sustainable agriculture essay

Essay on Sustainable Agriculture

Introduction: what is sustainable agriculture, importance of sustainable agriculture, population growth, per capita food consumption, sustainable agriculture and technology, green politics, conclusion of sustainable agriculture.

Bibliography

Sustainable agriculture has dominated the sociological understanding of the rural world largely. Following the enthusiasm around the concept as a means of eradication of poverty and turning the economy to a “resource-efficient, low carbon Green Economy” 1 . Global population, and consequently consumption has increased.

However, technology development has matched the demand for food in terms of food production, but the distribution of food is not evenly distributed. This has brought forth the question of the possibility of supplying adequate food to the ever-growing global population.

Further, the challenges posed by depleting non-renewable sources of energy, rising costs, and climate change has brought the issue related to sustainability of food production and the related social and economic impact of the food production into forefront. This paper outlines the meaning and technology related to sustainable agriculture and tries to gauge its impact as a possible solution to the impending food crisis.

Sustainable agriculture is a process of farming using eco-friendly methods understanding and maintaining the relationship between the organisms and environment. In this process of agriculture and animal husbandry are combined to form a simultaneous process and practice. In other words, sustainable agriculture is an amalgamation of three main elements viz. ecological health, profitability, and propagating equality.

The concept of sustainability rests on the principle of not wasting any resources that may become useful to the future generation. Therefore, the main idea of sustainability rests on stewardship of individual and natural resources. Before understanding the technology involved in sustainable agriculture, it is important to know why we need it in the first place.

The rise in population growth and urbanization of people has led to a dietary change of the world population, which now rests more on animal protein 2 . Therefore understanding the demographic changes in the world population has become an important parameter to judge the future demand for food.

As population growth rate is the key variable that affects the demand for food, therefore understanding the number of people increasing worldwide is important. According to the UNDP results, the annual population growth rate had declined from 2.2% in 1962 to 1.1% in 2010, however, this increase to indicate an increase of 75 million people 3 .

However, this increase in population is not equitably distributed as some areas such as Africa, Latin America, and Asia face a growth rate of 2% while others such as the erstwhile Soviet bloc countries have a negative rate.

According to the UNDP predictions, population worldwide is expected to increase to 9 billion in 2050 from the present 7 billion 4 . Therefore, the uncertain growth in population is expected to affect food demand and therefore food production.

Undernourishment is a prevalent problem in the developing world, wherein almost 20% of the developing world that is more than 5 billion people is undernourished.

Further, in emerging economies, food consumption is increasing with increased preference for animal protein such as meat, dairy products, and egg. Therefore, the growth of consumption of animal protein has increased the necessity of grazing of livestock, therefore, increasing further pressure on the food supply.

It is believed that the increase in the demand for food due to the increase in global population and change in dietary habit of the population. In the past, the demand for food and the rate of production has remained at par, but the unequal distribution of food has led to the major problem in food supply and starvation in various parts of the world.

Another problem that food production in the future faces is the constraint of non-renewable natural resources. The most critical resources, which are becoming scant for the future generations are –

• Land : Availability of land globally to cultivate food has grown marginally due to the increase in global population. The availability of land available per person to grow food has declined from 1.30 hectares in 1967 to 0.72 hectares in 2007 5 . Therefore, a clear dearth in agricultural land is a deterrent to future agriculture.
• Water : The world comprises of 70% freshwater resources, available from river and groundwater. Deficiency of freshwater has been growing as usage of water has increased more than twice the rate of population growth 6 . As water is required for irrigation purposes, water availability to is not equally distributed around the world. Therefore, reduced water supply would limit the per capita production of food.
• Energy : Globally, the scarcity of the non-renewable resources of energy is another concern. The global demand for energy is expected to double by 2050, consequently increasing energy prices 7 . Therefore, food production for the future will have to devise a technology based on renewable sources of energy.

The question of sustainability in agriculture arose due to some pressing issues that have limited the utilization of erstwhile processes and technologies for food production. However, it should be noted that sustainable agriculture does not prescribe any set rule or technology for the production process, rather shows a way towards sustainability 8 .

Sustainable agriculture uses best management practice by adhering to target-oriented cultivation. The agriculture process looks at disease-oriented hybrid, pest control through use of biological insecticides and low usage of chemical pesticide and fertilizer. Usually, insect-specific pest control is used, which is biological in nature.

Water given to the crops is through micro-sprinklers which help is directly watering the roots of the plants, and not flooding the field completely. The idea is to manage the agricultural land for both plants and animal husbandry.

For instance, in many southwestern parts of Florida’s citrus orchards, areas meant for water retention and forest areas become a natural habitat for birds and other animals 9 . The process uses integrated pest management that helps in reducing the amount of pesticide used in cultivation.

Sustainable agriculture adopts green technology as a means of reducing wastage of non-renewable energy and increase production. In this respect, the sustainable agricultural technology is linked to the overall developmental objective of the nation and is directly related to solving socio-economic problems of the nation 10 .

The UN report states, “The productivity increases in possible through environment-friendly and profitable technologies.” 11 In order to understand the technology better, one must realize that the soil’s health is crucial for cultivation of crops.

Soil is not just another ingredient for cultivation like pesticides or fertilizers; rather, it is a complex and fragile medium that must be nurtured to ensure higher productivity 12 . Therefore, the health of the soil can be maintained using eco-friendly methods:

Healthy soil, essential to agriculture, is a complex, living medium. The loose but coherent structure of good soil holds moisture and invites airflow. Ants (a) and earthworms (b) mix the soil naturally. Rhizobium bacteria (c) living in the root nodules of legumes (such as soybeans) create fixed nitrogen, an essential plant nutrient.

Other soil microorganisms, including fungi (d), actinomycetes (e) and bacteria (f), decompose organic matter, thereby releasing more nutrients. Microorganisms also produce substances that help soil particles adhere to one another. To remain healthy, soil must be fed organic materials such as various manures and crop residues. 13

This is nothing but a broader term to denote environment-friendly solutions to agricultural production. Therefore, the technology-related issue of sustainable agriculture is that it should use such technology that allows usage of renewable sources of energy and is not deterrent to the overall environment.

The politics around sustainable agriculture lies in the usage of the renewable sources of energy and disciplining of the current consumption rates 14 . The politics related to the sustainable agriculture is also related to the politics of sustainable consumption.

Though there is a growing concern over depleting food for the future and other resources, there is hardly any measure imposed by the governments of developed and emerging economies to sustain the consumption pattern of the population 15 .

The advocates of green politics believe that a radical change of the conventional agricultural process is required for bringing forth sustainable agriculture 16 . Green politics lobbies for an integrated farming system that can be the only way to usher in sustainable agricultural program 17 .

Sustainable agriculture is the way to maintain a parity between the increasing pressure of food demand and food production in the future. As population growth, change in income demographics, and food preference changes, there are changes in the demand of food of the future population.

Further, changes in climate and increasing concern regarding the depletion of non-renewable sources of energy has forced policymakers and scientists to device another way to sustain the available resources as well as continue meeting the increased demand of food.

Sustainable agriculture is the method through which these problems can be overlooked, bringing forth a new integrated form of agriculture that looks at food production in a holistic way.

Batie, S. S., ‘Sustainable Development: Challenges to Profession of Agricultural Economics’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol. 71, no. 5, 1989: 1083-1101.

Dobson, A., The Politics of Nature: Explorations in Green Political Theory, Psychology Press, London, 1993.

Leaver, J. D., ‘Global food supply: a challenge for sustainable agriculture’, Nutrition Bulletin, vol. 36 , 2011: 416-421.

Martens, S., & G. Spaargaren, ‘The politics of sustainable consumption: the case of the Netherlands’, Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, vol.1 no. 1, 2005: 29-42.

Morris, C., & M. Winter, ‘Integrated farming systems: the third way for European agriculture?’, Land Use Policy, vol. 16, no. 4, 1999: 193–205.

Reganold, J. P., R. I. Papendick, & J. F. Parr, ‘Sustainable Agriculture’, Scientific American , 1990: 112-120.

Townsend, C., ‘ Technology for Sustainable Agriculture. ‘ Florida Gulf Coast University, 1998. Web.

United Nations, ‘ Green technology for sustainable agriculture development ‘, United Nations Asian And Pacific Centre For Agricultural Engineering And Machinery, 2010. Web.

—, ‘ Sustainable agriculture key to green growth, poverty reduction – UN officials ‘, United Nations, 2011. Web.

1 United Nations, Sustainable agriculture key to green growth, poverty reduction – UN officials, UN News Centre, 2011.

2 J. D. Leaver, ‘Global food supply: a challenge for sustainable agriculture’, Nutrition Bulletin , vol. 36, 2011, pp. 416-421.

3 Leaver, p. 417.

5 Leaver, p. 418.

7 Leaver, p. 419.

8 J. N. Pretty, ‘Participatory learning for sustainable agriculture’, World Development , vol. 23, no. 8, 1995, pp. 1247-1263.

9 Chet Townsend, ‘Technology for Sustainable Agriculture’, Florida Gulf Coast University , 1998.

10 United Nations, ‘Green technology for sustainable agriculture development’, United Nations Asian And Pacific Centre For Agricultural Engineering And Machinery , 2010.

11 United Nations, p. 17.

12 J. P. Reganold, R. I. Papendick, & J. F. Parr, ‘Sustainable Agriculture’, Scientific American , 1990, pp. 112-120.

13 Regnold et al., p. 112.

14 S. S. Batie, ‘Sustainable Development: Challenges to Profession of Agricultural Economics’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol. 71, no. 5, 1989, pp. 1083-1101.

15 S. Martens & G. Spaargaren, ‘The politics of sustainable consumption: the case of the Netherlands’, Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy , vol.1 no. 1, 2005, pp. 29-42.

16 A. Dobson, The Politics of Nature: Explorations in Green Political Theory , Psychology Press, London, 1993, p. 82.

17 C .Morris & M. Winter, ‘Integrated farming systems: the third way for European agriculture?’, Land Use Policy , vol. 16, no. 4, 1999, pp. 193–205.

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Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education Program

• What is Sustainable Agriculture?

The goal of sustainable agriculture is to meet society’s food and textile needs in the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Practitioners of sustainable agriculture seek to integrate three main objectives into their work: a healthy environment, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. Every person involved in the food system—growers, food processors, distributors, retailers, consumers, and waste managers—can play a role in ensuring a sustainable agricultural system.

There are many practices commonly used by people working in sustainable agriculture and sustainable food systems. Growers may use methods to promote  soil health , minimize  water use , and lower  pollution levels  on the farm. Consumers and retailers concerned with sustainability can look for “ values-based ” foods that are grown using methods promoting  farmworker wellbeing , that are  environmentally friendly , or that strengthen the local economy. And researchers in sustainable agriculture often cross disciplinary lines with their work: combining biology, economics, engineering, chemistry, community development, and many others. However, sustainable agriculture is more than a collection of practices. It is also process of negotiation: a push and pull between the sometimes competing interests of an individual farmer or of people in a community as they work to solve complex problems about how we grow our food and fiber.

Topics in sustainable agriculture

• Addressing Food Insecurity
• Agritourism
• Agroforestry
• Conservation Tillage
• Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA)
• Cooperatives
• Cover Crops
• Dairy Waste Management
• Direct Marketing
• Energy Efficiency & Conservation
• Food and Agricultural Employment
• Food Labeling/Certifications
• Food Waste Management
• Genetically Modified Crops
• Global Sustainable Sourcing of Commodities
• Institutional Sustainable Food Procurement
• Biologically Integrated Farming Systems
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
• Nutrition & Food Systems Education
• Organic Farming
• Precision Agriculture (SSM)
• Soil Nutrient Management
• Postharvest Management Practices
• Technological Innovation in Agriculture
• Urban Agriculture
• Value-Based Supply Chains
• Water Use Efficiency
• Water Quality Management
• Zero-Emissions Freight Transport

Directory of UC Programs in Sustainable Agriculture

This directory is a catalog of UC's programmatic activities in sustainable agriculture and food systems. All programs are sorted by activities and topic areas.

The Philosophy & Practices of Sustainable Agriculture

Agriculture has changed dramatically, especially since the end of World War II. Food and fiber productivity soared due to new technologies, mechanization, increased chemical use, specialization and government policies that favored maximizing production. These changes allowed fewer farmers with reduced labor demands to produce the majority of the food and fiber in the U.S.

Although these changes have had many positive effects and reduced many risks in farming, there have also been significant costs. Prominent among these are topsoil depletion, groundwater contamination, the decline of family farms, continued neglect of the living and working conditions for farm laborers, increasing costs of production, and the disintegration of economic and social conditions in rural communities.

Potential Costs of Modern Agricultural Techniques

A growing movement has emerged during the past two decades to question the role of the agricultural establishment in promoting practices that contribute to these social problems. Today this movement for sustainable agriculture is garnering increasing support and acceptance within mainstream agriculture. Not only does sustainable agriculture address many environmental and social concerns, but it offers innovative and economically viable opportunities for growers, laborers, consumers, policymakers and many others in the entire food system.

This page is an effort to identify the ideas, practices and policies that constitute our concept of sustainable agriculture. We do so for two reasons: 1) to clarify the research agenda and priorities of our program, and 2) to suggest to others practical steps that may be appropriate for them in moving toward sustainable agriculture. Because the concept of sustainable agriculture is still evolving, we intend this page not as a definitive or final statement, but as an invitation to continue the dialogue

Despite the diversity of people and perspectives, the following themes commonly weave through definitions of sustainable agriculture:

Sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore,  stewardship of both natural and human resources  is of prime importance.  Stewardship of human resources  includes consideration of social responsibilities such as working and living conditions of laborers, the needs of rural communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the future.  Stewardship of land and natural resources  involves maintaining or enhancing this vital resource base for the long term.

A  systems perspective  is essential to understanding sustainability. The system is envisioned in its broadest sense, from the individual farm, to the local ecosystem,  and  to communities affected by this farming system both locally and globally. An emphasis on the system allows a larger and more thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the environment. A systems approach gives us the tools to explore the interconnections between farming and other aspects of our environment.

Everyone plays a role in creating a sustainable food system.

Making the transition to sustainable agriculture is a process.   For farmers, the transition to sustainable agriculture normally requires  a series of small ,  realistic   steps . Family economics and personal goals influence how fast or how far participants can go in the transition. It is important to realize that each small decision can make a difference and contribute to advancing the entire system further on the "sustainable agriculture continuum." The key to moving forward is the will to take the next step. Finally, it is important to point out that   reaching toward the goal of sustainable agriculture is the responsibility of all participants in the system ,  including farmers, laborers, policymakers, researchers, retailers, and consumers. Each group has its own part to play, its own unique contribution to make to strengthen the sustainable agriculture community. The remainder of this page considers specific strategies for realizing these broad themes or goals. The strategies are grouped according to three separate though related areas of concern:  Farming and Natural Resources ,  Plant and Animal Production Practices , and the  Economic, Social and Political Context . They represent a range of potential ideas for individuals committed to interpreting the vision of sustainable agriculture within their own circumstances.

• Farming and Natural Resources

When the production of food and fiber degrades the natural resource base, the ability of future generations to produce and flourish decreases. The decline of ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean region, Pre-Columbian southwest U.S. and Central America is believed to have been strongly influenced by natural resource degradation from non-sustainable farming and forestry practices. 

Water is the principal resource that has helped agriculture and society to prosper, and it has been a major limiting factor when mismanaged.

Water supply and use.  In California, an extensive  water storage and transfer system  has been established which has allowed crop production to expand to very arid regions. In drought years, limited surface water supplies have prompted overdraft of groundwater and consequent intrusion of salt water, or permanent collapse of aquifers. Periodic droughts, some lasting up to 50 years, have occurred in California.

Several steps should be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in "normal" years, including both policy and management actions:

1) improving  water conservation  and storage measures,

2) providing incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species,

3) using  reduced-volume irrigation  systems,

4) managing crops to reduce water loss, or

5) not planting at all.

Water quality.  The most important issues related to water quality involve salinization and contamination of ground and surface waters by pesticides, nitrates and selenium. Salinity has become a problem wherever water of even relatively low salt content is used on shallow soils in arid regions and/or where the water table is near the root zone of crops. Tile drainage can remove the water and salts, but the disposal of the salts and other contaminants may negatively affect the environment depending upon where they are deposited. Temporary solutions include the use of salt-tolerant crops, low-volume irrigation, and various management techniques to minimize the effects of salts on crops. In the long-term, some farmland may need to be removed from production or converted to other uses. Other uses include conversion of row crop land to production of drought-tolerant forages, the restoration of wildlife habitat or the use of agroforestry to minimize the impacts of salinity and high water tables. Pesticide and nitrate contamination of water can be reduced using many of the practices discussed later in the  Plant Production Practices  and  Animal Production Practices  sections.

Wildlife . Another way in which agriculture affects water resources is through the destruction of riparian habitats within watersheds. The conversion of wild habitat to agricultural land reduces fish and wildlife through erosion and sedimentation, the effects of pesticides, removal of riparian plants, and the diversion of water. The plant diversity in and around both riparian and agricultural areas should be maintained in order to support a diversity of wildlife. This diversity will enhance natural ecosystems and could aid in agricultural pest management.

Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, especially petroleum. The continued use of these energy sources cannot be sustained indefinitely, yet to abruptly abandon our reliance on them would be economically catastrophic. However, a sudden cutoff in energy supply would be equally disruptive. In sustainable agricultural systems, there is reduced reliance on non-renewable energy sources and a substitution of renewable sources or labor to the extent that is economically feasible.

Many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include smoke from agricultural burning; dust from tillage, traffic and harvest; pesticide drift from spraying; and nitrous oxide emissions from the use of nitrogen fertilizer. Options to improve air quality include:

      - incorporating crop residue into the soil       - using appropriate levels of tillage       - and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of native perennial grasses to reduce dust.

Soil erosion continues to be a serious threat to our continued ability to produce adequate food. Numerous practices have been developed to keep soil in place, which include:

      - reducing or eliminating tillage       - managing irrigation to reduce runoff       - and keeping the soil covered with plants or mulch. 

Enhancement of soil quality is discussed in the next section.

• Plant Production Practices

Sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches. Specific strategies must take into account topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and the individual grower's goals.  Despite the site-specific and individual nature of sustainable agriculture, several general principles can be applied to help growers select appropriate management practices:

      - Selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to conditions on the farm;       - Diversification of crops (including livestock) and cultural practices to enhance the biological and economic stability of the farm;       - Management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality;       - Efficient and humane use of inputs; and       - Consideration of farmers' goals and lifestyle choices.

Selection of site, species and variety

Preventive strategies, adopted early, can reduce inputs and help establish a sustainable production system. When possible, pest-resistant crops should be selected which are tolerant of existing soil or site conditions. When site selection is an option, factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history, and location (e.g. climate, topography) should be taken into account before planting.

Diversified farms are usually more economically and ecologically resilient.  While monoculture farming has advantages in terms of efficiency and ease of management, the loss of the crop in any one year could put a farm out of business and/or seriously disrupt the stability of a community dependent on that crop. By growing a variety of crops, farmers spread economic risk and are less susceptible to the radical price fluctuations associated with changes in supply and demand.

Properly managed, diversity can also buffer a farm in a biological sense. For example, in annual cropping systems,  crop rotation can be used to suppress weeds, pathogens and insect pests. Also, cover crops can have stabilizing effects on the agroecosystem by holding soil and nutrients in place, conserving soil moisture with mowed or standing dead mulches, and by increasing the water infiltration rate and soil water holding capacity.  Cover crops  in orchards and vineyards can buffer the system against pest infestations by increasing beneficial arthropod populations and can therefore reduce the need for chemical inputs. Using a variety of cover crops is also important in order to protect against the failure of a particular species to grow and to attract and sustain a wide range of beneficial arthropods.

Optimum diversity may be obtained by integrating both crops and livestock in the same farming operation. This was the common practice for centuries until the mid-1900s when technology, government policy and economics compelled farms to become more specialized. Mixed crop and livestock operations have several advantages. First, growing row crops only on more level land and pasture or forages on steeper slopes will reduce soil erosion. Second, pasture and forage crops in rotation enhance soil quality and reduce erosion; livestock manure, in turn, contributes to soil fertility. Third, livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crop residue that in "plant only" systems would have been considered crop failures. Finally, feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems. This can help cushion farmers against trade and price fluctuations and, in conjunction with cropping operations, make more efficient use of farm labor.

Soil management

A common philosophy among sustainable agriculture practitioners is that a "healthy" soil is a key component of sustainability; that is, a healthy soil will produce healthy crop plants that have optimum vigor and are less susceptible to pests. While many crops have key pests that attack even the healthiest of plants, proper soil, water and nutrient management can help prevent some pest problems brought on by crop stress or nutrient imbalance. Furthermore, crop management systems that impair soil quality often result in greater inputs of water, nutrients, pesticides, and/or energy for tillage to maintain yields.

In sustainable systems, the soil is viewed as a fragile and living medium that must be protected and nurtured to ensure its long-term productivity and stability.   Methods to protect and enhance the productivity of the soil include:

      - using cover crops, compost and/or manures       - reducing tillage       - avoiding traffic on wet soils       - maintaining soil cover with plants and/or mulches

Conditions in most California soils (warm, irrigated, and tilled) do not favor the buildup of organic matter. Regular additions of organic matter or the use of cover crops can increase soil aggregate stability, soil tilth, and diversity of soil microbial life.

Efficient use of inputs

Many inputs and practices used by conventional farmers are also used in sustainable agriculture. Sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural, renewable, and on-farm inputs.  Equally important are the environmental, social, and economic impacts of a particular strategy. Converting to sustainable practices does not mean simple input substitution. Frequently, it substitutes enhanced management and scientific knowledge for conventional inputs, especially chemical inputs that harm the environment on farms and in rural communities. The goal is to develop efficient, biological systems which do not need high levels of material inputs.

Growers frequently ask if synthetic chemicals are appropriate in a sustainable farming system. Sustainable approaches are those that are the least toxic and least energy intensive, and yet maintain productivity and profitability. Preventive strategies and other alternatives should be employed before using chemical inputs from any source. However, there may be situations where the use of synthetic chemicals would be more "sustainable" than a strictly non-chemical approach or an approach using toxic "organic" chemicals. For example, one grape grower switched from tillage to a few applications of a broad spectrum contact herbicide in the vine row. This approach may use less energy and may compact the soil less than numerous passes with a cultivator or mower.

Consideration of farmer goals and lifestyle choices

Management decisions should reflect not only environmental and broad social considerations, but also individual goals and lifestyle choices. For example, adoption of some technologies or practices that promise profitability may also require such intensive management that one's lifestyle actually deteriorates. Management decisions that promote sustainability, nourish the environment, the community and the individual.

• Animal Production Practices

In the early part of this century, most farms integrated both crop and livestock operations. Indeed, the two were highly complementary both biologically and economically. The current picture has changed quite drastically since then. Crop and animal producers now are still dependent on one another to some degree, but the integration now most commonly takes place at a higher level-- between  farmers, through intermediaries, rather than  within  the farm itself. This is the result of a trend toward separation and specialization of crop and animal production systems. Despite this trend, there are still many farmers, particularly in the Midwest and Northeastern U.S. that integrate crop and animal systems--either on dairy farms, or with range cattle, sheep or hog operations.

Even with the growing specialization of livestock and crop producers, many of the principles outlined in the crop production section apply to both groups. The actual management practices will, of course, be quite different. Some of the specific points that livestock producers need to address are listed below.

Management Planning

Including livestock in the farming system increases the complexity of biological and economic relationships. The mobility of the stock, daily feeding, health concerns, breeding operations, seasonal feed and forage sources, and complex marketing are sources of this complexity. Therefore, a successful ranch plan should include enterprise calendars of operations, stock flows, forage flows, labor needs, herd production records and land use plans to give the manager control and a means of monitoring progress toward goals.

Animal Selection

The animal enterprise must be appropriate for the farm or ranch resources. Farm capabilities and constraints such as feed and forage sources, landscape, climate and skill of the manager must be considered in selecting which animals to produce. For example, ruminant animals can be raised on a variety of feed sources including range and pasture, cultivated forage, cover crops, shrubs, weeds, and crop residues. There is a wide range of breeds available in each of the major ruminant species, i.e., cattle, sheep and goats. Hardier breeds that, in general, have lower growth and milk production potential, are better adapted to less favorable environments with sparse or highly seasonal forage growth.

Animal nutrition

Feed costs are the largest single variable cost in any livestock operation. While most of the feed may come from other enterprises on the ranch, some purchased feed is usually imported from off the farm. Feed costs can be kept to a minimum by monitoring animal condition and performance and understanding seasonal variations in feed and forage quality on the farm. Determining the optimal use of farm-generated by-products is an important challenge of diversified farming.

Reproduction

Use of quality germplasm to improve herd performance is another key to sustainability. In combination with good genetic stock, adapting the reproduction season to fit the climate and sources of feed and forage reduce health problems and feed costs.

Herd Health

Animal health greatly influences reproductive success and weight gains, two key aspects of successful livestock production. Unhealthy stock waste feed and require additional labor. A herd health program is critical to sustainable livestock production.

Grazing Management

Most adverse environmental impacts associated with grazing can be prevented or mitigated with proper grazing management. First, the number of stock per unit area (stocking rate) must be correct for the landscape and the forage sources. There will need to be compromises between the convenience of tilling large, unfenced fields and the fencing needs of livestock operations. Use of modern, temporary fencing may provide one practical solution to this dilemma. Second, the long term carrying capacity and the stocking rate must take into account short and long-term droughts. Especially in Mediterranean climates such as in California, properly managed grazing significantly reduces fire hazards by reducing fuel build-up in grasslands and brushlands. Finally, the manager must achieve sufficient control to reduce overuse in some areas while other areas go unused. Prolonged concentration of stock that results in permanent loss of vegetative cover on uplands or in riparian zones should be avoided. However, small scale loss of vegetative cover around water or feed troughs may be tolerated if surrounding vegetative cover is adequate.

Confined Livestock Production

Animal health and waste management are key issues in confined livestock operations. The moral and ethical debate taking place today regarding animal welfare is particularly intense for confined livestock production systems. The issues raised in this debate need to be addressed.

Confinement livestock production is increasingly a source of surface and ground water pollutants, particularly where there are large numbers of animals per unit area. Expensive waste management facilities are now a necessary cost of confined production systems. Waste is a problem of almost all operations and must be managed with respect to both the environment and the quality of life in nearby communities. Livestock production systems that disperse stock in pastures so the wastes are not concentrated and do not overwhelm natural nutrient cycling processes have become a subject of renewed interest.

• The Economic, Social & Political Context

In addition to strategies for preserving natural resources and changing production practices, sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to changing public policies, economic institutions, and social values.  Strategies for change must take into account the complex, reciprocal and ever-changing relationship between agricultural production and the broader society.

The "food system" extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of individuals and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals including farmers, researchers, input suppliers, farmworkers, unions, farm advisors, processors, retailers, consumers, and policymakers. Relationships among these actors shift over time as new technologies spawn economic, social and political changes.

A wide diversity of strategies and approaches are necessary to create a more sustainable food system. These will range from specific and concentrated efforts to alter specific policies or practices, to the longer-term tasks of reforming key institutions, rethinking economic priorities, and challenging widely-held social values. Areas of concern where change is most needed include the following:

Food and agricultural policy

Existing federal, state and local government policies often impede the goals of sustainable agriculture. New policies are needed to simultaneously promote environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. For example, commodity and price support programs could be restructured to allow farmers to realize the full benefits of the productivity gains made possible through alternative practices. Tax and credit policies could be modified to encourage a diverse and decentralized system of family farms rather than corporate concentration and absentee ownership. Government and land grant university research policies could be modified to emphasize the development of sustainable alternatives. Marketing orders and cosmetic standards could be amended to encourage reduced pesticide use. Coalitions must be created to address these policy concerns at the local, regional, and national level.

Conversion of agricultural land to urban uses is a particular concern in California, as rapid growth and escalating land values threaten farming on prime soils. Existing farmland conversion patterns often discourage farmers from adopting sustainable practices and a long-term perspective on the value of land. At the same time, the close proximity of newly developed residential areas to farms is increasing the public demand for environmentally safe farming practices. Comprehensive new policies to protect prime soils and regulate development are needed, particularly in California's Central Valley. By helping farmers to adopt practices that reduce chemical use and conserve scarce resources, sustainable agriculture research and education can play a key role in building public support for agricultural land preservation. Educating land use planners and decision-makers about sustainable agriculture is an important priority.

In California, the conditions of agricultural labor are generally far below accepted social standards and legal protections in other forms of employment. Policies and programs are needed to address this problem, working toward socially just and safe employment that provides adequate wages, working conditions, health benefits, and chances for economic stability. The needs of migrant labor for year-around employment and adequate housing are a particularly crucial problem needing immediate attention. To be more sustainable over the long-term, labor must be acknowledged and supported by government policies, recognized as important constituents of land grant universities, and carefully considered when assessing the impacts of new technologies and practices.

Rural Community Development

Rural communities in California are currently characterized by economic and environmental deterioration. Many are among the poorest locations in the nation. The reasons for the decline are complex, but changes in farm structure have played a significant role. Sustainable agriculture presents an opportunity to rethink the importance of family farms and rural communities. Economic development policies are needed that encourage more diversified agricultural production on family farms as a foundation for healthy economies in rural communities. In combination with other strategies, sustainable agriculture practices and policies can help foster community institutions that meet employment, educational, health, cultural and spiritual needs.

Consumers and the Food System

Consumers can play a critical role in creating a sustainable food system. Through their purchases, they send strong messages to producers, retailers and others in the system about what they think is important.  Food cost and nutritional quality have always influenced consumer choices. The challenge now is to find strategies that broaden consumer perspectives, so that environmental quality, resource use, and social equity issues are also considered in shopping decisions. At the same time, new policies and institutions must be created to enable producers using sustainable practices to market their goods to a wider public. Coalitions organized around improving the food system are one specific method of creating a dialogue among consumers, retailers, producers and others. These coalitions or other public forums can be important vehicles for clarifying issues, suggesting new policies, increasing mutual trust, and encouraging a long-term view of food production, distribution and consumption.  

Contributors : Written by  Gail Feenstra , Writer; Chuck Ingels, Perennial Cropping Systems Analyst; and David Campbell, Economic and Public Policy Analyst with contributions from David Chaney, Melvin R. George, Eric Bradford, the staff and advisory committees of the UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program.

How to cite this page UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program. 2021. "What is Sustainable Agriculture?" UC Agriculture and Natural Resources. <https://sarep.ucdavis.edu/sustainable-ag>

This page was last updated August 3, 2021.

What is Sustainable Agriculture and Why Is It Important?

A new approach to agriculture is taking hold across the United States—an approach that has the potential to transform our entire food system for the better.

A few years ago, if you had opened the doors to a chicken house on Halley Farm in Texas, you would have been hit with the stench of ammonia. You would have heard—and then, as your eyes adjusted to the darkness, you would have seen—thousands of chickens packed into a vast warehouse. Looking closer, you would have noticed countless animals lying on the ground, nursing broken bones and painfully raw patches of skin, all of them suffering. You would have seen a system that was, to put it simply, unsustainable.

Today, if you open those same doors, you’ll see rows and rows of green hemp plants drying after harvest, providing a long-term source of revenue for the farm. You’ll see a system better for the Halley family, better for the community, better for the environment, and—of course—better for the animals. Halley Farm is a member of Mercy for Animals’ Transfarmation Project , just one example in the widespread movement toward a more sustainable agricultural system.

What is sustainable agriculture?

“Sustainable agriculture” simply refers to farming practices that incorporate and prioritize sustainability, or the ability to maintain a process over time. It describes an agricultural system that can be sustained indefinitely, providing food and fiber to meet the needs of the present and the needs of future generations. Author and environmentalist Wes Jackson is credited with having coined the term in his 1980 book New Roots for Agriculture—and the buzzy phrase has since been used (sometimes inaccurately) in books, in films and documentaries, on product packaging, in news articles, at industry summits, and even in US law.

Practitioners of sustainable agriculture take a holistic viewpoint. Rather than just aiming to maximize profit and production in the short term, they prioritize the longevity of the system—considering how their farming practices impact the environment, local communities, animals, and every person they encounter on the journey from farm to table. Rather than working against nature—destroying forested landscapes , killing insects with harmful pesticides , and depleting soil with chemical fertilizer—sustainable agriculture aims to work with the natural landscape, creating a system that’s built to last.

Although the word “sustainable” often has environmental connotations, it can also refer to societies, economies, and ways of life. That’s why the main idea behind sustainable agriculture is to steward both natural resources and human resources—protecting the wellbeing of farmers, strengthening local economies, improving living conditions in surrounding communities, promoting consumer health, and much more.

While proponents of animal farming often characterize some forms of animal agriculture as being “sustainable” (such as the popular idea of regenerative ranching ), it’s important to note that livestock-based systems are inherently unsustainable. Not only does cattle ranching waste valuable land and water by growing crops for animal feed rather than human consumption, but the concept of using cattle to support carbon sequestration also faces significant issues of scale. Dr. Tara Garnett of the University of Oxford, who led an exhaustive research report on regenerative ranching, points out that "rising animal production and consumption, whatever the farming system and animal type , is causing damaging greenhouse gas release and contributing to changes in land use.” A truly sustainable system of agriculture uses as few resources as possible, while causing the least amount of harm and destruction—which ultimately means a system focused on growing plants.

Why is sustainable agriculture important?

Starting in the early 1900s, as the Industrial Revolution blossomed across the United States, farms began to look different. Flourishing, colorful fields bursting with a variety of fruits and vegetables came to be replaced by monocultures —vast fields of a single, identical crop. Nutrient-rich soil, once nourished by garden compost, became thin and lifeless. And picturesque farm fields were replaced by enormous windowless sheds , or Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs)—all packed as tightly as possible with suffering animals.

Industrial agriculture had become the new face of the US food system, characterized by large-scale monocultures used for animal feed, high levels of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and CAFOs where living beings were treated as nothing more than products. Instead of being run by small farmers, these machine-like operations were managed by giant corporations wielding inordinate amounts of money and political power. This was the case for Halley Farm, which was locked into a contract with Pilgrim’s Pride —leaving the family with sick chickens, their own injuries and health complications from working with the animals in hazardous conditions, and hundreds of thousands of dollars of debt.

The system of intensive agriculture described above aims to maximize profits and production—all with blatant disregard for the climate, soils, water, humans, and animals involved. Along with relying on systemic cruelty toward people and animals, industrial animal agriculture has an enormous carbon footprint , with some estimates showing food systems are responsible for one-third of greenhouse gas emissions. So while this current system meets our immediate needs, it’s destroying the very environment and resources it relies on.

Sustainable agriculture represents a paradigm shift: Rather than extracting as many resources as possible, it aims to work in harmony with the natural environment, creating a self-sustaining system that will endure for generations to come. This means shifting away from our current system of intensive, animal-focused agriculture and toward a more efficient, harmonious, plant-focused system. Notably, sustainable and plant-centric agricultural practices can help mitigate catastrophic climate change , while also remaining resilient in the face of extreme weather, drought, and flooding.

Here are just a few of the benefits of sustainable agriculture.

1. Saving water

Intensive animal agriculture wastes enormous amounts of water. Every day, a single dairy cow uses between 40 and 50 gallons . On top of that, growing the crops used for animal feed is incredibly water-intensive—so much so that animal agriculture is responsible for nearly 20% of freshwater use globally. By contrast, sustainable farming practices view water as the precious resource it is, aiming to conserve whenever possible—through smarter irrigation systems, drought-tolerant plants, cover crops to support soil structure, and moving away from animal farming altogether.

2. Reducing pollution

Along with wasting water, factory farming pollutes critical water sources—with agricultural runoff listed among the leading causes of water pollution in the US. High concentrations of animals on these farms result in enormous volumes of waste, all rich in phosphorus and nitrogen. When this pollution seeps into the groundwater and nearby bodies of water, it causes enormous “ dead zones ,” or algae blooms that kill fish and other marine life.

Factory farming also pollutes the very air we breathe —whether from the toxic ammonia emanating from poultry farms, massive amounts of pesticides sprayed on crops grown for animal feed, or emissions of nitrous oxide from nitrogen fertilizer. Air pollution harms the health of the animals, farm workers, and even the surrounding community. By transitioning to more sustainable and plant-centric agricultural practices, farmers can help ensure clean air and water for future generations.

3. Increasing resilience to extreme weather

“Agriculture is a risky business,” Laura Lengnick points out in her Introduction to Climate Resilience in Agriculture, a resource for farmers. “The outcome of every growing season hinges on dynamic interactions between soils, crops, livestock, pests, weather, finances, regulations and markets… But in recent years, managing weather-related risk, already one of the highest risk factors in agriculture, has become even harder , as weather patterns become more variable from day to day and season to season.”

As the impacts of climate change continue to worsen, the farms that grow our food need to be able to withstand drought, wildfires, flooding, and other forms of extreme weather. Through sustainable practices, many farmers are working to increase the resilience of their systems. Methods include diversifying crops (which reduces economic vulnerability), adding improved drainage or irrigation systems, protecting and strengthening soil by planting cover crops, and more.

4. Protecting soil health and storing carbon

Soil itself is a living ecosystem that supports plants, animals, and humans. It’s the foundation of our life on earth! And, as is the case for any living being, the overall health of soil is of utmost importance. Healthy soil should be able to effectively cycle nutrients to make them available to plants, maintain a strong enough structure to hold water, filter contaminants to clean the freshwater supply, and withstand erosion. Protecting soil health is a key component of sustainable agriculture, which seeks to ensure the longevity of soil rather than depleting it for immediate gain.

Perhaps the most magical thing about healthy soil is that it works as a carbon sink, sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. So not only does protecting soil increase its resilience to extreme weather, it also helps mitigate the worst effects of climate change.

What is the main goal of sustainable agriculture?

The main goal of sustainable agriculture is simply to ensure that our food system will continue to effectively provide for future generations—even within the evolving conditions caused by global climate change. Rather than solely focusing on profits, sustainable agriculture practitioners aim to steward the environment, advance social equity, and strengthen local economies—all while profiting economically to sustain their work for the long term.

As noted in the USDA’s National Agricultural Library: “If advocating the need for a sustainable agriculture has become universal, agreement as to what is required to achieve it has not .” Despite the rich conversation it has inspired over the last few decades, sustainable agriculture still lacks a single definition or clear standard. While a few groups have attempted to define a set of guidelines and provide “sustainable agriculture” certifications, including the Rainforest Alliance , the term’s official meaning is still under debate. US Congress first addressed the concept of sustainable agriculture by attempting to define it in the 1990 “Farm Bill”—but their definition, according to US Code Title 7, Section 3103, still suggests that animal production practices can be sustainable:

“An integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will, over the long-term— (A) satisfy human food and fiber needs (B) enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agriculture economy depends (C) make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls (D) sustain the economic viability of farm operations (E) enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.”

There’s still room in the discussion for a plant-centric definition of sustainable agriculture, one that prioritizes productivity, efficiency, and longevity—and not at the expense of animals, people, or the environment.

What are sustainable agriculture practices?

However it’s defined, sustainable agriculture should be thought of as an ongoing practice and philosophy, guiding all decisions and processes on a farm. Here are some of the ways farmers can practice sustainable agriculture on a day-to-day basis.

"No-till" farming

Remember the importance of protecting soil health? By reducing or eliminating tillage (the traditional method of plowing a garden), farmers avoid disturbing the soil, helping to reduce erosion and increase biological activity within the soil. According to the USDA, soil left to its own biological processes often has a higher organic matter content than conventionally tilled soil. This method also saves money and time, which is more sustainable for farmers as well.

Planting cover crops and perennials

Another way to protect, nourish, and restore soil is to plant cover crops . Generally, these crops are planted in the fall or winter to protect vulnerable soil from wind and snow. By creating a protective canopy, cover crops reduce soil runoff and lock in nutrients—resulting in better soil structure, stability, and moisture over time. Common cover crops include clovers, turnips, mustard, buckwheat, alfalfa, and radishes.

Integrated pest management (IPM)

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a fancy way of saying… protecting gardens from bugs! Rather than spraying harmful pesticides, IPM takes the holistic viewpoint that is characteristic of sustainable agriculture. It encourages creative solutions like disrupting the pest’s environment, bringing in “natural enemies” (which might even be other insects!), planting crops that discourage certain bugs, and closely monitoring the situation to accurately diagnose and predict pest problems. While IPM sounds more labor-intensive than spraying pesticides, it actually aims to find the most effective and least-risk option, preventing further problems (and more work) later on. Along with its agricultural applications, IPM can also be used to manage pests in homes, businesses, and recreational areas.

Rotating crops and encouraging diversity

Ecosystems are meant to exist as interdependent, resilient communities, with diverse forms of life supporting each other’s various processes. But intensive agriculture today looks very different. Always profit- and efficiency-driven, it prioritizes monocultures, or vast fields of a single crop—usually corn, soybeans, or wheat. These plants are especially vulnerable to disease and pests, as they aren’t supported by the biodiversity that protects plants in the natural world.

Farmers can change this through polyculture and crop rotation, which supports the soil and helps suppress disease and pest infestations. Diversified farms are also more economically resilient, protecting farmers from becoming totally dependent on a single vulnerable crop—and from price fluctuations associated with evolving supply and demand.

Adopting agroforestry practices

Agroforestry is when a farmer intentionally integrates trees into their crop systems. This could mean planting crops in an area protected by trees, known as a “windbreak;” growing crops under a forest canopy for shade; or planting trees and shrubs along a river to prevent erosion and filter farm runoff. With their sturdy roots and the protection from wind, sun, and rain they provide, trees offer a wonderful way to work in harmony with the natural landscape.

What is the current greatest threat to agricultural sustainability?

Unfortunately, the existing system of intensive animal agriculture is incredibly powerful—and so is its marketing. In the last few years, phrases like “grass-fed beef,” “regeneratively grown,” and “sustainably sourced” have popped up all over store shelves. The idea that regenerative ranching could provide a climate solution has given the meat industry a convenient excuse to keep producing hamburgers—and emissions. Switching to grass-fed beef is simply not a solution . Instead, opting for a plant-based diet can keep money out of the pockets of Big Ag, instead diverting it to projects like Halley Farm that are working to diversify and strengthen our food system.

A food system for the future

Picture a lush and vibrant landscape bursting with a variety of trees, vegetables, and native plants. Beneath the surface, the rich soil is busy cycling nutrients and sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. Above ground, the lush plants exhale oxygen and provide nourishing food for insects, animals, and humans. Trees offer generous shade, wild birds and animals take shelter in the plant life, and bright flowers create a peaceful oasis for all to enjoy.

This is the future that sustainable agriculture imagines—and the future that the Halley Farm family, in partnership with Mercy for Animals, is trying to work toward. By transitioning from raising poultry to growing hemp, they’ve experienced not only better financial investment and payoff, but also a much higher quality of life on the farm.

“It’s been really great to see Bo and Sam go from very troubled, angry, and broken people while the chicken houses were here to just flourishing with joy working with the plants,” says family friend Evan about the two brothers. “It just melts your heart... How can you not love that?”

What you can do

As a consumer, you have tremendous power. Simply cutting back on animal products can help divert money away from industrial agriculture—revoking support for factory farming and the monocultures used to grow animal feed. Instead, opt for a diverse, colorful diet of fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes. Diversifying your plate is a simple way to support a more diversified, sustainable food system.

The large-scale transition to a more sustainable food system won’t happen in a day. But in the meantime, we can end the worst forms of abuse—especially for animals like chickens, who account for 9 in 10 land animals raised for food around the world. Join us in demanding that corporate giants sign onto the Better Chicken Commitment and end the most extreme forms of animal abuse.

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Essay on Sustainable Agriculture

Students are often asked to write an essay on Sustainable Agriculture in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture.

Sustainable agriculture is a way of farming that helps protect the environment and natural resources while also producing food and other agricultural products. Sustainable agriculture practices can help to reduce pollution, conserve water, protect wildlife, and improve soil health.

Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture

There are many benefits to sustainable agriculture, including:

• Reduced pollution: Sustainable agriculture practices can help to reduce air and water pollution by reducing the use of pesticides and fertilizers.
• Conserved water: Sustainable agriculture practices can help to conserve water by using more efficient irrigation methods and by planting crops that are drought-tolerant.
• Protected wildlife: Sustainable agriculture practices can help to protect wildlife by providing habitat for animals and by reducing the use of pesticides that can harm wildlife.
• Improved soil health: Sustainable agriculture practices can help to improve soil health by increasing organic matter and reducing erosion.

Examples of Sustainable Agriculture Practices

There are many different sustainable agriculture practices that farmers can use, including:

• Crop rotation: Crop rotation is a practice of planting different crops in the same field in a sequential order to help improve soil health and reduce pests and diseases.
• Cover cropping: Cover cropping is a practice of planting a crop that is not harvested but instead left to grow and cover the soil. This helps to protect the soil from erosion and add organic matter to the soil.
• Reduced tillage: Reduced tillage is a practice of minimizing the amount of tillage that is done to the soil. This helps to reduce erosion and improve soil health.
• Integrated pest management: Integrated pest management is a holistic approach to pest control that emphasizes the use of non-chemical pest control methods whenever possible.

Sustainable agriculture is a way of farming that can help to protect the environment and natural resources while also producing food.

250 Words Essay on Sustainable Agriculture

What is sustainable agriculture.

Sustainable agriculture is a way of growing food that is healthy for the environment, animals, and people. It is about using methods that don’t harm the planet, make sure animals are treated well, and provide good food for everyone. This kind of farming tries to keep the soil healthy, use water wisely, and reduce pollution.

Healthy Soil

One key part of sustainable agriculture is taking care of the soil. Healthy soil can grow strong plants that are better at fighting off diseases and pests. Farmers can keep the soil healthy by using natural materials like compost instead of chemicals that can hurt the environment.

Using Water Wisely

Water is very important for growing food, but we need to make sure we don’t waste it. Sustainable farming uses special methods to water plants that make sure every drop counts. This means using systems that deliver water directly to the plants’ roots instead of spraying it everywhere.

Helping the Environment

Sustainable agriculture is also about helping the environment. This means farming in a way that supports wildlife, like birds and bees, which are important for plants to grow. It also means reducing pollution by not using harmful chemicals and finding natural ways to deal with pests and weeds.

In summary, sustainable agriculture is a smart way to grow food that looks after our planet, the animals, and us. By focusing on healthy soil, wise water use, and helping the environment, this method of farming makes sure we can keep enjoying delicious and safe food for a long time.

500 Words Essay on Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is farming in a way that doesn’t damage our environment and can keep going for a long time. Its main aim is to farm while preserving the health of soil, water, air, and ecosystems.

Why is Sustainable Agriculture Important?

About 2 billion people live in countries that have run out of groundwater or are running out of it. Another 1.6 billion people live in countries that have serious water pollution. If we don’t farm sustainably, we’ll make these problems worse. Also, farming in a non-sustainable way often leads to floods and droughts. This harms the biodiversity of a place.

How Can We Farm Sustainably?

There are many ways to farm sustainably. Some farmers use cover crops to protect the soil, while others use crop rotation to keep the soil healthy. Some farmers use organic fertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers. There are many other ways to farm sustainably, such as using less water, using more efficient equipment, and reducing energy use.

Sustainable agriculture has many benefits. For example, it can help to reduce pollution, conserve water, improve soil health, and increase biodiversity. Also, sustainable agriculture can help farmers to save money and increase their profits.

Challenges of Sustainable Agriculture

There are also some challenges to sustainable agriculture. For example, it can be more expensive than traditional farming. Also, sustainable farming can take more time and effort. However, the benefits of sustainable agriculture outweigh the challenges.

Sustainable agriculture is a way of farming that takes care of the environment and can continue for a long time. It has many benefits, including reducing pollution, conserving water, improving soil health, and increasing biodiversity. Farmers can adopt sustainable agriculture by using cover crops, crop rotation, organic fertilizers, and other techniques. While sustainable agriculture can be more expensive and time-consuming than traditional farming, its benefits outweigh the challenges. Farmers who adopt sustainable agriculture practices can save money, increase their profits, and help to protect the environment.

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• Published: 15 October 2018

Sustainable agriculture

Nature Sustainability volume  1 ,  page 531 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Achieving food security is possible, if we better understand the complexity of the agricultural system and re-design practices accordingly.

Early in September, the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World report was released through a joint press conference at the FAO headquarters in Rome. The analysis ( The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World FAO; 2018) is the outcome of a close collaboration between five United Nations agencies — the Food and Agriculture Organization, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Programme and the World Health Organization — and one of the key messages from the report is, perhaps not surprisingly, alarming: the world is not on track to meet the ‘Zero Hunger’ Sustainable Development Goal, SDG 2.

Alex Ramsay/Alamy Stock Photo

Drawing attention to the drivers of hunger and malnutrition, the report includes updated estimates of a number of indicators related to food security and its health implications, including the number of hungry people in the world, data on child stunting, adult obesity, and childhood obesity among others.

The report, which uses data from 2017, shows how hunger has increased worldwide for the third consecutive year, and childhood malnutrition has not improved or, even worse, in some cases has declined. Countries must take urgent action to meet SDG 2 by 2030.

This year’s edition of the annual report focuses on the need to build climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Acknowledging the dependency of our nutritional needs on the natural environment should indeed be a critical component of any food-policy strategy.

More specifically, the sustainability of the food system should be at the heart of the international food-security debate. Despite increasing hunger globally, the demand of food has been rising rapidly and has had a significant environmental cost: degradation of agricultural land, pollution of rivers and aquifers due to agro-chemicals, increased freshwater consumption, greenhouse-gas emissions from agriculture and land-use change, loss of agro-biodiversity and other negative consequences. All of these environmental impacts severely undermine our ability to continue to feed a growing population and ultimately will jeopardize the opportunity to meet SDG 2, unless more-sustainable food-production practices are embraced globally.

Enhanced agricultural productivity (intensification) has been a major response to the growing food demand, but intensification could be done better. In an Analysis by Pretty et al. published in our August issue, the authors underline how environmental considerations in agriculture intensification have been traditionally limited to minimizing negative impacts. Instead, with their analyses, they show that, for example, a move away from fertilizers to nitrogen-fixing legumes as part of rotations or intercropping could improve intensification without increasing environmental stress. Their point is that agriculture intensification can be sustainable if the system is adequately re-designed and if all players involved accept that no new designed system will succeed forever.

Increasing food production can impact conservation strategies — another issue likely to have long-term negative consequences for our ability to provide healthy levels of nutrition to all. Keesing and colleagues, in an Article in this issue, show however that a conflict between the two shouldn’t be the case. They analyse the potential trade-offs between management for wildlife and for livestock in an East African savannah, and find potential ecological and economic benefits from integrating the two.

However, even while considering effective strategies, it remains clear that human activities do affect biodiversity around the world, and that applies to agricultural practices as much as to other activities. In a Brief Communication in the August issue, Mehrabi et al. analyse the implications of the conservationists’ proposal to give back half the Earth’s surface to nature (the ‘Half-Earth’ project). Among other results, they find that, depending on the landscape conservation strategy, 23–25% of non-food calories and 3–29% of food calories from crops globally could be lost if the proposal were implemented. They do show that the trade-offs between agriculture and the Half-Earth proposal will be much lower if landscapes remain mosaics of shared land uses.

So, what are we left with? We can certainly improve agricultural practices as discussed earlier in this Editorial, and increase their sustainability. Will it be enough to achieve our societal goals? Perhaps we need to also look at our individual behaviour. We know that we need to manage our dependence on nature sustainably. And sustainable management hinges on deep understanding of human–nature relationships. Behavioural sciences can bring invaluable insights to our ways of mapping the complexity of such relationships. Going back to the sustainability of agricultural practices, the different ways in which individuals’ mindsets represent a system and the causal relationships among its components (mental models) can capture more or less complexity, as discussed in an Article by Levy and colleagues in our August issue. The authors show that, for example, mental models characterized by direct, unidirectional causation allow fast decision-making but might fail to anticipate consequences of actions in the presence of strong interdependences. Understanding these cognitive mechanisms has important implications for individual and collective decision-making about sustainable agriculture. And that is crucial to better orient food-security strategies. With the right set of changes in practices and interventions, informed by academic research and practice, there is still hope to achieve SDG 2 on time.

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The Challenge of Feeding the World Sustainably: Summary of the US-UK Scientific Forum on Sustainable Agriculture (2021)

Chapter: 1 the challenge of sustainable agriculture, 1 the challenge of sustainable agriculture.

Agriculture has had a greater influence on the surface of the Earth than any other human activity (see Figure 1-1 ). More than one-third of the Earth’s ice-free surface is devoted to agriculture, and the portion is increasing as more land is converted to crop and livestock production. 1 Of the water withdrawn from rivers, lakes, and aquifers, 70 percent goes to agriculture, 2 and 20 percent of aquifers are already overexploited. 3 As the global population and per capita income continue to increase, the pressure on land and water to provide food will grow.

___________________

1 Ramankutty, N., Z. Mehrabi, K. Waha, L. Jarvis, C. Kremen, M. Herrero, and L. H. Rieseberg. 2018. Trends in global agricultural land use: Implications for environmental health and food security. Annual Review of Plant Biology 69(1):789–815.

2 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). 2020. United Nations World Water Development Report 2020: Water and Climate Change . Paris, France: UNESCO.

3 Gleeson, T., Y. Wada, M. F. P. Bierkens, and L. P. H. van Beek. 2012. Water balance of global aquifers revealed by groundwater footprint. Nature 488:197–200.

This extensive use of the Earth’s land and water has already had many deleterious effects on natural habitats and human health. Land use change for agriculture is the biggest threat to biodiversity globally. 4 Somewhere between 21 and 37 percent of total global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to food systems, including agriculture and other land use, storage, transport, packaging, processing, retail, and consumption. 5 Pollution from fertilizer and pesticide use runs off into rivers, lakes, and ultimately the ocean, threatening aquatic and marine ecosystems and the people who rely on those ecosystems for food, water, and jobs. 6 Intensive agriculture has contributed to soil degradation, the spread of zoonotic diseases and antibiotic resistance, and the loss of traditional skills, knowledge, institutions, and farming practices.

The global food system feeds a world population of nearly 8 billion people, which is a remarkable accomplishment. Yet, more than 800 million people worldwide remain undernourished, nearly 150 million children are stunted (too short for their age), and nearly 50 million children are wasted (too thin for their height). 7 At the same time, more than 2 billion adults and children are overweight or obese, in part because of a worldwide trend toward eating more processed foods and higher quantities of salt, sugar, and fat. 8 Increasing rates of obesity have in turn boosted the number of diet-related chronic diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and some kinds of cancers.

T HE US-UK S CIENTIFIC F ORUM ON S USTAINABLE A GRICULTURE

It was against this backdrop that the National Academy of Sciences and the United Kingdom’s Royal Society convened leading scientists and practitioners in the fields of agricultural sciences, food policy, biodiversity, and environmental science (among others) at the US-UK Scientific Forum on Sustainable Agriculture, which was held in Washington, DC, on March 5–6, 2020. Participants at

4 Tilman, D., M. Clark, D. R. Williams, K. Kimmel, S. Polasky, and C. Packer. 2017. Future threats to biodiversity and pathways to their prevention. Nature 546:73–81.

5 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2019. Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems . P. R. Shukla, J. Skea, E. Calvo Buendia, V. Masson-Delmotte, H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, P. Zhai, R. Slade, S. Connors, R. van Diemen, M. Ferrat, E. Haughey, S. Luz, S. Neogi, M. Pathak, J. Petzold, J. Portugal Pereira, P. Vyas, E. Huntley, K. Kissick, M. Belkacemi, and J. Malley, eds. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC.

6 Onyango, J. 2018. Agricultural nutrients and pesticide pollution in aquatic ecosystems, with policy implications. Research & Reviews: Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences 6(4).

7 Development Initiatives. 2018. The 2018 Global Nutrition Report: Shining a Light to Spur Action on Nutrition . Bristol, UK: Development Initiatives.

8 The GBD 2015 Obesity Collaborators. 2017. Health effects of overweight and obesity in 195 countries over 25 years. The New England Journal of Medicine 377(1):13–27.

the forum included researchers who study a range of topics from soil health and crop sciences to food security and population health—communities that do not commonly have opportunities to collaborate. The US-UK Scientific Forums provide opportunities for leading scientists, primarily from the United States and the United Kingdom, to identify research opportunities, build multidisciplinary and international collaborations, and discuss how science can provide or inform solutions to pressing international problems.

Sessions at the forum were organized into four themes: enhancing food security in a rapidly changing climate, agriculture’s positive and negative effects on biodiversity and environmental health, agroecosystem productivity and agro-food system efficiency, and consumption behaviors, nutrition, and policy. This summary of the forum draws on three sources: the presentations by participants, the discussions following the presentations, and the plenary reports from small groups that met for 1 hour on the second day of the forum to discuss the future of sustainable agriculture. This summary should not be seen as representing conclusions of the National Academy of Sciences or the Royal Society. Rather, it consists of observations and suggestions for future action made by forum participants.

O RGANIZATION OF THE S UMMARY

Chapter 2 of this summary of the US-UK Scientific Forum on Sustainable Agriculture examines agriculture’s impacts on biodiversity and the environment. Agriculture is just one part of a much larger global food system, but it is the indispensable core of that system and inevitably shapes and modifies the system’s other components.

Chapter 3 considers the links among agriculture, diets, nutrition, and health. These links extend to the environment, because healthier diets tend to place less stress on the environment and biodiversity, which creates additional incentives and levers for change.

Chapter 4 looks at developments in science and technology that could enhance the sustainability of agriculture, including precision farming, biotechnologies, and research in the social sciences.

Finally, Chapter 5 discusses some of the policy actions that could move the world not only toward sustainable agriculture but also toward a much broader sustainable global food system.

The need for sustainable agriculture is becoming ever more significant. The world's population is still increasing, requiring more from our agricultural systems. Malnutrition and diet-related illnesses are present in nearly all societies. At the same time, agriculture plays a significant role in some of the biggest environmental challenges that humanity is facing, including the climate crisis, biodiversity loss, deforestation, and the pollution of our soil, water, and air. The need to balance the growing demand for nutritious food with these environmental threats is a complex issue, and ensuring sustainable food systems will require a collaborative effort from many different communities.

These issues were addressed during the US-UK Scientific Forum on Sustainable Agriculture held in Washington, DC, on March 5-6, 2020. Organized by the National Academy of Sciences and the United Kingdom's Royal Society, the forum brought together leading scientists, researchers, policy makers, and practitioners in agricultural sciences, food policy, biodiversity, and environmental science (among other specialties). The forum provided an opportunity for members of these research communities to build multidisciplinary and international collaborations that can inform solutions to a broad set of problems. This publication summarizes the presentations of the forum.

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Environmental Topics and Essays

Just another sb you: web publishing for you site, sustainable vs. conventional agriculture.

I. Introduction

Farming has enabled human populations to dominate the world’s landscapes for many thousands of years.  The science of agriculture has been refined and perfected over time to accommodate for the ever-increasing human population.  Until recent centuries, productive crops were mostly organic and existed with some permanence as part of a landscape.  As communities grow though, less and less land is available for food production and existing crops become easily exhausted.  Food insecurity caused by rapid population growth has pressured science to step in and produce many synthetic chemicals and gene manipulation techniques to maximize the potential of plants.  In addition, agricultural production has increased tremendously worldwide over the last century.  Coupled with this growth however is the pollution and degradation of the natural environment.  Many agricultural techniques exist today, but in an effort to adjust to the exponential trends of our population without compromising the integrity of the environment it is necessary to have a global transition towards sustainable farming.  With the current population at seven billion and rising, an important question must be addressed: What is the most sustainable and cost effective way to feed the world’s population?  Fortunately humans have been perfecting agricultural methods for thousands of years, which can help to answer this question.

This paper will analyze and compare two types of farming, organic and conventional.  In a comparison of agriculture, my goal is to assess the impact and performance of each practice and then identify the best method for growing crops.  Although there are many types of agricultural practices, they can be generalized as sustainable or conventional based on the techniques used.  Sustainable / organic farming aims to produce a number of crops, without the use of synthetic chemicals or fertilizers, while enhancing soil composition and promoting biodiversity.  This is a traditional, more permanent type of farming that relies on ecosystem services to maintain the integrity of the landscape while still producing sufficient yields.  Conventional farming uses synthetic chemicals and fertilizers to maximize the yield of a particular crop or set of crops, which are typically genetically modified.  This method requires a significant amount of chemical and energy input and weakens the ecology of a landscape.  In a comparative analysis of these two techniques, it is important to highlight the fact that the crops studied differed in soil composition, geography, and rotation systems.  “To carry on extensive long-term trials for a number of crops in several different geographical areas would be of fundamental importance to understand the potential of organic farming as well as to improve farming techniques in general.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Due to the many different factors determining crop health and productivity, there is a need for much more extensive research on the subject.  Therefore, my goal in writing this paper was to use reliable, long-term research that made specific assessments of the two generalized types of farming and then compare the results.

II. History of Agriculture

Agriculture has played a tremendous role in the advancement of human society. Agriculture has been around since roughly 10,000 B.C.E. and has enabled humans to manipulate ecosystems and maximize population growth ( Xtimeline.com ).  The science has encouraged people to live and develop rich, permanent settlements all over the world.  When humans first discovered the potential of planting seeds, they suddenly had the ability to explore the world and establish infrastructures wherever soils were fertile.

Soon after the start of agriculture people began to select for genes that maximized plant yields.  Selective breeding was first implemented on plants over 10,000 years ago to produce desired characteristics in crops ( USDA.gov ).  This discovery further contributed to the permanence and size of settlements.  With breakthroughs in agriculture, populations increased and development spread.

Early farming techniques depended on local climate conditions, but most farmers would continue to plant on the same field year-after-year until the soils were exhausted of nutrients.  This encouraged ingenuities such as crop rotation and intercropping ( Economywatch.com ).  Intercropping is a technique in which a variety of crops are grown together, creating a microclimate that favors the survival of each plant, maximizes potential yields and maintains soil fertility ( Archaeology.about.com ).  For example, Native Americans developed an intercropping technique over 5,000 years ago called the three sisters, where maize, beans, and squash were grown together ( Archaeology.about.com ).  Maize consumes a lot of nitrogen, while beans supply nitrogen to the soil, and squash benefits from a shady, moist climate.  Intercropping is one of many early discoveries in agriculture still being implemented today that promotes biodiversity, maintains soil composition, and fortifies plant health.

Techniques such as irrigation, intercropping, and crop rotation have progressively increased efficiency in agriculture.  Over the last few centuries however, radical changes have been made in farming and many countries have made a shift toward conventional methods.  Factors such as growing populations, economic instability, climate change, and pressures from companies to produce higher yields have contributed to this shift.  However, adopting these conventional methods subjects farmers to the greed of industry, as their crops depend on a high input of energy, synthetic chemicals, and genetically modified organisms.  And once committed to the conventional practices, farmers find themselves locked in a perpetual cycle of loans, subsidies, and debt.

III.  Conventional Agriculture

Conventional agriculture is a broad term that has a number of definitions, but a crop can be classified as conventional if synthetic chemicals are used to maintain the plants.  A significant amount of chemical and energy input is required in conventional agriculture to produce the highest possible yield of crops.  “This method usually alters the natural environment, deteriorates soil quality, and eliminates biodiversity.” ( USDA.gov ).   Conventional agriculture was developed to make farming more efficient, but achieves that efficiency at a major cost to the environment.

The goal of conventional agriculture is to maximize the potential yield of crops.  This is achieved through the application of synthetic chemicals, genetically modified organisms, and a number of other industrial products.  In maintaining a conventional system, biodiversity, soil fertility, and ecosystems health are compromised (Huntley, Collins, and Swisher).  Production of these crops is beneficial to nothing but food security and economy.  Once established, a conventional farm requires constant maintenance but produces maximal yields.

Maintenance is made easy for farmers as conventional farming typically involves monocropping, but is also very expensive.  In a conventional system farmers will designate entire fields to just one crop, which creates uniformity.  Uniformity can determine both the success and failure of conventional systems.  A uniform crop is ideal because it reduces labor costs and makes harvesting easy, but it can also impact biodiversity and make crops susceptible to pathogens (Gabriel, Salt, Kunin, and Benton 2013).  Chemicals and genetically modified organisms make maintenance of conventional systems relatively simple for farmers, but require a constant input of energy and money.  In a conventional system, farmers can apply pesticides and herbicides to crops at a much more efficient rate if they are made up of just one type of plant, but this has a number of unintended consequences.  Since the goal of conventional agriculture is to maximize yields, environmental health and biodiversity are usually not preserved.

IV.  Sustainable Agriculture

Where conventional farming represents one extreme of agriculture, sustainable farming represents the other.  “Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people.  It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.  Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Sustainable agriculture is a more holistic approach to farming than conventional in that it relies on ecosystem services and is typically much less detrimental to the surrounding landscape.  Sustainable agriculture is a natural way to produce food and has a number of social, economic, and environmental benefits.

There are many types of sustainable farming that all rely on natural cycles to ensure plant health and crop performance.  Sustainable farming forgoes the use of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers to produce food.  Instead, farmers will plant a variety of plants together to promote biodiversity and ward off pests and pathogens (Nicholls and Altieri 2012).  Where conventional systems promote uniformity and depend on synthetic chemicals for protection against disease and pests, sustainable systems rely on biodiversity as a measure to protect against these things.

Sustainable agriculture profits farmers, economies, and food banks while existing symbiotically with the landscape.  One example of many in sustainable farming practices, which emphasizes economic benefits and environmental health, is conservation agriculture.  “By increasing soil organic matter contents and moisture-holding capacity, CA can double subsistence crop yields in areas where use of fertilizers is uneconomic and it can sustain production in years with low rainfall.” (Kassam and Brammer 2013).  Conservation agriculture underlines the focus of sustainable agriculture in that it focuses on producing high yields without compromising the integrity of the environment.

V.  A Comparison of Agriculture

In a comparison of conventional and sustainable agriculture there should be several points of focus: production, biodiversity, soil composition / erosion, water use, energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions.  The environmental impact and production levels of each method will determine its overall viability as a solution to growing trends.  It is necessary to make these comparisons in order to identify the best agricultural method that can sustainably meet the needs of the current population.  Although these comparisons are based off of scientific data, there is much more research that needs to be done in order to make a definitive judgment.

To meet the needs of the current population requires a tremendous amount of resources.  Not taking into account the environmental damage associated with intense production, conventional agriculture is a feasible way to provide for more people; “… population growth and increasing consumption of calorie- and meat-intensive diets are expected to roughly double human food demand by 2050.” (Mueller, Gerber, Johnston, Ray, Ramankutty, and Foley 2012).  In addressing this rapid growth, production levels become a serious point of comparison.  “Organic yields are globally on average 25% lower than conventional yields according to a recent meta-analysis, although this varies with crop types and species and depends on the comparability of farming systems.” (Gabriel, Salt, Kunin, and Benton 2013).  Most research indicates that sustainable crops produce much less than conventional systems.

There are many environmental benefits associated with sustainable agriculture, but its production capacity is limited.  In general, sustainable agriculture fails to match up to conventional agriculture in terms of production.  This result varies though, and in some instances organic crops actually best conventional crops.  For example, under drought conditions organic crops tend to produce higher yields because they typically retain more water; “As part of the Rodale Institute Farming System Trial (from 1981 to 2002), Pimentel et al. , (2005) found that during 1999, a year of extreme drought, (with total rainfall between April and August of 224 mm, compared with an average of 500 mm) the organic animal system had significantly higher corn yield (1,511 kg per ha) than either organic legume (412 kg per ha) or the conventional (1,100 kg per ha).” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Although certain conditions may favor organic crops, conventional agriculture is designed to produce the highest yields possible.

Many factors contribute to this difference in production.  Conventional crops are designed specifically to produce maximal yields; therefore, the difference should be expected.  Typically conventional crops are genetically modified to perform better under certain conditions than sustainable crops (Carpenter 2011).  However, these crops are also sprayed with toxic pesticides and herbicides to make up for their uniformity.  Some research has been done to determine whether increased biodiversity is related to increased yields; “…farmland biodiversity is typically negatively related to crop yield; generally, organic farming per se does not have an effect other than via reducing yields and therefore increasing biodiversity.” (Gabriel, Salt, Kunin, and Benton 2013).  Although levels of production are reduced in sustainable agriculture, studies show that higher levels of biodiversity are linked to healthier crops.

Biodiversity plays a large part in this comparison because it is a determinant of agricultural health and performance.  The greater the biodiversity, the more immune plants are to pests and disease (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  This is important to highlight because conventional agriculture discourages biodiversity and instead relies on synthetic chemicals to maintain crop health.  Over 940 million pounds of pesticides are being applied annually with only 10% of that reaching the desired target, a number that could be greatly reduced if conventional agriculture were to implement sustainable alternatives ( Sustainablelafayette.org ).  Techniques such as integrated pest management and intercropping could be applied to conventional systems and in turn promote biodiversity.

High biodiversity is important to sustainable farming because it enhances the performance of the ecological cycles that the crops depend upon.  Organic agricultural systems are typically much more rich in nutrients and diverse in organisms than conventional systems; “…organic farming is usually associated with a significantly higher level of biological activity, represented by bacteria, fungi, springtails, mites and earthworms, due to its versatile crop rotations, reduced applications of nutrients, and the ban on pesticides.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  It is important to encourage high nutrient levels and biodiversity as these two factors contribute significantly to the health of the crops and the landscape.  Although biodiversity does not directly determine crop yield, it does play a major role in the health and permanence of sustainable farms.

Despite the impacts conventional methods have on agricultural land, not all conventional farms degrade biodiversity.  In fact, there are many ways farmers can reduce the amount of chemicals and energy they use by implementing low input alternatives; “Overall, the review finds that currently commercialized GM crops have reduced the impacts of agriculture on biodiversity, through enhanced adoption of conservation tillage practices, reduction of insecticide use and use of more environmentally benign herbicides and increasing yields to alleviate pressure to convert additional land into agricultural use.” (Carpenter 2011).  The global impact agriculture has can be significantly reduced if conventional farmers adopt sustainable techniques.

In addition to higher levels of biodiversity, sustainable farming is typically associated with better soil quality.  Organic farms have stronger soil ecology because they promote biodiversity rather than uniformity; “The results confirm that higher levels of total and organic C, total N and soluble organic C are observed in all of the organic soil.” (Wang, Li, and Fan 2012).  The increased concentrations of these nutrients can be contributed to the depth of the food web and amount of biomass in sustainable systems.  “In a seven-year experiment in Italy, Marinari et al. (2006) compared two adjacent farms, one organic and one conventional, and found that the fields under organic management showed significantly better soil nutritional and microbiological conditions; with an increased level of total nitrogen, nitrate and available phosphorus, and an increased microbial biomass content, and enzymatic activities.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Sustainable crops are more permanent than conventional crops because they work in harmony with the landscape rather than drain it of nutrients and biomass.

Soil management is vital for existing farms because agricultural production is increasing globally and land is becoming less available to accommodate this growth.  Conventional systems can improve soil quality by practicing sustainable methods like no-tillage farming, agroforestry, and integrated pest management, but sustainable agriculture is the most effective form of food production in terms of maintaining soil conditions.  “Establishing trees on agricultural land can help to mitigate many of the negative impacts of agriculture, for example by regulating soil, water and air quality, supporting biodiversity, reducing inputs by natural regulation of pests and more efficient nutrient cycling, and by modifying local and global climates.” (Smith, Pearce, and Wolfe 2012).  Again, research shows that an increase in biodiversity and a reduction of chemical input can result in conventional farms with more healthy soils and improved crop performance.

A major problem concerning agriculture is soil erosion caused by nutrient loss, run-off, salinity, and drought.  Soil erosion presents a threat to the growth of agriculture because, “Intensive farming exacerbates these phenomena, which are threatening the future sustainability of crop production on a global scale, especially under extreme climatic events such as droughts.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Organic systems enhance soil composition as well as prevent soil erosion due to the greater amount of plant material and biomass in the soil.  Conventional systems manipulate the landscape rather than adapt to it; “…soils under organic management showed <75% soil loss compared to the maximum tolerance value in the region (the maximum rate of soil erosion that can occur without compromising long-term crop productivity or environmental quality −11.2 t ha −1 yr −1 ), while in conventional soil a rate of soil loss three times the maximum tolerance value was recorded.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Compared to sustainable farming, conventional crops are terribly inefficient at maintaining the integrity of agricultural landscapes.  Conventional agriculture is therefore unable meet the demands of the growing populations without consuming a substantial amount of land and non-renewable resources.

On a global scale, water is a renewable resource that can meet the needs of our current population.  Locally, however, water is a scarce resource and must be appropriated efficiently.  The amount of fresh water available for consumption globally is small, but regional constraints make accessing that water even more difficult for many millions of people.  Agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of water use worldwide ( USDA.gov ).  Increasing demand for fresh water is pressuring global stocks.  To conserve this resource a drastic overhaul of water saving techniques, especially in agriculture, must occur.

Due to the abundance of flora and fauna in sustainable systems, organic soil typically retains much more water than conventional soil.  This increased retention rate enables sustainable agricultural systems to produce much higher yields than conventional systems during drought conditions (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  This is a desirable characteristic in agricultural land as it allows crops to be more tolerable to changing climate.  “In heavy loess soils in a temperate climate in Switzerland water holding capacity was reported being 20 to 40% higher in organically managed soils than in conventional ones… The primary reason for higher yield in organic crops is thought to be due to the higher water-holding capacity of the soils under organic management.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  To manage available water resources, sustainable agriculture is the more efficient approach to feeding the world.

A gap exists between current production rates and potential production rates of crops.  Through better management of water and soil, much greater yields can be produced.  Increasing efficiency to 100% is not entirely feasible, but implementing sustainable farming techniques would conserve resources and improve crop performance; “Globally, we find that closing yield gaps to 100% of attainable yields could increase worldwide crop production by 45% to 70% for most major crops (with 64%, 71% and 47% increases for maize, wheat and rice, respectively).” (Mueller, Gerber, Johnston, Ray, Ramankutty, and Foley 2012).  Meeting future food demands is a dynamic problem that requires consideration of all things, but most importantly water and soil conservation.

Sustainable agriculture relies solely on natural processes for input and recycles nutrients on-site to eliminate the use of non-renewable resources.  Alternatively, conventional agriculture requires an incredible amount of energy to produce, prepare, and transport food.  Energy efficiency is important to agriculture as it can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and lower costs of production; “Agricultural activities (not including forest conversion) account for approximately 5% of anthropogenic emissions of CO 2 and the 10–12% of total global anthropogenic emissions of GHGs (5.1 to 6.1 Gt CO 2 eq. yr −1 in 2005), accounting for nearly all the anthropogenic methane and one to two thirds of all anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions are due to agricultural activities.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Agriculture is responsible for a significant percentage of greenhouse gas emissions, but can also mitigate this impact using sustainable methods.  Better management of agricultural land is required to reduce the effects of crop production.

Sustainable agriculture has the ability to offset global greenhouse emissions at a greater rate than conventional agriculture because it is more permanent and does not require much input to produce food.  Conventional systems are inefficient at capturing carbon because of soil composition, constant production, and how much energy is being used to maintain the crops.  “We use so much machinery, pesticides, irrigation, processing, and transportation that for every calorie that comes to the table, 10 calories or energy have been expended.” ( Sustainablelafayette.org ).  However, there are measures that can be taken to increase energy efficiency.  “This carbon can be stored in soil by SOM and by aboveground biomass through processes such as adopting rotations with cover crops and green manures to increase SOM, agroforestry, and conservation-tillage systems.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Conventional agriculture operates at a net energy loss, but implementing sustainable practices can reduce costs and benefit the surrounding landscape.

Sustainable agriculture aims to enhance the composition of a landscape while producing sufficient yields.  This method is so efficient compared to conventional agriculture because it requires no input of synthetic chemicals or fertilizers, which accounts for a large amount of the greenhouse gas emissions.  However, energy efficiency also takes into account the ratio of input to output.  In that sense, there is no substantial difference between the two types of agriculture; “…the energy efficiency, calculated as the yield divided by the energy use (MJ ha −1 ), was generally higher in the organic system than in the conventional system, but the yields were also lower. This meant that conventional crop production had the highest net energy production, whereas organic crop production had the highest energy efficiency.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Even though conventional systems produce greater yields than sustainable systems, organic crop production is the most energy efficient method.

VI.  Conclusion

Studies point toward sustainable agriculture as the best solution to managing the growing population.  Although the benefits of sustainable agriculture are abundant, there are several constraints to adopting this method worldwide.  Climate conditions vary with geography so where sustainable agriculture is the most efficient system in one part of the world, it may not be entirely feasible in another.  “Some authors suggest the adoption of integrated farming, rather than upholding solely organic practices, which they find more harmful than conventional farming, for instance in the case of pest control technologies.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Many factors determine the performance of agricultural methods and often the most effective type of agriculture requires a combination of techniques.  In addition to local constraints, sustainable agriculture also requires much more labor to maintain crops.

The science of agriculture has allowed human populations to grow exponentially and dominate the world’s landscapes.  Advancements in this science have enabled humans to manipulate entire ecosystems to cater to their survival.  But as populations continue to grow, resources are becoming limited.  Water, fuel, and soil are three important factors determining the survival the world’s population and it is crucial that they are used as efficiently as possible.  In a comparison of sustainable and conventional agriculture, organic farming methods are shown to perform much better for a number of indicators.  Sustainable agriculture consumes less water and energy, enhances soil composition, and forgoes synthetic chemical input.  Conventional agriculture cannot meet the needs of the current population without compromising the integrity of the environment.  Sustainable agriculture has the potential to sequester carbon, feed the world, and enrich the environment.  The social, economic, and environmental benefits of this system are reasons why sustainable agriculture is the most viable way to accommodate growing trends.

VII.  References

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• Carpenter, J, E. Impact of GM Crops on Biodiversity. GM Crops [Online] 2011, Volume 2:1, 7-23; http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/gmcrops/CarpenterGMC2-1.pdf  (Accessed April 20, 2013).
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• Gabriel, D.; Salt, SM.; Kunin, WE.; Benton, TG. Food Production Vs. Biodiversity: Comparing Organic and Conventional Agriculture. Journal of Applied Ecology [Online] 2013 , Volume 50, Issue 2: 355-364; http://apps.webofknowledge.com.libproxy.cc.stonybrook.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=10&SID=4CpkdIbjgdKHalEipLc&page=1&doc=1 (Accessed April 28, 2013).
• Wang, S.; Li, Z.; Fan, GS. Soil Quality and Microbes in Organic and Conventional Farming Systems. African Journal of Microbiology Research [Online] 2012 , Volume 6, Issue 24: 5077-5085; http://apps.webofknowledge.com.libproxy.cc.stonybrook.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=14&SID=4CpkdIbjgdKHalEipLc&page=1&doc=1 (Accessed May 8, 2013).
• Huntley, EE.; Collins, EE.; Swisher, M.E. Effects of Organic and Conventional Farm Practices on Soil Quality. University of Florida [Online]; http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/nsfc/39.htm (Accessed April 26, 2013)
• USDA.Gov . U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2013. Web. http://www.nal.usda.gov/history-art-and-biography/history-agriculture. 1 May 2013.
• Economywatch . Com . Stanley St Labs. 2010. Web. http://www.economywatch.com/agriculture/types/. 25 Apr. 2013.
• Xtimeline . Com . Famento, Inc. 2013. Web. http://www.xtimeline.com/timeline/History-of-agriculture-1. 28 Apr. 2013.
• Archaeology.About.Com . About.Com. Web. http://archaeology.about.com/od/tterms/qt/Three-Sisters.htm. 20 Apr. 2013
• Sustainablelafayette.Org. Sustainable Lafayette. 2013. Web. http://www.sustainablelafayette.org/?page_id=1015. 13 May 2013.

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The reason why most people are finding it difficult to cure HSV is because they believe in medical reports and their drugs (tablets) and supplement which is not helpful to cure herpes virus. Natural herbal roots/herbs medicine is the best remedy which can easily neutralize and eradicate herpes from your body completely because this herbal medication also cured me from the virus within a few weeks. read more about this herbal cure medication on his webpage https://Excelherbalcure.com

I was tested positive for HSV2 and ever since then I was taking different kinds of drugs from my medical doctor but yet no improvement until I saw on the internet how a herbalist has been curing several people from different kinds of herpes virus! I immediately contacted him and after our discussion he prepared the herbal medicine and send it to me which I received and drink according to his instructions. My medical doctor just confirmed me HSV2 negative and my heart is so filled with joy so I appreciate this herbal man for curing me with his herbal medication. If you are reading this and you got Herpes virus you can contact him through his Web address: Excelherbalcure.com

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I have suffered from HERPES Simplex Virus and was totally depressed about it until I met Doctor excel the great herbal healer who cured me from the nasty virus by drinking the herbal medicine that he sent me. for more information visit his website to know more about his medication. https://excelherbalcure.com

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I recently got cured from herpes virus after drinking natural herbal treatment. I read several articles online about how a herbal man cure other people from the same virus with herbal medication and I contacted him and gave it a try and after one month I got rid of the virus by testing negative several times, I will like to advice the world that natural herbal medicine is the best way to cure this mess called herpes. I shared my experience with other patients who are suffering from herpes virus to get in contact with this herbal man called excel, his web address.. https://excelherbalcure.com

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Herpes is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases, prompting many to wonder how to get rid of herpes naturally….Does anyone still doubt natural herbs? We all know that herpes is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases, prompting many to wonder how to get rid of herpes naturally. Unfortunately, they did not find a definite solution to herpes but today I have brought you the great opportunity we all have been waiting for because I’ve seen the great importance of natural herbs and the wonderful work they have done in people’s lives. I wonder why people still spend their money on surgery, injections and drugs each time they are sick or diagnosed. Natural herbs can cure all kinds of illness including herpes, diabetics, asthma, HIV, hepatitis, etc. I’ve seen it with my own eyes. I was cured of Herpes and my aunt and her husband were cured of HIV by Dr. iniboku using natural herbs to cure different kinds of illness. Even Dr. Sebi and Dr. iniboku have proven to the whole world that natural herbs can cure all diseases and it has cured countless people using natural herbs. I know it is hard to believe but I am a living testimony. There is no harm in trying herbs. He is also a spell caster, he can cast a spell to restore your marriage back to normal, a good luck spell to prosper in life and excel in whatever you do in life. Contact or email Dr. iniboku on:[email protected] or [email protected] (phone/whatsapp no): +2347059186346 or visit page https://www.facebook.com/driniboku/

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I have been suffering from Herpes for the past 1 years and 8 months, and ever since then i have been taking series of treatment but there was no improvement until i came across testimonies of Dr. UMA on how he has been curing different people from different diseases all over the world, then i contacted him as well. After our conversation he sent me the medicine which i  took according .to his instructions. When i was done taking the herbal medicine i went for a medical checkup and to my greatest surprise i was cured from Herpes. My heart is so filled with joy. If you are suffering from Herpes or any other disease you can contact Dr. UMA today on this Email address: [email protected] or whatsapp +2347035619585.

AN AMAZING REMEDY FOR HSV 1 & 2. It’s so unbelievable how wonderful herbs can be. when I first saw a post that said that a man have a perfect cure for HSV 1&2, i was like could this be real or some kind of scam but due to my eagerness to be cured I took the risk of contacting him, he gave me reasons to believe he is a real herbalist so I followed all his instructions on how to take the drugs for 14 days and now all my test results shows HSV 1&2 (-) negative , Dr Aba have the most safe cure for herpes and other stubborn virus which are HSV 1&2,STI,STD just name it he has the cure for them all. Contact him via his personal email address which is [email protected] . Trust me you will like this method, it’s safe, cheap and easy. Do well to let others know about this..

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Life is always beautiful when you have good health.i have be in pain for almost 1 year had HSV 1&2 and I was lonely and sad, luckily I was directed to a very kind and Great Dr Oliha who helped me cure my HSV 1&2 and today I am free from the virus and very healthy thank you so much Dr Oliha .Email [email protected] you can also whatsapp/Call him; +2349038382931

I was infected with Genital Herpes Virus 10 month ago, ever since then I have been searching for a cure everywhere because I was feeling so uncomfortable with it. I have been dating for almost 5 years until I contracted Genital Herpes from my ex-boyfriend. Since then I became very sad about the whole situation, always going online to check if I could get a cure to Genital Herpes, then I came across so many testimonies. Due to my seriousness and eagerness to be completely cured, I became a victim of fraud after contacting several so-called herbal doctors I was referred to. I lost a lot of money but I didn’t stop searching for a cure. Then one faithful day, I came across a testimony of a lady saying that she got her Genital herpes cured by a Great Herbal Doctor she called Dr Iniboku by contacting him through his email address. And she advised anyone with Genital Herpes or Simplex Herpes to contact the herbal doctor for Herbal Cure. I contemplated for about 4 hours whether or not to contact him. Then something inside of me told me ‘Nothing good comes easy’. I then contacted him through his email and told him my problem. He told me all the things I needed to do and also gave me instructions to follow, which I did properly. Just within weeks of drinking and applying the herbal medication he sent to me through DHL delivery service, i started seeing changes, i went to my medical doctor for check-up, i was so happy when the doctor told me i was no more having Genital Herpes Virus, it was all tears of Joy from that moment, People think herpes is really a minor skin irritation herpes has a long term effects on health and if i could ever meet a Genuinely Great Herbal Doctor. I’m so grateful to him. I am completely free from Genital Herpes Virus, i introduced a family friend who has Simplex Herpes virus to him, He called me and told me he was also completely. I promised to share my own testimony like that of the lady on the internet. Friends, If you are also struggling with Herpes disease you can as well Contact him via Email: [email protected] him on via whatsApp at +2347059186346

Hello friends I’m here to share how a herbalist cured me from genital herpes virus with his herbal medication that he sent me to drink. I thought it was all over for me until my doctor confirmed severally that the virus of 3 years is gone, I have never in my life believed that herpes virus could be cured by herbal medicine. you also can try him out and it might as well work for you reach him today via his website https://excelherbalcure.com

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I already gave up on ever getting cured of HSV2 because i have try many treatment none of them work out for me i have gone to different hospital they always tell me the same thing there is no cure for herpes, when i came across a post about Dr UMA in the net from a lady called Angela i contacted her and she reassured me with his herbal medicine which i took according to the way he instructed, that how i was cured. I doubted at first because i have been to a whole lot of reputable doctors, tried a lot of medicines but none was able to cure me. so i decided to listen to him and he commenced treatment, and under two weeks i was totally free from Herpes. i want to say a very big thank you to DR UMA for what he has done in my life. feel free to leave him a message on email [email protected] or also Whats-app him +2347035619585.. he also cure all this 1.HIV 2.HIV HPV 3 .ALS 4. BED WETTING DIABETES.

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I already gave up on ever getting cured of HSV2 because i have try many treatment none of them work out for me i have gone to different hospital they always tell me the same thing there is no cure for herpes, when i came across a post about Dr UMA in the net from a lady called Angela i contacted her and she reassured me with his herbal medicine which i took according to the way he instructed, that how i was cured. I doubted at first because i have been to a whole lot of reputable doctors, tried a lot of medicines but none was able to cure me. so i decided to listen to him and he commenced treatment, and under two weeks i was totally free from Herpes. i want to say a very big thank you to DR UMA for what he has done in my life. feel free to leave him a message on email [email protected] or also Whats-app him +2347035619585.. he also cure all this 1.HIV 2.HIV HPV 3 .ALS 4. BED WETTING DIABETES.,

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I have been suffering from Herpes for the past 1 years and 8 months, and ever since then i have been taking series of treatment but there was no improvement until i came across testimonies of Dr. UMA on how he has been curing different people from different diseases all over the world, then i contacted him as well. After our conversation he sent me the medicine which i  took according .to his instructions. When i was done taking the herbal medicine i went for a medical checkup and to my greatest surprise i was cured from Herpes. My heart is so filled with joy. If you are suffering from Herpes or any other disease you can contact Dr. UMA today on this Email address: [email protected] or whatsapp +2347035619585.,;.

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I am amazed by Dr Aba herbal remedy. I Have had herpes for over 6 years with frequent outbreaks. Sometimes average 2-3 times per month. Before one breakout could end, the next would begin. Nothing has helped me. I came online in search for a possible way to see how I can fight this virus so I found Dr Aba here online after seeing a lot of testimonies of how he cured herpes and other diseases with natural herbs so I decided to give it a try, I only took his remedy for two weeks and I was completely cured. I recommend Dr Aba remedy to anyone suffering from herpes that wants to be completely cured too. email: [email protected] and for quick response Message him on his whatsapp number +2348107155060

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I already gave up on ever getting cured of HSV2 because i have try many treatment none of them work out for me i have gone to different hospital they always tell me the same thing there is no cure for herpes, when i came across a post about Dr UMA in the net from a lady called Angela i contacted her and she reassured me with his herbal medicine which i took according to the way he instructed, that how i was cured. I doubted at first because i have been to a whole lot of reputable doctors, tried a lot of medicines but none was able to cure me. so i decided to listen to him and he commenced treatment, and under two weeks i was totally free from Herpes. i want to say a very big thank you to DR UMA for what he has done in my life. feel free to leave him a message on email [email protected] or also Whats-app him +2347035619585.. he also cure all this 1.HIV 2.HIV HPV 3 .ALS 4. BED WETTING DIABETES.’

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HOW I GOT CURED FROM HERPES: I already gave up on ever getting cured of herpes because I have tried many treatment and none has work, I have gone to different hospitals they always recommend me same drugs and it not working on me, until I came .across a post about DR ABA on the net from a lady who is recommending people, then i contacted him that day, and he started giving me hope and then prepared some herbal medicine which I took according to his prescription on them, so I was still doubting if it was working on me so at a time my Husband just ask me to go for .check up and I did, so I found out that I was cure and free from the herpes virus, thanks to DR ABA once again. his email address is [email protected] or whatsapp him on +2348107155060.

I was diagnosed of genital Herpes 3years ago and was in pain with the knowledge that there is no cure for the virus so I was determined to get my life back! there was a day I saw several post about a herbalist how he’s used natural herbal medicine to cure this particular virus, Immediately I contacted him on his website and he prepared and sent me the herbal meds through DHL delivery and after 14days of usage, the Pain, itching, and sores were gone after about a month. I’m the happiest woman on earth because I just tested negative to the virus! this testimony is real and thanks to Dr excel you can also reach him on his website https://excelherbalcure.com

I’m here to appreciate the great work of a herbal man called Excel, I have been diagnosed of herpes virus for a period of 2years, I lost all hope that there is no cure and I have been taken medicine to sustain the virus till I got to know about a herbalist called Excel through a friend who he cured of same virus with his boyfriend. I contacted him and he sent me a Herbal Medicine to drink which he prescribed for me to drink for some period of days then after waiting for two weeks I went to the hospital for test and I was confirmed Herpes Negative several times after 2 years of being positive, it is indeed a miracle, Dr Excel is a great herbal man, I have heard so much about how he has help lot of people, if you have same virus you can contact him for help on his Website: Excelherbalcure.com

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I have been suffering from Herpes for the past 1 years and 8 months, and ever since then i have been taking series of treatment but there was no improvement until i came across testimonies of Dr. UMA on how he has been curing different people from different diseases all over the world, then i contacted him as well. After our conversation he sent me the medicine which i  took according .to his instructions. When i was done taking the herbal medicine i went for a medical checkup and to my greatest surprise i was cured from Herpes. My heart is so filled with joy. If you are suffering from Herpes or any other disease you can contact Dr. UMA today on this Email address: [email protected] or whatsapp +2347035619585.,.

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AN AMAZING REMEDY FOR HSV 1 & 2. It’s so unbelievable how wonderful herbs can be. when I first saw a post that said that a man have a perfect cure for HSV 1&2, i was like could this be real or some kind of scam but due to my eagerness to be cured I took the risk of contacting him, he gave me reasons to believe he is a real herbalist so I followed all his instructions on how. to take the drugs for 14 days and now all my test results shows HSV 1&2 (-) negative , Dr Aba have the most safe cure for herpes and other stubborn virus which are HSV 1&2,STI,STD just name it he has. the cure for them all. Contact him via his personal email address which is [email protected] . Trust me you will like this method, it’s safe, cheap and easy. Do well to let others know about this

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I have been suffering from Herpes for the past 1 years and 8 months, and ever since then i have been taking series of treatment but there was no improvement until i came across testimonies of Dr. UMA on how he has been curing different people from different diseases all over the world, then i contacted him as well. After our conversation he sent me the medicine which i  took according .to his instructions. When i was done taking the herbal medicine i went for a medical checkup and to my greatest surprise i was cured from Herpes. My heart is so filled with joy. If you are suffering from Herpes or any other disease you can contact Dr. UMA today on this Email address: [email protected] or whatsapp +2347035619585.;

Natural herbs have cured so many illness that drugs and injection cant cure. I’ve seen the great importance of natural herbs and the wonderful work they have done in people’s lives. i read people’s testimonies online on how they were cured of herpes, fibroids cyst, colon cleanse, hiv, diabetics etc by Dr UMA herbal medicine, so i decided to contact the doctor because i know nature has the power to heal anything. I was diagnosed with herpes for the past 7 years but Dr. UMA cured me with his herbs after taking his herbs for just 2weeks and i referred my aunt and her husband to him immediately because they were both suffering from herpes virus and they were cured too .I know is hard to believe but am a living testimony. There is no harm trying herbs. Contact [email protected] or WhatsApp +2347035619585.

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God bless Dr Tashe, for I was diagnosed of Herpes since 2012 and I was taking my medications, I wasn’t satisfied i needed to get the Herpes out of my system, I searched about some possible cure for Herpes i saw a comment about Dr Tashe and how he cured Herpes with his herbal medicine, I contacted him and he guided me. I asked for solutions, he started the remedy for my health, I took the medicine as prescribed by him and 14 days later I was cured from HERPES. I mean I was totally cured, thank you Dr Tashe. You may kindly contact him via email address: [email protected] Call or write him on WhatsApp +2348119071237.

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Thank you Dr Hamu for your help in my life, I can’t believe that I am no longer diagnosed with HEPATITIS B. After suffering from it for more than 9years.  Your herbal medication is truly a miracle, If you’re reading this message now whenever you’re in the world, do not waste time but contact this traditional healer for your medication. I found out that he has other herbal solutions to several diseases or STD’s. WhatApp him on: +2348131316143  OR Email: [email protected]

I can’t believe this’s happening, I never believe there is cure to this herpes virus because they all say there is no cure to it, a few months ago I came across this site on the internet with several messages shared by people who has got rid of herpes virus with the help of herbal medication from an herbal man. I contacted this man through his website and asked for his help also, he informed me about the cure process and this man sent me an herbal medicine which I took according to the way he instructed for weeks. I couldn’t believe it when I go for a test several times my result comes out negative and all the symptoms were gone. I am so happy to share this to the world there is a real cure to herpes you can reach and also know about this herbalist on his website https://excelherbalcure.com

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I can’t express my gratitude to Dr Aba for making me a living testimony. i have battled with HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS 2 for about 7years now, and i have done all i can to make sure i am cured but nothing worked out, but miraculously my friend invited me to see a video on his Blog and as i visited i decided. to see few of the comment below, and i found some people talking about Dr Aba, and i decided to contact this great herbal healer to also help me,so i wrote to him, and he replied me back and assure me that i will get a cure for my HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS 2. and after preparing my medicine he sent it to me and when i started using it for 2weeks i was completely cured, I am assuring you that you will be cured if you also contact this great man on his Email: [email protected] or whatsapp is mobile number on +2348107155060.

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I already gave up on ever getting cured of HSV2 because i have try many treatment none of them work out for me i have gone to different hospital they always tell me the same thing there is no cure for herpes, when i came across a post about Dr UMA in the net from a lady called Angela i contacted her and she reassured me with his herbal medicine which i took according to the way he instructed, that how i was cured. I doubted at first because i have been to a whole lot of reputable doctors, tried a lot of medicines but none was able to cure me. so i decided to listen to him and he commenced treatment, and under two weeks i was totally free from Herpes. i want to say a very big thank you to DR UMA for what he has done in my life. feel free to leave him a message on email [email protected] or also Whats-app him +2347035619585.. he also cure all this 1.HIV 2.HIV HPV 3 .ALS 4. BED WETTING DIABETES.<

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I bring you Good news.There is a man called Dr.Ayomide a herbal practitioner who helped cure me from Genital herpes,this i had suffered from for the past 2years and i have spent so much money trying to survive from it.I got my healing by taking the herbal medicine he sent to me to drink for about 9days.3days after completion of the dosage,I went for a medical checkup and I was tested Genital Herpes NEGATIVE.I’m sharing this so that other people can know of this great healer called Dr Ayomide because I got to know him through a friend he cured from HIV.I was made to understand that he can cure several other deadly diseases and infections.Don’t die in ignorance and don’t let that illness take your life.Contact Dr Ayomide through his email [email protected] You can also call him or WhatsApp him on:+2348062443909 Thank you Dr. Ayomide. Be kind enough to share as you received.

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I have been suffering from Herpes for the past 1 years and 8 months, and ever since then i have been taking series of treatment but there was no improvement until i came across testimonies of Dr. UMA on how he has been curing different people from different diseases all over the world, then i contacted him as well. After our conversation he sent me the medicine which i  took according .to his instructions. When i was done taking the herbal medicine i went for a medical checkup and to my greatest surprise i was cured from Herpes. My heart is so filled with joy. If you are suffering from Herpes or any other disease you can contact Dr. UMA today on this Email address: [email protected] or whatsapp +2347035619585.<

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HERBAL MEDICINE CONTACT DR ORIANE, I am so Happy to be writing this

article in here, i am here to explore blogs from about the

wonderful and most safe cure for HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS I was positive to

the Virus called HERPES and i lost hope completely because i was

rejected even by my closet friends. I searched online to know

and inquire about a cure for HERPES and I saw testimony about DR ORIANE

online on how he cured so many people from Herpes Disease so I decided

to contact the great herbalist because I know that

nature has the power to heal everything. I contacted him to know how he

can help me and he told me never to worry that he will help me with the

natural herbs from God! After 2 days contacting him, he

told me that the cure has been ready and he sent it to me via FEDEX or

DHL and it got to me after 3 days! I used the medicine as he instructed

me (MORNING and EVENING) and i was cured! it’s really

like a dream but I’m so happy! that’s the reason i decided to also add

more comments on Him so that more people can be saved just like me! and

if you need his help WhatsApp him +2349153510730 OR He

also have the herbs to cure difference cure for any sickness (1) HERPES,

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HEPATITIS B, (7) BARENESS/INFERTILITY (8) DIARRHEA (9)

ASTHMA… kindly contact DR ORIANE for your own cure if you have any

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I was cured of HSV with the use of natural herbs. I love herbs so much. Most times, injections and drugs are just a waste of time. I suffered from HSV for 1yrs but with the help of Dr. Aba herbal medicine, I was cured within a Two weeks of drinking the herbs he sent to .me through UPS courier delivery service. Have you taken herbs before?. You have spent so much money on drugs,injections,surgeries etc and yet you have no good result to show for it. Contact Dr. Aba now, he is a herbalist doctor, I assure you of a cure if you drink his natural herbs. Dr. Aba has herbs that cure Hiv, Herpes, diabetes, asthma, hepatitis, HBP, STD, cancer, chronic, etc. Contact Dr. Aba through his Email address on: [email protected] or WHATSAP/CALL him on +2348107155060.

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AN AMAZING REMEDY FOR HSV 1 & 2. It’s so unbelievable how wonderful herbs can be. when I first saw a post that said that a man have a perfect cure for HSV 1&2, i was like could this be real or some kind of scam but due to my eagerness to be cured I took the risk of contacting him, he gave me reasons to believe he is a real herbalist so I followed all his instructions on how to take the drugs for 14 days and now all my test results shows HSV 1&2 (-) negative , Dr Aba have the most safe cure for herpes and other stubborn virus which are HSV 1&2,STI,STD just name it he has the cure for them all. Contact him via his personal email address which is [email protected] . Trust me you will like this method, it’s safe, cheap and easy. Do well to let others know about this.

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• Open access
• Published: 30 July 2019

Sustainability perspectives in agricultural economics research and policy agenda

• Bernardo Corrado de Gennaro 1 &
• Maria Bonaventura Forleo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0344-5147 2  

Agricultural and Food Economics volume  7 , Article number:  17 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

6685 Accesses

14 Citations

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The agricultural sector both needs to reduce its impacts and adapt its food production system to cope with environmental constraints and climate changes. This special issue includes three selected papers presented at the 53rd annual Conference of the Italian Society of Agricultural Economics discussing the future of agriculture. The fil rouge linking the three papers is the issue of sustainability that nowadays influences the functioning of the food supply chain and the behavior of all actors involved in it, from producers to consumers.

The selected papers investigate the theme of sustainability by exploring strategies for the adoption of sustainable innovation in the food supply chain, developing a model that assesses the effect of climate changes on farm production, as well as evaluating consumer attitudes to wine attributes, including those related to “carbon footprint” and “winescape esthetic.”

Conclusions

The reading of these papers provides a multifaceted light on different dimensions linking future perspectives of sustainable agriculture between globalization and local market. Papers discuss issues, propose approaches, and show empirical findings that can be useful to fuel the debate about future agricultural policies and stimulate the development of research agendas.

Introduction

Agriculture both contributes to sustainability along its main three pillars, balancing economic, environmental, and social performances, and is affected by their dynamics. A vision for sustainable agriculture based on five criteria and on several actions has been proposed for transforming world food and agriculture sectors in order to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and embrace the 2030 Agenda’s vision of sustainable development (FAO, 2016 , 2018 ).

Regarding the environmental sphere, climate change issues in agriculture are of importance and, since the creation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) within UNEP in 1998, have gained new momentum in recent international events and initiatives. The agricultural sector both needs to reduce its impacts and adapt its food production system to cope with environmental constraints and climate changes. Furthermore, from the Paris Agreement of 2015, the COP24 Conference of the Parties held in December 2018 marked the start of the Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture. Climate change-induced increases in temperatures, rainfall variation, and the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events are adding to pressures on global and local agricultural and food systems. Climate change is expected to affect negatively both crop and livestock production systems in most regions, although with different patterns (OECD / IFPRI 2014 ). Faced with growing global demand, market and warming phenomena, and with competition for resources, agricultural policies—the next CAP is one of the most obvious policy spheres—are called to help to mitigate the effect of climate and to adapt to climate changes with measures at the farm and sectorial levels aimed at reducing their vulnerabilities (EEA 2015 ). Within the above context, a growing body of literature has started to address the topic of relationships between agriculture, sustainability, and climate changes, both coping with risks related to different climate scenarios and regions, and with measures fostering the adoption of innovations induced by and oriented towards sustainability.

Another field of research is the investigation of new modes of supply chain sustainability governance and new models of multi-stakeholder collaboration to achieve food security, environmental sustainability, and economic development (WEF 2016 ). Among the three factors that Gardner et al. ( 2018 ) consider as having a pivotal role in determining whether commodity production and trade can be placed on a more sustainable pathway, the issue of scale and that of responsibility are particularly relevant in the present context. The issue of scale refers to the global versus local debate and underlines the disconnection between the territories involved as drivers and impacts, between places of production and of consumption. The second issue points to the topic of responsibility and to the need for actors involved in every step of global-local supply chains to share the responsibility of placing production systems on a more sustainable footing. The increasing array of multi-stakeholder processes, roundtables, and hybrid governance arrangements and the wider set of state and non-state actors urge the need for transparency and information, and new governance models along the food chains.

Environmental and economic perspectives are even more closely linked with socio-cultural and ethical issues, such as the issue of hunger, and with the challenge of providing a growing global population with healthy diets from sustainable food systems (Willett et al. 2019 ). In this regard, the literature has increasingly paid attention to the pro-environmental attitude and behavior towards more sustainable food consumption and diet styles (FAO 2010 ). Sustainable claims, environmental values, consumer sensitivity, and marketing strategies are among the most used key words in the field. The wine industry is one of the most studied sectors within the literature addressing the issues of sustainability in the agriculture sphere, considering both the supply side and the demand side. In the search for new business models and marketing tools to address the increasing competition on the world and local levels, there have been many studies, projects, and initiatives promoting sustainability-oriented practices and approaches in the wine sector. On the institutional level, in 2011 the Italian Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea launched the project VIVA - Sustainable wine, Sustainability and Culture to improve the sustainability performances of the wine chain by means of a new methodological approach and a program in which several Italian wine-growing firms participated. The Millennial generation, maybe because of the intrinsic nature of inter-generationality within the sustainability concept, or because of their degree of sensitivity towards sustainable issues, are increasingly studied for their relevance in forecasting future scenarios and in comparing food and beverage habits among generations.

This special issue includes three selected papers presented at the 53rd annual Conference of the Italian Society of Agricultural Economics (SIDEA), held in San Michele all’Adige/Bolzano on 22–24 September 2016. The theme of the Conference was, “The future of agriculture between globalization and local markets.” The choice of this theme aimed to stimulate a scientific debate on the future of an agriculture that is marked by the dualism of opening global markets and the growing demand for local products linked to the territory and traditions. Indeed, the Conference intended to discuss how the dichotomy of liberalism versus localism involves multiple challenges for the agriculture and the food sector.

The papers included in this special issue focus on the theme of sustainability. All of them point out how this topic affects all the actors involved in the food supply chain and cover three main research areas. These are the adoption of sustainable innovation in the food supply chain, the development of a model that is able to predict the effect of climate changes on farm productivity, and the assessment of consumer preferences for sustainable food products.

The paper by Pancino et al. ( 2019 ) sheds light on the process of designing a multi-stakeholder partnership for the adoption of sustainable innovations in the food supply chain. Authors qualitatively analyze the Barilla Sustainable Farming initiative to draw indications about the most suitable strategies for implementing sustainable innovations. The multi-stakeholder partnership increases the chances of implementing sustainable innovations in the food supply chain: both farmers and other food supply chain stakeholders need to be committed to developing sustainable innovation. Sharing information, communication about common sustainable goals, and shared assessments of sustainable practices are important requirements for developing and adopting effective sustainable innovations.

The paper by Onofri et al. ( 2019 ) develops and tests a methodology to assess and predict the effects of climate change on agricultural production. The authors develop a two-stage method that econometrically estimates the marginal product of key production inputs (e.g., labor and land) and then predicts future agricultural sector performances using different IPCC scenarios. Such methodology is applied in order to predict the agricultural performances of the Veneto region in 2030. Results differ according to the selected IPCC scenario selected and consequent input use variations. However, the authors point out that climate change adaptation and mitigation policies are a priority and need to be implemented to preserve the land productivity in the area analyzed.

The paper by Gallenti et al. ( 2019 ) explores Italian Millennials’ attitudes to wine attributes, including those related to “carbon footprint” and “winescape esthetic.” The authors perform a choice experiment to define the ordinal ranking of preferences for the many wine attributes, as well as to assess the individual willingness to pay (WTP) for the key product characteristics, including those related to the sustainability of the production method. The authors, sampling 587 respondents, detected considerable heterogeneity in preferences and WTP. The majority of respondents interested in the “carbon footprint claim” is also willing to pay a premium price to consume high-quality wines. Instead, the authors found that “winescape esthetic” does not appear to be an important attribute in orienting respondents’ preferences and no premium price is associated with this attribute.

The collection of articles included in this special issue sheds a multifaceted light on different dimensions linking future perspectives of sustainable agriculture between globalization and local market. These dimensions relate to future agricultural performances under different climate change scenarios, to the importance of designing multi-stakeholder partnership and contracts to implement sustainable innovations in value chains, and to the sensitivity of Millennials towards carbon footprint claims of wine. These papers discuss such issues, propose approaches, and show empirical findings that fuel future debate and stimulate the development of research agendas.

Abbreviations

Common Agricultural Policy

24th session of the Conference Of the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

United Nations Environment Programme

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FAO (2016) Sustainable value chains for sustainable food systems. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6511e.pdf

FAO (2018) Transforming food and agriculture to achieve the SDGs 20 interconnected actions to guide decision-makers. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/I9900EN/i9900en.pdf

Gallenti G, Troiano S, Marangon F, Bogoni P, Campisi B, Cosmina M (2019) Environmentally sustainable versus aesthetic values motivating millennials’ preferences for wine purchasing: evidence from an experimental analysis in Italy. Agric Food Econ https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-019-0132-x

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Pancino B, Blasi E, Rappoldt A, Pascucci S, Ruini L, Ronchi C (2019) Partnering for sustainability in agri-food supply chains: the case of Barilla Sustainable Farming in the Po Valley. Agric Food Econ https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-019-0133-9

WEF World Economic Forum (2016) Building partnerships for sustainable agriculture and food security: a guide to country-led action. World Economic Forum, Geneva. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/whitepapers/building-partnerships-for-sustainable-agriculture-and-food-security-a-guide-to-country-led-action

Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B et al (2019) Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet 393:447–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Agricultural and Food Economics journal for having given visibility to the papers presented at the 53rd SIDEA Conference. This allows for the international diffusion of the debate developed between Italian agricultural economists.

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Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (DiSAAT), University of Bari, Via G. Amendola, 165, Bari, Italy

Bernardo Corrado de Gennaro

Department of Economics, University of Molise, Via de Sanctis, 86100, Campobasso, Italy

Maria Bonaventura Forleo

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MBF developed the Introduction section. Both authors developed the remaining sections and read and approved the final manuscript.

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B.C. de Gennaro is an Associate Professor of the Agricultural Economics and Policy at the University of Bari, Italy. E-mail: [email protected]

M.B. Forleo is an Associate Professor of the Agricultural Economics and Rural Appraisal at the University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy. E-mail: [email protected]

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de Gennaro, B.C., Forleo, M.B. Sustainability perspectives in agricultural economics research and policy agenda. Agric Econ 7 , 17 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-019-0134-8

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• Climate change
• Sustainable innovations
• Wine purchasing behavior
• Millennials

News from the Columbia Climate School

The Emerging Field of Sustainable Agriculture

Steve Cohen

I grew up in Brooklyn and have spent most of my life living in Morningside Heights in Manhattan; my only exposure to farming life was during the last of my five years living in Franklin, Indiana, when I delivered the Daily Journal Newspaper to farmers in rural Johnson and Brown counties. Occasionally, when the farmers were a little short of cash, they paid for their newspapers with produce. I know very little about farming, except that farmers seem to be the hardest-working people I’ve ever known. Modern industrial farming has made American agriculture the most productive in the world, but it is capital-intensive, risky, and polluting. An emerging movement in sustainable agriculture is developing, which promises continued productivity with less pollution. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists :

“There’s a transformation taking place on farms across the United States. For decades, we’ve produced the bulk of our food through industrial agriculture—a system dominated by large farms growing the same crops year after year, using enormous amounts of chemical pesticides and fertilizers that damage our soil, water, air, and climate. This system is not built to last, because it squanders and degrades the resources it depends on. But a growing number of innovative farmers and scientists are taking a different path, moving toward a farming system that is more sustainable—environmentally, economically, and socially. This system has room for farms of all sizes, producing a diverse range of foods, fibers, and fuels adapted to local conditions and regional markets. It uses state-of-the-art, science-based practices that maximize productivity and profit while minimizing environmental damage. Sustainability also means the whole system is more resilient to droughts, floods, and other impacts of climate change that farmers are already seeing. Though the move to this type of system often involves some up-front costs, smart public policies can help farmers make the shift.”

Techniques such as rotating crops and integrating livestock and crops can reduce costs and maintain soil productivity with less need for chemicals and other costly interventions. Notably, some of the “sustainable” techniques represent a return to traditional methods of farming. The issue for many farmers is the capital requirements needed for some of the technology required for sustainable farming and the revenue deferred when giving the soil time to regenerate itself. One company that has addressed these issues is Land O’Lakes, which is a cooperative populated by farmers who are part owners of the company. According to a 2021 Press Release on the Land O’Lakes website:

“Land O’Lakes, Inc. today announced new on-farm sustainability commitments to be adopted by its more than 1,600 member-dairy farms by 2025. Within the next four years, all Land O’Lakes’ dairy farmer-owners will complete an intensive, industry-leading on-farm sustainability assessment aligned with the U.S. Dairy Stewardship Commitment while maintaining universal compliance with the National Milk Producers Federation’s National Dairy Farmers Assuring Responsible Management (FARM) program. This announcement is the next step in Land O’Lakes’ enterprise-wide approach to on-farm sustainability.”

This company has learned that sustainability practices can reduce both costs and pollution. By using satellites, automation, GPS, and other technologies, they can precisely target water, fertilizer, and pesticides to plants, thereby reducing resource use, costs, and pollution. Managing manure from their many dairy cows enables Land O’Lakes to utilize this resource for fertilizer and energy. Efforts are underway to promote these methods globally, with limited success. According to Rochelle Toplensky of the Wall Street Journal :

“The Sustainable Markets Initiative, a private-sector group launched in 2020, set up its Agribusiness Task Force to accelerate regenerative agriculture adoption and includes senior leaders from Mars, McDonald’s, PepsiCo , Bayer , McCain, Mondelez and others. The task force’s 2022 report concluded the main hurdle to adopting regenerative practices was that farmers’ short-term economics don’t add up, but it also found there was a knowledge gap and not everyone in the value-chain was aligned. Follow-up work concluded that farmers need financial incentives and derisking mechanisms as well as technical and peer-to-peer support. Also important were agreeing [to] environmental outcome metrics and creating supportive policy and payments for so-called ecosystem services such as rebuilding biodiversity and water quality.”

In the United States—and throughout the world—there is potential for a transformation of agricultural practices to make them more efficient and less polluting. But agriculture is an industry characterized by a wide variety of cultural traditions, business models, and geographic conditions. Sustainable practices make economic and environmental sense, and farmers who practice them will outcompete those who don’t. Nevertheless, the transition requires capital, technical expertise, and the willingness and training to experiment with new production processes. The piece by the Union of Concerned Scientists recognizes this and calls for public policy to provide the incentives needed to bring about this transition. The United States has had an activist federal farm policy since the 19 th century. It dates back to the establishment of Land Grant Colleges in the Morrill Act of 1862, where the federal government gave states federal lands in exchange for the establishment of agricultural colleges. The federal government also developed agricultural extension services to train farmers in the latest methods of farming.

In the United States, agricultural policies and subsidies are legislated in the “Farm Bill,” which has been renewed eighteen times since it was first enacted during the New Deal of the 1930s. According to the Congressional Research Services Primer on the Farm Bill , last updated on February 29, 2024:

“Farm bills traditionally have focused on farm commodity program support for a handful of staple commodities—corn, soybeans, wheat, cotton, rice, peanuts, dairy, and sugar. Farm bills have become increasingly expansive in nature since 1973, when a nutrition title was first included. Other prominent additions since then include horticulture and bioenergy titles and expansion of conservation, research, and rural development titles.”

Traditionally, agriculture policy in the United States was dominated by rural farm states due to their over-representation in the United States Senate. Lightly populated farm states have the same number of senators (two) as heavily populated industrial states. Farm policy was more important in rural states, and in exchange for votes from industrial states on urban initiatives, farm-state senators traditionally dominated U.S. agriculture policy. This changed in the 1970s when food subsidies for poor people were added to the farm bill, and today, over 75% of the funding in the farm bill subsidizes these “nutrition” programs. In the most recent farm bill, nutrition funding totaled $1.1 billion, crop insurance $124 million, and conservation funding was about $58 million. The politics of agriculture policy is no longer dominated by the farm states. According to the Congressional Research Service :

“The omnibus nature of the farm bill can create broad coalitions of support among sometimes conflicting interests for policies that individually might have greater difficulty achieving majority support in the legislative process. In recent years, more stakeholders have become involved in the debate on farm bills, including national farm groups; commodity associations; state organizations; nutrition and public health officials; and advocacy groups representing conservation, recreation, rural development, faith-based interests, local food systems, and organic production. These factors can contribute to increased interest in the allocation of funds provided in a farm bill.”

This broader coalition might be drawn upon to support an expansion of agricultural subsidies to enable farms to receive the financial support needed to transition to renewable agricultural practices in the United States. Farm policy and environmental/climate policy might well be brought together to modernize American agriculture and reduce its release of toxics and greenhouse gasses into the environment. Funding the transition to renewable agriculture does not need to be justified as climate policy, although it would have the impact of reducing greenhouse gas pollution. It could well be sold as modernizing American agriculture to better position it for global competition.

Views and opinions expressed here are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the Columbia Climate School, Earth Institute or Columbia University.

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