social work case study report

Reading and Case Study Analysis for Social Work

Professor betty kramer, social work 821.

The purpose of this initial assignment is to demonstrate your understanding of the readings and your ability to apply course content to the mental health challenges faced by an elder and their family.

Instructions:

• Review lecture notes from Week 1 and all required readings for Week 1 and Week 2.
• Read the attached case study.
• Preliminary Assessment (Suspicions): Given what Vanessa shares with you, what might you initially suspect is causing her mother’s symptoms and why?  Be specific and provide and cite evidence from the reading to support your preliminary assessment.
• Engagement & the Clinical Interview: You will need to do a home visit to initiate the assessment.  What will you do in advance to prepare for the interview? How will you approach Mrs. Johnson?  What will want to accomplish during this home visit?
• Please list the various domains that you believe will be important to investigate as part of the assessment to determine the cause of Mrs. Johnson’s symptoms and the most appropriate care plan. Be sure to list the mental status tests and medical tests that you feel should be completed (see Ch. 4 McKinnis, 2009; Ch. 6 in Zarit & Zarit).  [Note: it is acceptable to provide bulleted list of points in response to these particular questions]
• Describe how that data will be collected (and by whom)?
• Provide a brief rationale for the assessment domains that will be included.
• Possible Recommendations: Assuming your preliminary assessment turns out to be correct, name 2-3 primary recommendations that you might make to Mrs. Johnson and her family? 
• Submit paper to Learn@UW dropobox by 9:00 a.m. before week 2 of class.

Daughter Requests Case Manager Consultation for her mother: Mrs. Johnson

Mrs. Johnson (Mrs. J.) is a 78-year-old, African American woman who lives in a small Midwestern city. About a year ago, her husband died suddenly of a stroke, leaving Mrs. J. to live alone in her home of 52 years. It was the home where she had raised her three children, all of whom graduated from college, have professional careers, and now live in other parts of the state. Her family is a source of pride, and her home has numerous pictures of her children and grandchildren.

About 3 months ago, Mrs. J.’s oldest daughter, Vanessa, got a call from one of the neighbors. Vanessa lives a 4-hour drive from her mother—a drive that can often be longer in bad weather. The neighbor stated that Mrs. J. had walked to the neighborhood store in her pajamas and slippers. Because Mrs. J. has lived in the community for several years, people have been watching out for her since her husband died, and someone gave her a ride back home. Mrs. J. doesn’t drive, and the temperature was fairly chilly that day.

As a result of the call, Vanessa went to Mrs. J.’s home for a visit. Although she and her siblings had been calling Mrs. J. regularly, no one had been to the family home in about 7 months. Vanessa was shocked at what she saw. Mrs. J. had been a cook in a school cafeteria earlier in life and always kept her own kitchen spotless. But now the house was in disarray with several dirty pots and pans scattered throughout different rooms. In addition, odd things were in the refrigerator such as a light bulb and several pieces of mail. Many of the food products were out of date, and there was a foul smell in the kitchen. Trash covered the counters and floor.

Vanessa contacted her siblings to ask them if their mother had told any of them that she wasn’t feeling well. Her brother, Anthony, remarked that their mother would often talk about Mr. J. in the present tense—but he thought that it was just her grief about his death. The younger brother, Darius, reported that his wife was typically the one who called their mother—about once a month. He didn’t know if there had been any problems—his wife never said anything about it to him. Vanessa also contacted the pastor of her church, Rev. M. He stated that Mrs. J. had been walking to church on Sundays, as usual, but he did notice that she left early a few times and other times seemed to come to service late. But like the brother, Anthony, he thought that this behavior was probably a grief reaction to the loss of her husband.

A final shock to Vanessa was when she went through her mother’s mail. There were several overdue bills and one urgent notice that the electricity was going to be cut off if the balance wasn’t paid. She owed several hundred dollars in past due heating, electric, and telephone bills.

Vanessa contacted her mother’s primary care physician (Dr. P.) who said that he had last seen Mrs. J. for her regular checkup 6 months earlier and that she had missed her last appointment a week ago. Dr. P. said that her staff had called to make another appointment but that her mother hadn’t called them back yet.  Mrs. J. is being treated with medication for arthritis, hypertension, and gastroesophogeal reflux (GERD). Her weight was stable, and her only complaint was some difficulty staying asleep at night. Dr. P. reported that her mother’s mood was sad but had improved some in the month before the last visit. The doctor asked about memory and concentration, but her mother denied having any problems with memory. Imagine that you a case manager at the local Senior Coalition.  Vanessa is calling you to seek advice about what to do. She would like you to do an assessment to help her determine what is wrong and how she can best help her mother.

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A Case for the Case Study: How and Why They Matter

• Original Paper
• Published: 06 June 2017
• Volume 45 , pages 189–200, ( 2017 )

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• Jeffrey Longhofer 1 ,
• Jerry Floersch 1 &
• Eric Hartmann 2  

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In this special issue we have asked the contributors to make a case for the case study. The guest editors, Jeffrey Longhofer, Jerry Floersch and Eric Hartmann, intergrate ideas from across the disciplines to explore the complexties of case study methods and theory. In education, Gary Thomas explores the importance of ethnographic case studies in understanding the relationships among schools, teachers, and students. Lance Dodes and Josh Dodes use the case study to articulate a psychoanalytic approach to addiction. In policy and generalist practice, Nancy Cartwright and Jeremy Hardie elaborate a model for a case-by-case approach to prediction and the swampy ground prediction serves up to practitioners. Christian Salas and Oliver Turnbull persuasively write about the role of the case study in neuro-psychoanalysis and illustrate it with a case vignette. In political science, Sanford Schram argues for a bottom up and ethnographic approach to studying policy implementation by describing a case of a home ownership program in Philadelphia. Eric Hartman queers the case study by articulating its role in deconstructing normative explanations of sexuality. In applied psychology, Daniel Fishman describes a comprehensive applied psychology perspective on the paradigmatic case study. Richard Miller and Miriam Jaffe offer us important ways of thinking about writing the case study and the use of multi-media. Each contributor brings a unique perspective to the use of the case study in their field, yet they share practical and philosophical assumptions.

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Jeffrey Longhofer & Jerry Floersch

DSW Program, Rutgers School of Social Work, New Brunswick, USA

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Longhofer, J., Floersch, J. & Hartmann, E. A Case for the Case Study: How and Why They Matter. Clin Soc Work J 45 , 189–200 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-017-0631-8

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Published : 06 June 2017

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-017-0631-8

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Report Writing for Social Workers

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This is a useful and largely accessible text that I hope will be helpful to our students. It is helpful to have a book specifically addressing this essential skill as it is a common complaint of empoyers that students learn to write essays but not reports.

This book follows the valuable tenets of the learning matters series: A clear, accessible overview of report writing. Thought-provoking case examples illustrate the complexities and challenges of report writing in social work, offering qualifying students valuable insights within which to contextualise development of their report writing skills.

This is a good read for all social workers. The text is very practical and provides the reader with the confidence to follow suggestions made in the book. A must read for all social workers, particularly if in practice, or teaching students social workers in practice.

A useful resource for social work students, many of whom find writing reports a major challenge

Used a supplementary reading to a course we run based on report writing. Good case studies with clear information.

This book deals competently and clearly the essentials of report writing at a basic level for beginning undergraduate students. At the present time many students struggle with writing skills (!), and the book is useful to recommend further along the education continuum also in particular cases.

I have delivered a annual course in report writing to various government agencies for almost ten years, and so I looked forward to reading this work. It did not disappoint. The structure and content of this book make it eminently 'useable' and useful.

Although it is still early in the course, I have already used this book extensively with my honours students, including exercises in probation report writing, and theory to practice reflection reports. It has been very well received by my students, a number of whom have already purchased this book for themselves. I highly recommend this work and I look forward to using it for the rest of the honours course.

When I is the title of this book I was excited as I thought it would be very relevant to my role as a practice educator supporting social workers in training on PLO1 & 2 at both undergraduate and Masters levels. However the book for me falls short, both in what it includes and the level of detail. For example in defining "report" -- what to include -- I would have hoped for sections on writing case files, the importance of chronologies etc. In the section on notetaking there are only three points made and I find social workers in training need far more than this. For example it could have included different styles of notetaking such as using spider diagrams; the use of abbreviations; using a timeline with service users which shares the power of recording as it is done together. I would have hoped for a section on how focusing on a form in report writing can be a barrier to communication.

The section on "what to leave out "on page 69 really disappoints. It gives the example of a sentence "Mr M had a difficult childhood". It does not highlight that "difficult" can mean different things to different people and the importance of not using such value judgement words in reports and records but rather replacing them with descriptors. In this section it would have been helpful to include examples of unnecessary details that often we see written in reports. As a result I have just ordered an inspection copy of the Karen Healy book on writing skills for social workers and I'm hoping for more from this.

Currently one of the skills social workers need to develop hi lighted by the reform board agenda. It is useful top use individually and in group sessions.

Clear and concise. Useful pointers for the basics of report writing often overlooked by practitioners.

Perhaps could have had section on requirements of court rules governing reporting.

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How To Write A Case Study Report In Social Work?

Social work is one of the most important branches or streams of study for students in Australia and around the world. The subject has become so important that even reputed colleges and universities of Australia are offering graduation and postgraduate degree courses in social work.

The institute assigns students large assignments on social work during the courses. In this blog, we will discuss some useful tips for writing an excellent case study report on social work to impress your faculty and get the top grades .

Tips To Write an Effective Case Study Report in Social Work

• Choose an interesting subject: First, you need to choose a very interesting and updated subject for your social work case study. Some such subjects might be domestic violence, corruption, women’s empowerment, drug abuse, and alcohol abuse.
• Do an in-depth analysis: After that, you need to analyse the chosen subject or topic in-depth. You need to explain each and every fact related to that topic. No fiction should be there. Only try, and you will accept the current facts.
• Treat delicate matters likewise: A study on social work is one of the most delicate types of studies in the world. Thus, you need to write your report by treating the matter as seriously as possible and avoiding all types of fluffy language.
• Carry out extensive study and research: You always need to do extensive study and research while writing your case study report on social work. You need to note all the legal, social, and political status of the country, territory, or region in which you are doing your social study.
• Write only true facts: You must always write only true facts in your case study. Writing wrong facts can be very harmful to your paper. You always need to depict a very true picture of the scenario.
• Know how you can help others: The ultimate aim of your social study work is to help the people of your society. Each class of people suffers from particular issues or problems. You need to deal with their issues likewise to solve their problems. Thus, you always need to know the right methods to solve various problems of the suffering people.
• Give proper solutions: You must always give proper solutions to the suffering people of your society to overcome their problems. These solutions must be strictly within the legal limits of your nation. You must keep in mind that people truly benefit from the suggestions and solutions provided by you in your social work case study report.
• Give a picture of future success: In your case study report on social work, you need to depict a true picture of your social work project’s success in the long run and how it will benefit people in the concluding part.
• Always give a proper introduction and conclusion: The introduction and concluding part of your social work case study report are of high importance. The introductory part makes the first impression on your readers. If your concluding part is interesting enough, it will create an everlasting good impression on your reader faculty. Thus, you are bound to get good grades.
• Carry out long surveys: The subject of social work is very much related to practical surveys and studies. Thus, you need to conduct a lot of surveys among the people of society to learn about their real problems in life and find effective solutions for them.
• Take expert consultation: To write an ideal case study report, it is advisable to seek consultation and help from a social service expert. You need to do this under the supervision of an expert social worker.
• Study the reports of various NGOs: There are a number of NGOs or non-government organisations involved in various social studies. You can read their published reports to get an idea of how to do proper social work with true success.

What Common Mistakes Should Be Avoided While Writing a Case Study Report?

You need to avoid certain common mistakes while writing a case study report on social work or any other subject. Some of these are listed below:

• Many errors are often present in the case study paper. You always need to remove these errors by properly proofreading and editing the papers. Manual checking is preferred in this regard rather than any error-detecting software.
• You always need to avoid plagiarism in your report work. You can also use any kind of updated and advanced plagiarism-checking software technology in this regard in order to make your paper a hundred per cent plagiarism-free
• Always submit all your case study papers before the deadlines. If you cross the deadlines, your paper will come under the defaulter list, and you will lose your grades
• Try to complete all your assignment papers within specified time frames
• Do not repeat any idea more than once in any of your case study papers. Add new ideas with to-the-point explanations. This will make your paper more interesting.

How do you avail yourself of the Case Study Report Writing Services?

Writing a good case study report on social work is not an easy task. Thus, you always need expert help in this regard. You can get the best case study report on social work writing help from the most reputed C aseStudyHelp.com online organisation.

We have a team of the best writers with extensive experience in the social service case report writing field. Thus, students can always expect the best service from them. You can easily avail of our services by registering online on the CaseStudyHelp.com official website . We are always here to provide the best solutions for writing social work case study reports.

Author Bio:

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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SOCIAL CASE STUDY REPORT SEPTEMBER 26, 2016 IDENTIFYING INFORMATION

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Argel B . Masanda

This study investigated the children"s experiences of the familial stresses as a gauge of looking into their family dynamics. Primary emphasis was focused on the children"s psychological functioning in the context of their experienced stresses in their family. Creative expressive approaches were utilized to facilitate data gathering from 3 abused children who were housed in a government facility. The 3 girls suffered physical and/or sexual abuse, neglect and/or abandonment or the combinations of those. Qualitative analyses (genogram and thematic analysis) were employed to make sense of the data. Results suggested that children"s experiences of societal stresses can be ranged from intrafamilial (from "within" the family) to extrafamilial (from "without" the family). In spite of being under too much stress, children were observed to be authentic "family mirrors": they can precisely measure and showcase the family"s dynamics including emotional patterns and overall functioning in an effortless and subconscious ways. This suggested that their experiences of stress seemed to be subliminal-they have a natural way of making sense of their experiences through their sheer ability to catch and understand the emotional contents of the messages they receive from the world, albeit uncritically. Hence, children"s behavior (or misbehavior) and ineffective ways of coping from their stressful experiences, tend to be a viable measure in appraising their family"s dynamics. Furthermore, it was likewise conclusive that marital relationship seemed to be a pivotal point in the maintenance of the family equilibrium.

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Papyrus documents give evidence that in the multicultural society of Roman Egypt all children regardless their legal status inherited their father and after the SC Orfitianum of AD 178 children of Roman status could inherit their mothers. However, numerous petitions prove that various conflicts arose between family members especially about the division of parental property. For example, in P.Lond. II 177 (1st c. AD) the eldest sister of a family with her husband grabbed the paternal furniture and utensils, which also belonged to her brothers in terms of their father’s will. The conflicts between an heir and his guardian about the disposition of the inheritance are also common. In P.Oxy. XVII 2133 (4th c. AD) a daughter complains to the prefect, because her uncle-guardian deprived her of her share to the paternal inheritance in the form of dowry. While family conflicts about intestate succession and wills were a common phenomenon, the papyri give also evidence for violations of inherited property by non siblings. PSI X 1102 (3rd c. AD) preserves an important dispute about property rights between two children and three men who have stolen the property of the children’s father who died intestate. Furthermore, in P.Oxy.VII 1067 (3rd c. AD) Helen blaims her brother Petechon for neglecting the burial of their third brother and as a result a non-sibling woman inherited him. The purpose of the proposed paper is to discuss the various cases of conflicts over an inheritance between siblings and non-siblings. My interest will focus on the arguments and legal grounds used by the defendants in each case discussed with special attention paid to the differences between property claimed coming from intestate succession and testamentary disposition. By studying the various petitions to the judges, private letters or settlements and lawsuit proceedings I aim to investigate the legal and social ways in which people in Roman Egypt could protect their parental inheritance both from persons inside and outside the family.

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Case Study: A method of evaluation by examining systematically many characteristics of one individual, group, family, or community usually over an extended period.  Retrieved from: Barker, R. (2003).  The Social Work Dictionary. Washington D.C.: National Association of Social Workers.  Located in Reference at HV12 B37 2003.

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• Published: 26 March 2024

Estimating the size of populations at risk for malaria: a case study in cattle herders and agricultural workers in Northern Namibia

• Francois Rerolle 1 ,
• Jerry O. Jacobson 1 ,
• Cara Smith Gueye 1 ,
• Adam Bennett 1 ,
• Sidney Carrillo 1 ,
• Henry Ntuku 1 &
• Jennifer L. Smith 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  7160 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

• Epidemiology

Cattle herders and agricultural workers have been identified has key high-risk populations for malaria in northern Namibia. Population size estimates for these groups are lacking but are important for planning, monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of targeted strategies towards malaria elimination in the region. In this analysis, we extend population size estimation methods routinely used in HIV research, specifically social mapping and multiple source capture-recapture, to the context of malaria to estimate how many cattle herders and agricultural workers lived in two regions of northern Namibia over the course of the 2019–2020 malaria season. Both methods estimated two to three times more agricultural workers than cattle herders but size estimates based on the multiple source capture-recapture method were two to three times greater than the mapping-based, highlighting important methodological considerations to apply such methods to these highly mobile populations. In particular, we compared open versus closed populations assumptions for the capture-recapture method and assessed the impact of sensitivity analyses on the procedure to link records across multiple data sources on population size estimates. Our results are important for national control programs to target their resources and consider integrating routine population size estimation of high risk populations in their surveillance activities.

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Introduction

After years of steady decline, progress towards eliminating malaria has stalled across southern Africa and worldwide. Seasonal outbreaks of malaria in Namibia’s northern regions 1 since 2016 have highlighted a need to identify coverage gaps and improve delivery of effective interventions 2 . Previous case–control studies and formative research conducted in two northern provinces, Ohangwena and Zambezi, identified specific occupations and behaviors that define malaria high-risk populations (HRP), as well as key intervention gaps 3 , 4 . Groups with high mobility and outdoor exposure to mosquitos, including seasonal agricultural workers (AW) and cattle herders (CH), are particularly challenging to access through routine surveillance and intervention strategies, which primarily target resident communities at their households. In low endemicity settings such as present-day northern Namibia, HRPs are thought to have a role in sustaining transmission and tailoring prevention and treatment efforts to address gaps in coverage is crucial in order to reach malaria elimination 5 . Yet, the population size of these groups is unknown and due to their high mobility, challenging to estimate through conventional methods.

An estimate of the population size of these groups is an essential input for planning, scaling, monitoring interventions and assess their coverage but also to understand and model patterns of transmission 6 . Population size estimates (PSE) can also mobilize resources and political will to support equitable malaria control programs 6 . When malaria risk is widespread in a community, size estimation can be as straightforward as conducting a household census, but when risk becomes more focused among individuals with specific occupations and behaviors or those who are harder-to-reach, more nuanced and targeted strategies are needed. This is particularly true in contexts where the activity leading to increased exposure may be informal, illicit or stigmatized.

Multiple studies 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 and guidelines 6 focusing on PSE for HRP in the context of HIV exist, but to our knowledge, there are no such equivalents for malaria. Yet, the most accepted PSE methods in use today in the HIV context originally hail from other disciplines and could be readily extended to other infectious diseases, such as malaria. For example, the capture-recapture method was developed in wildlife ecology to study population sizes of animals 14 , while the multiplier method and social mapping and enumeration have long been employed throughout the social sciences. When transmission is clustered among high-risk subpopulations and particularly hard-to-reach populations, researchers have recommended including PSE studies as a part of malaria surveillance systems 15 , following similar guidance for HIV surveillance 16 , 17 .

In this study, we illustrate adapting social mapping and multiple source capture-recapture to the context of malaria HRPs to estimate the population size of cattle herders and agricultural workers in Zambezi and Ohangwena Regions, in northern Namibia. Along the way, we highlight important methodological considerations to link ascertainments of individuals across multiple data sources and account for HRP’s mobility, and discuss challenges and opportunities for the routine use of these approaches.

Study context and overall estimation approach

The PSE was planned as part of a quasi-experimental randomized controlled trial (NCT04094727; September 19, 2019) to evaluate the impact of a tailored package of interventions on malaria and coverage outcomes in agricultural workers and cattle herders in northern Namibia. The study was conducted over the 2019–2020 malaria season (November–June) in 8 health facility catchment areas (HFCA) across Zambezi and Ohangwena Regions, in northern Namibia (Fig.  1 ) where the total population was respectively 23,022 and 9995. The main trial comprised six components: (1) baseline mapping of worksites; (2) baseline worker survey; (3) delivery of malaria interventions in randomized HFCAs; (4) reactive case detection (RACD) at worksites; (5) endline mapping of worksites; (6) endline worker survey. These components differed for the two target populations and regions, as described below. Data collection to support size estimation was incorporated into each component from initial study conception. The mapping-based PSE drew on the baseline and endline mapping data; the multiple source capture-recapture PSE drew on the survey and intervention data. Table 1 lists the criteria to define high-risk agricultural workers and cattle herders in each survey.

Study area and study timeline. Top: study timeline with intervention and RACD conducted between baseline and endline mapping and workers surveys. Bottom: study area in where 8 HFCAs randomly allocated to an intervention or control arm. ESRI imagery from the leaflet R packages was used for the basemap.

Data sources

Baseline and endline mapping of worksites.

Mapping of worksites was conducted to generate a sampling frame for surveys and sites to target the intervention. Specifically, meetings were held with community health workers and community leaders in each region to develop a list of all farms and/or cattle posts that were thought to meet risk criteria. In Ohangwena, a veterinary services database was consulted to identify potential work sites; local leaders drew on this list and their knowledge of permits they had issued to cattle owners to authorize taking their cattle to and from Angola in order to limit the list to cattle posts where workers may engage in cross-border travel. Then, field teams conducted an interviewer-administered questionnaire with the owner or a manager at all worksites thus identified, with data collection by tablet. Data obtained included the number of workers expected to meet the high-risk population criteria defined in Table 1 , over the course of the malaria season (i.e., November–May).

Baseline and endline workers surveys

The baseline and endline worker surveys were conducted among workers at a random sample of the worksites identified by the mapping. The surveys were interviewer-administered with data collection by tablet. The baseline and endline surveys were conducted at the beginning (November–January) and end (May–June) of the malaria season, respectively. Eligibility criteria were similar to those used in the mapping, however with a narrower time period of reference for the risk activity (see Table 1 ).

Intervention

The interventions were rolled out in four randomly sampled HFCAs between baseline and endline, during February and March. They included provision of presumptive treatment with artemether-lumefantrine to workers at worksites, indoor residual spraying (IRS) of worksite structures, and provision of a vector control pack to workers in Zambezi who did not sleep in a sprayed structure. Interventions were delivered in coordination with employers, at visits conducted independently of baseline, endline, and RACD surveys. Intervention participants were screened for eligibility (See Table 1 ). A second planned intervention round was interrupted by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in April 2020 and discontinued when Namibia entered lockdown.

The study team visited worksites to screen and interview co-workers of malaria cases reported by health facilities. See Table 1 for eligibility criteria. RACD was conducted in both intervention and control areas from February 2020 to March 2020, when it was discontinued due to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

PSE method 1: social mapping

The mapping-based size estimates were calculated in three steps based on worker counts obtained from worksites owners. First, the retrospective count reported by owners at endline were summed across worksites, based on the question item, “How many total workers [meeting the respective risk criteria] did you have from November 2019 to May 2020?”.

Second, to account for workers at worksites no longer operational by the endline mapping, we calculated a total prospective count reported during baseline interviews at these sites, based on a question item on the number of workers expected to meet the risk criteria between November 2019 and June 2020, which was otherwise identical to the endline item. Then, this sum was corrected for potential projection error by accounting for how the prospective and retrospective worker counts differed at sites that were included in both the baseline and endline. Specifically, the sum was multiplied by the ratio of the endline total divided by the baseline total. Next, this corrected count was added to the sum across endline sites calculated in the first step.

Finally, the result of the above was corrected for potential double-counting of workers who had worked at multiple sites in the respective region during the period by dividing by a mobility factor, which was calculated as the mean number of worksites per worker, based on responses to the endline survey question item, “How many employers/worksites in the [study region] have you worked for between November 2019 and today?”. The mobility adjustment factors and their associated 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated for each region and, in Zambezi, separately for agricultural workers and cattle herders. Dividing each summed count by the respective mobility point estimate and its 95% CI limits produced the corresponding PSE point estimate and its 95% CI.

PSE method 2: multiple-source capture-recapture

The multiple source capture-recapture method draws on three or more statistically independent samples of the target population—all of which may be non-probability samples—and applies log-linear regression to estimate the population size based on patterns of overlap of individuals across these data sources or “captures” 18 , 19 . Here, four surveys—conducted at baseline, endline, during the intervention, and during RACD, respectively—served as the captures in each region.

Data management and record linkage

Birth place, birth order and three names variables (traditional, Christian and surname) were used to identify individuals across data sources. See appendix for details.

Records were linked using a flexible algorithm with a hierarchy of three different possible matching types:

Perfect match: same 3 names in any order, same birth place and same birth order

Excellent match: same 3 names in any order and same birth place or same birth order

Good match: two of the same names in any order, same birth place and same birth order

Record linkage was first carried out within surveys for de-duplication and then across datasets to create capture histories for all records. When necessary, better matches were favored (e.g., perfect over excellent matches).

Sensitivity analysis to optimize record linkage parameters

We conducted sensitivity analysis to identify the optimal parameter settings for the clustering algorithms that were used to standardize the names and birth places reported by survey participants, as a preliminary step before record linkage. The two clustering algorithms in OpenRefine 20 software were the n-gram fingerprint method (requiring a parameter n ) and the Levenshtein nearest-neighbor method (requiring a radius of 1, 2, 3, or 4 and a block character setting of 3 or 4). These parameters determine the flexibility of the clustering; stricter settings may fail to identify similar spellings of names that in fact represent the same individual whereas overly flexible ones may erroneously cluster together the names of different respondents.

We selected the optimal values of the three parameters by repeating the clustering and record linkage procedure under all 24 possible combinations of the settings. Then, we manually reviewed a random sample of 100 records for which linkage results differed across the 24 parameter scenarios and classified the performance under each setting as correct or incorrect. Based on these samples, we calculated sensitivity and specificity and plotted a ROC curve to identify the parameter settings that produced the most accurate record linkage.

Statistical analysis

We developed capture histories (i.e., counts of individuals exhibiting each possible pattern of presence or absence across the four surveys) from the linked data. The capture histories were then analyzed by log-linear regression models 18 using the RCapture 19 package in R statistical software 21 to produce the population size estimates. Models were developed under both closed- (i.e., no in- or out-migration) and open-population assumptions. The former allowed for heterogeneity in capture probabilities across surveys and across individuals.

Since the surveys and resulting model results reflect the intervention areas in each region, we applied an upweighting factor to extend the size estimates to control areas (where intervention surveys were not conducted) in the study area. Upweighting factors were calculated as the inverse of the proportion of baseline workers surveyed in intervention areas. Importantly, the baseline survey is assumed to be a representative sample of workers in the study areas and the relative proportion of workers in intervention versus control areas is assumed to be constant over the entire season.

This study was approved by Namibia’s Ministry of Health and Social Services (Approval #17/3/3HN), by the University of Namibia Research Ethics Committee (Approval #MRC/510/2019) and by the UCSF ethical review board (Approval #19-28530). The informed consent process was consistent with local norms, and all study areas had consultation meeting with, and approvals from, village elders. All participants provided informed written consent; caregivers provided consent for all children under 18. The study was conducted according to the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki of October 2002.

Social mapping PSE

In the Zambezi and Ohangwena regions respectively, 426 and 296 worksites were surveyed during both the baseline and endline mapping, with 1912 and 874 HRP workers projected to be employed over the season at baseline and 2353 and 731 HRPs reported to be employed over the season at endline. Therefore, projection factors applied to the prospective counts were 1.23 in Zambezi, where the sum total across sites at endline was greater than the total at baseline, and 0.84 in Ohangwena, where the situation was reversed.

Self reported levels of mobility of workers among worksites were modest. The mean number of worksites per worker from the endline survey was 1.07 [1.05; 1.08] for agricultural workers in Zambezi, 1.08 [1.05; 1.11] for cattle herders in Zambezi and 1.04 [1.02; 1.07] for cattle herders in Ohangwena. In Zambezi, 92.9% (N = 1121) of the 1207 endline survey participants reported working at one site and 7.1% (N = 86) had worked at two sites. In Ohangwena, 71.6% (N = 346) of 483 endline survey participants worked at one site, nine at two sites, and three at three sites, while 25.9% (N = 125) did not respond to the question item.

Table 2 shows the results from the mapping PSE. The calculation began with the number of workers reported in the endline mapping. Then, the number of workers projected in the baseline mapping worksites absent from the endline mapping, corrected by the projection factor, is added. Finally, the total is adjusted for mobility factors, yielding 724 [705; 745] cattle herders and 1914 [1896; 1950] agricultural workers in Zambezi and 725 [705; 739] cattle herders in Ohangwena.

Multiple source capture-recapture PSE

Record linkage.

Overall, response rates for the variables collected for purposes of record linkage (Table S1 ) were 90% or greater in the combined data across surveys and regions. Response rates were lower for Christian name in the Zambezi surveys (78–91%) and birth place and birth order in the RACD survey in Ohangwena (58%).

Varying standardization parameters in OpenRefine 20 led to 24 scenarios that linked differently 651 (13%) of the total 5067 respondents across records. Among the review sample of 100 (15%), sensitivity and specificity varied quite a bit across scenarios (Fig.  2 ), ranging from 29 to 91% and 21 to 96% respectively. Two scenarios closest to the top left corner of the figure stand out. The first one (n-gram = 2, chars = 3, radius = 2, top left orange point) reached very good sensitivity (81%) while maintaining excellent specificity (96%) and was adopted in our subsequent PSE analyses. The second one (n-gram = 2, chars = 3, radius = 3, top centered pink point) had better sensitivity (91%) but at the expense of specificity (63%).

ROC curve. Assessment of how sensitivity and specificity change across the different standardization scenarios, with varying clustering parameters in OpenRefine: n in the n-gram fingerprint method; radius and block chars in the Levenshtein nearest-neighbor method. Scenarios with n-gram = 3 produced almost indistinguishable results as n-gram = 2 and were therefore discarded from the plot.

We also confirmed the extent to which combinations of the identifying variables for the adopted standardization parameters scenario uniquely identified records in the baseline and endline surveys, since to be eligible an individual should not have participated previously. Indeed, in our adopted record linkage algorithm, there were only 2 (0.2%) duplicated records in Zambezi’s baseline survey, none in Ohangwena’s baseline survey and 1 duplicated record in both Ohangwena and Zambezi’s endline surveys, representing 0.2% and 0.08% of records in the respective data source.

In the baseline survey in Ohangwena, 240 cattle herders were interviewed in the intervention areas and 194 in the control areas, yielding an upweighting factor of 1.8 (= [240 + 194]/240). In Zambezi, the upweighting factor was 2.2 (= [769 + 923]/769) for agricultural workers and 1.8 (= [505 + 404]/505) for cattle herders.

In the baseline, intervention, RACD and endline surveys in the intervention areas across both regions, a total of 800, 1300, 83, and 823 HRPs were ascertained, respectively, with 1921 unique HRPs based on record linkage. The Venn diagram in Fig.  3 illustrates the capture histories identified. See Figures S1 , S2 and S3 in the appendix for similar Venn diagram stratified by region and high-risk groups.

Venn diagram. Illustration of overlap of individuals across the four captures: for instance, 318 HRPs were captured both in the baseline and intervention surveys but not in RACD or endline surveys.

Table 3 shows the results of the capture-recapture log-linear regression models, under closed- and open-population assumptions. Under the closed-population assumption, the best fitting model incorporated temporal and individual heterogeneity, allowing capture probabilities to vary both across surveys and workers (Mth models). Based on the AIC, the closed population model performed considerably better than open population models. In addition, the PSEs resulting from the open population models appear unsatisfactory as they are characterized either by an uninformative 95% CI (Ohangwena) or a point estimate only slightly above the total number of workers ascertained in surveys (upweighted to the study area). On the other hand, the open population model has the advantage of providing estimates of the baseline-intervention turnover rate, defined here as the probability a given worker leaves the area between baseline survey (November–January) and intervention (February–March). These turnover estimates were similar across population groups (13–20%) although non-significantly larger for cattle herders than agricultural workers in Zambezi.

Sensitivity analysis of record linkage parameters

We ran the same closed population models on capture histories data resulting from the record linkage under four scenarios that vary parameterization of the clustering algorithm used to standardize names in the unique identifier: the strictest (n-gram = 1, radius = 1, block chars = 4), the most flexible (n-gram = 2, radius = 4, block chars = 3), the best (n-gram = 2, radius = 2, block chars = 3), and the second-best scenario (n-gram = 2, radius = 3, block chars = 3). These correspond respectively to the bottom left blue triangle, the top right pink circle, the top left orange circle, and the top center pink circle on Fig.  2 . Figure  4 shows the ratio of the PSE obtained under each scenario relative to the strictest one (as the reference). The Delta method 22 was used to compute 95% CI.

Impacts of standardization scenarios on PSEs. Assessment of how PSEs are impacted by standardization scenarios, with varying clustering parameters in OpenRefine: n in the n-gram fingerprint method; radius and block chars in the Levenshtein nearest-neighbor method. The dashed vertical black line represents the null where the PSE equals the PSE from the strictest scenario.

Greater flexibility in the record linkage algorithm yielded more matches across surveys, hence resulting in a smaller PSE (ie PSE ratio less than one). In Zambezi, none of the ratios are statistically different from one, meaning the standardization parameters scenarios would have resulted in non-significantly different PSEs. In Zambezi, the biggest difference occurred for agricultural workers with a PSE 0.88 [0.63; 1.12] times smaller in the most flexible scenario compared to the strictest one, representing an absolute difference of (2106–1848 =) 258 workers. In Ohangwena on the other hand, the most flexible and second-best scenarios yielded PSEs statistically significantly lower than the strictest ones with PSE ratios of 0.70 [0.46; 0.94] and 0.72 [0.47; 0.97] respectively. In Ohangwena, the best scenario resulted in a PSE 0.80 [0.51; 1.08] times smaller than the strictest scenario, but this was not statistically significant.

In this study, we leveraged two PSE methods to estimate the total population size, in our study area and over the 2019–2020 malaria season (November–June), of two occupational groups that met risk criteria derived from previous research in northern Namibia: cattle herders and agricultural workers. Size estimates based on the multiple source capture-recapture method (Table 3 ) were two to three times greater than the mapping-based estimates (Table 2 ). Similar differences are common in HIV size estimation studies, where mapping-based estimates are generally viewed as a lower bound 6 , highlighting the need to triangulate PSE results over several methods. Here, work site owners may have intentionally or unintentionally omitted employees whereas the capture-recapture method may have produced a more complete count by drawing on intervention and RACD data in addition to worksite surveys. Both methods estimated two to three times more agricultural workers than cattle herders in Zambezi suggesting that the former group may be more critical to malaria elimination; however, this also depends on the relative infection prevalence, which we did not assess here.

Our results point towards several methodological considerations of assumptions used in closed and open population models used in capture-recapture methods. While model fit and face validity of size estimates resulting from our closed population models appeared superior to those from our open population models, there is no gold standard ‘truth’ to empirically determine which is best. The epidemiological literature tends to focus on closed-population models 23 because of short study time periods over which populations can assumed to be constant. Most prior literature on size estimates in high-risk populations derives from studies in the HIV context 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 where surveys and other data captures are planned to span a brief time frame of about 3–5 months, precisely to limit the risk of change in the population over the course of the study. When aiming to ascertain the total risk population over the course of a several-month malaria season, such a strategy becomes infeasible for highly mobile populations and determining whether the population is truly open or closed over the period is a challenge 24 . The open-population models naturally accommodate the phenomenon of individuals entering and exiting the risk group over time, but even the so-called “closed” model can do so by introducing interaction terms that model temporal variation in the ascertainment probabilities of survey instruments, as was done here. When one has the data available (i.e., at least three data sources) to apply the log-linear 18 , 25 , 26 regression model approach, comparing model fit under each scenario provides a way to assess the open versus closed assumptions.

A second methodological strength of this study that is new to PSE analyses was to vary record linkage scenarios, evaluate them and assess their impact on population size estimates. Capture-recapture methodology relies on the assumption that individuals can be tracked over different capture occasions. When it is not possible to collect a unique identifier, an object such as a study card 27 can be given or, more commonly, a combination of identifying variables (names, gender, places of birth, places of residence, etc.…) are used to uniquely identify individuals across capture occasions. Yet, the selection of these variables, their standardization and the matching algorithms used can vary a lot and subjective decisions are often made on based on face validity. Here, identifying variables (names, birth place and birth order) as well as the matching algorithm (perfect, excellent and good matches) were selected subjectively but we varied standardization parameters to cover 24 different record-linkage scenarios. Comparing them highlighted quite some variability in terms of sensibility and specificity although, and importantly, any of these scenarios would have met face validity. This sensitivity analysis enabled us to choose an appropriate standardization scenario and assess how picking a scenario affects the population size estimates. Figure  4 showed that these scenarios would have not resulted in statistically significantly different estimates in Zambezi but would have led to different results in Ohangwena. These findings highlight the need for thorough assessment and transparent reporting of the quality of any record linkage algorithm used for population size estimates.

A first limitation of our analysis is that eligibility criteria across survey sources (Table 1 ) are not identical and may have ascertained different segments of the high-risk populations. In particular, eligibility criteria in the baseline and endline surveys pertain to narrow windows of time around the date of interview. Yet, these surveys were conducted over multiple weeks which means that, even within one survey, the criteria captured individuals from slightly different populations. Second, unique identifiers were based on self-reported variables which could lead to mismatches, further exacerbated by possible variations in how questions were elicited by different interviewers or answered by participants. To mitigate these limitations, we looked for and picked the best record linkage scenarios for our context, but sensitivity (81%) and specificity (96%) were not perfect. Because some matches were potentially missed, our estimates, if anything, could be viewed as upper boundaries of population sizes. Finally, the mapping exercise revealed some fluctuation in the number of worksites open between baseline and endline. In particular, the coronavirus crisis erupted in March 2020 and may have affected the overall population size for that particular year, limiting the transportability of our results to other more “normal” malaria seasons.

In conclusion, this study estimated the population size of high-risk populations for malaria in two regions of Northern Namibia. The significance of our work is threefold. First, the numerical population size estimates of key high-risk populations for malaria transmission in northern Namibia are important for national programs to target their resources and plan the delivery of their control interventions accordingly. Second, our study showcases how population size estimation methods can be leveraged in malaria research and discusses major methodological considerations for applying capture-recapture PSE to malaria’s high-risk populations. Last, our analysis used data routinely collected by national malaria control programs and proofreads the feasibility of integrating regular population size estimations into their surveillance activities.

Data availability

The datasets used in the multiplier method are available and published along the submission as supplementary materials. The datasets for the capture recapture method are not publicly available and cannot be de-identified since the record linkage algorithm relies on identifying variables (names, age, birth place). We still publish along the submission the datasets post-record-linkage (24 different scenarios form sensitivity analyses) and our for maximum transparency.

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Funding was provided by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

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Francois Rerolle, Jerry O. Jacobson, Cara Smith Gueye, Adam Bennett, Sidney Carrillo, Henry Ntuku & Jennifer L. Smith

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F.R. and J.O.J. conducted the analyses. F.R., J.O.J. and J.L.S. designed the analysis and wrote the manuscript. C.S.G., A.B., S.C., H.N. and J.L.S. designed and conducted the parent trial. F.R. and J.O.J. conducted the analyses. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Rerolle, F., Jacobson, J.O., Smith Gueye, C. et al. Estimating the size of populations at risk for malaria: a case study in cattle herders and agricultural workers in Northern Namibia. Sci Rep 14 , 7160 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56810-y

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Received : 28 July 2023

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Published : 26 March 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56810-y

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