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How anxiety can affect speech patterns.

• Anxiety is overwhelming, and it is not surprising that it affects speech.
• We identify at least 5 different examples of how anxiety affects speech.
• Speech typically requires focus and concentration, two things anxiety affects.
• Some types of anxiety are directly related to anxiety while speaking.
• Some public speaking techniques can also help with anxiety-related speech problems, but addressing anxiety itself will still be most important.

Fact Checked

Micah Abraham, BSc

Last updated March 1, 2021

In many ways, anxiety is an overwhelming condition. It overwhelms your senses, it overwhelms your thoughts, and it overwhelms your body. That's why it should come as little surprise to anyone that is suffering from anxiety that it can affect your speech patterns as well.

Anxiety is often apparent in your voice, which is why people can sometimes tell when you're feeling nervous. In this article, we explore some of the ways that anxiety affects speech patterns and what you can do to stop it.

How Anxiety Affects Speech

Different forms of anxiety seem to affect speech in different ways. You should absolutely make sure that you're addressing your anxiety specifically.

Anxiety causes both physical and mental issues that can affect speech. These include:

• Shaky Voice Perhaps the most well-known speech issue is simply a shaky voice. When you're talking, it feels like your voice box is shaking along with the rest of your body (and it is). That can make it sound like it is cracking or vibrating, both of which are a sign to others that you're nervous.
• Quiet Voice Those with anxiety - especially social phobia - often find that they also have a hard time speaking up in public. This type of quietness is very common, and while not technically a speech pattern, it can make your entire voice and the way you speak sound different to others. Although many will think of this in terms of volume, talking down at your feet will also exacerbate the effect.
• Dry Throat/Loss of Voice Some people find that anxiety seems to dry out their throat, or cause them to feel as though they're losing their voice.. One possible reason is that anxiety can make acid reflux symptoms worse, and those with acid reflux do have a tendency to wake up with sore throat and a loss of voice. Anxiety also increases the activity of your nervous system; when your fight or flight response is activated your mouth will naturally produce less saliva as a natural side effect.
• Trouble Putting Thoughts to Words Not all of the speech pattern symptoms of anxiety are physical either. Some of them are mental. Anxiety can make it much harder to for you to think about the words you're going to say, which can cause you to step over yourself, forget words, replace words with incorrect words, and more. Speaking generally has to be natural to be clear, and when you overthink it's not uncommon to find the opposite effect.
• Stuttering Similarly, anxiety can create stuttering. Stuttering itself is a separate disorder that can be made worse by anxiety. But beyond that, those that are overthinking their own sentences and word choices often find they end up stuttering a considerable amount, which in turn can create this feeling of embarrassment.

These are only a few of the issues that anxiety has with speech and speech patterns. There are even those that are bilingual that find that when they have anxiety they mix up the languages. Anxiety can do some unusual things to the way you talk to others, and that means that your speech patterns are occasionally very different than you expect them to be.

Are There Ways to Overcome This Type of Anxiety Issue?

Changes in speech patterns can be embarrassing and very unusual for the person that is suffering from them. It's extremely important for you to address your anxiety if you want these speech issues to go away. Only by controlling your anxiety can you expect your ability to speak with others to improve.

That said, there are a few things that you can do now:

• Start Strong Those with anxiety have a tendency to start speaking quietly and hope that they find it easier to talk later. That rarely works. Ideally, try to start speaking loudly and confidently (even if you're faking it) from the moment you enter a room. That way you don't find yourself muttering as often or as easily.
• Look at Foreheads Some people find that looking others in the eyes causes further anxiety. Try looking at others in the forehead. To them it tends to look the same, and you won't have to deal with the stress of noticing someone's eye contact and gestures.
• Drink Water Keeping your throat hydrated and clear will reduce any unwanted sounds that may make you self-conscious. It's not necessarily a cure for your anxiety, but it will keep you from adding any extra stress that may contribute to further anxiousness.

These are some of the most basic ways to ensure that your anxiety affects your speech patterns less. But until you cure your anxiety, you're still going to overthink and have to consciously control your voice and confidence.  

Summary: Anxiety is a distracting condition, making it hard to speak. During periods of intense anxiety, adrenaline can also cause a shaky voice and panic attacks can take away the brain’s energy to talk – leading to slurs and stutters. Identifying the type of speech problem can help, but ultimately it is an anxiety issue that will need to be addressed with a long-term strategy. 

Questions? Comments?

Do you have a specific question that this article didn’t answered? Send us a message and we’ll answer it for you!

Where can I go to learn more about Jacobson’s relaxation technique and other similar methods? – Anonymous patient

You can ask your doctor for a referral to a psychologist or other mental health professional who uses relaxation techniques to help patients. Not all psychologists or other mental health professionals are knowledgeable about these techniques, though. Therapists often add their own “twist” to the technqiues. Training varies by the type of technique that they use. Some people also buy CDs and DVDs on progressive muscle relaxation and allow the audio to guide them through the process. – Timothy J. Legg, PhD, CRNP

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Difficulty Talking, Speaking, Moving Mouth and Tongue Anxiety Symptoms

Difficulty speaking and talking, or moving the mouth, tongue, or lips are common symptoms of anxiety disorder , including generalized anxiety disorder , social anxiety disorder , panic disorder , and others.

This article explains the relationship between anxiety and the difficulty talking symptom.

Difficulty speaking, talking, moving mouth, tongue, or lips anxiety symptoms descriptions:

• Having difficulty or unusual awkwardness speaking; pronouncing words, syllables, or vowels.
• Having difficulty moving your mouth, tongue, or lips.
• Suddenly become self-conscious of your problems talking, speaking, moving your mouth, tongue, or lips.
• Uncharacteristically slurring your speech.
• You are uncharacteristically speaking much slower or faster than normal.
• You are uncharacteristically jumbling up words or fumbling over your words when speaking.
• You find that your mouth, tongue, or lips aren’t moving the way they normally would.
• Your mouth, tongue, lips, or facial muscles aren’t responding the way they normally do.
• It can feel as if your face muscles are unusually stiff, which is making talking difficult and forced.
• It can feel as if your face has been anesthetized somewhat, making speaking or moving your mouth, tongue, or lips difficult.

This symptom is often described as “slurred speech.”

This symptom can persistently affect just the mouth, lips, or tongue only, can affect more than one at the same time, can shift from one to another, and can involve all of them over and over again.

Having difficulty speaking can come and go rarely, occur frequently, or persist indefinitely. For example, you might have difficulty speaking once in a while and not that often, have difficulty speaking or moving your mouth, tongue or lips off and on, or have difficulty all the time.

Difficulty speaking can precede, accompany, or follow an escalation of other anxiety sensations and symptoms, or occur by itself. It can also precede, accompany, or follow an episode of nervousness, anxiety, fear, and elevated stress, or occur “out of the blue” and for no apparent reason.

This symptom can range in intensity from slight, to moderate, to severe. It can also come in waves where these mouth and speaking symptoms are strong one moment and ease off the next.

This symptom can change from day to day and from moment to moment.

All of the above combinations and variations are common.

Difficulty speaking or moving your mouth, tongue, or lips can seem more troublesome when in social, professional, or public settings.

To see if anxiety might be playing a role in your anxiety symptoms, rate your level of anxiety using our free one-minute instant results Anxiety Test , Anxiety Disorder Test , or Hyperstimulation Test .

The higher the rating, the more likely it could be contributing to your anxiety symptoms, including having difficulty talking or moving your mouth, tongue, or lips.

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Why does anxiety cause difficulty speaking, talking, or moving your mouth, tongue, or lips?

Medical Advisory

When this symptom is caused by anxiety, there are many reasons why anxiety can cause this symptom. Here are two of the most common:

1. Stress response

Behaving anxiously activates the stress response , also known as the fight or flight response . The stress response causes body-wide changes that prepare the body for immediate emergency action.[ 1 ][ 2 ] Because of the many changes, stress responses stress the body.

A part of these changes include altering brain function so that our attention is primarily focused on danger detection and reaction, and stimulating the nervous system so that the body is energized and can react quickly.[ 2 ] These changes can affect muscle movements, including the muscles in the mouth, tongue, and lips.

Many people experience difficulty talking and moving their mouth, tongue, or lips when anxious and stressed.

2. Hyperstimulation

Hyperstimulation can keep the stress response changes active even though a stress response hasn’t been activated. Chronic difficulty speaking, talking, and co-ordination problems with the mouth, tongue, and lips are common symptoms of hyperstimulation.

There are many other reasons why anxiety can cause this symptom. We explain these additional reasons under the symptom “Difficulty Speaking” in the Symptoms section (chapter 9) in the Recovery Support area of our website. The Symptoms section lists and explains all of the symptoms associated with anxiety.

How to stop the difficulty talking and moving the mouth, tongue, or lips anxiety symptoms?

When this anxiety symptom is caused by apprehensive behavior and the accompanying stress response changes, calming yourself down will bring an end to the active stress response and its changes. As your body recovers from the active stress response, this anxiety symptom should subside. Keep in mind it can take up to 20 minutes or more for the body to recover from a major stress response. This is normal and shouldn’t be a cause for concern.

When difficulty speaking or moving your mouth, tongue, or lips is caused by chronic stress (hyperstimulation), such as from overly apprehensive behavior, it can take much longer for the body to calm down and recover, and to the point where this anxiety symptom subsides.

Nevertheless, since this symptom is a common symptom of anxiety and stress, it needn't be a cause for concern or worry. This symptom subsides when you’ve eliminated the active stress response or hyperstimulation.

As the body recovers, difficulty speaking and talking, or moving your mouth, tongue, and lips problems disappear and normal functioning returns.

Many of those who struggle with anxiety worry that MS, ALS, a brain tumor, or other neurological condition may be the cause of their symptoms. Checking on the Internet may cause more anxiety, since co-ordination problems are common symptoms of these medical conditions.

But again, these types of symptoms are common for anxiety and stress. Therefore, they needn’t be a cause for concern.

For a more detailed explanation about all anxiety symptoms, why symptoms can persist long after the stress response has ended, common barriers to recovery and symptom elimination, and more recovery strategies and tips, we have many chapters that address this information in the Recovery Support area of our website.

If you are having difficulty containing your worry, you might want to connect with one of our recommended anxiety disorder therapists to help you learn this important skill. Working with an experienced anxiety disorder therapist is the most effective way to overcome what seem like unmanageable worry and problems with anxiety.

Common Anxiety Symptoms

• Heart palpitations
• Dizziness, lightheadedness
• Muscle weakness
• Numbness, tingling
• Weakness, weak limbs
• Asthma and anxiety
• Shooting chest pains
• Trembling, shaking
• Depersonalization
• Chronic pain
• Chronic fatigue
• Muscle tension
• Lump in throat

Additional Resources

• For a comprehensive list of Anxiety Disorders Symptoms Signs, Types, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment.
• Anxiety and panic attacks symptoms  can be powerful experiences. Find out what they are and how to stop them.
• How to stop an anxiety attack and panic.
• Anxiety Test
• Anxiety Disorder Test
• Social Anxiety Test
• Generalized Anxiety Test
• Hyperstimulation Test
• Anxiety 101 is a summarized description of anxiety, anxiety disorder, and how to overcome it.

Return to our anxiety disorders signs and symptoms page.

anxietycentre.com: Information, support, and therapy for anxiety disorder and its symptoms, including Difficulty Talking, Speaking, Moving The Mouth Anxiety Symptoms.

1. Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York, NY, US: McGraw-Hill.

2. Folk, Jim and Folk, Marilyn. “ The Stress Response And Anxiety Symptoms. ” anxietycentre.com, August 2019.

3. Hannibal, Kara E., and Mark D. Bishop. “ Chronic Stress, Cortisol Dysfunction, and Pain: A Psychoneuroendocrine Rationale for Stress Management in Pain Rehabilitation. ” Advances in Pediatrics., U.S. National Library of Medicine, Dec. 2014.

4. Justice, Nicholas J., et al. “ Posttraumatic Stress Disorder-Like Induction Elevates β-Amyloid Levels, Which Directly Activates Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Neurons to Exacerbate Stress Responses. ” Journal of Neuroscience, Society for Neuroscience, 11 Feb. 2015.

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How to Manage Public Speaking Anxiety

Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of The Anxiety Workbook and founder of the website About Social Anxiety. She has a Master's degree in clinical psychology.

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

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Speech Anxiety and SAD

How to prepare for a speech.

Public speaking anxiety, also known as glossophobia , is one of the most commonly reported social fears.

While some people may feel nervous about giving a speech or presentation if you have social anxiety disorder (SAD) , public speaking anxiety may take over your life.

Public speaking anxiety may also be called speech anxiety or performance anxiety and is a type of social anxiety disorder (SAD). Social anxiety disorder, also sometimes referred to as social phobia, is one of the most common types of mental health conditions.

Public Speaking Anxiety Symptoms

Symptoms of public speaking anxiety are the same as those that occur for social anxiety disorder, but they only happen in the context of speaking in public.

If you live with public speaking anxiety, you may worry weeks or months in advance of a speech or presentation, and you probably have severe physical symptoms of anxiety during a speech, such as:

• Pounding heart
• Quivering voice
• Shortness of breath
• Upset stomach

Causes of Public Speaking Anxiety

These symptoms are a result of the fight or flight response —a rush of adrenaline that prepares you for danger. When there is no real physical threat, it can feel as though you have lost control of your body. This makes it very hard to do well during public speaking and may cause you to avoid situations in which you may have to speak in public.

How Is Public Speaking Anxiety Is Diagnosed

Public speaking anxiety may be diagnosed as SAD if it significantly interferes with your life. This fear of public speaking anxiety can cause problems such as:

• Changing courses at college to avoid a required oral presentation
• Changing jobs or careers
• Turning down promotions because of public speaking obligations
• Failing to give a speech when it would be appropriate (e.g., best man at a wedding)

If you have intense anxiety symptoms while speaking in public and your ability to live your life the way that you would like is affected by it, you may have SAD.

Public Speaking Anxiety Treatment

Fortunately, effective treatments for public speaking anxiety are avaible. Such treatment may involve medication, therapy, or a combination of the two.

Short-term therapy such as systematic desensitization and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can be helpful to learn how to manage anxiety symptoms and anxious thoughts that trigger them.

Ask your doctor for a referral to a therapist who can offer this type of therapy; in particular, it will be helpful if the therapist has experience in treating social anxiety and/or public speaking anxiety.

Research has also found that virtual reality (VR) therapy can also be an effective way to treat public speaking anxiety. One analysis found that students treated with VR therapy were able to experience positive benefits in as little as a week with between one and 12 sessions of VR therapy. The research also found that VR sessions were effective while being less invasive than in-person treatment sessions.

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If you live with public speaking anxiety that is causing you significant distress, ask your doctor about medication that can help. Short-term medications known as beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol) can be taken prior to a speech or presentation to block the symptoms of anxiety.

Other medications may also be prescribed for longer-term treatment of SAD, including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). When used in conjunction with therapy, you may find the medication helps to reduce your phobia of public speaking.

In addition to traditional treatment, there are several strategies that you can use to cope with speech anxiety and become better at public speaking in general . Public speaking is like any activity—better preparation equals better performance. Being better prepared will boost your confidence and make it easier to concentrate on delivering your message.

Even if you have SAD, with proper treatment and time invested in preparation, you can deliver a successful speech or presentation.

Pre-Performance Planning

Taking some steps to plan before you give a speech can help you better control feelings of anxiety. Before you give a speech or public performance:

• Choose a topic that interests you . If you are able, choose a topic that you are excited about. If you are not able to choose the topic, try using an approach to the topic that you find interesting. For example, you could tell a personal story that relates to the topic as a way to introduce your speech. This will ensure that you are engaged in your topic and motivated to research and prepare. When you present, others will feel your enthusiasm and be interested in what you have to say.
• Become familiar with the venue . Ideally, visit the conference room, classroom, auditorium, or banquet hall where you will be presenting before you give your speech. If possible, try practicing at least once in the environment that you will be speaking in. Being familiar with the venue and knowing where needed audio-visual components are ahead of time will mean one less thing to worry about at the time of your speech.
• Ask for accommodations . Accommodations are changes to your work environment that help you to manage your anxiety. This might mean asking for a podium, having a pitcher of ice water handy, bringing in audiovisual equipment, or even choosing to stay seated if appropriate. If you have been diagnosed with an anxiety disorder such as social anxiety disorder (SAD), you may be eligible for these through the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).
• Don’t script it . Have you ever sat through a speech where someone read from a prepared script word for word? You probably don’t recall much of what was said. Instead, prepare a list of key points on paper or notecards that you can refer to.
• Develop a routine . Put together a routine for managing anxiety on the day of a speech or presentation. This routine should help to put you in the proper frame of mind and allow you to maintain a relaxed state. An example might be exercising or practicing meditation on the morning of a speech.

Practice and Visualization

Even people who are comfortable speaking in public rehearse their speeches many times to get them right. Practicing your speech 10, 20, or even 30 times will give you confidence in your ability to deliver.

If your talk has a time limit, time yourself during practice runs and adjust your content as needed to fit within the time that you have. Lots of practice will help boost your self-confidence .

• Prepare for difficult questions . Before your presentation, try to anticipate hard questions and critical comments that might arise, and prepare responses ahead of time. Deal with a difficult audience member by paying them a compliment or finding something that you can agree on. Say something like, “Thanks for that important question” or “I really appreciate your comment.” Convey that you are open-minded and relaxed. If you don’t know how to answer the question, say you will look into it.
• Get some perspective . During a practice run, speak in front of a mirror or record yourself on a smartphone. Make note of how you appear and identify any nervous habits to avoid. This step is best done after you have received therapy or medication to manage your anxiety.
• Imagine yourself succeeding . Did you know your brain can’t tell the difference between an imagined activity and a real one? That is why elite athletes use visualization to improve athletic performance. As you practice your speech (remember 10, 20, or even 30 times!), imagine yourself wowing the audience with your amazing oratorical skills. Over time, what you imagine will be translated into what you are capable of.
• Learn to accept some anxiety . Even professional performers experience a bit of nervous excitement before a performance—in fact, most believe that a little anxiety actually makes you a better speaker. Learn to accept that you will always be a little anxious about giving a speech, but that it is normal and common to feel this way.

Setting Goals

Instead of trying to just scrape by, make it a personal goal to become an excellent public speaker. With proper treatment and lots of practice, you can become good at speaking in public. You might even end up enjoying it!

Put things into perspective. If you find that public speaking isn’t one of your strengths, remember that it is only one aspect of your life. We all have strengths in different areas. Instead, make it a goal simply to be more comfortable in front of an audience, so that public speaking anxiety doesn’t prevent you from achieving other goals in life.

A Word From Verywell

In the end, preparing well for a speech or presentation gives you confidence that you have done everything possible to succeed. Give yourself the tools and the ability to succeed, and be sure to include strategies for managing anxiety. These public-speaking tips should be used to complement traditional treatment methods for SAD, such as therapy and medication.

Crome E, Baillie A. Mild to severe social fears: Ranking types of feared social situations using item response theory . J Anxiety Disord . 2014;28(5):471-479. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.05.002

Pull CB. Current status of knowledge on public-speaking anxiety . Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2012;25(1):32-8. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32834e06dc

Goldstein DS. Adrenal responses to stress . Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2010;30(8):1433-40. doi:10.1007/s10571-010-9606-9

Anderson PL, Zimand E, Hodges LF, Rothbaum BO. Cognitive behavioral therapy for public-speaking anxiety using virtual reality for exposure . Depress Anxiety. 2005;22(3):156-8. doi:10.1002/da.20090

Hinojo-Lucena FJ, Aznar-Díaz I, Cáceres-Reche MP, Trujillo-Torres JM, Romero-Rodríguez JM. Virtual reality treatment for public speaking anxiety in students. advancements and results in personalized medicine .  J Pers Med . 2020;10(1):14. doi:10.3390/jpm10010014

Steenen SA, van Wijk AJ, van der Heijden GJ, van Westrhenen R, de Lange J, de Jongh A. Propranolol for the treatment of anxiety disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis . J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 2016;30(2):128-39. doi:10.1177/0269881115612236

By Arlin Cuncic, MA Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of The Anxiety Workbook and founder of the website About Social Anxiety. She has a Master's degree in clinical psychology.

Understanding and overcoming public speaking anxiety

Most of us might experience what is commonly known as stage fright or speaking anxiety, nervousness and stress experienced around speaking situations in front of audience members. Even for experienced speakers, this can be a normal response to pressurized situations in which we are the focus of attention—such as we might encounter in front of an audience. For some people, though, the fear of public speaking and nervous energy can be much more severe, and can be a sign of an anxiety disorder. 

Speaking anxiety is considered by many to be a common but challenging form of social anxiety disorder that can produce serious symptoms, and can possibly impact an individual’s social life, career, and emotional and physical well-being. 

In this article, we’ll explore what speaking anxiety is, common symptoms of it, and outline several tips for managing it.

Identifying public speaking anxiety: Definition, causes, and symptoms

According to the American Psychological Association,  public speaking anxiety  is the “fear of giving a speech or presentation in public because of the expectation of being negatively evaluated or humiliated by others”. 

Often associated with a lack of self-confidence, the disorder is generally marked by severe worry and nervousness, in addition to several physical symptoms. The fear can be felt by many, whether they are in the middle of a speech or whether they are planning to speak at a future point. They may also generally fear contact with others in informal settings.

Public speaking anxiety can be a common condition, with an with an  estimated prevalence of 15-30%  among the general population.

Public speaking anxiety is considered by many to be a form of social anxiety disorder (SAD). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM-V) includes a  performance specifier that allows a SAD diagnosis to relate specifically to anxiety surrounding public speaking or performing. For some extreme forms of this mental health condition, a medical professional may prescribe medication that can help overcome severe symptoms—although for most people this won’t be necessary.

The symptoms of performance-type social anxiety can include:

• Worry or fear surrounding public speaking opportunities or performing, even in front of friendly faces
• Avoiding situations in which public speaking or performing may be necessary
• Shaky voice, especially when one has to speak in public
• Stomach pain or gastrointestinal discomfort
• Rapid breathing

There are several strategies for addressing the symptoms of this and feeling more confident with your oratory skills, whether you need to use them at work, in formal social settings or simply in front of friends. 

The following are several strategies you can employ to address the fear of public speaking and manage your fear when it arises.

While the primary concern for those who experience speaking anxiety might typically be the fear of judgment or embarrassment when speaking publicly, there can be other causes contributing to distress. To figure out how to address this, it can help to understand potential contributing factors—as well as how others may be dealing with it on their own. 

First, it can be helpful to determine where the fear came from in the first place. Here are some  common sources of public speaking anxiety :

• Negative past experiences with public speaking
• Lack of preparedness
• Low self-esteem (this possible cause can cause feelings of overwhelm if one has to give a speech) 
• Inexperience with public speaking 
• Unfamiliar subject matter
• Newness of environment
• Fear of rejection (such as from an audience) 

Practice deep breathing

Public speaking anxiety might often be accompanied by feelings of stress, and also often affects physical factors such as increased speed of heart rate, tension, and rapid breathing. If you’re dealing with speaking anxiety and want to calm your nerves before a public speaking event, it can be helpful to practice deep breathing exercises. Deep breathing is considered by many to be a widely utilized technique  that can help bring your nervous system out of fight-or-flight mode, relax your body, and quiet your mind. Many find it to be one of the most convenient ways to manage symptoms, as many can do it anywhere as needed. 

To practice deep breathing prior to speaking, consider using a method called box breathing: breathe in for a four count, hold for a four-count, breathe out for a four count and hold again for a four count. You can repeat this process three to four times, possibly incorporating it with other relaxation techniques. It can also help to be mindful of your breathing as you’re presenting, which can help you steady your voice and calm your nerves.  

Practice visualization

When we experience nervousness, we can sometimes focus on negative thoughts and worst-case scenarios, despite the reality of the situation. You can work to avoid this by practicing positive visualization—such as imagining friendly faces in the crowd or you acing the main content of your speech. Positive thinking can be an effective technique for managing performance anxiety. 

Visualization is generally regarded as a  research-backed method of addressing speaking anxiety that involves imagining the way a successful scenario will progress in detail. 

Having a clear idea of how your presentation will go, even in your mind’s eye, can help you gain confidence and make you feel more comfortable with the task at hand.

Understand your subject matter 

The fear of speaking in front of others can be related to potential embarrassment that may occur if we make a mistake. To reduce the risk of this possibility, it can help to develop a solid understanding of the material you’ll be presenting or performing and visualize success. For example, if you’re presenting your department’s sales numbers at work, familiarizing yourself with the important points and going over them multiple times can help you better retain the information and feel more comfortable as you give the presentation. 

Set yourself up for success

Doing small things to prepare for a speech or performance can make a big difference in helping to alleviate public speaking anxiety. If possible, you may want to familiarize yourself with the location in which you’ll be speaking. It can also help to ensure any technology or other media you’ll be setting up is functional. For example, if you’re using visual aids or a PowerPoint deck, you might make sure it is being projected properly, the computer is charged and that you can easily navigate the slides as you present.

You might even conduct run-throughs of the presentation for your speaking experience. You can practice walking the exact route you’ll take to the podium, setting up any necessary materials, and then presenting the information within the time limit. Knowing how you’ll arrive, what the environment looks like and where exactly you’ll be speaking can set you up for success and help you feel more comfortable in the moment.

Practicing your presentation or performance is thought to be a key factor in reducing your fear of public speaking. You can use your  practice time  to recognize areas in which you may need improvement and those in which you excel as a speaker. 

For example, you might realize that you start rushing through your points instead of taking your time so that your audience can take in the information you’re presenting. Allowing yourself the chance to practice can help you get rid of any filler words that may come out during a presentation and make sure all your points are clear to keep the audience’s interest. Additionally, a practice run can help you to know when it is okay to pause for effect, take some deep breaths, or work effective body language such as points of eye contact into your presentation. 

It may also be helpful to practice speaking in smaller social situations, in front of someone you trust, or even a group of several familiar people. Research suggests that practicing in front of an audience of supportive, friendly faces can  improve your performance —and that the larger the mock audience is, the better the potential results may be. 

To do this, you can go through the process exactly like you would if they were real audience. Once you’re done, you can ask them for feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of your presentation. They may have insights you hadn’t considered and tips you can implement prior to presenting, as well as make you feel confident and relaxed about your material. 

Self-care leading up to the moment you’re speaking in public can go a long way in helping you reduce nervousness. Regular physical activity is generally considered to be one proven strategy for reducing social anxiety symptoms . Exercise can help to release stress and boost your mood. If you’re giving a big presentation or speech, it may be helpful to go for a walk or do some mild cardio in the morning. 

Additionally, eating a healthy diet and drinking enough water can also help promote a sense of well-being and calm. You may choose to be mindful of your consumption of caffeinated beverages, as caffeine may worsen anxiety. 

How online therapy can help

If you experience anxiety when you need to speak in front of other people and want additional support for your communication apprehension, it can help to talk to a licensed mental health professional. According to the American Psychiatric Association, a therapist can work with you to find effective ways to manage public speaking anxiety and feel more confident performing in front of others.

Is Online Therapy Effective?

Studies suggest that online therapy can help individuals who experience anxiety related to presenting or performing in public. In a study of 127 participants with social anxiety disorder, researchers found that online cognitive behavioral therapy was effective in treating the fear of public speaking , with positive outcomes that were sustained for a year post-treatment. The study also noted the increased convenience that can often be experienced by those who use online therapy platforms. 

Online therapy is regarded by many as a flexible and comfortable way of connecting with a licensed therapist to work through symptoms of social anxiety disorder or related mental disorders. With online therapy through  BetterHelp , you can participate in therapy remotely, which can be helpful if speaking anxiety makes connecting in person less desirable. 

BetterHelp works with thousands of mental health professionals—who have a variety of specialties—so you may be able to work with someone who can address your specific concerns about social anxiety.

Therapist reviews

“I had the pleasure of working with Ann for a few months, and she helped me so much with managing my social anxiety. She was always so positive and encouraging and helped me see all the good things about myself, which helped my self-confidence so much. I've been using all the tools and wisdom she gave me and have been able to manage my anxiety better now than ever before. Thank you Ann for helping me feel better!”

Brian has helped me immensely in the 5 months since I joined BetterHelp. I have noticed a change in my attitude, confidence, and communication skills as a result of our sessions. I feel like he is constantly giving me the tools I need to improve my overall well-being and personal contentment.”

If you are experiencing performance-type social anxiety disorder or feel nervous about public speaking, you may consider trying some of the tips detailed above—such as practicing with someone you trust, incorporating deep breathing techniques and visualizing positive thoughts and outcomes. 

If you’re considering seeking additional support with social anxiety disorder, online therapy can help. With the right support, you can work through anxiety symptoms, further develop your oratory skills and feel more confidence speaking in a variety of forums.  

Studies suggest that online therapy can help individuals who experience nervousness related to presenting or speaking in public. In a study of 127 participants with social anxiety disorder, researchers found that online cognitive behavioral therapy was effective in treating the fear of public speaking , with positive outcomes that were sustained for a year post-treatment. The study also noted the increased convenience that can often be experienced by those who use online therapy platforms.

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PUBLIC SPEAKING ANXIETY

The fear of public speaking is the most common phobia ahead of death, spiders, or heights. The National Institute of Mental Health reports that public speaking anxiety, or glossophobia, affects about 40%* of the population. The underlying fear is judgment or negative evaluation by others. Public speaking anxiety is considered a social anxiety disorder. * Gallup News Service, Geoffrey Brewer, March 19, 2001.

The fear of public speaking is worse than the fear of death

Evolution psychologists believe there are primordial roots. Our prehistoric ancestors were vulnerable to large animals and harsh elements. Living in a tribe was a basic survival skill. Rejection from the group led to death. Speaking to an audience makes us vulnerable to rejection, much like our ancestors’ fear.

A common fear in public speaking is the brain freeze. The prospect of having an audience’s attention while standing in silence feels like judgment and rejection.

Why the brain freezes

The pre-frontal lobes of our brain sort our memories and is sensitive to anxiety. Dr. Michael DeGeorgia of Case Western University Hospitals, says: “If your brain starts to freeze up, you get more stressed and the stress hormones go even higher. That shuts down the frontal lobe and disconnects it from the rest of the brain. It makes it even harder to retrieve those memories.”

The fight or flight response activates complex bodily changes to protect us. A threat to our safety requires immediate action. We need to respond without debating whether to jump out of the way of on oncoming car while in an intersection. Speaking to a crowd isn’t life threatening. The threat area of the brain can’t distinguish between these threats.

Help for public speaking anxiety

We want our brains to be alert to danger. The worry of having a brain freeze increases our anxiety. Ironically, it increases the likelihood of our mind’s going blank as Dr. DeGeorgia described. We need to recognize that the fear of brain freezing isn’t a life-or-death threat like a car barreling towards us while in a crosswalk.

Change how we think about our mind going blank.

De-catastrophize brain freezes . It might feel horrible if it happens in the moment. The audience will usually forget about it quickly. Most people are focused on themselves. We’ve handled more difficult and challenging situations before. The long-term consequence of this incident is minimal.

Leave it there . Don’t dwell on the negative aspects of the incidents. Focus on what we can learn from it. Worry that it will happen again will become self-fulfilling. Don’t avoid opportunities to create a more positive memory.

Perfectionism won’t help . Setting unachievable standards of delivering an unblemished speech increases anxiety. A perfect speech isn’t possible. We should aim to do our best instead of perfect.

Silence is gold . Get comfortable with silence by practicing it in conversations. What feels like an eternity to us may not feel that way to the audience. Silence is not bad. Let’s practice tolerating the discomfort that comes with elongated pauses.

Avoidance reinforces . Avoiding what frightens us makes it bigger in our mind. We miss out on the opportunity to obtain disconfirming information about the trigger.

Rehearse to increase confidence

Practice but don’t memorize . There’s no disputing that preparation will build confidence. Memorizing speeches will mislead us into thinking there is only one way to deliver an idea. Forgetting a phrase or sentence throw us off and hastens the brain freeze. Memorizing provides a false sense of security.

Practice with written notes. Writing out the speech may help formulate ideas. Practice speaking extemporaneously using bullet points to keep us on track.

Practice the flow of the presentation . Practice focusing on the message that’s delivered instead of the precise words to use. We want to internalize the flow of the speech and remember the key points.

Practice recovering from a brain freeze . Practice recovery strategies by purposely stopping the talk and shifting attention to elsewhere. Then, refer to notes to find where we left off. Look ahead to the next point and decide what we’d like to say next. Finally, we’ll find someone in the audience to start talking to and begin speaking.

Be prepared for the worst . If we know what to do in the worst-case scenario (and practice it), we’ll have confidence in our ability to handle it. We do that by preparing what to say to the audience if our mind goes blank. Visualizing successful recovery of the worst will help us figure out what needs to be done to get back on track.

Learn to relax

Remember to breathe . We can reduce anxiety by breathing differently. Take slow inhalations and even slower exhalations with brief pauses in between. We’ll be more likely to use this technique if practiced in times of low stress.

Speak slowly . It’s natural to speed up our speech when we are anxious. Practice slowing speech while rehearsing. When we talk quickly, our brain sees it is a threat. Speaking slowly and calmly gives the opposite message to our brain.

Make eye contact with the audience . Our nerves might tell us to avoid eye contact. Making deliberate eye contact with a friendly face will build confidence and slow our speaking.

Join a group . Practice builds confident in public speaking. Groups like Toastmasters International provide peer support to hone our public speaking skill. Repeated exposure allows us to develop new beliefs about our fear and ability to speak in public.

The fear of our mind going blank during a speech is common. Job advancement or college degree completion may be hampered by not addressing this fear.

How to Get Help for Social Anxiety

The National Social Anxiety Center (NSAC) is an association of independent Regional Clinics and Associates throughout the United States with certified cognitive-behavioral therapists (CBT) specializing in social anxiety and other anxiety-related problems.

Find an NSAC Regional Clinic or Associate which is licensed to help people in the state where you are located.

Places where nsac regional clinics and associates are based.

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Mini review article, speech anxiety in the communication classroom during the covid-19 pandemic: supporting student success.

• The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States

A wealth of literature clearly supports the presence of speech anxiety in the communication classroom, especially in those classes with a focus on public speaking and/or presentations. Over the years, much work has been done on intentional approaches to empowering students to effectively manage their speech anxiety in face-to-face, hybrid, and online communication courses. These research-based findings have led to best practices and strong pedagogical approaches that create a supportive classroom culture and foster engaged learning. Then COVID-19 appeared, and things changed. In an effort to keep campuses safe and save the spring semester, everyone jumped online. Many instructors and students were experiencing online education for the first time and, understandably, anxiety exploded. Between the uncertainty of a global pandemic, the unchartered territory of a midterm pivot to fully online education, and the unknown effects of the situation on our educational system, our stress levels grew. Public speaking and presentations took on new meaning with Zoom sessions and webcams and our speech anxiety, undoubtedly, grew, as well. Reflecting upon the scholarship of the past with an appreciation of our present situation and looking toward the future, we will curate a list of best practices to prepare students to effectively manage their speech anxiety with agency, ability, and confidence.

Introduction

It is impossible for Isabella to catch her breath. Her pulse is racing, she is flushed, and her thoughts are a jumbled mess. She is desperately trying to remember her plan, slow her breathing and visualize success but it is impossible to do anything but panic. She is convinced she will embarrass herself and fail her assignment. Why had she postponed taking her public speaking class? Yes, it would have been bad in a “normal” term but now, amidst the coronavirus pandemic, she had to take the class online. Though it seems unimaginable that the class could be more terrifying, add Zoom sessions, internet connection issues, and little engagement with her teacher or classmate and Isabella’s out of control speech anxiety is completely understandable . If you have been in a college classroom, most likely, you have had to deliver a presentation, lead a discussion, or share a poster presentation. If so, you know what speech anxiety is like. Most of us have experienced the racing heart rate, difficulty concentrating and sensory overload characteristic of speech anxiety ( Dwyer, 2012 ). For some of us, like Isabella, the speech anxiety is almost debilitating. Even if you are one of the rare people who does not experience speech anxiety, you probably witnessed your classmates struggle with the stress, worry and insecurity caused by speech anxiety. It was prevalent before the arrival of COVID-19 and now with the stressors associated with the pandemic, virtual learning, and social distancing it will most likely increase. Fortunately, we have the research, resources, and resolve to intentionally craft classroom culture that will support communication success.

Meeting the Challenges of COVID-19

In the early spring of 2020, the coronavirus pandemic arrived in the United States, and required an unprecedented mid-term pivot. Classes rapidly moved from face-to-face instruction to online platforms in days. Teachers who had never taught online were learning while teaching, managing that additional workload while trying to stay connected with students who were worried and often overwhelmed. In addition to the public and personal health concerns of the virus, there were worries about online learning, the economy, and mental health. The bright spot was that in so many classes, the connections had been established before the pivot and so teachers and students were able to engage with familiar people in new ways. It was not an ideal situation but there was a sense that we were all in this together.

The fall of 2020 found many institutions of higher education and their faculty, staff, and students once again engaged in online instruction and it looks like it will be that way for the near future. We were faced with the new challenge of creating supportive and engaging class spaces completely virtual (in many cases) or in hybrid form with some classes combining online coursework with limited in-person instruction. Experience taught us that our students were speech anxious and that we needed to intentionally design safe and engaging spaces to support their success even before the arrival of COVID-19. Our challenge was to adopt a new skillset and look to the online learning community for resources, suggestions, and best practices.

Pandemic Pedagogy

Articles and emerging research on the response to the pandemic at the institutional, classroom, and individual level provide a glimpse into how we can craft virtual classroom spaces that support learning while meeting the needs created by COVID-19. Common themes for solid pandemic pedagogy include a focus on student mental health and well-being ( Gigliotti, 2020 ; Burke, 2021 ), an appreciation of technology challenges and access issues ( Turner et al., 2020 ; Burke, 2021 ; Singh, 2021 ), and a commitment to engaged teaching and learning ( Turner et al., 2020 ; Jenkins, 2021 ; Lederman, 2021 ). The fundamentals of good teaching are the same regardless of the modality and the foundational pedagogical practices are also similar, yet the primary difference is that solid online education has been designed for a virtual modality, not adapted to fit it (Kelly and Westerman, 2016 ). How can we craft safe and supportive online and virtual spaces for students to find, develop, and then actively share? A good place to start is with wayfinding which can “reinforce ways of knowing and problem solving,” ( Petroski and Rogers, 2020 , p. 125). Wayfinding supports efficacy and empowerment while meeting the challenges of pandemic pedagogy and can be incorporated into online communication classes to reduce speech anxiety and build classroom culture.

Speech Anxiety

The fear of public speaking, known as glossophobia, is a common and real form of anxiety ( Sawchuk, 2017 ) affecting as much as 75% of the population ( Black, 2019 ). In the scholarly literature, it is usually referred to as communication anxiety, communication apprehension, or communication avoidance ( Richmond and McCroskey, 1998 ). In more popular sources, such as Harvard Management Communication Letter, it has been called stage fright ( Daly and Engleberg, 1999 ) and speech anxiety ( Getting over speech anxiety, 2001 ). In this work, we will refer to it as speech anxiety as that term most closely targets the experience we are exploring.

Regardless of the label, it is our innate survival mode of flight, fight, or flee in the face of imminent (real or perceived) danger ( Thomas, 1997 ; Dwyer, 1998 ). Our mind feels a threat from a public speaking situation and our body responds accordingly. Common symptoms can include increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing; excessive perspiration, skin flush or blush; shaky voice; trembling hands and feet; or dry mouth and nausea ( Thomas, 1997 ; Dwyer, 1998 ; Black, 2019 ).

There are many tips and techniques that can help those with speech anxiety manage their symptoms and communicate effectively across a variety of modalities. Some common strategies include relaxation, visualization, cognitive restructuring, and skills training ( Motley, 1997 ; Thomas, 1997 ; Richmond and McCroskey, 1998 ; Dwyer, 2012 ).

(1) Typical relaxation tips can include mindfulness, deep breathing, yoga, listening to music, and taking long walks,

(2) Visualization involves inviting the speaker to imagine positive outcomes like connecting with their audience, making an impact, and sharing their presentation effectively ( Thomas, 1997 ; Dwyer, 1998 ). It replaces much of the negative self-talk that tends to occur before a speech opportunity and increases our anxiety.

(3) Cognitive restructuring is a more advanced technique with the goal “to help you modify or change your thinking in order to change your nervous feelings,” ( Dwyer, 2012 , p. 93). In essence, it involves replacing negative expectations and anxious feelings about public speaking opportunities with more positive and self-affirming statements and outlooks.

(4) Skills training is what we do in our classrooms and during professional workshops and trainings. It can include exploring speech anxiety and discussing how common it is as well as ways to effectively manage it ( Dwyer, 2012 ). It also involves analysis of the component parts, such as delivery and content ( Motley, 1997 ) practicing and delivering speeches in low stakes assignments, collaborating with classmates, and engaging in active listening ( Simonds and Cooper, 2011 ).

Ideally, solid skills training introduces the other techniques and encourages individuals to experiment and discover what works best for them. There is no one-size-fits-all solution to speech anxiety.

Classroom Culture

According to the Point to Point Education website, “Classroom culture involves creating an environment where students feel safe and free to be involved. It’s a space where everyone should feel accepted and included in everything. Students should be comfortable with sharing how they feel, and teachers should be willing to take it in to help improve learning,” ( Point to Point Education, 2018 , paragraph 2). Regardless of subject matter, class size, format, or modality, all college classes need a supportive and engaging climate to succeed ( Simonds and Cooper, 2011 ). Yet having a classroom culture that is supportive and conducive to lowering anxiety is especially critical in public speaking courses ( Stewart and Tassie, 2011 ; Hunter et al., 2014 ). Faculty are expected to engage and connect with students and do so in intentional, innovative, and impactful ways. These can be simple practices, like getting to know students quickly and referring to them by their preferred name, such as a middle name or shortened first name ( Dannels, 2015 ), or more elaborate practices like incorporating active learning activities and GIFTS (Great Ideas for Teaching Students) throughout the curriculum ( Seiter et al., 2018 ). We want to create a positive and empowering classroom climate that offers equitable opportunities for all students to succeed. As educators, we can infuse empathy, spontaneity, and equality into our pedagogy while being mindful of different learning styles and committed to supporting diversity and inclusion ( Simonds and Cooper, 2011 ; Dannels, 2015 ). Furthermore, our communication classrooms need to be intentional spaces where challenges, such as anxiety disorders, mental health issues, learning disabilities and processing issues, are supported and accommodated ( Simonds and Hooker, 2018 ).

Ideally, we want to cultivate a classroom culture of inquiry, success, and connection. We also want to foster immediacy, the “verbal and nonverbal communication behaviors that enhance physical and psychological closeness,” ( Simonds and Cooper, 2011 , p. 32). Multiple studies support that teachers who demonstrate immediate behaviors are regarded as more positive, receptive to students, and friendly ( Simonds and Cooper, 2011 ). As teachers and scholars, we want to make a positive impact. Dannels (2015) writes that “teaching is heart work,” (p. 197) and she is right. It demands an investment of our authentic selves to craft a climate of safety and support where comfort zones are expanded, challenges are met, and goals are reached.

Educators need to be mindful of and responsive to the challenges COVID-19 presents to the health and well-being of our students, colleagues, and communities. In May of 2020, the National Communication Association (NCA) devoted an entire issue of its magazine to “Communication and Mental Health on campus 2020,” ( Communication and mental health on campus, 2020 ) highlighting the importance of this issue in our communication education spaces. Suggestions included learning more about mental health issues, engaging in thoughtful conversations, listening intentionally and actively, promoting well-being, and serving as an advocate and ally ( Communication and mental health on campus, 2020 ).

Scholarship about instructional communication, computer mediated communication and online education ( Kelly and Fall, 2011 ) offers valuable insights into effective practices and adaptations as we intentionally craft engaging and supportive spaces, so our students feel empowered to use their voice and share their story, even those with high speech anxiety. Instructional communication scholars focus on the effective communication skills and strategies that promote and support student success and an engaged learning environment ( Simonds and Cooper, 2011 ).

General strategies to teach effectively during the pandemic can be helpful and easily adaptable to our public speaking classrooms. Being flexible with assignments, deadlines and attendance can support student success and well-being as can creativity, engagement activities, and appealing to different learning styles and strengths ( Mahmood, 2020 ; Singh, 2021 ). It seems everyone is presenting virtually now, not just in our communication classrooms and that can take some getting used to. Educators can model and promote effective communication by being conversational and engaging and empathizing with the many challenges everyone is facing ( Gersham, 2020 ; Gigliotti, 2020 ; Jenkins, 2021 ; Singh, 2021 ).

This is also a great opportunity to innovate and cultivate a new classroom climate looking at communication in a new way for a new, digital age. During this time of change we can harness opportunities and encourage our students to develop the skillsets needed to communicate effectively during COVID-19 and after. Preparing them as digital communicators with a focus on transferable and applicable skills would help them in other classes and the job market ( Ward, 2016 ). Innovations to our courses, assessment tools, and learning outcomes can all happen now, too ( Ward, 2016 ). This is the time to innovate our course experiences across all modalities, reinvent what public speaking means in the modern, digital age and intentionally craft learning spaces for all students in which speech anxiety is intentionally addressed and effectively managed.

Best Practices

(1) Be flexible, as a matter of practice not exception. Speech anxiety was experienced by most students to some degree and was debilitating for some pre-pandemic and adds another layer of stress for students who are capable and resilient yet dealing with a lot. Podcasts are a common communication medium and may ease the anxiety of some students while highlighting the importance of word choice, rate, and tone. They also involve less bandwidth and technology and may be easier for many students to create.

(2) Reframe communication as a skill of the many, not just the few. Highly speech anxious students tend to believe they are the only ones who have a fear of presenting and only certain, confident individuals can present well. Neither of these are true. If we reframe presentations as conversations, demystify speech anxiety by discussing how common it is, and empower our students with the knowledge that they can effectively communicate, we can reduce anxiety, build confidence, and develop important skills that transcend disciplines and promote self-efficacy.

(3) Build a community of support and success. When we see our students as individuals, celebrate connection and collaboration, and actively engage to learn and grow, we co-create an impactful and empowering space that supports success not by being rigid and demanding but by being innovative, intentional, and inspiring.

Author Contributions

I am thrilled to contribute to this project and explore ways we can empower our students to effectively manage their speech anxiety and share their stories.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: speech anxiety, public speaking anxiety, instructional communication, communication pedagogy, Best Practices

Citation: Prentiss S (2021) Speech Anxiety in the Communication Classroom During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Supporting Student Success. Front. Commun. 6:642109. doi: 10.3389/fcomm.2021.642109

Received: 15 December 2020; Accepted: 08 February 2021; Published: 12 April 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Prentiss. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Suzy Prentiss, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Cultural Changes in Instructional Practices Due to Covid-19

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Fear of public speaking: how can i overcome it, how can i overcome my fear of public speaking.

Fear of public speaking is a common form of anxiety. It can range from slight nervousness to paralyzing fear and panic. Many people with this fear avoid public speaking situations altogether, or they suffer through them with shaking hands and a quavering voice. But with preparation and persistence, you can overcome your fear.

These steps may help:

• Know your topic. The better you understand what you're talking about — and the more you care about the topic — the less likely you'll make a mistake or get off track. And if you do get lost, you'll be able to recover quickly. Take some time to consider what questions the audience may ask and have your responses ready.
• Get organized. Ahead of time, carefully plan out the information you want to present, including any props, audio or visual aids. The more organized you are, the less nervous you'll be. Use an outline on a small card to stay on track. If possible, visit the place where you'll be speaking and review available equipment before your presentation.
• Practice, and then practice some more. Practice your complete presentation several times. Do it for some people you're comfortable with and ask for feedback. It may also be helpful to practice with a few people with whom you're less familiar. Consider making a video of your presentation so you can watch it and see opportunities for improvement.
• Challenge specific worries. When you're afraid of something, you may overestimate the likelihood of bad things happening. List your specific worries. Then directly challenge them by identifying probable and alternative outcomes and any objective evidence that supports each worry or the likelihood that your feared outcomes will happen.
• Visualize your success. Imagine that your presentation will go well. Positive thoughts can help decrease some of your negativity about your social performance and relieve some anxiety.
• Do some deep breathing. This can be very calming. Take two or more deep, slow breaths before you get up to the podium and during your speech.
• Focus on your material, not on your audience. People mainly pay attention to new information — not how it's presented. They may not notice your nervousness. If audience members do notice that you're nervous, they may root for you and want your presentation to be a success.
• Don't fear a moment of silence. If you lose track of what you're saying or start to feel nervous and your mind goes blank, it may seem like you've been silent for an eternity. In reality, it's probably only a few seconds. Even if it's longer, it's likely your audience won't mind a pause to consider what you've been saying. Just take a few slow, deep breaths.
• Recognize your success. After your speech or presentation, give yourself a pat on the back. It may not have been perfect, but chances are you're far more critical of yourself than your audience is. See if any of your specific worries actually occurred. Everyone makes mistakes. Look at any mistakes you made as an opportunity to improve your skills.
• Get support. Join a group that offers support for people who have difficulty with public speaking. One effective resource is Toastmasters, a nonprofit organization with local chapters that focuses on training people in speaking and leadership skills.

If you can't overcome your fear with practice alone, consider seeking professional help. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a skills-based approach that can be a successful treatment for reducing fear of public speaking.

As another option, your doctor may prescribe a calming medication that you take before public speaking. If your doctor prescribes a medication, try it before your speaking engagement to see how it affects you.

Nervousness or anxiety in certain situations is normal, and public speaking is no exception. Known as performance anxiety, other examples include stage fright, test anxiety and writer's block. But people with severe performance anxiety that includes significant anxiety in other social situations may have social anxiety disorder (also called social phobia). Social anxiety disorder may require cognitive behavioral therapy, medications or a combination of the two.

Craig N. Sawchuk, Ph.D., L.P.

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• Social anxiety disorder (social phobia). In: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-5. 5th ed. Arlington, Va.: American Psychiatric Association, 2013. http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org. Accessed April 18, 2017.
• 90 tips from Toastmasters. Toastmasters International. https://www.toastmasters.org/About/90th-Anniversary/90-Tips. Accessed April 18, 2017.
• Stein MB, et al. Approach to treating social anxiety disorder in adults. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed April 18, 2017.
• How to keep fear of public speaking at bay. American Psychological Association. http://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/02/tips-sidebar.aspx. Accessed April 18, 2017.
• Jackson B, et al. Re-thinking anxiety: Using inoculation messages to reduce and reinterpret public speaking fears. PLOS One. 2017;12:e0169972.
• Sawchuk CN (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. April 24, 2017.

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Chapter 1: The Speech Communication Process

Speech Anxiety

What is it.

Speech anxiety is best defined as the nervousness that a speaker feels before and/or during a presentation.  Sweating palms, a shaky voice, a dry throat, difficulty breathing, and even memory loss are all common symptoms of anxiety. The symptoms you, as an individual, will feel are hard to predict. But it helps if you remember that nearly every speaker has experienced some degree of speech anxiety. Even professional speakers occasionally feel a small amount of apprehension at times. Anxiety levels vary. Some speakers will report little to no anxiety while speaking; others will confess that they are petrified at the thought of speaking in public. Jerry Seinfeld used to joke that “at a funeral, the average person would rather be in the casket than giving the eulogy. ” Now that is fear!

Why Anxiety and Public Speaking?

Scholars at the University of Wisconsin-Stout (“Public Speaking Anxiety,” 2015) explain that anxiety in public speaking can result from one of several misperceptions:

•  “all or nothing” thinking—a mindset that if your speech falls short of “perfection” (an unrealistic standard), then you are a failure as a public speaker;

•     overgeneralization—believing that a single event (such as failing at a task) is a universal or “always” event; and

•     fortune telling—the tendency to anticipate that things will turn out badly, no matter how much practice or rehearsal is done.

Likewise, many new college students operate under the false belief that intelligence and skill are “fixed.” In their minds, a person is either smart or skilled in something, or they are not. Some students apply this false belief to math and science subjects, saying things like “I’m just no good at math and I never will be,” or even worse, “I guess I am just not smart enough to be in college.” As you can tell, these beliefs can sabotage someone’s college career. Also unfortunately, the same kind of false beliefs are applied to public speaking, and people conclude that because public speaking is hard, they are just not “naturally good” at it and have no inborn skill. They give up on improving and avoid public speaking at all costs.

There is more to Dr. Dweck’s research. We would recommend her book Mindset . Many students enter a public speaking class thinking “I’m just no good at this and never will be,” just like some students feel about college algebra or science. Dr. Dweck and other learning psychologists show that learning a new skill might be hard work, but the difficulty is not a sign that learning is impossible. Modern research by Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweck (2007) and others shows that intelligence and related skills are “malleable,” meaning that they are open to change and growth. Understanding and accepting that your intelligence and skill in different areas is not fixed or “stuck,” but open to growth, will have a significant influence on your success in life. It will also help you see that just because learning a subject or task is hard does not mean you are not or cannot be good at it. Obstacles and barriers that make learning hard are opportunities for growth, not “getting off places.”

Along with the wrong way of thinking about one’s learning and growth, two other fears contribute to anxiety in public speaking. The first is fear of failure. This fear can result from several sources: real or perceived bad experiences involving public speaking in the past, lack of preparation, lack of knowledge about public speaking, not knowing the context, and uncertainty about one’s task as a public speaker (such as being thrown into a situation at the last minute).

It is not the goal of this book to belittle that fear. It is real and justified to some extent because you might lack understanding of the public speaking task or lack good speaking experiences upon which to build. One of the goals and fringe benefits of this course is that you are not just going to learn about public speaking, but you are going to do it—at least four or five times—with a real audience. You will overcome some of your fears and feel that you have accomplished something of personal benefit.

The second fear is fear of rejection of one’s self or one’s ideas. This one is more serious in some respects. You may feel rejection because of fear of failure, or you may feel that the audience will reject your ideas, or worse, you as a person. Knowing how to approach the public speaking task and explain your ideas can help. However, you should ask yourself deep and probing questions as to why you believe that your audience will reject you because this fear is rooted in a belief. You should ask yourself what possibly false belief is causing your anxiety.

One of the core attitudes an effective and ethical public speaker must have is respect for and empathy with the audience. Your audience in this class is your peers who want to learn and want to get through the class success- fully (just like you do). Your audience also includes your instructor who wants to see you succeed in the course as well. Believe me, public speaking teachers get a lot of pleasure from hearing successful student speeches!

Your audience wants you to succeed if for no other reason than a good speech is much easier and pleasant to listen to than a poor one. Again, gaining practice in this class with a real, live audience can help you work through the roots of your fear of rejection.

Beyond dealing with the root fears that may cause you to have a “fright or flight” response when it comes to public speaking, there are some practical answers to dealing with fears about public speaking. Of course, fear responses can be reduced if you know how public speaking works, as you will see throughout this textbook. But there are some other strategies, and most of them have to do with preparation.

How Do I Overcome My Fear?

There are many reasons why a speaker might feel anxious, but there are several steps you can take to reduce your anxiety. First, remember that everyone has experienced some level of anxiety during a presentation. Knowing that you are not the only one feeling nervous should help a bit. Keep in mind that most listeners won’t even be aware of your anxiety. They often don’t see what you thought was glaringly obvious; they’re busy preparing themselves for their turn up front. It is perfectly normal to feel nervous when you find yourself in an unfamiliar setting or situation. You probably felt nervous the first time you had to shoot a foul shot in front of a large crowd of basketball fans. Or you might recall the anxiety you felt during your first piano recital as a child, or that first job interview. Think of this nervous feeling as your body readying itself for an important activity.

Also, you might feel anxious if you have not adequately prepared for the presentation. Preparing and practicing your presentation are two of the surest ways to minimize nervousness. No one wants to feel embarrassed in public, but knowing that you have done everything possible to ensure success should help you feel more confident. Do your research and organize your ideas logically. Then practice several times. Try to find someone to listen as you practice -your family, your friends, your roommate -and listen to their feedback. Even if they don’t know your topic, they know you. They may even be able to point out some areas in your presentation that still need improvement. The more you prepare and practice, the more successful your presentation will likely be.

Finally, be optimistic and focus on the positives. Use positive self-talk as you prepare. Don’t tell yourself that you’ll perform horribly or that you can’t do it. Have you ever heard of a self-fulfilling prophecy? What you expect to happen may be exactly what does happen. So tell yourself that you’re well prepared and that you will improve every time you speak. Remind yourself that you are calm and in control of the situation and be sure to take a deep breath whenever necessary. Imagine yourself speaking clearly and effortlessly. Find a couple of friendly faces in the crowd and focus on them. If they’re sending positive energy your way, grab it!

Addressing Public Speaking Anxiety

Mental Preparation

If your neighbor’s house were on fire, getting to the phone to call the fire department would be your main concern. You would want to get the ad- dress right and express the urgency. That is admittedly an extreme exam ple, but the point is about focus. To mentally prepare, you want to put your focus where it belongs, on the audience and the message. Mindfulness and full attention to the task are vital to successful public speaking. If you are concerned about a big exam or something personal going on in your life, your mind will be divided, and that division will add to your stress.

The main questions to ask yourself are “Why am I so anxiety-ridden about giving a presentation?” and “What is the worst that can happen?” For example, you probably won’t know most of your classmates at the beginning of the course, adding to your anxiety. By midterm, you should be developing relationships with them and be able to find friendly faces in the audience. However, very often we make situations far worse in our minds than they actually are, and we can lose perspective. One of the authors tells her students, “Some of you have been through childbirth and even through military service . That is much worse than public speaking!” Your instructor will probably try to help you get to know your classmates and minimize the “unknowns” that can cause you worry.

Physical preparation

The first step in physical preparation is adequate sleep and rest. You might be thinking such a thing is impossible in college, where sleep deprivation and late nights come with the territory. However, research shows the extreme effects a lifestyle of limited sleep can have, far beyond yawning or dozing off in class (Mitru, Millrood, & Mateika, 2002; Walker, 2017). As far as public speaking is concerned, your energy level and ability to be alert and aware during the speech will be affected by lack of sleep.

Secondly, you would be better off to eat something that is protein-based rather than processed sugar-based before speaking. In other words, cheese or peanut butter on whole grain toast, Greek yogurt, or eggs for breakfast rather than a donut and soft drink. Some traditionalists also discourage the drinking of milk because it is believed to stimulate mucus production, but this has not been scientifically proven (Lai & Kardos, 2013).

A third suggestion is to wear clothes that you know you look good in and are comfortable but also meet the context’s requirements (that is, your instructor may have a dress code for speech days). Especially, wear comfort- able shoes that give you a firm base for your posture. Flip- flops and really high heels may not fit these categories.

A final suggestion for physical preparation is to utilize some stretching or relaxation techniques that will loosen your limbs or throat. Essentially, your emotions want you to run away, but the social situation says you must stay, so all that energy for running must go somewhere. The energy might go to your legs, hands, stomach, sweat glands, or skin, with undesirable physical consequences. Tightening and stretching your hands, arms, legs, and throat (through intentional, wide yawns) for a few seconds before speaking can help release some of the tension. Your instructor may be able to help you with these exercises, or you can find some on the Internet.

Contextual preparation

The more you can know about the venue where you will be speaking, the better. For this class, of course, it will be your classroom, but for other situations where you might experience “communication apprehension,” you should check out the space beforehand or get as much information as possible. For example, if you were required to give a short talk for a job interview, you would want to know what the room will be like, if there is equipment for projection, how large the audience will be, and the seating arrangements. If possible, you will want to practice your presentation in a room that is similar to the actual space where you will deliver it.

The best advice for contextual preparation is to be on time, even early. If you have to rush in at the last minute, as so many students do, you will not be mindful, focused, or calm for the speech. Even more, if you are early, you can make sure equipment is working, and can converse with the audience as they enter. Professional speakers often do this to relax themselves, build credibility, and gain knowledge to adapt their presentations to the audience. Even if you don’t want to “schmooze” beforehand, being on time will help you create a good first impression and thus enhance your credibility before the actual speech.

Speech preparation

Procrastination, like lack of sleep, seems to just be part of the college life. Sometimes we feel that we just don’t get the best ideas until the last minute. Writing that essay for literature class at 3:00 a.m. just may work for you. However, when it comes to public speaking, there are some definite reasons you would not want to do that. First, of course, if you are finishing up your outline at 3:00 a.m. and have a 9:00 speech, you are going to be tired and unable to focus. Second, your instructor may require you to turn in your outline several days ahead of the speech date. However, the main reason is that public speaking requires active, oral, repeated practice before the actual delivery.

You do not want the first time that you say the words to be when you are in front of your audience. Practicing is the only way that you will feel confident, fluent, and in control of the words you speak. Practicing (and timing yourself) repeatedly is also the only way that you will be assured that your speech meets the assignment’s time limits, and speaking within the expected time limits is a fundamental rule of public speaking. You may think your speech is five minutes long but it may end up being ten minutes the first time you practice it—or only two minutes!

Your practicing should be out loud, standing up, with shoes on, with someone to listen, if possible (other than your dog or cat), and with your visual aids. If you can record yourself and watch it, that is even better. If you do record yourself, make sure you record yourself from the feet up- or at least the hips up—so you can see your body language. The need for oral practice will be emphasized over and over in this book and probably by your instructor. As you progress as a speaker, you will always need to practice but perhaps not to the extent you do as a novice speaker.

As hard as it is to believe, YOU NEVER LOOK AS NERVOUS AS YOU FEEL.

You may feel that your anxiety is at level seventeen on a scale of one to ten, but the audience does not perceive it the same way. They may perceive it at a three or four or even less. That’s not to say they won’t see any signs of your anxiety and that you don’t want to learn to control it, only that what you are feeling inside is not as visible as you might think. This principle relates back to focus. If you know you don’t look as nervous as you feel, you can focus and be mindful of the message and audience rather than your own emotions.

Also, you will probably find that your anxiety decreases throughout the class (Finn, Sawyer, & Schrodt, 2009). In her Ted Talk video , Harvard Business School social psychologist Amy Cuddy discusses nonverbal communication and suggests that instead of “faking it until you make it,” that you can, and should, “fake it until you become it.” She shares research that shows how our behavior affects our mindsets, not just the other way around. Therefore, the act of giving the speech and “getting through it” will help you gain confidence. Interestingly, Dr. Cuddy directs listeners to strike a “power pose” of strong posture, feet apart, and hands on hips or stretched over head to enhance confidence.

Final Note: If you are an audience member, you can help the speaker with his/her anxiety, at least a little bit. Mainly, be an engaged listener from beginning to end. You can imagine that a speaker is going to be more nervous if the audience looks bored from the start. A speaker with less anxiety is going to do a better job and be more interesting. Of course, do not walk into class during your classmates’ speeches, or get up and leave. In addition to being rude, it pulls their minds away from their message and distracts the audience. Your instructor will probably have a policy on this behavior, too, as well as a dress code and other expectations on speech days. There are good reasons for these policies, so respect them.

Fundamentals of Public Speaking Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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3 Speech Anxiety

Learning Objectives

• Identify types of speech anxiety.
• Discuss steps to managing speech anxiety.
• Implement strategies to manage speech anxiety.

Speech Anxiety

Whether it is a small or substantial amount, most of us have some form of anxiety when it comes to public speaking. The National Institute of Mental Health reports that public speaking anxiety, or glossophobia, affects about 73% of the population (National Social Anxiety Center, 2016). While this anxiety is “normal” it is difficult to manage without exploring the root cause. It is important for each person to recognize that their particular sort of speech anxiety has developed uniquely through each of their lives and experiences.

Types of Speech Anxiety

Trait-anxiety: This type of anxiety is typically aligned with an individual’s personality. People who would call themselves “shy” often seek to avoid interaction with others because they are uncertain of how they will be perceived. Those with trait anxiety may experience higher levels of anxiety in other areas of their lives. These folks, according to researchers, are likely to view any chance to express themselves publicly with skepticism and hesitation.

State-anxiety: This type of anxiety is usually due to the external situation in which individuals find themselves. Some people may have had a negative experience in public at an early age—they forgot a line in a play, they lost a spelling bee, they did poorly when called on in front of their class—something that resulted in a bit of public embarrassment. Others may have never actually experienced that stress themselves but may have watched friends struggle and thus empathized with them. These sorts of experiences can often lead to the formation of state anxiety in an individual.

Scrutiny fear: This type of anxiety does not necessarily involve anxiety of interacting with other people but is simply the fear of being in a situation where one is being watched or observed, or one perceives him or herself as being watched while undertaking an activity.

Steps to Managing Speech Anxiety

The good news is that you can manage speech anxiety! While you may never completely alleviate all stress associated with public speaking, taking a reflective approach can help you to identify ways that will help to lessen anxiety and deliver an effective speech. Think about your speech anxiety using the step-by-step process below:

• Identify speech anxiety : Which type of speech anxiety do you have? Where do you think it stems from?
• During the preparation process : Anxiety during this stage may include feeling overwhelmed with the process of thought of public speaking. Individuals may procrastinate preparation or avoid the preparation process altogether.
• Before the speech: Anxiety during this stage may come after the speech writing is complete and it is time to rehearse. As anxiety arises, individuals may avoid practicing because of the stress it is causing.
• During the speech: This type of anxiety peaks once the speaker begins the speech. While it may lessen as the speech progresses, individuals may stumble over the introduction due to heightened nerves and damage credibility.
• Determine and implement strategies :  Depending on the type and onset of anxiety, different strategies can help speakers to manage anxiety.

Strategies to Manage Anxiety

Prepare:  This strategy cannot be overstated. We are more comfortable when we have researched our topic thoroughly, understand our audience, are familiar with our venue, and know our content comprehensively. Following the speech making process (chapter 2) will help us to prepare and feel prepared.

Practice: While this is the most well-known strategy, it is also the most overlooked one. Effective practice is more than reading through your speech a time or two. It is a process that allows you to identify potential issues so you can revise your content, visuals, and delivery plan. We will examine a step by step process for effective practice in chapter 3.

Self-talk and visualizing success: Your internal dialogue can be positive or negative. While positive self-talk can be difficult when we are nervous, it also can lead to positive results. Both positive and negative self-talk can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, an individual’s expectations lead to behaviors that cause those expectations to become reality. For instance, when you think you are going to fail at a test, you may decide to go out with your friends instead of studying, and you fail the test. On the other hand, if you think you will be successful on a presentation, you may take the steps necessary to prepare and practice, and in the end, you will be successful. Create a positive self-fulfilling prophecy for yourself!

Reframing: The process of reframing changes the perception of something so that our experience of it is different. Not all jitters are negative – many public speakers use anxiety as a tool for success. Psychologically anxiety and excitement are almost identical. The difference is how we interpret them – positively or negatively. You can reframe your thoughts about nervousness and use that to your advantage – nervous energy in the body can be transformed to positive nonverbal communication that connects directly with your audience. Embrace the jitters – while easier said than done – can help you deliver a strong speech. 

The following video further explores sources of public speaking anxiety and identifies specific, academically validated, anxiety management techniques to help presenters become more confident.

Key Takeaways

• Individuals will experience different types of speech anxiety. It is important to understand where our speech anxiety stems from.
• Speech anxiety can be managed! Identify the type and onset of your anxiety and determine strategies that help to reduce the stress.
• Preparation, practice, positive self-talk, visualizing success, and reframing are effective methods of reducing our fear of public speaking.
• Chapter 11 Classifying Communication Apprehension (CA).  Authored by : Alyssa G. Millner, Ph.D. and Rachel D. Price, Ph.D..  Provided by : University of Central Arkansas, University of Arkansas at Little Rock & University of Kentucky and Southern Illinois University & University of Kentucky.  Located at :  http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html .  Project : Public Speaking Project.  License :  CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• Worried.  Authored by : Kristin Andrus.  Located at :  https://www.flickr.com/photos/wiphey/11868944/ .  License :  CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

Public Speaking Copyright © by Dr. Layne Goodman; Amber Green, M.A.; and Various is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Can Stress Cause Speech Problems?

Picture this: you’re in an important meeting when suddenly as you’re speaking your speech goes from normal to slurred in a matter of moments. Or maybe you’re planning something with a friend only to find your words running together as you discuss the date and time. This can be a very upsetting, confusing, stressful, and frustrating experience. Understanding what caused your speech changes is important, and you may wonder if stress causes slurred speech. 

It is not widely known that stress and anxiety can cause speech problems. The brain and body react to stress in a variety of different ways, including increased tension in the muscles, scattered thoughts, and difficulty focusing on the task at hand, which in this case, is speaking. 

Speech therapy can be very helpful in supporting adults who may be struggling to communicate due to stress and anxiety. Get started with speech therapy through Great Speech by scheduling your free introductory call today!

How Does Stress & Anxiety Affect Speech?

It is very common for symptoms of anxiety to make the individual feel like there is something wrong with their brain. The brain is potentially the most important element of the human body, and those who struggle with anxiety often worry that their brain may fail, or that they have a serious medical condition such as a brain tumor or multiple sclerosis . This worry, on top of the anxiety they are experiencing, can increase feelings of stress, worry and anxiety.

Stress and anxiety can affect speech in the following ways: 

Increased Muscle Tension – Increased muscle tension due to stress and anxiety can affect the fluidity and clarity of speech.

Racing Thoughts – It is common for individuals with anxiety to feel like they can’t keep up with their thoughts, or that their thoughts are racing. This can make speaking clearly and effectively expressing thoughts and ideas difficult. 

Social Anxiety – Social anxiety can make speaking in front of others very difficult. An individual with social anxiety may struggle to communicate when in certain situations which can have significant effects on the individual’s ability to succeed in social, professional, and academic situations. 

Panic Attacks – Panic attacks can come on very suddenly and can make it very difficult or impossible for the individual to communicate. Panic attacks often cause shortness of breath, tightness in the chest, and difficulty thinking clearly, which can all have significant effects on speech. 

Dry Mouth – Stress and anxiety can cause the individual to experience frequent instances of dry mouth. A dry mouth can make speaking smoothly and fluidly difficult. 

Shaky Voice – Sometimes anxiety and stress can cause the voice to waver or sounds shaky. 

Difficulty Concentrating – Stress and anxiety can also make concentrating difficult. When an individual is experiencing significant stress or anxiety, they tend to focus on those feelings and what might be causing them. This can make focusing on the task at hand, speaking, for example, deeply challenging. 

Slurred Speech – Slurred speech (also referred to as dysarthria) is a common symptom of anxiety which can be quite frightening when it occurs. While it can be unnerving to experience, especially on top of feelings of anxiousness and worry, it usually is not an indication of the health of the brain. 

If you are struggling with communication problems related to stress and anxiety, speech therapy can be highly beneficial. Get started with speech therapy by scheduling your free introductory call today! 

What Causes Slurred Speech due to Stress?

Slurred speech can be caused by stress and anxiety due to the following effects:

Mouth Tension : As mentioned above, anxiety can result in significant muscle tension. This includes the muscles within the mouth, which can make it more difficult to clearly get the words out.

Hyperawareness : When anxiety is present, and the mind may be racing, some individuals become hyper-aware and may overthink the processes that would normally occur unconsciously. Such processes include walking, breathing, and of course, speaking. When an individual becomes too focused on getting the words out, speech can become slurred. 

Anxiety Medications : Many people who live with anxiety take medications to help them manage their symptoms and navigate their everyday life. Some of these medications act as muscle relaxants, which can make the mouth and facial muscles less reactive, resulting in slurred speech. 

How Can Speech Issues Due to Anxiety Be Reduced?

There are a few things that can help to reduce speech issues that are related to stress and anxiety. 

Prepare : If you are aware that you’ll be facing an important event or conversation, take some time to visualize yourself succeeding in that situation. Prepare your talking points ahead of time so you won’t add additional stress to yourself. 

Pacing : Work on speaking slowly and carefully, paying special attention to articulation. When you feel rushed, or your speech is rushed, speech can become slurred as a result. Allow your brain, and the required muscles, adequate time to efficiently produce speech. 

Deep breathing : Anxiety and worry can sometimes cause individuals to hold their breath. Practice taking some deep breaths before you encounter a potentially stressful situation. 

Slurred speech related to anxiety is usually a temporary condition and can last up to several hours, though it may also only last a matter of minutes. Anxiety impacts speech differently in each individual. In some cases, the slurring may last longer and can indicate an underlying health condition that should be addressed. 

How Can Speech Therapy Help with Speech Problems Related to Stress & Anxiety?

Our highly qualified and experienced speech and language pathologists work with individuals who are experiencing speech problems related to anxiety by improving and strengthening communication skills. This alone can help to reduce feelings of stress and anxiety in professional or social situations. Speech and language pathologists employ a variety of methods, exercises, and approaches to identify and treat communication problems related to anxiety and work collaboratively with the individual to achieve appropriate goals. Because stress and anxiety can affect speech in a wide variety of ways, every treatment plan varies between individuals. Contact us today for your free introductory call and get connected with a registered speech pathologist to start on your path to increased confidence and better communication.

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Parent's Academy › Parenting Tips › Coping Skills › How Anxiety Affects Speech in Children

How Anxiety Affects Speech in Children

Anne-elisabeth germain.

B.A in Speech Language Pathology , Queens , New York

Jan 20, 2022 An anxiety disorder in children? What could they possibly be worried about? They’re just children after all!

For many, the idea of a child having anxiety seems almost impossible. And yet, studies tell us it is one of the most common forms of mental disorder among kids.

According to the Center for Disease Control ( CDC ), 7% of children (from 3- to 17-years-old) are diagnosed with a type of anxiety disorder. It’s true that a child may not be able to express their feelings like an adult, but it does not mean that they don’t experience worry and fear. This blog explores how anxiety may affect a child and some of the treatments used to combat it.

In This Article

Definition of anxiety.

• Common Signs and Symptoms of Childhood Anxiety  
• Causes of Anxiety Among Children 

How Can Anxiety Affect a Child’s Speech?

• Books to learn more about childhood anxiety 

According to the American Psychological Association, anxiety is an emotion characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts, and often physical changes such as increased blood pressure. Although feelings of anxiety can be quite normal and are needed for survival, when these feelings become unmanageable or interfere with one’s daily routine, it is a disorder.

And though there are different types of anxiety, children mostly experience the following: generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety, separation anxiety , selective mutism, or phobias.

Common Signs and Symptoms of Childhood Anxiety  

• Insomnia  
• Excessive clinginess towards parents 
• Difficulty concentrating in school 
• Constant worry/irrational fears
• Overeating or not eating enough 
• Irritability
• Body-focused repetitive behaviors
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder
• Feeling tense or fidgety
• Nail-biting/skin-picking 
• Speech difficulties 
• Regressive behavior 

Did you know anxiety could affect a child as early as 1-year-old?

Research tells us that it is common for toddlers to experience separation anxiety when starting school or meeting strangers. As well, the severity and persistence of their fear can lead to bigger problems such as an actual anxiety disorder.

Causes of Anxiety in Children 

From environmental to genetic factors, there are various reasons as to why a child could have this disorder. While children can develop anxiety as a result of stressful events (trauma or neglect), it is also possible for them to learn it from their parents. And sometimes, it’s simply genetic.

Because abnormal forms of stress affect one’s breathing patterns, it is possible for a child with anxiety to develop a fear of speaking. For instance, a child may have a quiet or shaky voice. Selective mutism is another way in which anxiety may interfere with a child’s speech. Though not a speech disorder in itself, selective mutism means a child is unable to talk in some settings (classroom or around strangers), but can easily speak at home.

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Diagnosis and Treatments 

A formal diagnosis of an anxiety disorder requires your child to be evaluated by a team of health professionals. This team may include, but are not limited to a child’s pediatrician (to rule out other conditions), a psychologist, or a trained therapist. Once a child receives a proper diagnosis, there may be various forms of treatments. 

Cognitive-behavioral therapy or CBT: a method used to aid a child to learn how to acknowledge and change their negative thoughts.

Exposure therapy (another form of CBT):   is a technique used to reduce a child’s fear by gradually exposing them to what they are afraid of.  

Medication: In more severe cases, older children may be recommended medication to ease their anxiety.

Additionally, parents can implement different tools to overcome anxiety disorders in kids. Remember to pay attention and acknowledge your child’s feelings. But also, do not enable or reinforce their fear; doing so can hinder them further.

Indeed, anxiety does not discriminate based on race or age.

Just like adults can have an anxiety disorder, children can also have one. But one thing is for sure, anxiety is not a death sentence. It is absolutely possible for a child to overcome it. ☺ 

Books to learn more about childhood anxiety 

• Sometimes I’m Anxious, Volume 1 – ( A Child’s Guide to Overcoming Anxiety ) by Poppy O’Neill
• The Opposite of Worry: The Playful Parenting Approach to Childhood Anxieties and Fears by Lawrence J. Cohen
• What to Do When You Worry Too Much: A Kid’s Guide to Overcoming Anxiety by Dawn Huebner

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The author’s views are entirely his or her own and may not necessarily reflect the views of Blub Blub Inc. All content provided on this website is for informational purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for independent professional medical judgement, advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this website.

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Measuring Public Speaking Anxiety: Self-report, behavioral, and physiological

Ana gallego.

1 University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland

Louise McHugh

2 University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Markku Penttonen

Raimo lappalainen.

Self-reports are typically used to assess public speaking anxiety. In this study, we examined whether self-report, observer report, and behavioral and physiological reactivity were associated with each other during a speech challenge task. A total of 95 university students completed a self-report measure of public speaking anxiety before and after the speech challenge. Speech duration (i.e., behavioral measure), physiological reactivity, as well as speech performance evaluated by the participants and observers were also recorded. The results suggest that self-reported public speaking anxiety predicts speech duration, as well as speech quality, as rated by the participants themselves and observers. However, the physiological measures were not associated with self-reported anxiety during the speech task. Additionally, we observed that socially anxious participants underrate their speech performance in comparison to their observers’ evaluations.

Introduction

Speaking in public is the most commonly reported fear in the general population ( Dwyer & Davidson, 2012 ; Sawyer, 2016 ). Public speaking anxiety is considered a social anxiety disorder and refers to the anxiety that an individual experiences when giving a speech or preparing to speak in front of others. In Finland, one in three students report that speaking in public is a severe problem for them ( Kunttu et al., 2017 ). In the U.S., more than 61% of university students note a fear of speaking in public ( Dwyer & Davidson, 2012 ). However, public speaking is an important skill for undergraduate students to learn and practice as they progress through their education and careers. To that end, speaking in public is a common requirement in undergraduate courses that encourages students to present their work and ideas to increase competency. For individuals who experience public speaking anxiety, speaking in public can have a negative impact on both their physical and emotional wellbeing. Public speaking anxiety symptoms can manifest in many different ways, such as bodily sensations, irrational thinking (e.g., “I’m concerned I’ll appear incompetent”), altered emotions, and avoidant behavior ( Daly et al., 1997 ).

Self-report methods are the most commonly used measure in psychology ( Paulhus & Vazire, 2009 ). This popularity is based on a number of advantages, including the method’s low cost and the opportunity to administer it in a mass testing session, where hundreds of variables can easily be collected at once. However, although some studies suggest that self-reports are adequate indexes of actual behaviors and attitudes (e.g., Corral-Verdugo & Figueredo, 1999 ), other studies suggest the opposite (e.g., Fuj et al., 1985 ). In the public speaking anxiety literature, self-reports are the most widely used tool to assess speech anxiety. Still, speech challenges (i.e., behavioral assessment task, BAT) are frequently used to assess avoidant behavior/distress tolerance in public speaking ( Beidel et al., 1989 ). Physiological measures have also commonly been used to assess physiological reactivity while giving a public speech ( Sawyer & Behnke, 1999 ). Subsequently, previous studies have explored the interrelationships among public speaking anxiety components to evaluate the validity of using different systems to assess public speaking anxiety ( Bodie, 2010 ). In contrast, in a review of the public speaking anxiety literature, Clevenger (1959) suggests that even when different measures (e.g., cognitive, physiological, and behavioral) report high reliability, these measures are not meaningfully correlated. After approximately 30 years of research, McCroskey (1984) states that self-reports, physiological arousal indicants, and observer ratings of public speaking anxiety do not measure the same thing. In sum, since Clevenger’s (1959) statement, the concern about whether these systems are related has been a major concern in the public speaking anxiety literature ( Bodie, 2010 ). Yet, the interrelationship among the different measures that assess speech anxiety is not fully understood even in the present day. Furthermore, research has demonstrated that the effectiveness of psychological interventions in the reduction of social and public speaking anxiety differs depending on the measurements used to assess it ( Allen, 1989 ; Ebrahimi et al., 2019 ). For instance, several studies have found that the effectiveness of interventions evaluated through self-reports is greater compared to that of physiological and behavioral measures ( Heimberg et al., 1990 ). Therefore, this current gap in the literature could mislead both researchers and practitioners to misidentify levels of public speaking anxiety, resulting in erroneous conclusions and interpretations.

Given the fact that different measures (self-report, behavioral, and physiological) might capture different facets or skills during a speech challenge, it is important to understand how these different measures are related to each other and speech performance. Thus, we investigated whether four components of public speaking were related to each other during a speech challenge task. These components were self-report, observer report, and behavioral and physiological reactivity. Based on the previous literature, we predicted that self-reported public speaking anxiety is unrelated to physiological measures. To the best of our knowledge, there is no previous research about the connection between speech duration and physiological measures. In addition, we predicted that the speech performances evaluated by the participants and external observers are connected to each other, but that there is a significant difference in the level of evaluation between them. We expected this result since previous studies indicate that participants with social anxiety underestimate their speech performance in comparison to external observers ( Rapee & Lim, 1992 ).

Participants

The participants ( n  = 106) were university students recruited from the Department of Education and the Language Centre at the University of Jyväskylä. These students were recruited from introductory courses that aimed to improve communication skills. At the start of each course, the students received the following information: “The study is related to public speaking and communication skills. You will have the possibility to give a speech in front of a camera; meanwhile, your physiological reactivity will be recorded. In addition, you will fill in some psychological questionnaires. For this, you will not need to prepare anything beforehand.” After this, the courses’ principal teacher sent the students an online scheduling tool through which they could voluntarily sign up for the experiment. All participants were undergraduate students. For ethical reasons, we conducted the experiment with all the students that signed up. However, we excluded from the analyses participants who were taking psychogenic medication or did not fill in their personal information ( n  = 11). This resulted in a final sample of 95 participants (53% female). Their ages ranged from 20 to 46 ( M  = 24.61, SD  = 4.77), and the amount of years they had been studying at the university ranged from 1 to 8 ( M  = 2.61, SD  = 1.42).

The experiment was conducted individually at the Department of Psychology. In the experiment room, an individual participant sat in a chair in front of a video camera situated at eye level. Behind the camera was a 65-inch TV screen, and behind the participant there was an amplifier (BrainVision QuickAm with 32 EEG and 8 physiological channels) to record electrodermal and electrocardiogram activity. Next to the participant were the self-report questionnaires and a pen. The researcher was in an adjacent room equipped with two computers and a laptop. One of the computers was used to play the audio-recorded instructions, the other computer managed the BrainVision recorder program, and the laptop was used to play a video-recorded audience on the TV screen in front of the participant. To monitor the participants and communicate with them, there was a 23” TV screen and microphone connected to a speaker in the participant room.

The experiment consisted of six phases. First, the participants were asked to fill in their informed consent and background/personal information. Second, they completed the self-report questionnaires (for more information, see the Measures section). In addition, the recording of physiological activity (heart rate and electrodermal activity) started at this phase and continued during the following phases. Third, the participants were asked neutral questions to use as a baseline for their physiological measurements. Fourth, as a behavioral task, the participants were instructed to give an impromptu 10-minute speech about themselves, including their strengths and weaknesses, in front of the camera and video-recorded audience. Fifth, before beginning to talk, the participants were allowed 3 minutes to plan their speech. Sixth, the participants gave their speeches ( Figure 1 ). The termination of the speech task before the end of the 10-minute period was assessed as avoidance behavior and the total amount of time (speech duration) that they spoke as distress tolerance ( England et al., 2012 ; Gallego et al., 2020 ).

Procedure timeline.

Note . PRCA-PS = self-reported public speaking; SCRs = skin conductance responses; RMSSD = heart-rate variability-root mean square of successive RR interval differences; SPS-SR = self-perceived speech performance; SPS-OR = others-perceived speech performance.

Self-report measures

Personal report of communication apprehension, public speaking subscale (prca-ps).

This subscale includes six items (e.g., “My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech”). Each item is graded on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 ( strongly agree ) to 5 ( strongly disagree ). Lower scores indicate less apprehension about speaking in public. Scores can range from 6 to 30. Moderate levels of anxiety toward speaking in public range from 13.75 to 20.75, and high levels oscillate from 20.75 to 30. The validity and reliability of this scale are well known. In a previous study, the subscale’s Cronbach’s alpha shows an excellent reliability for all items ( McCroskey et al., 1985 ). In the present study, the PRCA-PS demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .85; McCroskey, 1982 ).

Social Performance Scale Self-Reported Version (SPS-SR)

After the speech challenge, the participants assessed their perceived speech performance through the self-reported version of the SPS. This scale includes 17 items rated on a 5-point scale from 0 ( not at all ) to 4 ( very much ). Final scores range from 0 to 68, with greater scores indicating a higher-quality perceived performance. The scale’s validity and reliability have been proven in previous research ( Rapee & Lim, 1992 ; Tutino et al., 2020 ). In this study, the internal consistency was .88 (Cronbach’s alpha; Rapee & Lim, 1992 ) .

Visual Analog Scales (VAS)

In this study, the students answered the following question: “How uncomfortable do you feel to give the speech?” The participants were instructed to indicate how they felt by placing an X on a printed line that ranged from 0 ( not uncomfortable at all ) to 10 ( extremely uncomfortable ). According to Boonstra et al. (2014) , a score ≤3.8 indicates mild symptoms, between 3.9 and 5.7 moderate, and scores ≥5.8 severe.

Observers’ evaluation

Social performance scale other-reported version (sps-or).

After the experiment, independent raters evaluated the video-recorded speeches. The SPS-OR was used to assess speech performance as perceived by these external evaluators. The scale consists of 17 items that gauge performance features (e.g., voice clarity, fidgeting). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Scores can range from 0 to 68, with higher numbers indicating a better performance. Research has shown that the SPS-OR’s rating is valid and reliable ( Rapee & Lim, 1992 ; Tutino et al., 2020 ).

Two independent evaluators rated each video speech. During the training phase, an expert from the Language Centre of the University of Jyväskylä trained the observers to assess the speakers’ performances. The expert and observers examined the SPS-OR together to have a common consensus on the items’ meaning. The expert and observers also evaluated a video sample together to reach agreement on the evaluation criteria. After that, the observers evaluated another video sample to check the ratings’ consistency. The videos used during the training phase were selected from the piloting period of this study and were not included in this study’s analyses (i.e., the videos were only used for training purposes). The videos included in the results of this study lasted a maximum of 10 minutes. However, due to limited resources, all videos were edited to 2 minutes. We selected the first 2 minutes of each speech for two reasons. First, there was a large variation in how long the participants gave their speeches, and all the participants talked for at least 2 minutes. Therefore, that was the period with the most reliable data. Second, research has identified four characteristics or phases during public speaking events: (1) anticipation—pre-speech, (2) confrontation—the first speaking minute, (3) adaptation—the last speaking minute, and (4) release—time between the end of the speech and 1 minute post-speech ( Behnke & Carlile, 1971 ; Carlile et al., 1977 ). Both of these reasons resulted in our decision to only include the confrontation phase. After the training phase was successfully completed, the rating phase took place. The video ratings were conducted in eight rounds, and the observers reviewed the reliability of the ratings on a rounds basis. In the first 7 rounds, each reviewer rated 10 videos, 6 of which were the same to calculate reliability. In between rounds, there was a practice evaluation to help maintain reliability. During these practice evaluations, the observers independently examined the same samples and then discussed their interpretations together. The evaluations done in the practice evaluation phase were not included in the results. The Cronbach’s alpha for the two observers was 0.96.

Behavioral measures

Speech challenge.

The participants were requested to give an impromptu speech: “I would like to invite you to give a 10-minute speech about yourself, your strengths, and weaknesses. I hope that you can speak for as long as possible. I will let you know when the time is up. If you decide to end your speech earlier, please say out loud, ‘I want to stop.’ Try to continue the speech if you can, even if you’re not sure what you would say next. You can stop if necessary if you are anxious and you cannot continue. Now you have 3 minutes to think about what you want to say in your speech. If you want, you can write down what you want to say.” The length of the speech provided a behavioral measure of avoidance/distress tolerance. The maximum duration for the speech was 10 minutes. Prior research proposes that ending a speech prematurely can be interpreted as an attempt to escape the anxiety that arises when speaking in front of others ( England et al., 2012 ; Gallego et al., 2020 ). Accordingly, speech duration represented a behavioral measure of distress tolerance.

Physiological measures

Electrodermal activity (EDA) was measured with two skin-conductance electrodes (Ag/AgCl, EL 507, BioPac Systems) positioned on the participants’ non-dominant palm, one placed beneath the thumb and the other under the fourth and fifth digits. The participants were asked to hold that hand on the chair’s armrest without moving it. Skin conductivity was registered using a galvanic skin response module (Brain Products) that determined conductivity by directing a 0.5 V voltage between the electrodes and measuring the conductivity changes with a direct current (DC) amplifier. Skin conductance was recorded in DC mode using a BrainVision QuickAmp. The signal was low-pass filtered at 400 Hz and sampled at 1,000 Hz using the BrainVision Recorder 1.20.0801 program.

Electrocardiograms were registered using three electrodes (Ag/AgCl, Ambu Neuroline 710). One of the electrodes was situated on the left shoulder, another electrode was placed beneath the clavicle on the right side, and the last electrode was placed on the left side above the bottom ribs, forming a triangle encompassing the heart. The signal was high-pass filtered at 0.5 Hz, low-pass filtered at 400 Hz, and sampled at 1,000 Hz using the QuickAmp and Recorder program.

Data analysis plan

EDA was analyzed with MATLAB R2014a using Ledalab V3.4.9 ( Benedek & Kaernbach, 2010 ). In this regard, rapid changes in EDA (skin conductance responses, SCRs) were separated from slowly varying activity (skin conductance level, SCL). Subsequently, the mean SCR values were computed for every phase of interest, depicting sympathetic nervous system activation. Heart-rate variability (HRV) was assessed from an electrocardiogram with Kubios HRV Premium programs ( www.kubios.com ). At first, the programs expunged automatically possible artifacts and counted successive interbeat intervals (RR intervals). The HRV index used in this study was the square root of the mean squared differences between successive RR intervals (RMSSD). The HRV index was computed for each phase of interest.

For the statistical analyses, both RMSSD and SCRs were normalized with a 2-minute baseline phase. In this phase, the participants were asked basic questions (e.g., “What is your name?”; “Where were you born?”; “Where are you from?”; and “What is your favorite season of the year?”). Changes in physiology during the speech were calculated by computing relative changes from the baseline using the following formula: (speech–speech baseline)/speech baseline (as a percentage). The analyses were conducted with these normalized variables to give consideration to the individual variation in physiological reactivity. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 24. The correlations between the variables were investigated using the Pearson correlation test. A small correlation ranged from r  = 0.10 to 0.30, a moderate correlation from r  = 0.31 to 0.50, and a high correlation from r  = 0.51 to 1 ( Cohen, 1992 ).

In relation to how anxious the participants felt giving the impromptu speech, 57% reported high levels of anxiety, 20% moderate levels, and 22% lower levels (VAS). Regarding level of public speaking anxiety, in this study, 50% of the participants recorded having high anxiety, 42% moderate anxiety, and only 9% low anxiety. In the present study, the maximum speech length was 10 minutes, and the mean time that the participants used for the speech was 7.45 minutes ( SD  = 2.53; Table 1 ). The results of our study show that higher levels of self-reported public speaking anxiety (PRCA-PS) correlate with shorter speech duration (i.e., behavioral task of public speaking distress tolerance). This correlation is moderate ( r  = −.31, p  < .01, n  = 95). According to the results, there is no correlation between self-reported public speaking anxiety (PRCA-PS) and SCRs ( r  = .16, n  = 92) or HRV (RMSSD; r  = .05, n  = 93). However, higher levels of self-reported public speaking anxiety moderately correlate with poor self-perceived speech performance (SPS-SR; r  = −.42, p  < .01, n  = 95). Higher levels of self-reported public speaking anxiety also moderately correlate with poorer speech performance as perceived by external observers (SPS-OR; r  = −.40, p  < .05, n  = 95). These results are summarized in Table 2 and Figure 2 . In addition, the results show that there is a positive correlation between self- and others-perceived speech performance ( r  = .60, p  < .01, n  = 95), indicating that the better quality in speech performance evaluated by oneself, the better others might evaluate it. Nevertheless, a t-test identified a significant difference between self-perceived speech performance and speech performance as rated by external observers ( p  < .01), favoring the latter (self-performance M  = 38.58, SD  = 9.55, N  = 103; others-performance M  = 56.28, SD  = 7.30, N  = 43; Table 3 ). In relation to public speaking distress tolerance (i.e., speech duration), the data depicts that higher levels of distress tolerance correlate with lower levels of skin conductance activation ( r  = −23, p  < .005, n  = 95). Yet, there is no correlation with HRV ( r  = 0.02, n  = 95). Furthermore, there is no correlation between speech duration and speech performance as evaluated by the participant, nor with speech performance as evaluated by observers.

Descriptive Statistics.

Note. PRCA-PS = public speaking anxiety; RMSSD = heart-rate variability-root mean square of successive RR interval differences; SCRs = skin conductance responses; VAS1 = how uncomfortable does it make you feel to give the speech?; SPS-SR = self-perceived speech performance; SPS-OR = others-perceived speech performance.

Correlations.

Note . PRCA-PS = public speaking anxiety; RMSSD = heart-rate variability-root mean square of successive RR interval differences; SCRs = skin conductance; SPS-SR = self-perceived speech performance; SPS-OR = others-perceived speech performance; VAS1 = how uncomfortable does it make you feel to give the speech?

Note . PRCA-PS = self-reported public speaking anxiety; SCRs = skin conductance responses; RMSSD = heart-beating-square root of the mean squared differences between RR intervals; SPS-OR = observer-evaluation of speech performance; SPS-SR = self-evaluation of speech performance; speech duration = public speaking distress tolerance.

Mean Score of Self- and Observers Ratings on Global and Specific Items on Public Speaking Performance.

Note . SPS-SR = self-perceived speech performance; SPS-OR = others-perceived speech performance.

The present study aimed to examine the relationship between self-reported public speaking anxiety, a behavioral assessment of public speaking distress tolerance (i.e., speech duration), physiological reactivity during a speech challenge, and the quality of the speech as evaluated by both the participants and observers. The results depicted a negative and moderate correlation between speech duration and self-reported public speaking anxiety, suggesting that students who report high levels of public speaking anxiety also give shorter presentations. This may be indicative of an avoidance strategy. In line with this postulate, previous studies empirically demonstrate that individuals with higher levels of experiential avoidance have lower distress tolerance ( Feldner et al., 2006 ; Zettle et al., 2005 ). Thus, our study indicates that self-reported public speaking anxiety can predict actual avoidance behavior.

The present results also showed no correlation between self-reported public speaking anxiety and physiological arousal as measured during the speech challenge. Thus, the current data indicates that physiological reactivity during presentations is unrelated to experiences or self-reported level of public speaking anxiety. These observations are in line with Schachter and Singer (1962) . They argue that high physiological arousal creates urges to understand and label the activity of the sympathetic nervous system. The label that an individual chooses depends on situational cues “as interpreted by previous experiences” ( Schachter & Singer, 1962 ). Therefore, the researchers suggested hat an emotion is not fully explained by physiological arousal or cognitive perception alone, but the coaction of both. According to Behnke and Beatty (1981) , public speaking anxiety can be understood, in part, as the predisposition to label the physiological arousal that arises when speaking in front of others as anxiety. Yet, for speakers for whom anxiety is not an appropriate label, they might understand physiological arousal as “exhilaration” or “facilitative energy,” the consequence of which being that they might not report high levels of public speaking anxiety. More recently, in the theory of constructed emotions, Barrett (2006) postulates that purely physical sensations in the body do not have objective meaning. For instance, a change in heart rate is not objectively or necessarily an emotion. As a result, the effectiveness of using solely physiological reactivity measures to detect indexes of public speaking anxiety is called into question. Our study, as well as others, have been unable to identify clear unique physiological correlates to self-reported public speaking anxiety. However, if physiological measures are used in conjunction with self-reported measures of the speech anxiety trait, they might account for a high proportion of the total variance of anxious arousal (i.e., panic during a speech; Finn et al., 2009 ). Furthermore, meta-analyses by Allen (1989) and Ebrahimi et al. (2019) indicate that research on the effectiveness of physiological measures has demonstrated a small effect on public speaking anxiety treatment and favors the use of self-reported measures. Still, other studies have detected treatment effects in the form of reduced levels of physiological reactions, even when reductions in self-reported levels do not occur ( Kircanski et al., 2012 ; Niles et al., 2015 ). Further research is needed to clarify these mixed findings.

Moreover, the distress tolerance task (speech duration) correlated with skin conductance but not heart rate. According to Barry and Sokolov (1993) , arousal is more closely expressed through increases in SCL (sweating) than cardiac acceleration. This could provide an explanation of why skin conductance in the current study related to the behavioral measure of public speaking distress tolerance but not to self-reported public speaking anxiety. Additionally, it is important to note that both speech duration and SCL are objective measures independent from the participants’ subjective experiences. Furthermore, the results of this study indicated that high levels of self-reported public speaking anxiety are associated with low-quality speech performance as evaluated by both the participants themselves and external observers. In line with this finding, previous studies have demonstrated that visualization techniques (i.e., imagining giving a speech) are effective in enhancing performance, as well as reducing public speaking anxiety ( Ayres & Hopf, 1992 ). Therefore, it can be hypothesized that using techniques meant to enhance speech performance might reduce self-perceived speech anxiety as a collateral effect.

Additionally, the results revealed a highly significant correlation between the quality of the speech performance as rated by the participants themselves and the external observers, indicating that speeches evaluated as better by the observers were also evaluated as better by the speakers themselves and vice versa. The study Daly et al. (1989) reports similar results. However, our results also showed a significant difference between the participants’ and observers’ speech performance perceptions. This indicates that even when the speaker and external observers evaluated the speech performance as high, there was still a significant discrepancy between how skillful the speaker thought the speech was in comparison to the external evaluators. This indicates that the speakers underrated their speech performances in comparison to how the external observers evaluated their speeches. In line with this finding, Rapee and Lim (1992) report that socially anxious individuals show a greater discrepancy than normal controls between their speaking performance self-reports and observers’ ratings. This discrepancy between the speaker’s rating and that of the observers is larger for high-trait anxious speakers, as they rate their own performance more harshly then trained observers ( Rapee & Lim, 1992 ).

There were a number of limitations to the current study. First, its design is correlational, and the results are thus based on the relationships between variables. Further research is needed to identify the exact causal nature of these relationships. Another limitation comes from the generalization of these results to a broader population. The current study was conducted with university students; as such, these findings are not directly transferable to clinical groups. Even so, this segment of the population was selected in view of the high rates of public speaking anxiety among undergraduate university students. Furthermore, in relation to the scales, only one questionnaire was used to assess self-reported public speaking anxiety. Still, the PRCA-PS is a well-documented and broadly used scale that has shown good psychometric properties. Additionally, physiological activity was only measured via HRV and EDA, which limits our conclusions on physiological reactivity. Future research could implement additional physiological measures, such as muscle activity, respiration, or neuroendocrine responses (i.e., cortisol levels). Moreover, although the current sample included a portion of students with severe/extreme levels of anxiety to give the requested impromptu speech, it is possible that many extremely anxious students did not volunteer for this study due to the nature of the topic. Consequently, the results could differ if a larger proportion of extremely anxious students is included. Accordingly, further studies are needed to clarify this issue.

In summary, the present study has a number of implications. First, according to our results as well as previous findings in the literature, it is not advisable to rely solely on physiological reactivity measures to assess public speaking anxiety. Arousal is not necessarily the same as anxiety ( McCroskey, 1984 ). Therefore, physiological measures do not have sufficient face validity as indicators of public speaking anxiety to merit attention from researchers and practitioners concerned with this construct. On the other hand, many self-report measures in the public speaking anxiety literature have demonstrated both good reliability and validity. As stated by McCroskey (1984) , self-report measurements with good psychometric properties, when utilized for legitimate purposes, can be invaluable to practitioners and researchers assessing public speaking anxiety. Using self-report measurements with poor psychometric properties, or such measures when other instruments could be more suitable, is therefore bad praxis that practitioners and researchers should avoid ( McCroskey, 1984 ). Second, skin conductance reactivity is related to distress tolerance/avoidance. Thus, it can be hypothesized that increasing levels of distress tolerance and decreasing avoidance result in less physiological reactivity in anxiety-provoking situations (and vice versa). Third, since lower levels of self-reported public speaking anxiety are related to better-quality speech performance, it could be expected that decreasing levels of self-reported public speaking anxiety might result in increased speech performance quality. To conclude, our data proposes that self-reported public speaking anxiety predicts both avoidance behavior (speech duration) and speech performance, but it does not predict physiological reactivity while presenting.

Author Biographies

Ana Gallego is a doctoral candidate at the Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Her research is focused on the area of Contextual Behavioral Science. In 2018, she received a Junior Investigator Poster Award by the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science.

Louise McHugh is a professor in the School of Psychology at University College Dublin, Ireland. Her research is in the area of Contextual Behavioral Science and she has published over 80 papers in the area. She is a fellow for the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science since 2014.

Markku Penttonen is an adjunct professor in the Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland. His work is focused on the role of autonomic nervous system in emotion, motivation and interaction in psychotherapy and in adolescence achievement situations.

Raimo Lappalainen , is a professor in the Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland. A licensed psychologist and psychotherapist. He has acted as the head and vice-head of the Department of Psychology, and vice-dean for Faculty of Education and Psychology.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Ana Gallego has gotten funding for conducting this research project from the Student Life, which is a unit from the University of Jyväskylä, Finland.

Pinpoint the Onset of Public Speaking Anxiety

Different people become anxious at different times during the speechmaking process. Some people start to feel anxious as soon as they learn that they will have to give a speech. Others don’t really get nervous until they approach the podium. Even the kind of speech assigned (e.g., being called on to deliver off-the-cuff remarks versus reading from a prepared speech) may be a factor in when and how much a speaker feels anxious. 4 By pinpointing the onset of speech anxiety, you can manage it promptly with specific anxiety-reducing techniques (see Figure 3.1 ).

RECOGNIZING AND OVERCOMING YOUR UNDERLYING FEARS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING

Pre-Preparation Anxiety

Some people feel anxious the minute they know they will be giving a speech. Pre-preparation anxiety can be a problem when the speaker delays planning for the speech, or when it so preoccupies the speaker that he or she misses vital information needed to fulfill the speech assignment. If you are particularly affected by anxiety at this stage, start immediately to use the stress-reducing techniques described later in this chapter.

Preparation Anxiety

For a few people, anxiety arises only when they actually begin to prepare for the speech. They might feel overwhelmed at the amount of time and planning required or hit a roadblock that puts them behind schedule. Preparation pressures produce a cycle of stress, procrastination, and outright avoidance, all of which contribute to preparation anxiety . Research has shown, however, that for most speakers, anxiety is lowest during the preparation phase, 5 suggesting that the best way to gain a sense of control and confidence is to immerse yourself in the speech’s preparation.

Pre-Performance Anxiety

Some people experience anxiety as they rehearse their speech. This is when the reality of the situation sets in: They anticipate an audience that will be watching and listening only to them; or they feel that their ideas aren’t as focused or as interesting as they should be, and they sense that time is short. If this pre-performance anxiety is strong enough, they may even decide to stop rehearsing. If you experience heightened anxiety at this point, consider using anxiety stop-time : Allow your anxiety to present itself for up to a few minutes until you declare time for confidence to step in so you can proceed to complete your practice. 6

I experience anxiety before, during, and after the speech. My “before speech” anxiety begins the night before my speech, but then I begin to look over my notecards, and I start to realize that I am ready for this speech. I practice one more time and I tell myself I am going to be fine.

— Paige Mease, student

Performance Anxiety

For most people, anxiety is highest just as a speech begins. 7 Performance anxiety is probably most pronounced during the introduction portion of the speech when we are most aware of the audience’s attention. Not surprisingly, audiences we perceive to be hostile or negative usually cause us to feel more anxious than those we sense are positive or neutral. 8 However, experienced speakers agree that by controlling their nervousness during the introduction, the rest of the speech goes quite smoothly.

Each of us will experience more or less speech anxiety at these four different points in the process depending mainly on our level of trait anxiety . People with high trait anxiety are naturally anxious much of the time, whereas people with low trait anxiety experience nervousness usually only in unusual situations. Public speaking situations tend to make people nervous regardless of their level of trait anxiety, for the reasons outlined earlier (lack of experience, feeling different, being the center of attention). But it can be more challenging for high trait-anxious individuals than low trait-anxious persons. For instance, researchers have shown that low trait-anxious people get nervous when starting a speech but gain confidence throughout the speech. Regardless of your level of trait anxiety, and when anxiety about a speech strikes, the important thing to remember is that you can manage the anxiety and control the time and effort you put into planning, rehearsing, and delivering a successful speech.