likely to perceive a high possibility for development [ 20 ], organisational justice [ 22 , 52 ], health-centric [ 53 ], quality leadership [ 27 , 54 ], psychological capital [ 55 ] and emotional resources [ 45 ] at work.

Workplace abuse

PSC had a negative and significant association with workplace bullying [ 29 , 51 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ], and that, workplace violence [ 29 , 62 ], physical or verbal abuse [ 63 ], and harassment [ 29 , 51 ] were reduced or eliminated in the presence of a high-level PSC.

Influence of PSC on worker health and safety

Findings indicated that burnout [ 19 , 27 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 59 , 64 ], job strain [ 65 , 66 ] and emotional exhaustion [ 21 , 22 , 24 , 25 , 48 , 61 , 67 ] might be a result of low organisational PSC. Also, fatigue [ 68 , 69 ], injuries [ 67 ], accidents [ 70 ] and circulatory diseases [ 71 ] had a significant and negative association with PSC. Moreover, mental health issues such as psychological distress [ 23 , 26 , 42 , 49 , 54 , 64 , 67 ], stress [ 27 , 72 ], depression [ 31 , 41 , 65 , 73 ] and PTSD [ 56 ] might be a result of low workplace PSC. Meanwhile, reviewed studies found that workers that perceived high levels of PSC at work were more likely to experience improved general health, safety and well-being [ 12 , 16 , 17 , 55 , 57 , 62 , 74 ], psychological well-being [ 15 , 58 ], personal resilience [ 75 ], psychological safety [ 54 , 76 ], and self-worth [ 77 ].

Influence of PSC on job performance outcomes

Improved job performance was linked to higher perceived organisational PSC [ 32 ]. Similarly, job satisfaction [ 17 , 27 , 77 , 78 ], work engagement [ 17 , 21 , 22 , 25 , 27 , 37 , 42 , 57 , 69 , 79 , 80 ] and job commitment [ 27 , 44 , 52 ] are three key performance outcomes (psychosocial outcomes) that were consistently reported to be associated with high level of PSC. However, two studies reported no significant association between PSC and job engagement [ 44 , 81 ], but improved productivity was expected in a highly perceived PSC work environment [ 20 , 75 ]. As a result, issues that affected productivity, such as turnover intentions [ 41 , 61 , 78 ], absenteeism [ 71 , 82 , 83 ], presenteeism [ 23 , 28 , 82 , 84 ], and need thwarting [ 40 ] were reduced or eliminated in highly perceived PSC work environment. These might lead to more funding opportunities [ 47 ], sustained profits [ 83 ] and reduced compensation claims [ 83 ].

Elimination of unsafe working behaviours [ 85 ] and improvement in workplace safety behaviours [ 38 , 86 ], safety participation [ 87 ] and compliance [ 87 ] were also common in workplaces where management prioritises the well-being of workers. Workers were more likely to be workaholics [ 44 ], have high morale [ 83 ], and develop organisational citizenship behaviours [ 50 ] in a high PSC context. Moreover, adaptive and proactive work behaviours [ 88 ], creative problem solving [ 55 , 89 ], taking of personal initiatives [ 80 ], personal development [ 80 ], positive service behaviour [ 88 ], workaround [ 68 ], and service recovery performance [ 90 ] were more likely to be observed in high PSC work environment. Perhaps, managerial quality is one of the key benefits in a high organisational PSC context [ 64 , 91 ]. For instance, the quality of patient care and patient safety was protected when healthcare professionals perceived high PSC in their facilities [ 30 , 70 ].

The moderating role of PSC

One key strength of PSC was its buffering effect on precarious work conditions on health, safety and performance outcomes [ 11 ].

The effect of workplace abuse on workers’ health and safety

The effect of workplace abuse and violence on workers’ health and safety is controlled by the presence of PSC. For instance, reviewed studies reported that PSC moderated the effect of workplace bullying on psychological contract violation [ 92 ], work engagement [ 57 , 79 ], PTSD [ 56 ]and psychological distress [ 52 ]. Also, PSC played a moderating role in the effect of workplace harassment on psychological distress [ 52 ], and the impact of workplace stigma on bullying and burnout [ 59 ]. Contrary to the argument of Dollard et al. [ 11 ], the moderating role of PSC on the association between workplace bullying and psychological contract violation had an inverse result [ 92 ].

The effect of job demands on workers’ health and safety

Evidence also indicated that PSC could buffer the effect of job demands on workers’ health and safety. For example, the effect of job demands on burnout [ 81 ], fatigue [ 69 ], work engagement [ 69 ] and depression [ 93 ] were found to be moderated by PSC. Also, the association between emotional demands and emotional exhaustion [ 12 ] and psychological distress [ 94 ] were reduced in the presence of high-level organisational PSC. Furthermore, the relationship between work-family conflict and insecurity, as well as the association between job insecurity and safety behaviours are buffered by the presence of workplace PSC [ 38 ]. The high level of workplace PSC among nurses reduced the effect of work intensity on presenteeism [ 29 ].

The effect of job resources on workers’ health and safety

It was expected that in a high PSC work environment, job resources’ effect on workers’ health and safety would be enhanced [ 11 ]. For instance, the effect of job resources on safety behaviours [ 38 ], and workaholism [ 43 ] were boosted in the presence of high PSC. Evidence also showed that the effect of social support (support from co-workers and supervisors) on work engagement [ 81 ]and the effect of job control on mindfulness among workers improved in the presence of high PSC [ 95 ]. Moreover, a reviewed study found that a supportive work environment’s effects on personal hope were lowered in low PSC [ 76 ]. Besides, health-centred leadership had the greatest impact on psychological health when oil and gas workers perceived high PSC [ 53 ]. Finally, the interaction between job demands and job resources in predicting distress among police workers was moderated by PSC [ 26 ].

The effect of mental health on workers’ behaviours

In an unsafe work environment, workers’ mental health is severely impaired [ 88 ]. In such a situation, the high presence of PSC is expected to control the effect of mentally distressed on workers’ performance [ 12 ]. A reviewed study confirmed this hypothesis and reported that the effect of depression on workers’ positive organisational behaviour was attenuated by the presence of PSC [ 17 ].

A thorough literature search conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Central and Web of Science and other databases such as Google and Google scholar produced 13,669 records. Through a robust screening process, 91 studies that explored psychosocial safety climate using PSC-12, PSC-8 and PSC-4 as a measure were included in this review. Reviewed studies showed that PSC, as an upstream job resource construct, was essential in designing jobs by matching job demands and resources. Thus, PSC has consistently been found in the literature to be negatively associated with job demand variables such as psychological demands, emotional demands, quantitative demands, work intensification, work pressure, conflicting pressures, job insecurity, work-family conflict, family-work conflict, and effort-reward imbalance. Moreover, PSC is positively associated with job resources (job control, social support, quality leadership, organisational rewards, decision authority and influence, emotional resources, organisational justice, and personal development). Hence, PSC has great influence on psychosocial work factors (job demands and job resources). Also, it was established that PSC was negatively associated with workplace abuse, such as stigma, discrimination, bullying, and harassment. Furthermore, PSC directly improves workers’ health, safety, and performance, proving a strong buffering effect for health and safety of workers. This shows that PSC has influence of health and safety and performance outcome of workers and reduce the effect of precarious work on the health and safety of workers. Discussion of findings have been done according to the research questions.

PSC as a precursor to psychosocial work factors (job demands and resources)

Managers need to be guided by ethics and value for workers when making decisions regarding job design and nature to foster healthy and decent workplaces [ 96 ]. However, job design and the promotion of a healthy and decent workplace might depend on the priority managers give to productivity or profits as against the well-being and safety of the workers [ 11 ]. In many cases where the manager’s priority was overly focused on productivity and profits, job demands were high, affecting workers’ health and safety, especially in a resource-limited work environment [ 12 ]. However, when managers shift attention from productivity to well-being and safety of their workers, excessive job demands are likely to be reduced, to protect the health of the workers. Perhaps, the negative association between job demands and PSC is explained by the shift of managers’ attention from productivity to valuing the psychological well-being and safety of the workers and vice versa.

The review further found that in a low PSC context, excessive job demands are expected, due to the lack of feedback from workers or the lack of opportunity for workers to voice their frustrations concerning high level of job demands [ 59 ]. In such organisations, job demands were likely to be high because of the likelihood that managers prioritised an up-to-bottom communication rather than a bottom-up approach, to ensure that workers’ voices are heard and factored into the job designs [ 43 , 95 ]. There is high likelihood of reduced job demands when organisational PSC is high, because workers will be involved, consulted, participated in designing their jobs, workplace health and safety policies and any intervention that creates a healthy and decent workplace for such workforce. Finally, PSC was observed as an upstream job resource and its presence at the workplace is a signal for reduction in excessive job demands and helping workers to fulfil their requirements, that achieve organisational goals and a sense of belongingness [ 11 ].

The quality of a worker’s productivity or performance is influenced by the design of their job, which also establishes how workers would carry out their responsibilities and meet organisational and personal goals. It is worth appreciating that quality work involved resourcing workers adequately to cope with excessive job demands [ 12 , 44 ]. The positive association between job resources and PSC indicates that in a high PSC work environment, workers have the confidence to access the needed resources to accomplish their job demands and responsibilities [ 43 ]. Thus, in such a context, workers are encouraged, trained and offered the opportunities not only to access job resources but to utilise these resources for organisational and personal growth [ 11 ]. Besides, in a high PSC context, adequate job resources are made available to workers to ensure that the psychological well-being of workers are prioritised over productivity. On the other hand, in a low PSC context, job resources were limited and, to a larger extent, non-existing, which exposes workers to job strain and poor health outcomes [ 12 ], that will further compromise productivity.

Workplace abuse and violence are unhealthy factors that exposed workers to precarious situations. We found that workplace abuse, bullying, harassment, stigma and discrimination were social-relational factors that created an unhealthy, corrupt and indecent workplace, violated human rights, and compromised the dignity of workers [ 56 , 61 ]. Various mechanisms might explain the negative association between PSC and workplace abuse. First, in a high PSC context, workplace social relations are supposed to improve and give workers the signal that there are available resources for dealing with any form of abuse [ 12 ]. Also, workers who are abused victims were given opportunities to find solutions in such positive worksites [ 12 , 71 ]. This way of solving workplace conflicts or abuse might not be present in a low PSC work context which may fuel turnover intentions and turnovers of affected workers [ 41 , 78 ]. Finally, it would be difficult for many workers to report abuse in organisations where PSC is low, and that majority of these workers may not have the opportunity to seek redress since such institutions practice the top–bottom approach communication that usually limits open communication and trust in management [ 41 ]. But, in a high PSC context, managers give cues to workers about social-relational aspects of work, such as how workers should interact with one another and the behaviours that would be rewarded or punished [ 12 ].

PSC as a precursor to workers’ health and safety

Evidence suggests that PSC positively correlated with improved worker health, safety and performance outcomes [ 13 , 97 ]. High-quality work with manageable job demands, and adequate job resources were more likely in a high PSC work environment, where managers value and safeguard workers’ psychological health for improved well-being, safety and performance outcomes [ 18 , 59 , 66 ]. Thus, a high PSC context foster satisfaction of psychological needs, job satisfaction, job commitment, and mental health maintenance, which translate into improved productivity [ 58 , 88 , 89 ]. Basically, in such a PSC context, workers perceive that their well-being is a priority to managers, hence, become intrinsically motivated, which may lead to improved mental health and well-being [ 98 , 99 ], and positive performance outcomes. Unfortunately, low PSC environments are more likely to produce low-quality work that threatens and obstructs worker job satisfaction, resulting in psychological distress, exhaustion, fatigue, impaired well-being and organisational performance [ 62 , 68 ].

The evidence is that PSC moderates the effect of psychosocial work factors on health, safety, and performance outcomes [ 26 ]. One explanation is that PSC acts as a safety signal [ 52 ], when danger cues such as work pressure, excessive job demands, and workplace abuse are present. This safety signal works by indicating options such as access to and safe use of available resources to counteract the psychosocial hazards to prevent the onset of impaired health, safety and performance outcomes [ 26 , 54 ]. Aside from being a safety signal, PSC could initiate resource caravans or gain spirals, promoting workers’ well-being and productivity [ 96 ]. A study found that PSC moderated the association between workplace bullying and psychological contract violation [ 93 ]. It is worth noting that receiving support at the workplace was not always be connected with favourable health and performance outcomes, primarily when the support is obtained in an unsafe or negative work environment [ 93 ], making the organisational climate increasingly important.

Implications for practice

Creating and promoting a healthy, safe and decent workplace might start with integrating PSC as an essential upstream psychosocial resource at every workplace. Moreover, efforts directed towards prioritising and valuing the well-being and safety of workers by managers may be the beginning of eliminating precarious working condition. Thus, the experience of workers at the workplace, to a greater extent, influence workers perception of PSC. Still, this premise does not change the fact that managers possess the power and resources to design quality jobs through pro-worker and robust organisational policies and practices [ 12 ]. Dollard et al. [ 12 ] argued that PSC was a modifiable variable; hence, managers should know that change could be implemented by improving involvement and communication mechanisms around psychosocial hazards and mental health issues. This could also be achieved by management demonstrating commitment and support for stress prevention and psychological treatment. Furthermore, managers commitment becomes paramount to any workplace policies targeting workers’ well-being [ 24 , 92 ].

Workers who experienced bullying were more prone to rage and irritation, which have undesired consequences to the worker and the organisation. Thus, managers need to pay attention to these signals and act quickly to relieve workers of distressing feelings. Managers need to give workers channels to vent their rage since doing so would make them feel better [ 100 ]. Organisations could, for instance, offer victims psychological counselling services and listen to their complaints. Understanding the implicit expectations from fair treatment of workers may also help managers to manage and deliver on the expectations of employees, which in turn, helps prevent violations and other adverse outcomes. Perhaps, fostering a bottom-up approach to communication allows workers to report excessive job demands and low job resources and enables workers to talk about workplace abuse and hostility [ 35 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 ]. Also, managers need to create a safe and decent psychosocial work environment that may lower the risk of workplace bullying and can successfully prevent the events leading to an escalation of vices and eventually increase productivity and organisational image [ 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 ].

Recommendations for future research

Reviewed studies exploring PSC were mainly conducted in Australia, Malaysia and Canada, and not much research attention was given in Africa and South America. Also, existing PSC literature concentrates on occupational groups such healthcare workers, education workers, police and workers in the banking sector. Hence, studies from developing nations and other worker groups such as agricultural workers, road transport workers, rescue workers and military officers are needed. Moreover, the direct effect of PSC on some psychosocial work factors such as lone working, shift workers and those working extended hours may need more exploration. Furthermore, more studies are required to tease out the conditions under which the strength of PSC matters in the work context [ 12 ]. In addition, qualitative designs are needed to understand PSC through shared and individual experiences, working conditions and the psychological health of workers. More quality studies that adjust for confounding variables may be essential in understanding the independent effect of PSC on psychosocial work factors and stress symptoms. Finally, understanding PSC through the experiences of minority workers such as refugees, child workers, pregnant workers, and workers in the informal sectors might help improve the working conditions of vulnerable workers.

Limitations in this review

About 63% of the included studies are cross-sectional surveys whose findings might be affected by response bias since they mostly rely on self-report measures. This situation may affect the generalisation of findings in this review. Also, the literature search was restricted to only peer-reviewed articles and papers published in English. This situation may affect the number of included studies and the depth of information presented in this review. Including only papers that explored PSC using PSC-12, PSC-8 and PSC-4 as measures may reduce the number of included studies which also affect the depth of information provided in this review. However, the authors pulled 93 studies from 45 countries globally, which may help understand PSC’s importance in creating a safe and healthy work environment for workers.

Organisational PSC is an essential upstream job resource that directly affects psychosocial work factors, including job demands, job insecurity, effort-reward imbalance, work-family conflict, job resources, job control and quality leadership. In addition, PSC directly affects social relations at work, including workplace abuse, violence, discrimination and harassment. Moreover, PSC directly affects health, safety, and performance outcomes. Besides, PSC moderates the effect of working conditions on workers’ health, safety and performance across different occupational groups and settings. Therefore, designing quality jobs, prioritising the well-being of workers and fostering bottom-up communication through robust organisation policies, practices, and procedures may help create a high workplce PSC for healthy and decent work for all workers, for productivity and organisational integrity.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this article and its supplementary information files (Table S 1 ).

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. Kwame Kodua-Ntim of Sam Jonah Library, University of Cape Coast, Ghana, for his enormous support during data search and screening process.

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Amoadu, M., Ansah, E.W. & Sarfo, J.O. Influence of psychosocial safety climate on occupational health and safety: a scoping review. BMC Public Health 23 , 1344 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16246-x

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Building Information Modelling Supporting Safety and Security Threats Management: A Literature Review

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• Mauro Botrugno 19 ,
• Ada Malagnino   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9317-1105 19 , 20 ,
• Mariangela Lazoi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4280-1597 19 &
• Mattia Mangia   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7479-1464 19  

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The construction sector is experiencing a period of renewal in recent years, encouraged by international directives and national regulations worldwide. The most evident advances are represented by the introduction of BIM-based technology. Ensuring safety and security for the built environment is a concern for policy makers, regulations bodies, building owners and managers and for professionals. Applying BIM to address such a relevant objective can bring several benefits such as a better control over the project, greater quality and an optimized planning and execution of emergency management operations. In this paper, a systematic literature review is carried out to evaluate papers dealing with safety and security threats to civil engineering works enabled by BIM and published in 2019–2020. In particular, safety and security aspects are investigated according to three types of threats: 1. structural related issues; 2. exceptional events (e.g., atmospheric phenomena or fires); 3. external attacks or human errors (e.g. acts of terrorism or mistakes in maintenance operations). Furthermore, selected papers are classified based on the involved application domain and BIM dimension. Results show that greater attention is paid to the first and second kind of threat, while a few papers focus on the management of issues potentially caused by external attacks or human errors. The majority of the papers regards the sixth BIM dimension of different kind of buildings while infrastructures and working sites are less studied. Advantages and limitations for the BIM-based safety and security are discussed and serve as a basis for the proposal of future research directions.

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Botrugno, M., Malagnino, A., Lazoi, M., Mangia, M. (2022). Building Information Modelling Supporting Safety and Security Threats Management: A Literature Review. In: Canciglieri Junior, O., Noël, F., Rivest, L., Bouras, A. (eds) Product Lifecycle Management. Green and Blue Technologies to Support Smart and Sustainable Organizations. PLM 2021. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, vol 640. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94399-8_13

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Background: The use of surveillance technologies is becoming increasingly common in inpatient mental health settings, commonly justified as efforts to improve safety and cost-effectiveness. However, the use of these technologies has been questioned in light of limited research conducted and the sensitivities, ethical concerns and potential harms of surveillance. This systematic review aims to: 1) map how surveillance technologies have been employed in inpatient mental health settings, 2) identify any best practice guidance, 3) explore how they are experienced by patients, staff and carers, and 4) examine evidence regarding their impact. Methods: We searched five academic databases (Embase, MEDLINE, PsycInfo, PubMed and Scopus), one grey literature database (HMIC) and two pre-print servers (medRxiv and PsyArXiv) to identify relevant papers published up to 18/09/2023. We also conducted backwards and forwards citation tracking and contacted experts to identify relevant literature. Quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Data were synthesised using a narrative approach. Results: A total of 27 studies were identified as meeting the inclusion criteria. Included studies reported on CCTV/video monitoring (n = 13), Vision-Based Patient Monitoring and Management (VBPMM) (n = 6), Body Worn Cameras (BWCs) (n = 4), GPS electronic monitoring (n = 2) and wearable sensors (n = 2). Twelve papers (44.4%) were rated as low quality, five (18.5%) medium quality, and ten (37.0%) high quality. Five studies (18.5%) declared a conflict of interest. We identified minimal best practice guidance. Qualitative findings indicate that patient, staff and carer perceptions and experiences of surveillance technologies are mixed and complex. Quantitative findings regarding the impact of surveillance on outcomes such as self-harm, violence, aggression, care quality and cost-effectiveness were inconsistent or weak. Discussion: There is currently insufficient evidence to suggest that surveillance technologies in inpatient mental health settings are achieving the outcomes they are employed to achieve, such as improving safety and reducing costs. The studies were generally of low methodological quality, lacked lived experience involvement, and a substantial proportion (18.5%) declared conflicts of interest. Further independent coproduced research is needed to more comprehensively evaluate the impact of surveillance technologies in inpatient settings, including harms and benefits. If surveillance technologies are to be implemented, it will be important to engage all key stakeholders in the development of policies, procedures and best practice guidance to regulate their use, with a particular emphasis on prioritising the perspectives of patients.

Competing Interest Statement

AS and UF have undertaken and published research on BWCs. We have received no financial support from BWC or any other surveillance technology companies. All other authors declare no competing interests.

Clinical Protocols

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=463993

Funding Statement

This study is funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Policy Research Programme (grant no. PR-PRU-0916-22003). The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. ARG was supported by the Ramon y Cajal programme (RYC2022-038556-I), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.

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I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

The template data extraction form is available in Supplementary 1. MMAT quality appraisal ratings for each included study are available in Supplementary 2. All data used is publicly available in the published papers included in this review.

View the discussion thread.

Supplementary Material

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Computer Science > Operating Systems

Title: aiops solutions for incident management: technical guidelines and a comprehensive literature review.

Abstract: The management of modern IT systems poses unique challenges, necessitating scalability, reliability, and efficiency in handling extensive data streams. Traditional methods, reliant on manual tasks and rule-based approaches, prove inefficient for the substantial data volumes and alerts generated by IT systems. Artificial Intelligence for Operating Systems (AIOps) has emerged as a solution, leveraging advanced analytics like machine learning and big data to enhance incident management. AIOps detects and predicts incidents, identifies root causes, and automates healing actions, improving quality and reducing operational costs. However, despite its potential, the AIOps domain is still in its early stages, decentralized across multiple sectors, and lacking standardized conventions. Research and industrial contributions are distributed without consistent frameworks for data management, target problems, implementation details, requirements, and capabilities. This study proposes an AIOps terminology and taxonomy, establishing a structured incident management procedure and providing guidelines for constructing an AIOps framework. The research also categorizes contributions based on criteria such as incident management tasks, application areas, data sources, and technical approaches. The goal is to provide a comprehensive review of technical and research aspects in AIOps for incident management, aiming to structure knowledge, identify gaps, and establish a foundation for future developments in the field.

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The Role of Food Safety and Sanitation Professionals in Protecting Public Health

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Originally Posted On: https://mwaccommercialsanitation.ca/the-role-of-food-safety-and-sanitation-professionals-in-protecting-public-health/

Most businesses and organizations already acknowledge the importance of keeping their customers, staff, and premises safe and free from harmful contaminants. The area of food safety, however, can be especially tricky, with its wide array of potential hazards and the many different storage and preparation protocols. That’s where professionals step in.

Professionals play a critical role in protecting consumers from foodborne illnesses by ensuring that food handling and processing meet regulatory requirements. Without the assurance that the correct cleaning conditions are met, dangerous consequences can often linger.

In this blog, the food safety and sanitation experts at %COMPANY% outline the importance of using a professional service, how they operate, and the risks of subpar preventative maintenance for your business.

Regulatory Compliance: The Role of Food Safety Experts

Federal laws require restaurants and other businesses to abide by strict food safety standards, which are enforced by regular inspections. These inspections are designed to protect public health, so the penalties for falling short are harsh. Failing to pass these inspections can lead to costly fines, damage to your business’s reputation, and even closure in severe cases.

Food safety professionals stay updated on local and federal regulations to ensure their services meet these requirements. Experts will advise you on your safety needs, protocols to implement, and frequency of professional sanitation needed. The goal is to protect public health and keep your business safe and your reputation intact.

A safe and secure environment keeps your customers happy and eliminates liability risks. When a health inspection agency approves your business, your customers will be given the comfort and confidence required to enjoy the food you serve and the environment they enter.

There are plenty of laws and regulations that professionals understand and know how to comply with:

• Food labeling requirements
• Proper food handling requirements
• Temperature control
• Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)
• Allergen management
• Traceability and recall procedures
• Employee training and education
• Government inspection and enforcement

Sanitation Procedures and Optimal Food Safety: Best Practices

A professional sanitation and food safety service has the equipment, products, and knowledge to eliminate food safety threats and safeguard your business. By adhering to rigorous sanitation procedures, establishments can uphold the highest public health protection standards.

There are lots of strategies sanitation services implement to ensure your business maintains ethical cleanliness standards:

Sanitizing Food Contact Surfaces

Professionals use approved sanitizers and cleaning products to disinfect your food contact surfaces, such as countertops, cutting boards, and utensils. Following sanitation protocols, they eliminate the growth or spread of harmful bacteria and prevent cross-contamination.

Implementing Cleaning Schedules

Professionals will work with you and your business to develop and implement cleaning schedules tailored to the needs of your premises. This includes regularly cleaning food preparation areas, storage areas, equipment, and facilities.

Temperature Monitoring

Sanitation and food safety experts monitor and maintain proper temperatures in refrigeration units, freezers, and hot-holding equipment to prevent pathogens from spreading. They use devices such as thermocouples or infrared thermometers to log temperature readings as part of compliance procedures.

Staff Training and Proper Hygiene Practices

Ensuring you and your staff are trained in proper handwashing techniques, personal hygiene, and food handling practices is critical to running a safe business. Professionals ensure employees understand their roles and responsibilities in maintaining a safe and sanitary environment.

Allergen Management

If you run a food business, you know that plenty of customers request specific allergy-friendly accommodations. With the help of a professional who implements procedures to prevent cross-contact between allergen and non-allergen foods, you can provide products that can accommodate the unique dietary needs of your customers.

How Food Safety Professionals Uphold the Highest Standards

At the core of the food safety and sanitation profession is a commitment to continuous improvement and the highest standards of public health protection. Through ongoing training, professionals engage with industry developments to refine and enhance their practices.

Implementing technological advancements, such as food traceability systems or pathogen detection devices, gives professionals the tools they need to improve quality control measures and adapt to evolving challenges or regulatory changes.

Specialists use a variety of educational sources to uphold the highest standards for your business:

Membership in Professional Associations

Professionals who join associations and organizations dedicated to sanitation and food safety, such as the International Association for Food Protection, can access resources and educational programs to advance their knowledge and practices.

Regular Review of Safety Literature

Food safety and sanitation companies review scientific journals, publications, and industry reports to stay informed about food safety trends, technologies, and best practices. This allows them to integrate discoveries into their services and operate more efficiently.

Professional Development Initiatives

Attending conferences, seminars, and workshops focused on food safety allows professionals to stay current on the latest industry advancements and regulatory changes so businesses that work with them can feel confident they comply with regulatory requirements.

The Risks of Poor Sanitation and Food Safety Standards

The risks associated with poor sanitation and food safety standards are significant and can have severe consequences for businesses and consumers. Without proper sanitation protocols and food safety measures in place, the risk of foodborne illnesses and cross-contamination can increase.

Aside from adverse health consequences, subpar food safety and sanitation can also hurt your business’s reputation.

Professional sanitation and food safety services are crucial in mitigating these risks by implementing and enforcing protocols that adhere to regulatory standards and maintain proper hygiene.

By working with a professional service, businesses can proactively address sanitation and food safety risks, protect public health, and safeguard their reputation.

Here are some of the risks that you can a professional service can address and prevent:

• Risks to staff and public health
• Reputation damage
• Legal consequences
• Loss of revenue
• Business closure
• Increased operational costs
• Product recalls

Protect Your Business: Work With %COMPANY%

With our comprehensive food safety and sanitation professionals, you won’t have to worry about whether your business complies with regulations. We take care of everything for you, from frequent thorough cleaning to ongoing support and consultation.

We align our customized cleaning and sanitation solutions with your business to ensure your cleaning concerns are addressed. Our expert team stays up-to-date with changes in regulations and cleaning protocols to deliver exceptional quality.

In food safety, missing the mark is never an option. Call us at %PHONE1% to fortify your business and guarantee compliance with public health standards.