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Persuasive on Breastfeeding

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Published: Mar 19, 2024

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Introduction, benefits for the child, benefits for the mother, misconceptions about breastfeeding, societal barriers.

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Essay on Breastfeeding

Students are often asked to write an essay on Breastfeeding in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Breastfeeding

What is breastfeeding.

Breastfeeding is a natural way of feeding a baby. It involves a mother giving her milk to her baby directly from her breasts. This milk is produced in the mother’s body and is rich in nutrients that are perfect for the baby’s growth and development.

Benefits of Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding has many benefits. It helps the baby grow strong and healthy. It also helps the mother and baby bond. The mother’s milk has antibodies that protect the baby from illnesses. It’s also free and always available, making it convenient.

Challenges in Breastfeeding

Some mothers may face challenges in breastfeeding. These can include pain, difficulty in the baby latching on, or not producing enough milk. It’s important to seek help from a doctor or a lactation consultant if these problems occur.

Support for Breastfeeding

Support for breastfeeding mothers is very important. Family members, friends, and healthcare providers can provide this support. They can help by offering encouragement, providing comfortable spaces for breastfeeding, and giving helpful advice.

Breastfeeding is a natural and beneficial way of feeding a baby. While it can present challenges, with the right support, these can be overcome. It’s a beautiful way to bond with the baby and provide the best nutrition.

250 Words Essay on Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is the process of feeding a baby with milk directly from the mother’s breast. It is a natural act that has been practiced since the beginning of human existence. Breast milk is the best food source for newborns and infants.

The Importance of Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is very important for both the baby and the mother. For the baby, breast milk provides all the necessary nutrients. It is easy to digest and helps protect the baby from illnesses. For the mother, breastfeeding can help her body recover faster after giving birth. It also creates a strong bond between the mother and the baby.

The Benefits of Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding offers many benefits. It helps the baby grow and develop properly. It also reduces the risk of the baby getting sick. For mothers, breastfeeding can help them lose weight after pregnancy. It can also lower their risk of certain health problems like breast cancer.

Breastfeeding Challenges

Even though breastfeeding is natural, it can be challenging for some mothers. Some common problems include pain, difficulty getting the baby to latch, and concerns about producing enough milk. But with support and practice, most of these challenges can be overcome.

There are many resources available to support breastfeeding mothers. These include lactation consultants, breastfeeding classes, and support groups. Remember, it’s okay to ask for help if you’re having trouble with breastfeeding.

In conclusion, breastfeeding is a beneficial and natural process that provides numerous health benefits for both the mother and the baby. Despite the challenges, with the right support, most mothers can successfully breastfeed their babies.

500 Words Essay on Breastfeeding

Understanding breastfeeding.

Breastfeeding is a natural process where a mother feeds her baby with milk produced from her breasts. It’s the first food a baby eats after they are born. This milk is rich in nutrients, which helps the baby grow strong and healthy. It’s the best food for newborns and infants.

Benefits of Breastfeeding for Babies

Breastfeeding offers many benefits to babies. First, breast milk has all the necessary nutrients that a baby needs for the first six months of life. It has proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in the right amounts. It also has antibodies, which are like soldiers in our bodies. They fight off harmful germs and keep the baby healthy.

Breast milk is also easy for the baby to digest. It helps the baby gain weight and grow at a healthy pace. Besides, it lowers the baby’s risk of getting allergies, asthma, and infections. It even makes the baby smarter as it boosts brain development.

Benefits of Breastfeeding for Mothers

Not only babies, but mothers also gain from breastfeeding. It helps the mother’s body recover from childbirth more quickly. It can also help the mother lose the weight she gained during pregnancy.

Breastfeeding can also lower the mother’s risk of getting certain diseases later in life. These include breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and type 2 diabetes. Besides health benefits, breastfeeding also helps to build a strong emotional bond between the mother and the baby.

Challenges of Breastfeeding

While breastfeeding is beneficial, it can sometimes be challenging. Some mothers may have difficulty producing enough milk. Others may find it painful or uncomfortable. Babies may also have trouble latching on to the breast correctly.

But don’t worry, help is available. Doctors, nurses, and lactation consultants can provide support and advice to make breastfeeding easier. They can teach mothers how to position the baby correctly and how to handle common breastfeeding problems.

In conclusion, breastfeeding is a wonderful gift that mothers can give to their babies. It provides the best nutrition for the baby and offers many health benefits for both the mother and the baby. Despite the challenges, with the right support and guidance, most mothers can successfully breastfeed their babies. Remember, every drop of breast milk counts, and every breastfeeding journey is unique and special.

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Why It Matters

Only 1 in 4 infants is exclusively breastfed as recommended by the time they are 6 months old.

Low rates of breastfeeding add more than $3 billion a year to medical costs for the mother and child in the United States.

More than three quarters (77%) of Black infants are ever breastfed , which is below the national average of 83%.

Breastfeeding Benefits Both Babies and Mothers

Benefits for infants.

Infants who are breastfed have reduced risks of:

• Type 1 diabetes.
• Severe lower respiratory disease.
• Acute otitis media (ear infections).
• Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
• Gastrointestinal infections (diarrhea/vomiting).
• Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) for preterm infants .

Benefits for Mothers

Breastfeeding can help lower a mother’s risk of:

• High blood pressure.
• Type 2 diabetes.
• Ovarian cancer.
• Breast cancer.

“Breastfeeding provides unmatched health benefits for babies and mothers. It is the clinical gold standard for infant feeding and nutrition, with breast milk uniquely tailored to meet the health needs of a growing baby. We must do more to create supportive and safe environments for mothers who choose to breastfeed.”

Dr. Ruth Petersen, director of CDC’s Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity

To receive email updates about this topic, enter your email address.

• Physical Activity
• Overweight & Obesity
• Healthy Weight, Nutrition, and Physical Activity
• Breastfeeding
• Micronutrient Malnutrition
• State and Local Programs
• Maternal, Infant & Toddler Nutrition, Physical Activity & Healthy Growth
• Breastfeeding in the Workplace
• Cleaning Breast Pump Kit
• Cleaning Infant Feeding Items

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• Open access
• Published: 26 November 2021

Women’s Perceptions and Experiences of Breastfeeding: a scoping review of the literature

• Bridget Beggs 1 ,
• Liza Koshy 1 &
• Elena Neiterman 1  

BMC Public Health volume  21 , Article number:  2169 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Despite public health efforts to promote breastfeeding, global rates of breastfeeding continue to trail behind the goals identified by the World Health Organization. While the literature exploring breastfeeding beliefs and practices is growing, it offers various and sometimes conflicting explanations regarding women’s attitudes towards and experiences of breastfeeding. This research explores existing empirical literature regarding women’s perceptions about and experiences with breastfeeding. The overall goal of this research is to identify what barriers mothers face when attempting to breastfeed and what supports they need to guide their breastfeeding choices.

This paper uses a scoping review methodology developed by Arksey and O’Malley. PubMed, CINAHL, Sociological Abstracts, and PsychInfo databases were searched utilizing a predetermined string of keywords. After removing duplicates, papers published in 2010–2020 in English were screened for eligibility. A literature extraction tool and thematic analysis were used to code and analyze the data.

In total, 59 papers were included in the review. Thematic analysis showed that mothers tend to assume that breastfeeding will be easy and find it difficult to cope with breastfeeding challenges. A lack of partner support and social networks, as well as advice from health care professionals, play critical roles in women’s decision to breastfeed.

While breastfeeding mothers are generally aware of the benefits of breastfeeding, they experience barriers at individual, interpersonal, and organizational levels. It is important to acknowledge that breastfeeding is associated with challenges and provide adequate supports for mothers so that their experiences can be improved, and breastfeeding rates can reach those identified by the World Health Organization.

Peer Review reports

Public health efforts to educate parents about the importance of breastfeeding can be dated back to the early twentieth century [ 1 ]. The World Health Organization is aiming to have at least half of all the mothers worldwide exclusively breastfeeding their infants in the first 6 months of life by the year 2025 [ 2 ], but it is unlikely that this goal will be achieved. Only 38% of the global infant population is exclusively breastfed between 0 and 6 months of life [ 2 ], even though breastfeeding initiation rates have shown steady growth globally [ 3 ]. The literature suggests that while many mothers intend to breastfeed and even make an attempt at initiation, they do not always maintain exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life [ 4 , 5 ]. The literature identifies various barriers, including return to paid employment [ 6 , 7 ], lack of support from health care providers and significant others [ 8 , 9 ], and physical challenges [ 9 ] as potential factors that can explain premature cessation of breastfeeding.

From a public health perspective, the health benefits of breastfeeding are paramount for both mother and infant [ 10 , 11 ]. Globally, new mothers following breastfeeding recommendations could prevent 974,956 cases of childhood obesity, 27,069 cases of mortality from breast cancer, and 13,644 deaths from ovarian cancer per year [ 11 ]. Global economic loss due to cognitive deficiencies resulting from cessation of breastfeeding has been calculated to be approximately USD $285.39 billion dollars annually [ 11 ]. Evidently, increasing exclusive breastfeeding rates is an important task for improving population health outcomes. While public health campaigns targeting pregnant women and new mothers have been successful in promoting breastfeeding, they also have been perceived as too aggressive [ 12 ] and failing to consider various structural and personal barriers that may impact women’s ability to breastfeed [ 1 ]. In some cases, public health messaging itself has been identified as a barrier due to its rigid nature and its lack of flexibility in guidelines [ 13 ]. Hence, while the literature on women’s perceptions regarding breastfeeding and their experiences with breastfeeding has been growing [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], it offers various, and sometimes contradictory, explanations on how and why women initiate and maintain breastfeeding and what role public health messaging plays in women’s decision to breastfeed.

The complex array of the barriers shaping women’s experiences of breastfeeding can be broadly categorized utilizing the socioecological model, which suggests that individuals’ health is a result of the interplay between micro (individual), meso (institutional), and macro (social) factors [ 17 ]. Although previous studies have explored barriers and supports to breastfeeding, the majority of articles focus on specific geographic areas (e.g. United States or United Kingdom), workplaces, or communities. In addition, very few articles focus on the analysis of the interplay between various micro, meso, and macro-level factors in shaping women’s experiences of breastfeeding. Synthesizing the growing literature on the experiences of breastfeeding and the factors shaping these experiences, offers researchers and public health professionals an opportunity to examine how various personal and institutional factors shape mothers’ breastfeeding decision-making. This knowledge is needed to identify what can be done to improve breastfeeding rates and make breastfeeding a more positive and meaningful experience for new mothers.

The aim of this scoping review is to synthesize evidence gathered from empirical literature on women’s perceptions about and experiences of breastfeeding. Specifically, the following questions are examined:

What does empirical literature report on women’s perceptions on breastfeeding?

What barriers do women face when they attempt to initiate or maintain breastfeeding?

What supports do women need in order to initiate and/or maintain breastfeeding?

Focusing on women’s experiences, this paper aims to contribute to our understanding of women’s decision-making and behaviours pertaining to breastfeeding. The overarching aim of this review is to translate these findings into actionable strategies that can streamline public health messaging and improve breastfeeding education and supports offered by health care providers working with new mothers.

This research utilized Arksey & O’Malley’s [ 18 ] framework to guide the scoping review process. The scoping review methodology was chosen to explore a breadth of literature on women’s perceptions about and experiences of breastfeeding. A broad research question, “What does empirical literature tell us about women’s experiences of breastfeeding?” was set to guide the literature search process.

Search methods

The review was undertaken in five steps: (1) identifying the research question, (2) identifying relevant literature, (3) iterative selection of data, (4) charting data, and (5) collating, summarizing, and reporting results. The inclusion criteria were set to empirical articles published between 2010 and 2020 in peer-reviewed journals with a specific focus on women’s self-reported experiences of breastfeeding, as well as how others see women’s experiences of breastfeeding. The focus on women’s perceptions of breastfeeding was used to capture the papers that specifically addressed their experiences and the barriers that they may encounter while breastfeeding. Only articles written in English were included in the review. The keywords utilized in the search strategy were developed in collaboration with a librarian (Table  1 ). PubMed, CINAHL, Sociological Abstracts, and PsychInfo databases were searched for the empirical literature, yielding a total of 2885 results.

Search outcome

The articles deemed to fit the inclusion criteria ( n  = 213) were imported into RefWorks, an online reference manager tool and further screened for eligibility (Fig.  1 ). After the removal of 61 duplicates and title/abstract screening, 152 articles were kept for full-text review. Two independent reviewers assessed the papers to evaluate if they met the inclusion criteria of having an explicit analytic focus on women’s experiences of breastfeeding.

Prisma Flow Diagram

Quality appraisal

Consistent with scoping review methodology [ 18 ], the quality of the papers included in the review was not assessed.

Data abstraction

A literature extraction tool was created in MS Excel 2016. The data extracted from each paper included: (a) authors names, (b) title of the paper, (c) year of publication, (d) study objectives, (e) method used, (f) participant demographics, (g) country where the study was conducted, and (h) key findings from the paper.

Thematic analysis was utilized to identify key topics covered by the literature. Two reviewers independently read five papers to inductively generate key themes. This process was repeated until the two reviewers reached a consensus on the coding scheme, which was subsequently applied to the remainder of the articles. Key themes were added to the literature extraction tool and each paper was assigned a key theme and sub-themes, if relevant. The themes derived from the analysis were reviewed once again by all three authors when all the papers were coded. In the results section below, the synthesized literature is summarized alongside the key themes identified during the analysis.

In total, 59 peer-reviewed articles were included in the review. Since the review focused on women’s experiences of breastfeeding, as would be expected based on the search criteria, the majority of articles ( n  = 42) included in the sample were qualitative studies, with ten utilizing a mixed method approach (Fig.  2 ). Figure  3 summarizes the distribution of articles by year of publication and Fig.  4 summarizes the geographic location of the study.

Types of Articles

Years of Publication

Countries of Focus Examined in Literature Review

Perceptions about breastfeeding

Women’s perceptions about breastfeeding were covered in 83% ( n  = 49) of the papers. Most articles ( n  = 31) suggested that women perceived breastfeeding as a positive experience and believed that breastfeeding had many benefits [ 19 , 20 ]. The phrases “breast is best” and “breastmilk is best” were repeatedly used by the participants of studies included in the reviewed literature [ 21 ]. Breastfeeding was seen as improving the emotional bond between the mother and the child [ 20 , 22 , 23 ], strengthening the child’s immune system [ 24 , 25 ], and providing a booster to the mother’s sense of self [ 1 , 26 ]. Convenience of breastfeeding (e.g., its availability and low cost) [ 19 , 27 ] and the role of breastfeeding in weight loss during the postpartum period were mentioned in the literature as other factors that positively shape mothers’ perceptions about breastfeeding [ 28 , 29 ].

The literature suggested that women’s perceptions of breastfeeding and feeding choices were also shaped by the advice of healthcare providers [ 30 , 31 ]. Paradoxically, messages about the importance and relative simplicity of breastfeeding may also contribute to misalignment between women’s expectations and the actual experiences of breastfeeding [ 32 ]. For instance, studies published in Canada and Sweden reported that women expected breastfeeding to occur “naturally”, to be easy and enjoyable [ 23 ]. Consequently, some women felt unprepared for the challenges associated with initiation or maintenance of breastfeeding [ 31 , 33 ]. The literature pointed out that mothers may feel overwhelmed by the frequency of infant feedings [ 26 ] and the amount as well as intensity of physical difficulties associated with breastfeeding initiation [ 33 ]. Researchers suggested that since many women see breastfeeding as a sign of being a “good” mother, their inability to breastfeed may trigger feelings of personal failure [ 22 , 34 ].

Women’s personal experiences with and perceptions about breastfeeding were also influenced by the cultural pressure to breastfeed. Welsh mothers interviewed in the UK, for instance, revealed that they were faced with judgement and disapproval when people around them discovered they opted out of breastfeeding [ 35 ]. Women recalled the experiences of being questioned by others, including strangers, when they were bottle feeding their infants [ 9 , 35 , 36 ].

Barriers to breastfeeding

The vast majority ( n  = 50) of the reviewed literature identified various barriers for successful breastfeeding. A sizeable proportion of literature (41%, n  = 24) explored women’s experiences with the physical aspects of breastfeeding [ 23 , 33 ]. In particular, problems with latching and the pain associated with breastfeeding were commonly cited as barriers for women to initiate breastfeeding [ 23 , 28 , 37 ]. Inadequate milk supply, both actual and perceived, was mentioned as another barrier for initiation and maintenance of breastfeeding [ 33 , 37 ]. Breastfeeding mothers were sometimes unable to determine how much milk their infants consumed (as opposed to seeing how much milk the infant had when bottle feeding), which caused them to feel anxious and uncertain about scheduling infant feedings [ 28 , 37 ]. Women’s inability to overcome these barriers was linked by some researchers to low self-efficacy among mothers, as well as feeling overwhelmed or suffering from postpartum depression [ 38 , 39 ].

In addition to personal and physical challenges experienced by mothers who were planning to breastfeed, the literature also highlighted the importance of social environment as a potential barrier to breastfeeding. Mothers’ personal networks were identified as a key factor in shaping their breastfeeding behaviours in 43 (73%) articles included in this review. In a study published in the UK, lack of role models – mothers, other female relatives, and friends who breastfeed – was cited as one of the potential barriers for breastfeeding [ 36 ]. Some family members and friends also actively discouraged breastfeeding, while openly questioning the benefits of this practice over bottle feeding [ 1 , 17 , 40 ]. Breastfeeding during family gatherings or in the presence of others was also reported as a challenge for some women from ethnic minority groups in the United Kingdom and for Black women in the United States [ 41 , 42 ].

The literature reported occasional instances where breastfeeding-related decisions created conflict in women’s relationships with significant others [ 26 ]. Some women noted they were pressured by their loved one to cease breastfeeding [ 22 ], especially when women continued to breastfeed 6 months postpartum [ 43 ]. Overall, the literature suggested that partners play a central role in women’s breastfeeding practices [ 8 ], although there was no consistency in the reviewed papers regarding the partners’ expressed level of support for breastfeeding.

Knowledge, especially practical knowledge about breastfeeding, was mentioned as a barrier in 17% ( n  = 10) of the papers included in this review. While health care providers were perceived as a primary source of information on breastfeeding, some studies reported that mothers felt the information provided was not useful and occasionally contained conflicting advice [ 1 , 17 ]. This finding was reported across various jurisdictions, including the United States, Sweden, the United Kingdom and Netherlands, where mothers reported they had no support at all from their health care providers which made it challenging to address breastfeeding problems [ 26 , 38 , 44 ].

Breastfeeding in public emerged as a key barrier from the reviewed literature and was cited in 56% ( n  = 33) of the papers. Examining the experiences of breastfeeding mothers in the United States, Spencer, Wambach, & Domain [ 45 ] suggested that some participants reported feeling “erased” from conversations while breastfeeding in public, rendering their bodies symbolically invisible. Lack of designated public spaces for breastfeeding forced many women to alter their feeding in public and to retreat to a private or a more secluded space, such as one’s personal car [ 25 ]. The oversexualization of women’s breasts was repeatedly noted as a core reason for the United States women’s negative experiences and feelings of self-consciousness about breastfeeding in front of others [ 45 ]. Studies reported women’s accounts of feeling the disapproval or disgust of others when breastfeeding in public [ 46 , 47 ], and some reported that women opted out of breastfeeding in public because they did not want to make those around them feel uncomfortable [ 25 , 40 , 48 ].

Finally, return to paid employment was noted in the literature as a significant challenge for continuation of breastfeeding [ 48 ]. Lack of supportive workplace environments [ 39 ] or inability to express milk were cited by women as barriers for continuing breastfeeding in the United States and New Zealand [ 39 , 49 ].

Supports needed to maintain breastfeeding

Due to the central role family members played in women’s experiences of breastfeeding, support from partners as well as female relatives was cited in the literature as key factors  shaping women’s breastfeeding decisions [ 1 , 9 , 48 ]. In the articles published in Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom, supportive family members allowed women to share the responsibility of feeding and other childcare activities, which reduced the pressures associated with being a new mother [ 19 , 20 ]. Similarly, encouragement, breastfeeding advice, and validation from healthcare professionals were identified as positively impacting women’s experiences with breastfeeding [ 1 , 22 , 28 ].

Community resources, such as peer support groups, helplines, and in-home breastfeeding support provided mothers with the opportunity to access help when they need it, and hence were reported to be facilitators for breastfeeding [ 19 , 22 , 33 , 44 ]. An increase in the usage of social media platforms, such as Facebook, among breastfeeding mothers for peer support were reported in some studies [ 47 ]. Public health breastfeeding clinics, lactation specialists, antenatal and prenatal classes, as well as education groups for mothers were identified as central support structures for the initiation and maintenance of breastfeeding [ 23 , 24 , 28 , 33 , 39 , 50 ]. Based on the analysis of the reviewed literature, however, access to these services varied greatly geographically and by socio-economic status [ 33 , 51 ]. It is also important to note that local and cultural context played a significant role in shaping women’s perceptions of breastfeeding. For example, a study that explored women’s breastfeeding experiences in Iceland highlighted the importance of breastfeeding in Icelandic society [ 52 ]. Women are expected to breastfeed and the decision to forgo breastfeeding is met with disproval [ 52 ]. Cultural beliefs regarding breastfeeding were also deemed important in the study of  Szafrankska and Gallagher (2016), who noted that Polish women living in Ireland had a much higher rate of initiating breastfeeding compared to Irish women [ 53 ]. They attributed these differences to familial and societal expectations regarding breastfeeding in Poland [ 53 ].

Overall, the reviewed literature suggested that women faced socio-cultural pressure to breastfeed their infants [ 36 , 40 , 54 ]. Women reported initiating breastfeeding due to recognition of the many benefits it brings to the health of the child, even when they were reluctant to do it for personal reasons [ 8 ]. This hints at the success of public health education campaigns on the benefits of breastfeeding, which situates breastfeeding as a new cultural norm [ 24 ].

This scoping review examined the existing empirical literature on women’s perceptions about and experiences of breastfeeding to identify how public health messaging can be tailored to improve breastfeeding rates. The literature suggests that, overall, mothers are aware of the positive impacts of breastfeeding and have strong motivation to breastfeed [ 37 ]. However, women who chose to breastfeed also experience many barriers related to their social interactions with significant others and their unique socio-cultural contexts [ 25 ]. These different factors, summarized in Fig.  5 , should be considered in developing public health activities that promote breastfeeding. Breastfeeding experiences for women were very similar across the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, and Australia based on the studies included in this review. Likewise, barriers and supports to breastfeeding identified by women across the countries situated in the global north were quite similar. However, local policy context also impacted women’s experiences of breastfeeding. For example, maintaining breastfeeding while returning to paid employment has been identified as a challenge for mothers in the United States [ 39 , 45 ], a country with relatively short paid parental leave. Still, challenges with balancing breastfeeding while returning to paid employment were also noticed among women in New Zealand, despite a more generous maternity leave [ 49 ]. This suggests that while local and institutional policies might shape women’s experiences of breastfeeding, interpersonal and personal factors can also play a central role in how long they breastfeed their infants. Evidently, the importance of significant others, such as family members or friends, in providing support to breastfeeding mothers was cited as a key facilitator for breastfeeding across multiple geographic locations [ 29 , 34 , 48 ]. In addition, cultural beliefs and practices were also cited as an important component in either promoting breastfeeding or deterring women’s desire to initiate or maintain breastfeeding [ 15 , 29 , 37 ]. Societal support for breastfeeding and cultural practices can therefore partly explain the variation in breastfeeding rates across different countries [ 15 , 21 ]. Figure  5 summarizes the key barriers identified in the literature that inhibit women’s ability to breastfeed.

Barriers to Breastfeeding

At the individual level, women might experience challenges with breastfeeding stemming from various physiological and psychological problems, such as issues with latching, perceived or actual lack of breastmilk, and physical pain associated with breastfeeding. The onset of postpartum depression or other psychological problems may also impact women’s ability to breastfeed [ 54 ]. Given that many women assume that breastfeeding will happen “naturally” [ 15 , 40 ] these challenges can deter women from initiating or continuing breastfeeding. In light of these personal challenges, it is important to consider the potential challenges associated with breastfeeding that are conveyed to new mothers through the simplified message “breast is best” [ 21 ]. While breastfeeding may come easy to some women, most papers included in this review pointed to various challenges associated with initiating or maintaining breastfeeding [ 19 , 33 ]. By modifying public health messaging regarding breastfeeding to acknowledge that breastfeeding may pose a challenge and offering supports to new mothers, it might be possible to alleviate some of the guilt mothers experience when they are unable to breastfeed.

Barriers that can be experienced at the interpersonal level concern women’s communication with others regarding their breastfeeding choices and practices. The reviewed literature shows a strong impact of women’s social networks on their decision to breastfeed [ 24 , 33 ]. In particular, significant others – partners, mothers, siblings and close friends – seem to have a considerable influence over mothers’ decision to breastfeed [ 42 , 53 , 55 ]. Hence, public health messaging should target not only mothers, but also their significant others in developing breastfeeding campaigns. Social media may also be a potential medium for sharing supports and information regarding breastfeeding with new mothers and their significant others.

There is also a strong need for breastfeeding supports at the institutional and community levels. Access to lactation consultants, sound and practical advice from health care providers, and availability of physical spaces in the community and (for women who return to paid employment) in the workplace can provide more opportunities for mothers who want to breastfeed [ 18 , 33 , 44 ]. The findings from this review show, however, that access to these supports and resources vary greatly, and often the women who need them the most lack access to them [ 56 ].

While women make decisions about breastfeeding in light of their own personal circumstances, it is important to note that these circumstances are shaped by larger structural, social, and cultural factors. For instance, mothers may feel reluctant to breastfeed in public, which may stem from their familiarity with dominant cultural perspectives that label breasts as objects for sexualized pleasure [ 48 ]. The reviewed literature also showed that, despite the initial support, mothers who continue to breastfeed past the first year may be judged and scrutinized by others [ 47 ]. Tailoring public health care messaging to local communities with their own unique breastfeeding-related beliefs might help to create a larger social change in sociocultural norms regarding breastfeeding practices.

The literature included in this scoping review identified the importance of support from community services and health care providers in facilitating women’s breastfeeding behaviours [ 22 , 24 ]. Unfortunately, some mothers felt that the support and information they received was inadequate, impractical, or infused with conflicting messaging [ 28 , 44 ]. To make breastfeeding support more accessible to women across different social positions and geographic locations, it is important to acknowledge the need for the development of formal infrastructure that promotes breastfeeding. This includes training health care providers to help women struggling with breastfeeding and allocating sufficient funding for such initiatives.

Overall, this scoping review revealed the need for healthcare professionals to provide practical breastfeeding advice and realistic solutions to women encountering difficulties with breastfeeding. Public health messaging surrounding breastfeeding must re-invent breastfeeding as a “family practice” that requires collaboration between the breastfeeding mother, their partner, as well as extended family to ensure that women are supported as they breastfeed [ 8 ]. The literature also highlighted the issue of healthcare professionals easily giving up on women who encounter problems with breastfeeding and automatically recommending the initiation of formula use without further consideration towards solutions for breastfeeding difficulties [ 19 ]. While some challenges associated with breastfeeding are informed by local culture or health care policies, most of the barriers experienced by breastfeeding women are remarkably universal. Women often struggle with initiation of breastfeeding, lack of support from their significant others, and lack of appropriate places and spaces to breastfeed [ 25 , 26 , 33 , 39 ]. A change in public health messaging to a more flexible messaging that recognizes the challenges of breastfeeding is needed to help women overcome negative feelings associated with failure to breastfeed. Offering more personalized advice and support to breastfeeding mothers can improve women’s experiences and increase the rates of breastfeeding while also boosting mothers’ sense of self-efficacy.

Limitations

This scoping review has several limitations. First, the focus on “women’s experiences” rendered broad search criteria but may have resulted in the over or underrepresentation of specific findings in this review. Also, the exclusion of empirical work published in languages other than English rendered this review reliant on the papers published predominantly in English-speaking countries. Finally, consistent with Arksey and O’Malley’s [ 18 ] scoping review methodology, we did not appraise the quality of the reviewed literature. Notwithstanding these limitations, this review provides important insights into women’s experiences of breastfeeding and offers practical strategies for improving dominant public health messaging on the importance of breastfeeding.

Women who breastfeed encounter many difficulties when they initiate breastfeeding, and most women are unsuccessful in adhering to current public health breastfeeding guidelines. This scoping review highlighted the need for reconfiguring public health messaging to acknowledge the challenges many women experience with breastfeeding and include women’s social networks as a target audience for such messaging. This review also shows that breastfeeding supports and counselling are needed by all women, but there is also a need to tailor public health messaging to local social norms and culture. The role social institutions and cultural discourses have on women’s experiences of breastfeeding must also be acknowledged and leveraged by health care professionals promoting breastfeeding.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Jackie Stapleton, the University of Waterloo librarian, for her assistance with developing the search strategy used in this review.

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BB was responsible for the formal analysis and organization of the review. LK was responsible for data curation, visualization and writing the original draft. EN was responsible for initial conceptualization and writing the original draft. BB and LK were responsible for reviewing and editing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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LK is completing her Bachelor of Public Health (BPH) degree at the School of Public Health Sciences at the University of Waterloo.

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Beggs, B., Koshy, L. & Neiterman, E. Women’s Perceptions and Experiences of Breastfeeding: a scoping review of the literature. BMC Public Health 21 , 2169 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12216-3

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Essays on Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is an important part of a baby’s life, providing essential nutrition and forming the bond between mother and child. It has numerous benefits for both mother and baby, including physical, emotional and psychological advantages. Breast milk contains all the nutrients a baby needs to grow strong and healthy. It also helps to boost immunity by passing on antibodies from the mother. Furthermore, breastfeeding can help reduce risks of certain illnesses such as asthma, obesity and diabetes in later life. For mothers it can lower their risk of breast cancer, ovarian cancer and osteoporosis.On an emotional level, breastfeeding encourages affectionate contact between mother and baby which promotes secure attachment that will benefit them throughout their lives. Psychologically speaking breastfeeding provides comfort when babies cry or are feeling stressed due to colic or teething pain; they feel safe when being held close while nursing which releases oxytocin (the bonding hormone) into both mom’s bloodstream as well as her baby’s making them feel relaxed in each other’s presence. In addition to these many benefits there are practical considerations too: breastfed babies tend to feed more often than formula-fed babies so parents do not have to worry about preparing bottles every time the little one gets hungry ” plus breastmilk is always at just the right temperature. Finally it is worth mentioning that breastfeeding reduces healthcare costs for families with no need for purchasing costly formulas or specialist bottles/accessories – saving money over time. All in all it is clear that breastfeeding should be encouraged whenever possible due its multiple positive impacts on both mother & child alike; however this does not mean parents who choose formula feeding cannot provide loving care for their children either.

Introduction The issue of whether women should adhere more to breastfeed their babies or resort to modern feeding methods such as bottle feeding remains a controversial and contentious topic that has sparked heated debate from both divides. While other people claim that breastfeeding is the only natural mechanisms that a mother can create the special […]

Breastfeeding is very important to a mother and child, yet rates are not as high as recommendations of AAP and WHO. Investigation of why more women do not breastfeed focus on breastfeeding challenges including issues related to breastfeeding in public. There is a need to implement strategies which support public breastfeeding and change stigma surrounding […]

Breastfeeding, also referred to as nursing, is the act of feeding infants using milk from the mother’s breasts. It is widely recognized as the optimal method for nourishing babies and is often preferred by mothers. Although breastfeeding is a natural occurrence, it can be challenging in the early stages of motherhood, emphasizing the importance of […]

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Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding: Pros and Cons Essay

Breastfeeding and bottle feeding.

Both breastfeeding and bottle feeding have distinct advantages and disadvantages that the current or future parents and healthcare specialists should be aware of to ensure baby safety and high nurturing quality. Although parents are free to choose any of the options according to their needs, the researchers usually suggest that breastfeeding should be prioritized at the early stages over bottle feeding. For instance, the American Academy of Pediatrics insists that mothers should nurse their babies until they later reach at least 12 months of age. In a similar vein, World Health Organization strongly advocates for necessary breastfeeding during the first two years of infants’ lives. Despite that, it is still important to discuss the pros and cons of both baby feeding methods separately.

Breastfeeding

The advantages of breastfeeding can be viewed from two angles, namely from the baby’s perspective and from the perspective of a mother. The former includes the following:

• Breast milk has all the nutrients necessary for an infant’s normal development, such as proteins which account for around 75%, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals;
• It is believed that women’s bodies are able to receive necessary information concerning nutrients that their children lack through saliva. As a result, the breast milk’s content can adapt to the needs of the baby and, thus, ensures the infant’s better and healthier development;
• Breastfed children are less likely to have problems with digestion;
• Breastfeeding is associated with the lower risk of sudden infant death syndrome;
• Breastfed babies have stronger immune systems than bottle-fed children and, thus, are more protected from various types of viruses such as ear, lung, and urinary tract infections, to name a few. In this regard, some researches indicate that the risk of hospitalization during the first year of a child’s life reduces by 72%.

At the same time, mothers also enjoy certain benefits from personally nursing their children as it helps to:

• Increase the emotional connection with the baby;
• Recover uterus to the size that it had before pregnancy faster;
• Increase the production of good hormones such as oxytocin (love hormone which promotes human bonding);
• Reduce the chance of experiencing postpartum depression;
• Reduce the risk of other diseases occurrence, including breast cancer, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular issues.

On the other hand, there are also some adverse consequences of breastfeeding. First of all, it can take several days to a few weeks for the body to adjust for nursing purposes. For instance, women can feel pain, have their nipples cracked, and experience a shortage of milk supply. Also, breastfeeding requires a woman to lead a healthy lifestyle and avoid consuming alcohol or coffee, taking certain medicines, and smoking. Finally, due to the high frequency of breastfeeding sessions, women should be around their children most of the time.

Bottle Feeding

Now it is necessary to discuss the advantages and drawbacks of bottle feeding. Generally, the pros of this method are the following:

• Anyone can be involved in the feeding process, including the woman’s partner, the infant’s grandparents, and older siblings. That significantly reduces children’s dependency on the mother and helps other family members to bond more with the baby;
• Mother’s health-related problems and bad dietary (for instance, alcohol and/or drug abuse) and behavioral (smoking) habits do not affect the child;
• There is no need to worry about a low supply of milk;
• It is more convenient to feed the baby in public places, especially for mothers who feel uncomfortable breastfeeding around other people.

On the contrary, the disadvantages of bottle feeding are:

• Less nutrition in comparison with breastfeeding as well as reduced flexibility to the needs of the baby;
• Lower levels of mother-child emotional connection;
• Added expenses due to the need to purchase special equipment and infant formula;
• Additional efforts and time to prepare milk. However, the responsibility for preparation and feeding can be shared among family members;
• Significantly fewer health benefits for babies and their mothers.
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IvyPanda. (2022, November 8). Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding: Pros and Cons. https://ivypanda.com/essays/breastfeeding-and-bottle-feeding-pros-and-cons/

"Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding: Pros and Cons." IvyPanda , 8 Nov. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/breastfeeding-and-bottle-feeding-pros-and-cons/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding: Pros and Cons'. 8 November.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding: Pros and Cons." November 8, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/breastfeeding-and-bottle-feeding-pros-and-cons/.

1. IvyPanda . "Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding: Pros and Cons." November 8, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/breastfeeding-and-bottle-feeding-pros-and-cons/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding: Pros and Cons." November 8, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/breastfeeding-and-bottle-feeding-pros-and-cons/.

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Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1991.

Nutrition During Lactation.

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2 Introduction

Lactation is a remarkable process during which the maternal body produces a secretion that provides no immediate benefit to the mother but can totally sustain the offspring. All mammals produce milks with different compositions, each one specific to the needs for growth and development of their offspring. Regardless of a woman's intention to breastfeed, her body prepares for lactation from the first moments of pregnancy: the mammary gland begins its maturational process with the development of the alveolar ductal system and the lacteal cells so that the breast is ready to produce milk upon delivery of the infant. The woman's hormonal balance during pregnancy contributes to the preparation of the breast and promotes accumulation of energy stores, but it suppresses the production of milk until the birth of the infant.

Between 1940 and 1980, there was relatively little active investigation of nutrition during lactation and of the impact of breastfeeding on the mother. Except for the 10 editions of Recommended Dietary Allowances , which have included specific nutrient recommendations for lactating women since they were first published (NRC, 1943), relatively few publications by the National Academy of Sciences, the government, or professional organizations have paid detailed attention to nutrition during lactation. The Academy's publications include three reports prepared by committees of the Food and Nutrition Board under the sponsorship of the Maternal and Child Health Program (Title V, Social Security Act): Nutrition in Pregnancy and Lactation (NRC, 1967), A Selected Annotated Bibliography on Breast-Feeding, 1970-1977 (NRC, 1978), and Nutrition Services in Perinatal Care (NRC, 1981). However, these reports did not include interpretive reviews of the literature.

The first clear evidence that the federal government was increasing its attention to breastfeeding appeared in the report Promoting Health/Preventing Disease: Objectives for the Nation (DHHS, 1980). That publication included an explicit objective to increase the proportion of breastfed infants. The target breastfeeding rates were 75% at hospital discharge and 35% at 6 months post partum. At that time, the Maternal and Child Health Program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) was charged with the responsibility of developing national policy related to lactation and breastfeeding and of convening a national group periodically to advise them on specific issues.

Lactation research received increased attention in 1982, when the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) sponsored a conference that dealt primarily with techniques for collection, analysis, and storage of human milk—prerequisites for meaningful studies as well as for milk banking. This was followed by other lactation research conferences (see, for example, FASEB [1984] and Jensen and Neville [1985]).

In 1984, before it was recognized that national rates of breastfeeding had begun to decline (see Chapter 3 ), Surgeon General C. Everett Koop convened a workshop on Breastfeeding and Human Lactation (DHHS, 1984) and said, ''We must … identify and reduce those barriers which keep women from initiating or continuing to breastfeed their infants" (DHHS, 1984, p. 6). The following six recommendations were made at that workshop to facilitate progress toward the previously mentioned 1990 breastfeeding objective:

• Improve professional education in human lactation and breastfeeding
• Develop public education and promotional efforts
• Strengthen the support for breastfeeding in the health care system
• Develop a broad range of support services in the community
• Initiate a national breastfeeding promotion effort directed to women in the world of work
• Expand research on human lactation and breastfeeding (DHHS, 1985, p. 1).

The publication Followup Report: The Surgeon General's Workshop on Breastfeeding & Human Lactation (DHHS, 1985) summarizes many of the activities that emanated from the recommendations made at the 1984 workshop. Attention to nutrition during lactation fell primarily under the research recommendation.

Between 1985 and 1989, NICHD sponsored three additional lactation-related workshops: the first one on the effects of maternal and environmental factors on human milk (Hamosh and Goldman, 1986), the next one on the effects of milk on the recipient infant (Goldman et al., 1987), and the third one on future needs for human milk research. Statements issued from these workshops and through other forums (e.g., Goldman and Garza, 1987) have clearly indicated that there is a need for additional study of nutrition during lactation and how it may influence the health of both the mother and her infant.

Many of the studies presented at these workshops suggested that breastfeeding might have both immediate and long-lasting beneficial effects.

Despite efforts to promote breastfeeding following the Surgeon General's workshop, breastfeeding rates have declined further, probably because of a combination of social and economic forces. Social attitudes, such as the perceived low value of breastfeeding, may be partially responsible. These attitudes might be expected to continue with the recent adoption of television advertising and direct mail distribution of infant formula by formula manufacturers. Social forces that may be contributing to decreased rates of breastfeeding include the increased participation of women in the work force coupled with the scarcity of job-site day-care facilities and lack of provisions for routine postpartum maternal respite from work. Because of economic pressures on hospitals and cost-containment policies of third-party payers, mothers in many places are routinely discharged 24 hours after delivery, with no opportunity for breastfeeding instruction or support.

These social and economic forces driving the decline of breastfeeding are virtually inseparable from government policies, and current government policies offer little hope of change. The United States is one of the few industrialized countries without a national policy of maternity and parental leave. Moreover, there are few government programs supporting day care. Thus, many mothers must return to work soon after delivery or face the loss of wages or even the loss of a job. Often, they must leave their infants to be cared for at sites distant from their places of employment. The combination of fatigue, stress, and physical separation from their infants makes breastfeeding prohibitive for all but the most strongly committed.

Although nutrition during lactation has not been a priority in breastfeeding promotion efforts, there has been recognition of the need to promote adequate food intake to support milk production and the woman's health. For example, the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) was encouraged to increase the options for food packages to be more responsive to the food preferences of adolescent mothers and mothers of various ethnic groups.

Many reasons have been given to support breastfeeding promotion (AAP, 1982; AAP/ACOG, 1988; ACOG, 1985; ADA, 1986; APHA, 1983; AAP, 1978; DHHS, 1988):

• the favorable balance and bioavailability of nutrients in human milk compared with those of nutrients in formula,
• the immunologic properties conferred by human milk that help reduce infant morbidity and mortality during breastfeeding,
• the potential for reducing the risk of early development of allergic disease,
• the psychologic benefits to both the infant and the mother resulting from the intimate relationship that is repeated throughout the day and night over an extended period,
• the facilitation of contractions and the involution of the once gravid uterus and the control of postpartum bleeding associated with oxytocin release,
• the maternal feelings of well-being associated with the changes in hormone concentrations during lactation, and
• the enhancement of mothering behaviors by the stimulus of hormones during suckling.

The accumulated evidence of the beneficial effects of breastfeeding has led many professional groups (e.g., the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Dietetic Association, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Academy of Family Medicine) to endorse and actively support breastfeeding.

• Purpose And Scope

In April 1987, the Office of Maternal and Child Health of DHHS asked the Food and Nutrition Board to establish a committee on nutrition during pregnancy and lactation. In response to the request, a committee was formed to oversee the work of three subcommittees: (1) nutritional status and weight gain during pregnancy, (2) dietary intake and nutritional supplementation during pregnancy, and (3) nutrition during lactation. The deliberations of the third subcommittee constitute this report.

The specific charge to the lactation subcommittee was "to evaluate and document the current scientific evidence and formulate recommendations for the nutritional needs of lactating women." Consideration was to be given to the following:

• the effect of maternal dietary intake during lactation on the volume and composition of human milk;
• the effect of maternal nutritional status during pregnancy and post partum on the volume and composition of human milk;
• the appropriateness of various anthropometric methods for assessing nutritional status during lactation; and
• the effects of lactation on the recipient infant, maternal health, and maternal nutritional status.

The subcommittee was also asked to consider justification for special recommendations for different maternal age and ethnic groups, taking particular note of the needs of lactating adolescents; women over age 35; and women of black, Hispanic, and Southeast Asian origins. Although there are data on lactation and breastfeeding derived from cultures throughout the world, this report focuses on lactating women and their infants in the United States.

The subcommittee is well aware that nutrient stores and nutrient intake are only two of the many factors that influence production of milk, growth and health of the infant, and maternal health. Other factors (such as hospital practices, the need to resume employment, anatomic adequacy, hormonal response, maternal insecurity, and exposure to infectious agents) are mentioned only briefly in the report, even though they may have great influence on milk volume and composition. The subcommittee restricted its coverage of these factors, however, because they are not directly related to its task. The subcommittee did consider it essential to discuss the components of human milk that may contribute positively or negatively to the health status of infants, even in the absence of data indicating that maternal nutrition might influence those components. Furthermore, the subcommittee also considered it important to place the role of nutrition during lactation in proper perspective relative to the many other factors that can influence the success of breastfeeding.

There remains an urgent need to reduce the many barriers to successful initiation and maintenance of breastfeeding. The reader is encouraged to obtain more information on this from publications such as the Report of the Surgeon General's Workshop on Breastfeeding and Human Lactation (DHHS, 1984) and Promoting Breastfeeding in WIC: A Compendium of Practical Approaches (USDA, 1988).

The Subcommittee on Nutrition During Lactation conducted an extensive review of the literature to examine the impact of lactation on the mother and the infant as well as the impact of maternal diet and nutritional status on maternal stores, the milk, and the infant. Valuable assistance was provided by the Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation, which served in an advisory capacity to the subcommittee.

Methods that were used to estimate how lactation influences maternal nutrient requirements included consideration of the nutrient content of human milk and its variability, mean milk production and variations in milk production between and within women, and physiologic changes that may enhance maternal nutrient absorption or reduce nutrient losses.

Imprecise terminology in the literature complicated the subcommittee's task. For example, the terms breastfeeding and breastfed were often used indiscriminately, without definition of extent or duration. Extent of breastfeeding refers to the daily frequency and length of suckling sessions, while duration refers to the number of months or weeks over which breastfeeding occurs. In this report, the subcommittee applies the term exclusive breastfeeding when infants are fed only by this method; partial breastfeeding when breastfeeding is supplemented with limited amounts of formula, juice, water, or solid foods; and minimal breastfeeding when the infant receives nearly all sustenance from formula and other foods.

Furthermore, terms such as well nourished, malnourished, and undernourished were given various definitions (or none at all) in the literature. The subcommittee uses the term apparently well nourished or, simply, well nourished to describe the healthy woman who is of appropriate weight for height and who has no notable dietary limitations.

The term lactation performance is broadly defined to include the quality and quantity of milk produced, duration of lactation, various indices of maternal health (such as folate status), and selected indices of child health (such as growth and morbidity). When evaluating evidence to determine whether maternal nutrition is likely to influence one or more aspects of lactation performance, careful consideration was given to the adequacy of the study for answering the specific question being addressed. In nearly all cases, the formulation of recommendations required substantial exercise of judgment because of limitations of the data.

• Organization Of This Report

This volume begins with a summary of the report and its principal conclusions and recommendations. Chapter 3 addresses the question "Who is breastfeeding?" by identifying breastfeeding rates in the United States by different demographic characteristics (such as age, ethnic background, region of the country, and employment status). It also provides a historical perspective of the incidence and duration of breastfeeding in the past century.

Chapter 4 examines anthropometric and biochemical methods for assessing the nutritional status of lactating women and points out their uses and limitations. The subcommittee tabulated and interpreted nutrient intake data from studies of lactating women.

Chapters 5 and 6 contain discussions of the volume and composition of human milk, respectively, and explain factors that must be considered when evaluating the impact of maternal nutrition on these two lactation outcomes. These chapters also provide the basis for estimating the range of the mother's increased need for nutrients resulting from breastfeeding.

Although infant growth, development, and health are key outcomes of breastfeeding, the effects of maternal nutrition during lactation on these outcomes have been largely ignored in the literature. To the extent possible, Chapter 7 reports the links between the nutrition of the mother and the nutrition and growth of the nursing infant. Since a slower than expected rate of infant weight gain may be given as a reason for discontinuing breastfeeding, the subcommittee paid special attention to the assessment of the growth of breastfed infants. It also raised the possibility that maternal nutrition may influence infant health through altered immunologic function. Links between maternal food intake

while lactating and infant health are also considered in Chapter 7 as they relate to allergic diseases and environmental toxins. To provide a balanced overview of infant health, the risk of transmission of infectious agents via human milk and the presence of drugs in human milk are also covered. In addition, there is brief mention of the development of obesity and atherosclerosis in later life in relation to the method of infant feeding.

Chapter 8 explores ways that maternal health can be influenced by lactation. Topics include obesity, osteoporosis, and breast cancer. Maternal health outcomes also include the impact of lactation on ovulation and fertility. In Chapter 9 , information from preceding chapters is synthesized in a discussion of ways to meet the nutrient needs of lactating women. Chapter 10 presents the subcommittee's recommendations for research based on the contents of this report.

• AAP (American Academy of Pediatrics). 1978. Breastfeeding: a commentary in celebration of the International Year of the Child, 1979 . Pediatrics 62:591-601. [ PubMed : 362368 ]
• AAP (American Academy of Pediatrics). 1982. The promotion of breastfeeding: policy statement based on task force report . Pediatrics 69:654-661. [ PubMed : 7079026 ]
• AAP/ACOG (American Academy of Pediatrics/American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists). 1988. Guidelines for Perinatal Care , 2 nd ed. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove, Ill. 356 pp.
• ACOG (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists). 1985. Standards for Obstetric-Gynecologic Services , 6 th ed. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Washington, D.C. 109 pp.
• ADA (American Dietetic Association). 1986. Position of the American Dietetic Association: promotion of breastfeeding . J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 86:1580-1585. [ PubMed : 3771973 ]
• APHA (American Public Health Association). 1983. Policy statements: breastfeeding . Am. J. Public Health 73:347-348.
• DHHS (Department of Health and Human Services). 1980. Promoting Health/Preventing Disease: Objectives for the Nation . Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 102 pp.
• DHHS (Department of Health and Human Services). 1984. Report of the Surgeon General's Workshop on Breastfeeding & Human Lactation . DHHS Publ. No. HRS-D-MC 84-2. Health Resources and Services Administration, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, Md. 93 pp.
• DHHS (Department of Health and Human Services). 1985. Followup Report: The Surgeon General's Workshop on Breastfeeding & Human Lactation . DHHS Publ. No. HRS-D-MC 85-2. Health Resources and Services Administration, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, Md. 46 pp.
• DHHS (Department of Health and Human Services). 1988. The Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition and Health . DHHS (PHS) Publ. No. 88-50210. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 727 pp.
• FASEB (Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology). 1984. Proceedings of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology . J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 3.
• Goldman, A.S., and C. Garza. 1987. Future research in human milk . Pediatr. Res. 22:493–496. [ PubMed : 3317259 ]
• Goldman, A.S., S.A. Atkinson, and L.A. Hanson. 1987. Human Lactation 3: The Effects of Human Milk on the Recipient Infant . Plenum Press , New York. 400 pp.
• Hamosh, M., editor; , and A.S. Goldman, editor. , eds. 1986. Human Lactation 2: Maternal and Environmental Factors . Plenum Press , New York. 657 pp.
• Jensen, R.G., editor; , and M.C. Neville, editor. , eds. 1985. Human Lactation: Milk Components and Methodologies . Plenum Press , New York. 307 pp.
• NRC (National Research Council). 1943. Recommended Dietary Allowances . Report of the Food and Nutrition Board . Reprint and Circular Series No. 115. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 6 pp.
• NRC (National Research Council). 1967. Nutrition in Pregnancy and Lactation . Report of the Committee on Maternal Nutrition, Food and Nutrition Board. For Transmittal to the Children's Bureau. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 67 pp.
• NRC (National Research Council). 1978. A Selected Annotated Bibliography on Breast–Feeding, 1970–1977 . Report of the Food and Nutrition Board. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 58 pp.
• NRC (National Research Council). 1981. Nutrition Services in Perinatal Care . Report of the Committee on Nutrition of the Mother and Preschool Child, Food and Nutrition Board, Assembly of Life Sciences. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 72 pp.
• USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). 1988. Promoting Breastfeeding in WIC: A Compendium of Practical Approaches . FNS–256. Food and Nutrition Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Alexandria, Va. 171 pp.
• Cite this Page Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation. Nutrition During Lactation. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1991. 2, Introduction.
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