action verbs for quantitative research objectives

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Measurable Performance Verbs for Writing Objectives

Do not use the following verbs in your objectives: Know, Comprehend, Understand, Appreciate, Familiarize, Study, Be Aware, Become Acquainted with, Gain Knowledge of, Cover, Learn, Realize. These are not measurable!

Knowledge Verbs

Count, Define, Draw, Identify, Indicate, List, Name, Point, Quote, recognize, Recall, Recite, Read, Record, Repeat, State, Tabulate, Trace, Write  

Comprehension Verbs

Associate, Compare, Compute, Contrast, Describe, Differentiate, Discuss, Distinguish, Estimate, Interpret, Interpolate, Predict, Translate  

Application Verbs

Apply, Calculate, Classify, Complete, Demonstrate, Employ, Examine, Illustrate, Practice, Relate, Solve, Use, Utilize  

Analysis Verbs

Order, Group, Translate, Transform, Analyze, Detect, Explain, Infer, Separate, Summarize, Construct  

Synthesis Verbs

Arrange, Combine, Construct, Create, Design, Develop, Formulate, Generalize, Integrate, Organize, Plan, Prepare, Prescribe, Produce, Propose, Specify  

Evaluation Verbs

Appraise, Assess, Critique, Determine, Evaluate, Grade, Judge, Measure, Rank, Rate, Select, Test, Recommend

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Brief research report article, a pragmatic master list of action verbs for bloom's taxonomy.

• Research in Health Professions Education, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom

Bloom's Taxonomy is an approach to organizing learning that was first published in 1956. It is ubiquitous in UK Higher Education (HE), where Universities use it as the basis for teaching and assessment; Learning Outcomes are created using suggested verbs for each tier of the taxonomy, and these are then “constructively aligned” to assessments. We conducted an analysis to determine whether there is consensus regarding the presentation of Bloom's Taxonomy across UK HE. Forty seven publicly available verb lists were collected from 35 universities and textbooks. There was very little agreement between these lists, most of which were not supported by evidence explaining where the verbs came from. We were able to construct a pragmatic “master list” of action verbs by using a simple majority consensus method. We were also able to construct a master list of commonly recommended “verbs to avoid.” These master lists should be useful for anyone tasked with using Bloom's Taxonomy to write Learning Outcomes for assessment. However, our findings raise broader questions about the evidence base which underpins a common approach to teaching and assessment in UK HE and education generally.

Introduction

Learning Outcomes are a starting point for education at many levels in many countries. They are a statement of what students should be able to do by the end of their learning, and form the basis for how students are assessed ( Biggs, 1996 ). In Higher Education (HE), in the United Kingdom (UK), it is a requirement of university accreditation to have learning outcomes mapped to levels of learning ( QAA, 2014 ).

Part of the origin of the concept of Learning Outcomes is Bloom's Taxonomy. First published in 1956 ( Bloom et al., 1956 ) and revised in 2002 ( Krathwohl, 2002 ), the motivation for the taxonomy was a desire to define learning and assessment in an observable, measurable way. This was in contrast to the perceived practice of the time; using “nebulous terms” to characterize the aims of teaching, for example for learners to “understand” or to “comprehend” or to “internalize” knowledge. The genesis of the taxonomy can be summarized in this quote from page one of the original publication:

“ what does a student do who “really understands” which he does not do when he does not understand?” ( Bloom et al., 1956 , 1)

Critical to writing effective Learning Outcomes is the use of specific and measurable verbs, avoiding verbs that are unobservable or unmeasurable and thus cannot be objectively assessed. For example a “good” Learning Outcome for an introductory research methods class might be to “ list the main research methods used in [a discipline],” whereas a “bad” learning outcome might be to “ know the main research methods….” According to the original version of the taxonomy, as expertise develops, the learner moves through a series of hierarchical steps, from “Knowledge,” through “Comprehension,” “Application,” “Analysis,” “Synthesis,” and “Evaluation.” Thus, by the end of a program of study we might want students to “ evaluate the use of research method X to test hypothesis Y.”

The taxonomy was designed to form the basis for assessment as well as teaching. The original taxonomy contained numerous sample test items designed for use by teachers, mapped to the different levels of the taxonomy ( Bloom et al., 1956 ), whereas the revised taxonomy was designed to emphasize more the use of the taxonomy in marking assessments, for example in scoring rubrics ( Anderson, 1999 ).

The taxonomy has become near ubiquitous in educational theory and practice across many countries. A Google Scholar search for “Bloom's Taxonomy” (April 2020) returns over 29,000 results, and indicates that the original taxonomy ( Bloom et al., 1956 ) has been cited over 34,000 times, with over 19,500 citations for the revised taxonomy ( Krathwohl, 2002 ). A search for “Blooms taxonomy” “assessment” returns 21,700 results.

Criticism of Bloom's taxonomy has been published for decades (e.g., Stedman, 1973 ). Much of the criticism arises from the perception of the taxonomy as a simplistic, blunt instrument, particularly with regards to so-called higher-order learning and thinking ( Ormell, 1974 ). Concerns have also been raised regarding the underlying epistemology and philosophy ( Pring, 1971 ; Sockett, 1971 ). A major criticism of the taxonomy is that it is not aligned to current evidence about how, and why, people learn. For example, Bloom and co were clear that the taxonomy was hierarchical, that “ the objectives in one class are likely to make use of and be built on the behaviors found in the preceding classes” ( Bloom et al., 1956 ). Even at a basic level this is troublesome. For example, in the revised taxonomy “understanding” precedes “analysis” and “application.” It could easily be argued that understanding comes from analysis and application rather than the other way round. The original taxonomy makes it clear that students are expected to perform better on assessments that are mapped to the lower tiers of the taxonomy, yet faculty show only a modest ability to map exam questions on Bloom's Taxonomy, even when the taxonomy is collapsed into three tiers ( Karpen et al., 2017 ; Dempster and Kirby, 2018 ).

Bloom and co recognized many of these problems which would later be leveled as criticisms. For example, the overlap between the different classifications, and the fact that two students demonstrating the same observable behavior in an assessment may have arrived at that behavior in completely different ways, representing different types and even different levels of learning. One example quoted is as follows;

“ For example, two students solve an algebra problem. One student may be solving it from memory, having had the identical problem in class previously. The other student has never met the problem before and must reason out the solution by applying general principles, We can only distinguish between their behaviors as we analyze the relation between the problem and each student's background of experience.” ( Bloom et al., 1956 )

Despite these criticisms, the taxonomy remains near-ubiquitous in UK Higher Education, although the format of the taxonomy is often a considerably simplified version of the 216 page original. As we describe below, the websites of many UK universities contain an image of the hierarchical taxonomy in some form, normally a triangle, along with guidance about how to write Learning Outcomes based on the taxonomy. The forms in which the taxonomy appears vary considerably, but most include lists of verbs aligned to each step of the hierarchy. The verbs themselves appear to be derived, originally, from the subheadings of the tiers in the original and revised taxonomies. The verbs at the lower end of the hierarchy tend to be associated with assessments that might be used to test factual knowledge; “ list,” describe,” “identify.” Those at the higher end tend to be associated with assessments of “higher order thinking,” for example “ appraise” or “ evaluate.”

Given the age and ubiquity of the taxonomy, it seems reasonable to ask whether it is consistent. If multiple universities are basing teaching and assessment on learning outcomes mapped to the taxonomy; are they asking for the same thing? An analysis of the verb lists aligned with Blooms Taxonomy shown on 30 different educational websites from the USA found that there was very little agreement between the versions of Bloom's Taxonomy found, i.e., verbs which were suggested as belonging to one tier of the hierarchy on one version of the taxonomy were found, on a different list, to be associated with a different tier. The degree of disagreement between the different versions of Bloom's was considerable. Not a single verb was assigned to the same tier by all 30 lists. Three verbs ( choose, relate, select ) appeared in all six tiers, depending on which list was consulted ( Stanny, 2016 ).

Here we repeat and expand the work of Stanny, in the context of UK Higher Education. Having found similar results, we also attempt to salvage something useful from the current inconsistencies of Blooms Taxonomy, by applying a pragmatic philosophy and research method. Pragmatic research prioritizes the undertaking of research that is practically useful ( Feilzer, 2010 ), choosing the most appropriate methodology to address the research question(s) ( Creswell, 2003 ). The knowledge that results from pragmatic research is valued for how useful it can be to address real world problems, that affect people ( Duram, 2010 ). This methodology is often contrasted with approaches which prioritize other aspects of the research process, such as the definition of the epistemological position taken in a research activity.

In this paper then the research questions we seek to address are

1. How consistent is the presentation of Bloom's taxonomy to the UK Higher Education Sector by the websites of Universities and other stakeholders in the sector that present the taxonomy?

2. Can we identify a useful consensus position of the verbs identified within the taxonomy?

In line with the pragmatic approach, the primary stakeholders for whom we intend the findings to be useful are teaching staff responsible for writing Learning Outcomes, with follow-on value to their students and universities.

A previous project ( Ransome and Newton, 2017 ) identified the textbooks most commonly recommended to academics taking postgraduate certificates in Higher Education; the basic “teacher training” programmes currently used in UK HE. Of the six most commonly recommended books on general higher education, three included a version of Bloom's taxonomy and a verb list ( Fry et al., 2003 ; Butcher et al., 2006 ; Biggs and Tang, 2011 ).

Stanny (2016) identified verb lists using a simple Google search for the string “action words for Bloom”s taxonomy.” To restrict our analysis to UK Higher Education we conducted a Google Search for the terms.”ac.uk” and “Bloom's Taxonomy.” We then included verb lists from university websites where the taxonomy was used as part of guidance for writing learning outcomes, or some other way or organizing or planning learning. This approach returned a total of 47 verb lists identified from 35 different sources (some sources included multiple lists). Of the 35 sources, 31 were UK Universities, 3 were the aforementioned textbooks and the final one was the UK Higher Education Academy, now called Advance HE, a professional body for academic teachers in UK Higher Education. We did not include search results that were about Bloom's taxonomy itself, for example research that cited the taxonomy. We only included verb lists that had six tiers from Blooms taxonomy, either the original or the revised (in addition to the 47 analyzed we also found 3 that combined the two 6-tier taxonomies into a 7-tier taxonomy, and two which used a five-tier list). Where a university linked to an external site with multiple lists, we transcribed only the first list.

Of the 47 lists, there was little consistency in terms of whether they used the original taxonomy, the revised taxonomy, a combination of the two, or a hybrid of the two. Thus, as in the work of Stanny (2016) , we considered both the original and the revised taxonomy together. The 47 lists were transcribed into a single excel spreadsheet. Some sources included a list of “verbs to avoid” and these were also transcribed. The transcription of each list was rechecked by at least one author. Each source was examined to determine whether it directly cited the original version of Bloom's taxonomy ( Bloom et al., 1956 ), or the revision ( Krathwohl, 2002 ) or some other source explaining how the list of verbs was arrived at. This was also rechecked by at least one author.

Terms were rationalized into agreed verbs meanings between lists, for example “be familiar with” and “familiarize” were both rationalized to “familiar.” This rationalization was not performed where both versions appeared in the same list (e.g., one list included “solve” and “solution”) or where there appeared to be an error in the original list that could not be simply corrected (e.g., one list proposed the verb “or recount”). Unnecessary prefixes or suffixes were also removed, for example “have a good grasp of” was rationalized to “grasp.” UK English was used throughout (e.g., memorize was changed to memorise). These changes were agreed by all three authors.

Unique Verbs

A total of 401 unique verbs were contained across the 47 lists. The full list of sources and verbs is shown in Appendix 1 . Many verbs appeared in multiple lists and across multiple tiers of each list. Two hundred and fifty one unique verbs appeared in only one tier. These were distributed as follows; 43 for the Knowledge tier, 30 for Comprehension, 45 for Analysis, 54 for Application, 52 for Synthesis and 27 for Evaluation. Of the remaining 150 verbs, 71 were present in two tiers, 46 in three tiers, 24 in four tiers, 5 in five tiers. Four verbs ( select, explain, relate, arrange ) appeared across all six tiers of the taxonomies. Two of these ( select and relate ) also appeared across all six tiers in the analysis of US sites undertaken by Stanny, along with the verb choose ( Stanny, 2016 ).

Unique Verbs Within and Across Tiers

To determine whether there is any consensus regarding the format of Bloom's Taxonomy, we examined the frequency with which one-tier verbs appeared within the tiers. Not one of the 251 one-tier verbs appeared in all 47 lists. The most common was “list,” which appeared in the “Knowledge” tier in 43 of the 47 lists. Only 10 of the 251 one-tier verbs appeared in more than half (24+) of the lists, and none of these were in the top two tiers of the taxonomy. In contrast, 214 (85%) of the one-tier verbs appeared in 5 or fewer of the lists, suggesting that most of the verbs which appeared in only one tier were very uncommon and potentially newer, perhaps explaining why they only appeared in one tier. Eyeballing the list appeared to confirm this—these verbs included terms like “tweet,” “google,” wiki build,” “film,” and “video blog”; terms which are anchored in a particular technology rather than the underlying learning. Considering that both the original taxonomies proposed some sort of overlap between tiers we relaxed the analysis to include verbs that were included across two tiers did not add much in terms of identifying consensus; only 6 (8%) of the 71 two-tier verbs were in more than half the lists.

Master List of Verbs

Due to the limited lack of agreement between lists, we applied a simple majority consensus method to the construction of a master list. From the 47 lists, we first identified verbs which appeared in >50% (24+) of the lists. From that list we then identified verbs for which 50% of their appearances were in one specific tier. The results are shown in Table 1 .

Table 1 . A Master list of Action Verbs for Learning Outcomes written using Bloom's Taxonomy.

Verbs to Avoid

Fourteen sources recommended a list of verbs to avoid. Many of those verbs were also recommended for use in Learning Outcomes by different lists. To identify a “master list” of verbs to avoid, we calculated the net difference between recommendations to avoid and recommendations to use. Verbs were included in the “master avoid” list when the net difference was >7. We also added in those five verbs which appeared across all six tiers of the taxonomy in our analysis and that of Stanny (2016) . The results are also shown in Table 1 .

Eight lists cited both the original and the revised taxonomy. Ten lists cited only the original, four lists cited only the revised, 25 lists did not offer a citation. None of the sources gave any other citations that explained where the verb lists came from although other works were often cited to support the linking of verb lists and learning outcomes to assessments (e.g., Biggs, 1996 ; Moon, 2004 ; Biggs and Tang, 2011 ).

The writing of Learning Outcomes based on Bloom's taxonomy is a common approach to organizing teaching and assessment. Verb lists based on the taxonomy are found on the websites of many UK Universities and in the textbooks recommended to academic staff as part of teacher training programmes in UK HE. Our findings demonstrate that there is not any one format representing “Bloom's Taxonomy,” echoing findings from other settings ( Almerico and Baker, 2004 ; Stanny, 2016 ). Thus, the action verbs used by one university to plan learning at one tier of the hierarchy may be used to represent different tiers at other universities. For example, four verbs ( select, explain, relate, arrange ) appeared across all six tiers of the taxonomies. Two of these ( select and relate ) were the most commonly cited verbs, appearing 80 and 87 times, respectively. They also appeared across all six tiers in the analysis of US sites undertaken by Stanny, along with the verb choose ( Stanny, 2016 ). As another example of basic problems with the current status of the taxonomy, two verbs ( understand and know ) commonly cited as problematic for writing specific learning outcomes even in the original taxonomy ( Bloom et al., 1956 ), were actually recommended for use by five of the lists. At least one university with a proposed list of verbs to avoid, then recommended some of those same verbs for use in the taxonomy.

Does it matter that there is a lack of consistency between UK HE providers with regard to the verbs they use to map learning to the different levels? Part of the answer to this depends on whether the lists are actually used. Future work to answer this could include an analysis of whether the verb list proposed for use at a particular university actually maps on to the learning outcomes used at that University. The current analysis could also be developed through further discussion with subject experts to expand the master taxonomy devised here, and identify subject-specific verbs and assessments.

It could be argued that having diversity within the sector is a good thing. The taxonomy was revised in 2001, demonstrating it has evolved over time. The existence of two versions of the taxonomy might also be thought to explain some of the heterogeneity in the verb lists. However, these arguments are undermined by the lack of any supporting evidence provided, by the University webpages, for the verb lists proposed. Twenty five lists did not offer a citation of Bloom's taxonomy and no other obvious citations were given, by any source, to support the hierarchical nature of the taxonomy or the verb lists contained within. Many universities directed their staff to external sources for the verb list; blogs and other informal sites, often with multiple colorful representations of the taxonomy, some including apps that map to the taxonomy and so clearly post-date either of the published versions of the taxonomy. This seems problematic given that a fundamental basis of UK Higher Education, in fact a requirement of university accreditation, is having learning outcomes mapped to levels of learning; this is one of the ways in which consistency can be achieved across the sector ( QAA, 2014 ). Most of the sources used here were offering up Blooms Taxonomy in support of these levels and the writing of learning outcomes mapped to them, but did not cite either version of the published versions of Bloom's taxonomy and represented the taxonomy in very different ways, including many which merged the two versions together. This aforementioned diversity then is not evidence-based.

There is a broader question of whether the taxonomy accurately represents how we learn. A misalignment of learning science and the taxonomy was identified even when the taxonomy was first published in 1956. Bloom and co-wrote that, basically, there was no satisfactory, unifying, theory for how people learn, and that their taxonomy would make it easier for such a theory to be developed, even going so far as to state that

“ our method of ordering educational outcomes will make it possible to define the range of phenomena for which such a theory must account.” ( Bloom et al., 1956 )

In essence, they are saying “this is what learning looks like, now you have to explain how it happens.”

This is not the case now. There is an abundance of evidence from psychology, sociology, and neuroscience to explain how, and why, people learn, and what that looks like at the behavioral level ( Bjork and Bjork, 2011 ; Dunlosky et al., 2013 ; Cowan, 2014 ; Freeman et al., 2014 ; Deslauriers et al., 2019 ) There is clearly a great deal that we do not know, but we propose that any attempt to classify learning outcomes should now be based on the science of learning, rather than the other way round. This could eventually lead to a revised, third version of the taxonomy that is grounded in an evidence-based understanding of how we learn.

There are many approaches used in education which are not supported by rigorous evidence. The use of some, such as the matching of teaching to so-called “Learning Styles,” have been directly contradicted by research evidence many years ago ( Coffield et al., 2004 ; Pashler et al., 2008 ) and yet are still very popular in HE ( Newton, 2015 ; Newton and Miah, 2017 ). We should therefore expect that Bloom's taxonomy will remain part of an approach to organizing learning in UK HE for the foreseeable future, despite the lack of evidence used to support the formats in which it is currently presented. Rather than simply complain about this, we offer up Table 1 as an approach to some sort of consensus regarding verbs to use, and of verbs to avoid. The broad consensus method used to generate the table allows for the fact that many of the verbs appeared in multiple tiers, a principle that is consistent with the principles of the revised taxonomy which proposes that the tiers, in particular the upper tiers, are not a fixed rigid hierarchy ( Krathwohl, 2002 ). This principle is lost in the presentation of the taxonomy on the website of the UK universities analyzed here, where the verbs are simply presented in fixed lists and without reference to the supporting literature.

From a pragmatic perspective, for those wishing to (or required to) use Bloom's or any other taxonomy, we would advise careful inspection of the verbs in context before adopting any correspondence between verbs and any learning of a certain complexity. Given that verbs themselves can be used in different tiers we would further advise against establishing automatic correspondence between the isolated verb and HE level when designing or evaluating modules or programmes. We would echo the advice given by others that the best way to give meaning to a learning outcome is to identify the assessment type(s) that might map to that outcome ( Ewell and Schneider, 2013 ) and that this is, itself, a test of whether one has written a useful Learning Outcome ( Adelman, 2015 ). If an educator wishes to use any sort of hierarchical taxonomy to classify and map their outcomes, then we propose going further still and asking educators to identify assessments that would not be suitable for an outcome mapped to a specific level of the hierarchy.

Data Availability Statement

All datasets presented in this study are included in the article/ Supplementary Material .

Author Contributions

PN designed the study, collected the data, checked the transcribed data, analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. AD and LP recollected the data for verification, checked the transcribed data, and provided critical revisions of the draft manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable contribution of Ms. Judy Williams who transcribed the original verb lists into an excel spreadsheet.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2020.00107/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: learning outcomes, pragmatism, evidence-based education, Blooms taxonomy, assessment, constructive alignment

Citation: Newton PM, Da Silva A and Peters LG (2020) A Pragmatic Master List of Action Verbs for Bloom's Taxonomy. Front. Educ. 5:107. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2020.00107

Received: 18 April 2020; Accepted: 05 June 2020; Published: 10 July 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Newton, Da Silva and Peters. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Philip M. Newton, p.newton@swansea.ac.uk

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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• Research Objectives | Definition & Examples

Research Objectives | Definition & Examples

Published on July 12, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on November 20, 2023.

Research objectives describe what your research is trying to achieve and explain why you are pursuing it. They summarize the approach and purpose of your project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement . They should:

• Establish the scope and depth of your project
• Contribute to your research design
• Indicate how your project will contribute to existing knowledge

Table of contents

What is a research objective, why are research objectives important, how to write research aims and objectives, smart research objectives, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research objectives.

Research objectives describe what your research project intends to accomplish. They should guide every step of the research process , including how you collect data , build your argument , and develop your conclusions .

Your research objectives may evolve slightly as your research progresses, but they should always line up with the research carried out and the actual content of your paper.

Research aims

A distinction is often made between research objectives and research aims.

A research aim typically refers to a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear at the end of your problem statement, before your research objectives.

Your research objectives are more specific than your research aim and indicate the particular focus and approach of your project. Though you will only have one research aim, you will likely have several research objectives.

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Research objectives are important because they:

• Establish the scope and depth of your project: This helps you avoid unnecessary research. It also means that your research methods and conclusions can easily be evaluated .
• Contribute to your research design: When you know what your objectives are, you have a clearer idea of what methods are most appropriate for your research.
• Indicate how your project will contribute to extant research: They allow you to display your knowledge of up-to-date research, employ or build on current research methods, and attempt to contribute to recent debates.

Once you’ve established a research problem you want to address, you need to decide how you will address it. This is where your research aim and objectives come in.

Step 1: Decide on a general aim

Your research aim should reflect your research problem and should be relatively broad.

Step 2: Decide on specific objectives

Break down your aim into a limited number of steps that will help you resolve your research problem. What specific aspects of the problem do you want to examine or understand?

Step 3: Formulate your aims and objectives

Once you’ve established your research aim and objectives, you need to explain them clearly and concisely to the reader.

You’ll lay out your aims and objectives at the end of your problem statement, which appears in your introduction. Frame them as clear declarative statements, and use appropriate verbs to accurately characterize the work that you will carry out.

The acronym “SMART” is commonly used in relation to research objectives. It states that your objectives should be:

• Specific: Make sure your objectives aren’t overly vague. Your research needs to be clearly defined in order to get useful results.
• Measurable: Know how you’ll measure whether your objectives have been achieved.
• Achievable: Your objectives may be challenging, but they should be feasible. Make sure that relevant groundwork has been done on your topic or that relevant primary or secondary sources exist. Also ensure that you have access to relevant research facilities (labs, library resources , research databases , etc.).
• Relevant: Make sure that they directly address the research problem you want to work on and that they contribute to the current state of research in your field.
• Time-based: Set clear deadlines for objectives to ensure that the project stays on track.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Scope of research is determined at the beginning of your research process , prior to the data collection stage. Sometimes called “scope of study,” your scope delineates what will and will not be covered in your project. It helps you focus your work and your time, ensuring that you’ll be able to achieve your goals and outcomes.

Defining a scope can be very useful in any research project, from a research proposal to a thesis or dissertation . A scope is needed for all types of research: quantitative , qualitative , and mixed methods .

To define your scope of research, consider the following:

• Budget constraints or any specifics of grant funding
• Your proposed timeline and duration
• Specifics about your population of study, your proposed sample size , and the research methodology you’ll pursue
• Any inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Any anticipated control , extraneous , or confounding variables that could bias your research if not accounted for properly.

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Best Active Verbs for Research Papers with Examples

What are active verbs.

Active verbs, often referred to as "action verbs," depict activities, processes, or occurrences. They energize sentences by illustrating direct actions, like "run," "write," or "discover." In contrast, linking verbs connect the subject of a sentence to its complement, offering information about the subject rather than denoting an action. The most common linking verb is the "be" verb (am, is, are, was, were, etc.), which often describes a state of being. While active verbs demonstrate direct activity or motion, linking and "be" verbs serve as bridges, revealing relations or states rather than actions.

While linking verbs are necessary to states facts or show connections between two or more items, subjects, or ideas, active verbs usually have a more specific meaning that can explain these connections and actions with greater accuracy. And they captivate the reader’s attention! (See what I did there?)

Why are active verbs important to use in research papers?

Using active verbs in academic papers enhances clarity and precision, propelling the narrative forward and making your arguments more compelling. Active verbs provide clear agents of action, making your assertions clearer and more vigorous. This dynamism ensures readers grasp the research's core points and its implications.

For example, using an active vs passive voice sentence can create more immediate connection and clarity for the reader. Instead of writing "The experiment was conducted by the team," one could write, "The team conducted the experiment."

Similarly, rather than stating "Results were analyzed," a more direct approach would be "We analyzed the results." Such usage not only shortens sentences but also centers the focus, making the statements about the research more robust and persuasive.

Best Active Verbs for Academic & Research Papers

When writing research papers , choose active verbs that clarify and energize writing: the Introduction section "presents" a hypothesis, the Methods section "describes" your study procedures, the Results section "shows" the findings, and the Discussion section "argues" the wider implications. Active language makes each section more direct and engaging, effectively guiding readers through the study's journey—from initial inquiry to final conclusions—while highlighting the researcher's active role in the scholarly exploration.

Active verbs to introduce a research topic

Using active verbs in the Introduction section of a research paper sets a strong foundation for the study, indicating the actions taken by researchers and the direction of their inquiry.

Stresses a key stance or finding, especially when referring to published literature.

Indicates a thorough investigation into a research topic.

Draws attention to important aspects or details of the study topic you are addressing.

Questions or disputes established theories or beliefs, especially in previous published studies.

Highlights and describes a point of interest or importance.

Inspects or scrutinizes a subject closely.

Sets up the context or background for the study.

Articulates

Clearly expresses an idea or theory. Useful when setting up a research problem statement .

Makes something clear by explaining it in more detail.

Active verbs to describe your study approach

Each of these verbs indicates a specific, targeted action taken by researchers to advance understanding of their study's topic, laying out the groundwork in the Introduction for what the study aims to accomplish and how.

Suggests a theory, idea, or method for consideration.

Investigates

Implies a methodical examination of the subject.

Indicates a careful evaluation or estimation of a concept.

Suggests a definitive or conclusive finding or result.

Indicates the measurement or expression of an element in numerical terms.

Active verbs to describe study methods

The following verbs express a specific action in the methodology of a research study, detailing how researchers execute their investigations and handle data to derive meaningful conclusions.

Implies carrying out a planned process or experiment. Often used to refer to methods in other studies the literature review section .

Suggests putting a plan or technique into action.

Indicates the use of tools, techniques, or information for a specific purpose.

Denotes the determination of the quantity, degree, or capacity of something.

Refers to the systematic gathering of data or samples.

Involves examining data or details methodically to uncover relationships, patterns, or insights.

Active verbs for a hypothesis or problem statement

Each of the following verbs initiates a hypothesis or statement of the problem , indicating different levels of certainty and foundations of reasoning, which the research then aims to explore, support, or refute.

Suggests a hypothesis or a theory based on limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

Proposes a statement or hypothesis that is assumed to be true, and from which a conclusion can be drawn.

Attempts to identify

Conveys an explicit effort to identify or isolate a specific element or relationship in the study.

Foretells a future event or outcome based on a theory or observation.

Theorizes or puts forward a consideration about a subject without firm evidence.

Proposes an idea or possibility based on indirect or incomplete evidence.

Active verbs used to interpret and explain study results

In the Discussion section , the findings of your study are interpreted and explained to the reader before moving on to study implications and limitations . These verbs communicate the outcomes of the research in a precise and assertive manner, conveying how the data aligns with the expectations and hypotheses laid out earlier in the paper.

Shows or unveils findings from the data.

Demonstrates

Clearly shows the result of an experiment or study, often implying evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship.

Illustrates

Shows or presentes a particular result or trend.

Provides evidence in favor of a theory or hypothesis.

Establishes the truth or validity of an anticipated outcome or theory.

Visually presents data, often implying the use of figures or tables.

Active verbs to discuss study implications

In the discussion of study implications, these verbs help to weave the results into a broader context, suggesting relevance, highlighting importance, and pointing out potential consequences within the respective field of research.

Proposes a possible interpretation or implication without making a definitive statement.

Points to broader consequences or significances hinted at by the results.

Indicates a logical consequence or a meaning that is not explicitly stated.

Strengthens the validity or importance of a concept or finding.

Emphasizes certain findings and their broader ramifications.

Underscores

Underlines or emphasizes the significance or seriousness of an implication.

Active verbs to discuss study limitations

Discussing study limitations with these verbs allows researchers to maintain transparency about their study's weaknesses, thus providing a clearer picture of the context and reliability of the research findings.

Acknowledges

Recognizes the existence of potential weaknesses or restrictions in the study.

Directly confronts a specific limitation and often discusses ways it has been mitigated.

Makes an observation of a limitation that could affect the interpretation of the results.

Reflects on or thinks about a limitation in the context of the study's impact or scope.

Points out and describes a specific limitation.

Makes known or reveals a limitation that could have an effect on the study's conclusions.

Active verbs for the Conclusion section

In the Conclusion section , these verbs are pivotal in crystallizing the core findings, implications, and the future trajectory of research initiated by the study.

Signifies drawing a final inference or judgement based on the results.

Provides a brief statement of the main points of the research findings.

States positively or asserts the validity of the findings.

Advises on a course of action based on the results obtained.

Highlights the importance or significance of the research outcomes.

Use an AI Grammar Checker to Correct Your Research Verbs

While lists like these will certainly help you improve your writing in any academic paper, it can still be a good idea to revise your paper using an AI writing assistant during the drafting process, and with professional editing services before submitting your work to journals.

Wordvice’s AI Proofreading Tool , AI Paraphrasing Tool , AI Summarizer , and AI Translator are ideal for enhancing your academic papers. And with our professional editing services, including academic proofreading and paper editing services, you get high-quality English editing from experts in your paper’s subject area.

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How to Write Objectives in a Research Proposal

Last Updated: May 19, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Felipe Corredor . Felipe is a Senior College Admissions Consultant at American College Counselors with over seven years of experience. He specializes in helping clients from all around the world gain admission into America's top universities through private, one-on-one consulting. He helps guide clients through the entire college admissions process and perfect every aspect of their college applications. Felipe earned a Bachelor's Degree from the University of Chicago and recently received his MBA. There are 10 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 124,750 times.

A research proposal is a detailed outline for a significant research project. They’re common for class assignments, capstone papers, grant applications, and even job applications in some fields, so it's possible you'll have to prepare one at some point. The objectives are a very important part of a research proposal because they outline where the project is headed and what it will accomplish. Developing objectives can be a little tricky, so take some time to consider them. Then work on wording them carefully so your readers understand your goals. With clear objectives, your research proposal will be much stronger.

Brainstorming Your Objectives

• For example, your research question might be “What is the effect of prolonged TV-watching on children?” You can then use that question to build your study around.
• Narrow down your research topic if it’s too broad. A broad research topic makes breaking the objectives down much more difficult. A research question like “How can we save the environment?” is a huge question. Something like “What safety measures would prevent ocean pollution?” is more specific and attainable. [2] X Research source

• Remember that in most cases, you shouldn’t state that your study will prove or disprove something exactly since you haven’t done the work yet. Don’t say “This study proves that honey is not an effective treatment for acne.” Instead, make it something like “This study will demonstrate whether or not honey is an effective treatment for acne.”

• If your research question was “What is the effect of prolonged TV-watching on children?” then there are a few categories you could look at. Objectives wrapped up within that question might be: 1) the incidence of eyestrain among children who watch a lot of TV, 2) their muscular development, 3) their level of socialization with other children. Design your objectives around answering these questions.

• You could always state in your research proposal that you plan to design future experiments or studies to answer additional questions. Most experiments leave unanswered questions and subsequent studies try to tackle them.

• A general objective might be "Establish the effect of diet on mental health." Some specific goals in that project could be 1) Determine if processed foods make depression worse, 2) Identify foods that improve mood, 3) Measure if portion sizes have an impact on mood.
• Not all research proposals want you to divide between general and specific goals. Remember to follow the instructions for the proposal you're writing.

• The best goals align with each letter in the SMART acronym. The weaker ones are missing some letters. For example, you might come up with a topic that’s specific, measurable, and time-bound, but not realistic or attainable. This is a weak objective because you probably can’t achieve it.
• Think about the resources at your disposal. Some objectives might be doable with the right equipment, but if you don’t have that equipment, then you can’t achieve that goal. For example, you might want to map DNA structures, but you can’t view DNA without an electron microscope.
• Ask the same question for your entire project. Is it attainable overall? You don’t want to try to achieve too much and overwhelm yourself.
• The specific words in this acronym sometimes change, but the sentiment is the same. Your objectives should overall be clear and specific, measurable, feasible, and limited by time.

Using the Right Language

• Verbs like use, understand, or study is vague and weak. Instead, choose words like calculate, compare, and assess.
• Your objective list might read like this: 1) Compare the muscle development of children who play video games to children who don’t, 2) Assess whether or not video games cause eyestrain, 3) Determine if videogames inhibit a child’s socialization skills.
• Some proposals use the infinitive form of verbs, like “to measure” or “to determine.” This is also fine but refer to the proposal instructions to see if this is correct.

• You can further explain your objectives further in the research proposal. No need to elaborate a lot when you’re just listing them.
• If you’re having trouble shortening an objective to 1 sentence, then you probably need to split it into 2 objectives. It might also be too complicated for this project.

• For example, “Determine if sunlight is harmful” is too vague. Instead, state the objective as “Determine if prolonged sun exposure increases subjects’ risk of skin cancer.”
• It’s helpful to let someone else read your proposal and see if they understand the objectives. If they’re confused, then you need to be more specific.

• For example, don’t say “Measure the effect of radiation on living tissue.” Instead, say “Determine what level of radiation is dangerous to living tissue.”
• Remember, don’t state the objectives as you’ve already done the experiments. They’re still not answered.

Writing the Objectives

• This is a common format for research proposals, but not universal. Always follow the format that the instructions provided.
• Depending on how long your introduction has to be, you might also list the objectives there. This depends on whether or not you have room.

• At the very least, the abstract should list the general objective. This tells the readers what your study is working towards.

• In some research projects, the general objective is called a long-term goal instead. Adjust your language to the proposal requirements.
• Some proposals directions may just want the specific objectives rather than a division between the general and specific ones. Don’t divide them if the instructions tell you not to.

• Your introduction may be as follows: "My long-term objective with this project is determining whether or not prolonged video-game playing is harmful to children under 5. I will accomplish this aim by meeting the following objectives: 1) Compare the muscle development of children who play videogames to children who don’t 2) Assess whether or not videogames cause eyestrain 3) Determine if videogames inhibit a child’s socialization skills"
• The specific objectives are usually listed as a bullet or numbered points. However, follow the instructions given.

Research Proposal Templates

Expert Q&A

• It’s always a good idea to let someone else read your research proposals and make sure they’re clear. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Proofread! A great proposal could be ruined by typos and errors. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0

• Some proposal instructions are very specific, and applicants that don’t follow the format are eliminated. Always follow the instructions given to stay within the requirements. Thanks Helpful 3 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-assets/15490_book_item_15490.pdf
• ↑ https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/research-aims-and-objectives/
• ↑ https://www.uh.edu/~lsong5/documents/A%20sample%20proposal%20with%20comment.pdf
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3282423/
• ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/evaluation/pdf/brief3b.pdf
• ↑ https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=231&section=8.6.2
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6398294/
• ↑ https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0601009.pdf
• ↑ https://www.bpcc.edu/institutional-advancement-grants/how-to-write-goals-and-objectives-for-grant-proposals
• ↑ https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=504643&p=3454882

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How to Use Verbs Effectively in Your Research Paper

• Writing Research Papers
• Writing Essays
• English Grammar
• M.Ed., Education Administration, University of Georgia
• B.A., History, Armstrong State University

When you conduct a research project, one part of your job is to assert your own original thesis with an effective argument . There are a few ways to enhance your research paper so it sounds more impressive. One method to sound convincing as an authority is to elevate your vocabulary by using strong verbs.

Remember, verbs are action words . The verbs you select for your writing should represent a specific action . This means you should avoid generic verbs to keep your writing interesting and sharp. Your goal is to keep teacher or audience interested.

Try to avoid these less exciting verbs:

How to Choose Your Verbs

No matter what your grade level, you must do your best to come across as an authority on your topic. Think about the noticeable difference in these statements:

• I saw more mold on one piece of bread.
• I observed a distinct difference between the two pieces of bread. Most importantly, one piece of bread displayed a greater density of mold.

The second statement sounds more mature, because we replaced "saw" with "observed" and "had" with "displayed." In fact, the verb "observe " is more accurate. When carrying out a scientific experiment, after all, you use more than mere eyesight to scrutinize your results. You may smell, hear, or feel some results, and those are all part of observing.

Now consider these statements when writing a history essay:

• Historian Robert Dulvany says there were three main causes for the war.
• Historian Robert Dulvany asserted that three events prompted the war.

The second phrase sounds more authoritative and direct. And it's the verbs that make all the difference.

Also, make sure to use active rather than passive structure with your verbs. Active verbs make your writing clearer and more engaging. Review these statements:

• T he war on terror was launched by the United States.
• The United States launched the war on terror. 

The subject-verb construction is a more active and powerful statement.

How to Sound Like an Authority

Each discipline (like history, science or literature) has a distinct tone with certain verbs that appear frequently. As you read over your sources, observe the tone and language. 

While reviewing the first draft of your research paper, conduct an inventory of your verbs. Are they tired and weak or strong and effective? This list of verbs provides suggestions to make your research paper sound more authoritative.

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Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

Are You Using the Right Verbs in Your Research Paper?

Most researchers are focused on ensuring that their work not only gets the attention it deserves but is also published in leading international journals. However, this is a challenging task, given that journals often reject papers due to issues with language even if the research presented was groundbreaking. Writing an academic research paper is not just about conducting and reporting one’s work – the language one uses plays a significant role in how the research paper is received.

Academic writing needs to be formal and precise and researchers must possess the requisite language skills and knowledge about the correct words to use in scientific writing. This is a skill that early career researchers must acquire and perfect over time. Consistent writing will help you gain the experience you require to create error-free, submission ready research manuscripts. You will for example, learn that one proven way to make your manuscript more compelling is by using strong verbs for essays.

This article provides a brief overview of the different types of verbs to use in research papers. It also offers interesting insights into how verbs can be used effectively in academic writing.

What is a verb?

Let us first understand what a verb is. Verbs are words that convey an action, occurrence, or state of being. Given that most manuscripts contain explanations and descriptions of processes and methodologies, it is important to understand and choose the right kind of action verbs to be in for maximum impact. 

Types of verbs

Broadly, verbs can be categorized into three different types.

• Action verbs – Action verbs verbs communicate precise actions
• Auxiliary verbs – Auxiliary verbs display the tense of the verb used. Sometimes referred to as helping verbs, they reveal if the verb is positive or negative
• Modal verbs – Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that denote abilities

When using verbs in academic writing, it is very important for early career researchers and authors to ensure that colloquial or informal verbs should not make their way into their academic writing.  Adhering to a formal structure of language with appropriate verbs is essential to maintaining the right tone and to accurately convey the author’s thoughts. For example, the use of action verbs in research objectives or strong verbs for thesis statements goes a long way in making the manuscript more impactful.

Usage of verbs

Researchers and authors must be careful in their selection of verbs to convey the proposed meaning. It is important to understand the context in which the verbs are to be used, and the way the language must be structured. Let us look at some examples of how verbs are used in academic writing.

If researchers want to present an analysis of the work that has been done, then verbs like analyze, appraise, define, diagnose, explore, identify, investigate, or observe may be a used effectively. Attest, confirm, contend, demonstrate, document, indicate or reveal are some verbs researchers can use when they discuss the findings of their research. When trying to convey that a researcher has taken a specific stand of their research findings, they can use words such as like , comment, convey, elaborate, establish, identify, or propose.

Phrasal verbs

It is important for early career researchers and authors to learn how to avoid phrasal verbs in academic writing. Phrasal verbs are words that we use to convey what we think or speak about, see, or experience. These kinds of phrasal verbs tend to be informal and out of place in an academic setting. Some common phrasal verbs and their alternative single verb that may be used are: Find out ( discover ), Looked at ( discovered ), Put into ( contribute ). However, phrasal verbs like carried out, consists of, discussed by, based on, or subjected to may be used while writing research articles or papers.

Contractions and abbreviations

Another aspect that early career researchers and authors must be mindful of when writing their manuscript is to avoid the use of contractions and abbreviations like “isn’t”, “won’t” or “don’t” as they have an informal flavor that is typically not accepted as formal writing. Academic writing demands that the expanded forms of these abbreviations must be used – so ‘is not,’ ‘will not,’ and ‘do not,’ are the correct versions to be used.

It is also highly recommended that researchers check the American or British style guides to make sure that the verbs they are using align with them.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

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Verbs for Research Objectives

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The National Institutes of Health has implemented new grant application guidelines that include a substantial reduction in the number of pages allowed for project descriptions. Shorter proposals will potentially decrease reviewer burden, but investigators may find the new page limits challenging. Writing more concisely while still presenting a persuasive argument requires honing certain skills with regard to preparation, construction, and editing of proposals. This article provides strategies from the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board for preparing competitive shorter research proposals. Two key strategies for success are fully conceptualizing the study prior to writing and obtaining assistance from experienced colleagues during the editing process.

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You are here, wording your research questions.

Comparing wording of questions used in qualitative and quantitative research

For research questions in qualitative research, the use of open words such as “how” or “what” allow for greater exploration of issues, as opposed to words such as “why” which imply exploration of cause and effect, which is more characteristic of quantitative research. Suggested verbs to use in qualitative research questions are: discover, understand, describe, explore. Suggested verbs to use in quantitative research questions are those which convey the idea of cause and effect i.e. they indicate the link between variables: compare, relate, cause and influence. However it should be noted that this is only a guide and there are many examples of research questions that do not fit these ‘rules’.

Making your questions researchable

Research questions should be researchable , that is, they should allow you to do research in relation to them (Cresswell 2011). That means that they should not be formulated in terms that are so abstract that they cannot be translated into practice (Bryman 2008). Also the wording of research questions should be as simple as possible so that it can be easily understood. There should be no terms that are ambiguous, therefore it is important to think through the terminology used and ensure that the best possible choice of wording has been selected.

This example research question illustrates the need to change an ambiguous term:

Do children with behaviour problems benefit from the use of concrete materials in mathematics?

The term ‘benefit’ needs to be more specific as it is not possible to take the research forward without first considering what type of benefit is to be investigated, for example:

Do children with behaviour problems show increased levels of engagement when concrete materials are used in mathematics?

Questions that are too ‘wordy’

Also it is important that research questions should be written as concisely as possible. The next example shows how by rewording a research question to make it more concise, the meaning can be made clearer:

Do children learn more effectively in science in practical sessions compared to lessons using worksheets and textbooks?

This question is too wordy and as a consequence of this the main focus of the research is not clear. Below the reworked research question carries the same meaning, but is more concise and easier to understand:

Possible reworked question:

Does scientific enquiry improve children’s learning in science?

Avoiding bias and assumptions

The way a question is worded can reflect biased views or assumptions held by the researcher. It is often very difficult for you to identify your own bias or assumptions that you have made and it is necessary to consider your wording carefully. Also it may be helpful to run questions by a colleague to identify these. It is important to realise that an operational definition of a concept is context –specific and that if you were to research the same issue in a different context e.g. psychology rather than education, the definition may be need to change (Punch, 1998, cited in Robson, 2002).

Below is an example of a question which illustrates how researcher bias can impact on the research design

Do teachers use worksheets in science more than practical activities because they lack confidence in performing investigations in a classroom?

The wording of this question indicates that the researcher strongly believes that lack of teacher confidence is the root cause of a high incidence of use of worksheets rather than carrying out practical activities in science. If this is not addressed at an early stage it will impact on all aspects of the research design including how questions are phrased in the research tools, which will impact on the validity of the research. Also it could limit the potential findings because the researcher does not ask questions that could identify other issues contributing to lack of practical activities.

Key points to consider when developing research questions:

The process of developing your research questions is the foundation of all your subsequent research.

The wording of the central research question needs to be particularly carefully thought through as it will directly influence your choice of methods.

Throughout the early stages of planning your research, reading will form an integral part of the process as it will inform your thinking and help direct the development of your research questions and research design.  

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• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: Acknowledgements
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: Introduction
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 1.  Health Services in Ethiopia
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 2.  Management and Leadership in Community Healthcare
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 3.  Planning Health Programmes
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 4.  Implementing your Health Plans
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 5.  Monitoring and Control
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 6.  Management of Supplies at Health Post Level
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 7.  Principles of Healthcare Ethics
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 8.  Ethical Dilemmas in Health Service Delivery
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 9.  Rights and Obligations of Health Extension Practitioners
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 10.  General Principles of Health Research and Introduction to Community Surveys
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 11.  Developing Your Community Profile
• Health Management, Ethics and Research: 12.  Data Collection and Analysis for Your Baseline Community Survey
• Introduction
• Learning Outcomes for Study Session 13
• 13.1.1  Components of a community profile report
• 13.2.1  Clarifying the problem of malaria infection in your community
• 13.2.2  Criteria for choosing health problems to research
• 13.2.3  Poor sanitary conditions: creating a research question
• 13.2.4  Community participation in prioritising health issues
• 13.3  Choosing which topic to research

13.4.1  What other sources should you consult?

13.4.2  Research objectives

Summary of Study Session 13

• Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 13
• Health Management, Ethics and Research: 14.  Research Strategies and Study Designs for Small-Scale Research
• Health Management, Ethics and Research Module: 15.  Sampling Methods and Sample Size in Small-Scale Research
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Health Management, Ethics and Research

If you create an account, you can set up a personal learning profile on the site.

The final part of clarifying your research project involves thinking in more detail about your research objectives . Research objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem and summarise what you hope will be achieved by the study. For example, if the problem identified is low utilisation of antenatal care services, the general objective of the study could be to identify the reasons for this low uptake, in order to find ways of improving it.

Writing your research objectives clearly helps to:

• Define the focus of your study
• Clearly identify variables to be measured
• Indicate the various steps to be involved
• Establish the limits of the study
• Avoid collection of any data that is not strictly necessary.

What do you think might happen if you started a research project, but hadn’t written any clear research objectives?

Without clearly written research objectives, you might be confused about the limits of the study, what data should be collected, or how to conduct the research.

Objectives can be general or specific. The general objective of your study states what you expect to achieve in general terms. Specific objectives break down the general objective into smaller, logically connected parts that systematically address the various aspects of the problem. Your specific objectives should specify exactly what you will do in each phase of your study, how, where, when and for what purpose.

How should your objectives be stated?

Your objectives should be stated using action verbs that are specific enough to be measured, for example: to compare, to calculate, to assess, to determine, to verify, to calculate, to describe, to explain, etc. Avoid the use of vague non-active verbs such as: to appreciate, to understand, to believe, to study, etc., because it is difficult to evaluate whether they have been achieved.

Case Study 13.3 General and specific objectives for a counselling project

A research study designed to assess the accessibility and acceptability of the Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT) Services for HIV infection in kebele X had the following general and specific objectives:

General objective: To identify factors that affects the acceptability of VCT services and to assess community attitudes towards comprehensive care and support for people living with HIV/AIDS.

Specific objectives:

• To assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of the community towards HIV/AIDS and VCT services.
• To identify barriers and concerns related to VCT and its uptake.
• To assess the awareness and perception of the study community regarding comprehensive care and support for people living with HIV/AIDS.

What is the difference between the specific objectives and the general objective of a research project? You can use the example in Case Study 13.3 to help you answer this question.

Specific objectives are detailed objectives that describe what will be researched during the study, whereas the general objective is a much broader statement about what the study aims to achieve overall.

In the next study session, we will move on to teach you about research strategies and alternative study designs that you may choose to conduct for a small-scale research project in your community.

For further information, take a look at our frequently asked questions which may give you the support you need.

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Resume Worded   |  Career Strategy

Research action verbs and power verbs to use on your resume.

We've compiled the best action verbs you can use to showcase your Research experience.

For more research-based and analytical experiences, pick verbs that demonstrate how you gather, assess, and interpret information. While research and analysis often happen “behind the scenes”, they can still have a significant impact on a business. With the following examples, potential employers will see not only how you gathered information, but also how you used it to make a difference.

Action Verbs To Show Your Research Experience:

• Interviewed
• Established
• Interpreted
• Investigated

We've compiled a lot more action verbs by job titles below.

Research Action Verbs By Job

Choose the job title that's most relevant to you to get targeted action verbs.

• How to use action verbs
• Verbs for Project Coordinator Resumes      (e.g. Communicated, Guided, Led, Reduced & more)
• Verbs for Chief of Staff Resumes      (e.g. Led, Managed, Reviewed, Developed & more)
• Verbs for Project Manager Resumes      (e.g. Facilitated, Overcame, Improved, & more)
• Verbs for Event Coordinator Resumes      (e.g. Launched, Directed, Guided, Managed & more)
• Verbs for Administrative Coordinator Resumes      (e.g. Communicated, Identified, Prepared, Generated & more)
• Verbs for Sales Coordinator Resumes      (e.g. Doubled, Communicated, Led, Motivated & more)

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• Sample resume examples

How To Use Action Verbs On Your Resume

To show you how to use these action verbs in your resume, see this infographic for reference. You'll note that each bullet point uses strong action verbs, with a specific description of the task that was accomplished.

Action Verbs For Project Coordinator Roles

On your resume, you should always lead into your past accomplishments with strong, clear action verbs. The best verbs are the ones that most accurately depict what you accomplished and how you went about doing it. As an aspiring project coordinator, you should choose specific verbs that speak to the core skills of the job -- namely, your organizational, planning, leadership, and communication skills. Did you execute projects flawlessly in past jobs? Did you facilitate meetings or resolve problems effectively? Choosing strong verbs to talk about your accomplishments can positively influence hiring managers’ professional opinion of you -- and make you more likely to get an interview. If you need some inspiration, here is a list of project coordination-related verbs to get you started.

• Implemented
• Facilitated
• Coordinated
• Communicated

Relevant Examples Using Action Verbs

• Processed claims and successfully won 50 lawsuits associated with the policies of 10 departments, improving the company’s goodwill..

• Researched and demonstrated electrical modulation of luminescence intensity of quantum dots by 80%. .

Action Verbs For Chief of Staff Roles

A chief of staff position is first and foremost a leadership position. Using action verbs that emphasize your leadership experience is a direct way to indicate your capabilities in this field. 

This list of action verbs is focused on the managerial and operational tasks of the position as well as the communication tasks that you can expect for a chief of staff. Using the right action verbs is an easy way to spotlight yourself and help showcase your most relevant skills in a few words.

• Spearheaded
• Strengthened
• Orchestrated

• Documented and submitted over 250 severe adverse event reports, protocol deviations and quality improvement forms within the required timeline of 2 business days of event. Commended for strong analytical and report writing skills, promoted within 12 months - ahead of schedule by 12 months..

• Interpreted, applied, and enforced 5 federal regulations for research compliance across 13 universities, leading to an improvement in the quality of educational research in 1 year..

Action Verbs For Project Manager Roles

The best project manager resumes discuss specific accomplishments using strong action verbs. Strong verbs convey your role in your achievements; in any resume bullet point, we recommend pairing an action verb with the quantifiable result you achieved to show the impact of what you did. Project managers may have a diverse set of skills to draw upon, and there are a huge number of verbs you could choose to describe what you’re good at. We have an entire article devoted to action verbs to use in resumes -- in particular, project managers may want to pursue the ones in the accomplishment-driven, communication, management-related, leadership, and problem-solving sections.

• Accelerated

• Assisted with cell development research projects, as part of the Leukemia Research team - identifying cell changes, determining cell counts and coulter counters with 98% accuracy. .

• Conducted analytical experiments to determine component purity through titration, HPLC, GC and MALDI process, with over 95% accuracy rate. Presented and awarded the ‘Research Project of the year’ in the 2014 International Science Conference..

Action Verbs For Event Coordinator Roles

Event coordinators are highly organized, calm under pressure, and passionate about throwing a great event. You know how to earn the trust of your clients and you can quickly find creative solutions to unforeseen challenges. You’re a great leader, but you also know how to listen to what your clients need -- sometimes without them even asking! It’s important to not only possess these skills, but effectively communicate them through your resume. As you write your event coordinator resume, use powerful action verbs such as “supervised” and “managed” to emphasize your leadership skills. Use strong and powerful verbs that can create a clear visual in someone’s mind of a well-organized, effective event coordinator. Try your best not to use generic verbs -- they can actually hurt rather than help your resume.

• Documented surveillance research outcomes and instruments for data analysis at 20 national conferences and 8 local meetings, findings were adopted by the legislature of 3 states..

• Designed a new sequencing technique that refines a common laboratory protocol. New procedure increases efficiency by 50% on average, reducing processing time by 25%, and creating more usable biological end-products. .

Action Verbs For Administrative Coordinator Roles

Administrative coordinators are responsible for multiple tasks around the office, so they are often held accountable for office efficiency in terms of clerical duties. A good way to demonstrate reliability is to use strong action verbs. These words provide a sense of accountability and improve your resume’s readability. 

You can also use these action verbs for demonstrating your achievements, such as identifying issues in financial records or office documents, improving operations, etc. Check out the following action verbs we’ve selected for an administrative coordinator role based on our research.

• Co-ordinated

• Reviewed investor insurance guidelines and 500 loan documents, established baseline requirements that saved Resume Worded $1 MM in the first year. .

• Conducted the research project on food science and genetically modified foods associated side effects, completing the research 8 days ahead of schedule, with the direction of 2 food scientists. .

Action Verbs For Sales Coordinator Roles

Your sales coordinator's resume should reflect your communication skills and reliability. Why not leverage your work experience to demonstrate that? You can give the right impression on your resume by using strong action verbs. Try streamlining your work history by using bullet points. You can start each point with a strong action verb. 

Action verbs are precise and hold you accountable for achievements in the sales team, so it’s also a great idea for mentioning your accomplishments. If you need some inspiration to use various action verbs, check the list below.

• Established new training curriculum and conducted trainings; new training procedures reduced overall costs by 50%..

• Increased the Company's Twitter following by 96% and 178% on Facebook, introducing the company to a younger age group..

Get a free resume review: Find out if your action verbs are strong enough.

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