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Weather Instruments & Their Uses

Tools Used in Meteorology

Meteorologists use a wide variety of different instruments to measure weather conditions, but many of these weather instruments fall into relatively common, overarching categories. Thermometers, for instance, come in traditional liquid-in-glass forms and newer electronic forms, but both measure temperature in Celsius and Fahrenheit. Other instruments measure aspects of weather like rainfall, pressure, humidity, wind direction, and wind speed. These instruments and measurements allow meteorologists to make predictions on weather conditions in the near future.

Weather stations are strategically positioned collections of many instruments. The provide crucial information for meteorology and weather forecasting. Stations often have many types of weather instruments that are all chosen to provide an accurate and expansive survey of the current weather conditions. To provide even more real time measurements hundreds of weather balloons are launched across the world every day; they float thousands of feet into the atmosphere carrying meteorological instruments to measure wind conditions, air temperature, and pressure in the sky. Because weather is so complicated, it helps to have as much data from very different altitudes and locations.

Daily Temperatures

A thermometer measures the high and low outdoor temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Celsius. Meteorologists first used liquid-in-glass thermometers in the late 1800s, but they now use electronic maximum-minimum temperature sensor systems more frequently. The newer systems use an electronic temperature sensor to measure and record high and low temperatures.

Atmospheric Pressure

Barometers measure atmospheric pressure (sometimes also called barometric pressure), providing the measurement in millibars. Under most conditions, high and rising pressure indicates sunny weather, while low and falling pressure indicates approaching rainy storms. The traditional aneroid barometer first appeared in the 1840s. The micro-barograph also measures air pressure but records its continuous measurements on paper. There are many varieties of digital barometers and more analog measurement tools to measure atmospheric pressure.

Humidity Sensors

Hygrometers measure temperature and humidity using degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit. One type of hygrometer, called a sling psychrometer, uses one dry and one wet bulb thermometer to measure the relative humidity, or amount of water vapor, of the air. Some older hygrometers used a sheaf of hair, which increases in length as relative humidity increases.

Anemometers measure the direction and speed of wind in miles per hour. A common type of anemometer has three cups fixed to a mobile shaft. As the wind blows faster, the cups spin around faster. The actual speed of the wind shows up on a dial. Another type of anemometer uses a propeller instead of cups to accomplish the same function.

A wind vane, also called a wind sock, measures the direction of the wind at any given point in time. A weighted arrow spins around a fixed shaft and points north, south, east or west, typically marked on separate fixed shafts parallel to the arrow.

A rain gauge measures the amount of rainfall. The standard rain gauge consists of a long, narrow cylinder capable of measuring rainfall up to 8 inches. Many rain gauges measure precipitation in millimeters, or to the nearest 100th of an inch. Other gauges collect the rain and weigh it, later converting this measurement into inches. There are also snow gauges designed to accurately measure snowfall.

Hail pads measure the size of hail that falls during a storm. A standard hail pad consists of florist's foam and aluminum foil. The falling hail strikes the foil and creates dimples for the observer to measure after the storm.

Campbell Stokes Recorder

The Campbell Stokes Recorder measures sunshine. Sunlight shines into one side of a glass ball and leaves through the opposite side in a concentrated ray. This ray of light burns a mark onto a thick piece of card. The extensiveness of the burn mark indicates how many hours the sun shone during that day.

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Types of old-fashioned weather instruments, different types of anemometers, what units do barometers measure in, how to build weather instruments for kids, types of hygrometers, types of rain gauges, what units does the anemometer measure in, a tool used to measure how much rain has fallen, how to read a digital barometer, the history of wind vanes, tools used to measure temperature, instruments that are used to predict weather, interesting facts about anemometers, why is the anemometer important to weather forecasting, thickness measuring tools, devices that measure wind speed, measuring instruments and uses, what is a high or low reading in barometric pressure.

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About the Author

Caitlynn Lowe has been writing since 2006 and has been a contributing writer for Huntington University's "Mnemosyne" and "Huntingtonian." Her writing has also been in "Ictus" and "Struggle Creek: A Novel Story." Lowe earned her Bachelor of Arts degree in English from Huntington University.

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How do we measure the weather and climate?

Weather instruments are used to take measurements of temperature, wind, precipitation, and other atmospheric factors that describe the local weather and climate. Different types of instruments are used to measure these parameters and there are many types to choose from. Our ECONet weather towers measure a variety of these parameters, such as temperature, wind speed, wind direction, humidity, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, and even soil temperature and moisture!

Temperature Show More

You’re probably familiar with thermometers as they’re very common in our daily lives (indoor & outdoor temperature, body temperature, oven temperature, etc.). Think about what a thermometer looks like. Chances are you probably thought of the classic glass tube filled with red-dyed alcohol – replacing toxic mercury-filled instruments (Figure A). As the temperature of the instrument changes, so too does the volume of the liquid inside of the thermometer – the red liquid rises as the temperature rises due to the liquid expanding up the tube, and falls with the temperature due to the liquid contracting back into the bulb at the bottom. At modern weather stations, like our ECONet towers, an electronic temperature sensor is used to measure the outside air temperature (Figure B). The temperature sensor on this device is contained within a vented unit which allows air to flow freely across the sensor and measure the temperature while keeping the thermometer shaded from the direct heating of the sun.

Wind Speed & Direction Show More

An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and they’re very common at weather stations. There are a few different types of anemometers, one of the most common being a cup anemometer (Figure C – right side). As the wind blows, it pushes the cups and causes the arms to rotate at a rate proportional to the wind speed. This is great for measuring wind speed, but doesn’t help us measure the wind direction. A wind vane can help us to measure which direction the wind is coming from (Figure C – left side). As the wind blows past the instrument, the wind vane will point in the direction that the wind is coming from. It is important to note that wind direction is always given by where the wind is coming from, so a west (or westerly) wind is blowing from west to east. Many weather stations, including our ECONet towers, use a tool that combines these two instruments into one called a propeller anemometer (Figure D). Because propeller anemometers measure both speed and direction simultaneously, they are considered to be more accurate than the two separate instruments.

Precipitation Show More

A rain gauge is an instrument used to measure the amount of precipitation over a certain amount of time. In its most basic form, a rain gauge can be a bucket that collects rain water to be measured by a ruler (Figure E). For our ECONet towers and other officially recognized weather stations, the instruments are more precise than the bucket & ruler method. Specifically, our ECONet rain gauges are known as tipping bucket gauges (Figure F) – when the gauge fills to a certain level (0.01″), the gauge tips and empties so as to avoid overflowing or clogging. The number of bucket-tips are counted and the precipitation is calculated. For example, if the bucket tips 25 times over the course of the day, we can calculate that it rained 0.25″ that day.

In order for rain gauges to be as precise as possible, they need to be placed in open areas with no obstructions like trees or buildings. The goal in measuring weather is always accuracy, but sometimes real-world weather conditions impede our measurements. During hurricanes or strong thunderstorms high winds can prevent the rain from falling into the gauge or even blow debris into the instrument, blocking the gauge’s opening.

If you’re interested in contributing precipitation data from your own backyard, consider joining CoCoRaHS (Community Collaborative Rain, Hail & Snow Network). It’s a nationwide volunteer network of backyard weather observers of all ages and backgrounds working together to measure and map precipitation (rain, hail and snow) in their local communities. You can take a look at a live map of today’s measurements here !

Atmospheric Pressure Show More

Atmospheric pressure, or air pressure, can be measured using a barometer . An aneroid barometer (Figure G), one of the most common types, uses a sealed container of air to detect changes in the atmospheric pressure outside of the container. As the atmospheric pressure increases, it pushes down on the container and it is slightly reduced in volume, moving an indicator needle towards higher pressure.  If the atmospheric pressure decreases, the container expands slightly and the needle indicates lower pressure. Most weather stations, including our ECONet towers, now use digital barometers as they’re much easier to maintain and collect data.

Why is it important to measure atmospheric pressure?

Measuring pressure is important because it is related to volume, density, and temperature. In the atmosphere, warm surfaces can heat the air above them causing the air to become less dense and to rise.  This leads to low pressure and can eventually result in clouds and precipitation in the areas of rising motion. On a large scale, these low pressure systems can become large storm systems, such as hurricanes . On the other hand, high pressure in the atmosphere causes the cold air to compress and sink, leading to clear skies and calm conditions. Notice the associated weather on the barometer in Figure H.

Humidity Show More

What is humidity?

Humidity is defined as the measure of moisture in the air. While humidity can be measured in grams of water per kilogram of air (absolute humidity) , it’s more practical to work with relative humidity as it can give us a better sense of how the weather might be affected by the water in the air. If the relative humidity is measured to be 100%, the air is saturated. If the relative humidity is 50%, the air contains half of the water vapor required to be saturated. It is important to keep in mind that relative humidity is also dependent on air temperature. For example, if the water vapor content stays the same and the temperature drops, the relative humidity increases. If the water vapor content stays the same and the temperature rises, the relative humidity decreases. This is because colder air doesn’t require as much moisture to become saturated as warmer air.

How is relative humidity measured?

Relative humidity can be measured using a hygrometer . There are many different types of hygrometers, but they’re all similar in that they measure the temperature in two different ways – using a dry-bulb thermometer and a wet-bulb thermometer. The dry-bulb thermometer will simply measure the air temperature while the wet-bulb measures evaporative cooling . Evaporative cooling is the reason you feel cold after getting out of a swimming pool or the shower. The water uses heat energy from your body and your skin cools to the wet-bulb temperature (which is why you feel a chill until the water evaporates).

A sling psychrometer (Figure I) is a common type of hygrometer used to determine relative humidity. Sling psychrometers use two thermometers (one dry-bulb, one wet-bulb) to measure and compare the air temperature versus the evaporative cooling. These measurements are then compared to a relative humidity chart (Figure J) to calculate relative humidity.

A Guide to the Tools Used to Measure the Weather World

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• Storms & Other Phenomena

• B.S., Atmospheric Sciences and Meteorology, University of North Carolina

Weather instruments are devices used by atmospheric scientists to sample the state of the atmosphere, or what it's doing, at a given time. Unlike chemists, biologists, and physicists, meteorologists don't use these instruments in a lab. They're used in the field, placed outdoors as a suite of sensors which, together, provide a complete picture of weather conditions. Below is a beginner's list of the basic weather instruments found in weather stations and what each one measures.

Terryfic3D / Getty Images

Anemometers are devices used to measure winds . While the basic concept was developed by Italian artist Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, the cup-anemometer wasn't perfected until the 1900s. Today, two kinds of anemometers are most often used:

• The three-cup anemometer determines wind speed based on how fast the cup wheel spins and wind direction from the cyclical changes in ​cup wheel speed.
• Vane anemometers have propellers on one end to measure wind speed and tails on the other for determining wind direction.

gorsh13 / Getty Images

A barometer is a weather instrument used to measure air pressure. Of the two main types of barometers, mercury and aneroid, aneroid are more widely used. Digital barometers, which use electrical transponders, are used in most official weather stations. Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli is credited with inventing the barometer in 1643. 

Thermometer

jirkaejc / Getty Images

Thermometers, one of the most widely recognized weather instruments, are tools used to measure ​ ambient air temperature . The SI (international) unit of temperature is degrees Celsius, but in the U.S. we record temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit.

Grindi / Getty Images

First invented in 1755 by Swiss "renaissance man" Johann Heinrich Lambert, the hygrometer is a tool that measures humidity, or moisture content in the air.

Hygrometers come in all types:

• Hair tension hygrometers relate the change in length of a human or animal hair (which has an affinity to absorbing water) to a change in humidity.
• Sling psychrometers use a set of two thermometers (one dry and one moistened with water) are spun in the air.
• Of course, as is true of most modern weather instruments used today, the digital hygrometer is preferred. Its electronic sensors change in proportion to the level of moisture in the air.

ZenShui / Sigrid Olsson / Getty Images

If you have a rain gauge at your school, home, or office you know what it measures: liquid precipitation. While a number of rain gauge models exist, the most widely used include standard rain gauges and tipping-bucket rain gauges (so-called because it sits on a seesaw-like container that tips over and empties out whenever a certain amount of precipitation falls into it).

Although the first known rainfall records date back to the Ancient Greeks and BCE 500, the first standardized rain gauge wasn't developed and used until 1441 by the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. Any way you slice it, the rain gauge is still among the oldest weather instruments in existence.

Weather Balloon

milehightraveler / Getty Images

A weather balloon or sounding is a sort of mobile weather station in that it carries instruments into the upper air in able to record observations of weather variables (like atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, and winds), then sends back this data during its suborbital flight. It is comprised of a 6-foot-wide helium- or hydrogen-filled latex balloon, a payload package (radiosonde) that encases the instruments, and a parachute that floats the radiosonde back to the ground so that it can be found, fixed, and reused. Weather balloons are launched at over 500 locations worldwide twice per day, usually at 00 Z and 12 Z .

Weather Satellites

aapsky / Getty Images

Weather satellites are used to view and gather data about Earth's weather and climate. Meteorological satellites see clouds, wildfires, snow cover, and ocean temperatures. Just like rooftop or mountain top views offer a wider view of your surroundings, a weather satellite's position several hundred to thousands of miles above Earth's surface allows observation of weather across large areas. This extended view also helps meteorologists spot weather systems and patterns hours to days before being detected by surface observing instruments, like weather radar.

Weather Radar

next143 / Getty Images

Weather radar is an essential weather instrument used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, and estimate its type (rain, snow, or hail) and intensity (light or heavy).

First used during World War II as a defense mechanism, radar was identified as a potential scientific tool when military personnel happened to notice "noise" from precipitation on their radar displays. Today, radar is an essential tool for forecasting precipitation associated with thunderstorms, hurricanes, and winter storms.

In 2013, the National Weather Service began upgrading its Doppler radars with dual polarization technology. These "dual-pol" radars send and receive horizontal and vertical pulses (conventional radar only sends out horizontal) which gives forecasters a much clearer, two-dimensional picture of what's out there, be it rain, hail, smoke, or flying objects.

Absodels / Getty Images

There's one very important weather observing instrument we haven't mentioned yet: the human senses!

Weather instruments are necessary too, but they can never replace human expertise and interpretation. No matter what your weather app, indoor-outdoor weather station records, or access to high-end equipment, never forget to verify it against what you observe and experience in "real life" outside your window and door.

In-Situ vs. Remote Sensing

Each of the above weather instruments uses either the in-situ or remote sensing method of measuring. Translated as "in place," in-situ measurements are those taken at the point of interest (your local airport or backyard). In contrast, remote sensors collect data about the atmosphere from some distance away.

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• Barometer Definition and Function
• An Overview of Remote Sensing
• Why Is Wind Speed Slower Over Land than Over Ocean?
• Weather Satellites: Forecasting Earth's Weather From Space
• History of the Anemometer
• How Does a Thermometer Measure Air Temperature?
• Air Pressure and How It Affects the Weather
• How to Read a Barometer
• Which Way Does the Wind Blow?
• The Basics of Air Pressure
• Make a Simple Weather Barometer

Weather Instruments

In his lifetime, Ben Franklin made a number of discoveries and tinkered with various inventions. Weather was a topic that continuously fascinated him, and he gave us the famous quote, "Some are weatherwise; some are otherwise."

Throughout his life, he studied various aspects of the weather and proposed models to describe the progression of storm systems across North America. Franklin is particularly remembered for his kite-and-key experiments with lightning. Weather and the instruments used to measure it are still an important part of The Franklin Institute and its collections.

The Franklin Institute has long considered weather science a significant field of study. It was the first institution to establish a meteorological station in the state of Pennsylvania. The weather instruments found in our Attic provide a glimpse at what earlier forecasters used to predict the weather, how instruments have changed and stayed the same over time, and how The Franklin Institute continues to value scientific topics that Ben himself found just as important so many years ago.

This Minimum-Maximum thermometer is used to record the highest and lowest temperatures observed over a 24-hour period. There are many uses for a minimum-maximum thermometer; one example would be to measure how low the temperature dropped in a greenhouse overnight to figure out exactly when it gets too cold for the plants or flowers to survive. This particular thermometer was made by W.H. Kessler Co., Inc.

Aneroid barometers are instruments used for measuring the pressure of the air in the atmosphere. They weren't invented until the 1840s—years after Franklin's time. High or rising pressure means that clear, sunny weather is expected, while falling or low pressure is a sign of rain or an approaching storm. As air pressure increases, it pushes down on a metal diaphragm, which in turn causes the indicating needle to move. This aneroid barometer was made in Germany and sits on an octagonal wooden base.

A sling psychrometer , the simplest type of hygrometer, measures the relative humidity of the surrounding air by comparing the temperatures of one dry and one wet bulb thermometer. A small chain on the end of the wooden handle attaches the thermometers to each other. The psychrometer is spun around rapidly for a few minutes and readings are taken from the dry and wet bulbs. After these readings are taken, there is a scale that is used to correlate the readings. The relative humidity is read at the intersection of the RH scale and the wet bulb temperature.

It was built especially for the Museum with funds provided by an Act of Legislature (March 31, 1837) that authorized the spending of $2,000 for work in meteorology and the purchase of instruments for each county of the state of Pennsylvania. (There was an additional $1,000 expenditure for each of the two following years.) The barometer is 42 inches tall, and has a mercury thermometer on it. The inscription reads: "Furnished to Philadelphia City by the Joint Committee of Meteorology of the American Philosophical Society and the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania by the Authority of the State of Pennsylvania." It was made by L.C. Francis, Philadelphia.

The anemometer pictured above is a modern version of Robert Hooke's 1667 anemometer, a device Benjamin Franklin was probably familiar with. An anemometer is a device used for measuring wind speed. The pressure of the wind moves the aluminum ball pendulum and the velocity of the wind is read from the scale. This instrument is 14.5 inches tall and was a part of The Franklin Institute's weather center for many years.

Anemometers, barometers, thermometers, psychrometers—they're just everyday devices used to measure the weather, right? Yet these items from the Attic's weather collection are more than that; they are an important representation of The Franklin Institute and what it has grown to symbolize over the years. These are instruments that have weathered time, use, and collection; they represent the enduring science and continuous learning that have always been an important part of The Franklin Institute and will continue to be for many anniversaries to come.

Note: The objects pictured above are part of The Franklin Institute's protected collection of objects. The images are © The Franklin Institute. All rights are reserved.

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A barometer is a tool used to measure atmospheric pressure, also called barometric pressure.

Earth Science, Meteorology

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A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure , also called barometric pressure . The atmosphere is the layers of air wrapped around Earth. That air has a weight and presses against everything it touches as gravity pulls it to Earth. Barometers measure this pressure .

Atmospheric pressure is an indicator of weather . Changes in the atmosphere, including changes in air pressure , affect the weather. Meteorologists use barometers to predict short-term changes in the weather.

A rapid drop in atmospheric pressure means that a low-pressure system is arriving. Low pressure usually means it will be cloudy, rainy , or windy . Air moves away from areas of high pressure. High-pressure areas usually create cool, dry air and clear skies.

A barometer measures atmospheric pressure in units of measurement called atmospheres or bars. An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the average air pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit).

The number of atmospheres drops as altitude increases because the density of air is lower and exerts less pressure. As altitude decreases , the density of air increases, as does the number of atmospheres. Barometers have to be adjusted for changes in altitude in order to make accurate atmospheric pressure readings.

Types of Barometers  

Mercury Barometer

The mercury barometer is the oldest type of barometer, invented by the Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. Torricelli conducted his first barometric experiments using a tube of water. Water is relatively light in weight, so a very tall tube with a large amount of water had to be used in order to compensate for the heavier weight of atmospheric pressure.

Torricelli’s water barometer was more than 10 meters (35 feet) in height, which rose above the roof of his home! This odd device caused suspicion among Torricelli’s neighbors, who thought he was involved in witchcraft . In order to keep his experiments more secretive, Torricelli deduced that he could create a much smaller barometer using mercury, a silvery liquid that weighs 14 times as much as water.

A mercury barometer has a glass tube that is closed at the top and open at the bottom. At the bottom of the tube is a pool of mercury. The mercury sits in a circular, shallow dish surrounding the tube. The mercury in the tube will adjust itself to match the atmospheric pressure above the dish. As the pressure increases, it forces the mercury up the tube. The tube is marked with a series of measurements that track the number of atmospheres or bars. Observers can tell what the air pressure is by looking at where the mercury stops in the barometer.

Aneroid Barometer

In 1844, the French scientist Lucien Vidi invented the aneroid barometer. An aneroid barometer has a sealed metal chamber that expands and contracts , depending on the atmospheric pressure around it. Mechanical tools measure how much the chamber expands or contracts. These measurements are aligned with atmospheres or bars.

The aneroid barometer has a circular display that indicates the present number of atmospheres, much like a clock. One hand moves clockwise or counterclockwise to point to the current number of atmospheres. The terms stormy, rain, change, fair, and dry are often written above the numbers on the dial face to make it easier for people to interpret the weather. Aneroid barometers slowly replaced mercury barometers because they were easier to use, cheaper to buy, and easier to transport since they had no liquid that could spill.

Some aneroid barometers use a mechanical tool to track the changes in atmospheric pressure over a period of time. These aneroid barometers are called barographs . Barographs are barometers connected to needles that make marks on a roll of adjacent graph paper . The barograph records the number of atmospheres on the vertical axis and units of time on the horizontal . A barograph’s tracking tool will rotate , usually once every day, week, or month. The spikes in the graph show when air pressure was high or low, and how long those pressure systems lasted. A severe storm, for instance, would appear as a deep, wide dip on a barograph.

Digital Barometers

Today’s digital barometers measure and display complex atmospheric data more accurately and quickly than ever before. Many digital barometers display both current barometric readings and previous one-, three-, six-, and 12-hour readings in a bar chart format, much like a barograph. They also account for other atmospheric readings such as wind and humidity to make accurate weather forecasts . This data is archived and stored on the barometer and can also be downloaded onto a computer for further analysis . Digital barometers are used by meteorologists and other scientists who want up-to-date atmospheric readings when conducting experiments in the lab or out in the field.

The digital barometer is now an important tool in many of today’s smartphones . This type of digital barometer uses atmospheric pressure data to make accurate elevation readings. These readings help the smartphone’s GPS receiver pinpoint a location more accurately, greatly improving navigation .

Developers and researchers are also using the smartphone’s crowdsourcing capabilities to make more accurate weather forecasts. Apps like PressureNet automatically collect barometric measurements from each of its users, creating a vast network of atmospheric data. This data network makes it easier and faster to map out storms as they develop, especially in areas with few weather stations .

Storm Glass A storm glass is a type of barometer used centuries ago. A storm glass is a sealed glass container with an open spout, partly filled with colored water. If the water level in the spout rises above the water level in the container, observers expect low pressure and stormy weather.

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Last Updated

October 24, 2023

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Published on: May 5, 2023 Written by Shaown Khan / Fact-checked by Kader Khan

Weather plays a significant role in our daily lives, affecting everything from our daily commute to agriculture and the economy. Accurate weather forecasts can help us prepare for hazardous conditions, manage resources effectively, and plan our outdoor activities. In this blog post, we will explore the diverse range of weather instruments and equipment that make these predictions possible.

The quest to understand and predict the weather has been a constant human endeavor. Early civilizations relied on celestial observations, patterns in nature, and folklore to predict weather conditions . The development of scientific instruments in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as the thermometer and barometer, laid the foundation for modern meteorology.

Meteorological Stations

Overview of a meteorological station.

A meteorological station is a facility designed to collect data on various atmospheric parameters such as temperature , humidity , wind speed , and precipitation. These stations can be land-based, marine-based, or upper-air stations that utilize weather balloons to collect data at different altitudes.

Types of meteorological stations (land-based, marine, and upper-air)

• Land-based stations are situated on land and collect data using instruments mounted on towers or tripods. They provide essential data for weather forecasts and climate studies.
• Marine-based stations are either located on ships, buoys, or offshore platforms. They gather vital data on oceanic weather conditions and support marine navigation and fisheries.
• Upper-air stations use weather balloons to measure conditions in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. These measurements help improve the accuracy of weather forecasts and enhance our understanding of the atmosphere.

Thermometers

Introduction to thermometers.

Thermometers are essential weather instruments that measure air temperature. Accurate temperature readings are crucial for determining the likelihood of frost, heatwaves , and other weather phenomena.

Types of thermometers (mercury, alcohol, and digital)

• Mercury thermometers use the expansion and contraction of mercury to measure temperature. They have been mostly phased out due to environmental concerns.
• Alcohol thermometers use a colored alcohol, such as ethanol, in place of mercury. They are less accurate than mercury thermometers but are safer and more environmentally friendly.
• Digital thermometers employ electronic sensors to measure temperature, offering quick readings and high accuracy.

Proper placement and maintenance of thermometers

To obtain accurate temperature readings, thermometers should be placed in a shaded, well-ventilated area, away from direct sunlight, heat sources, and reflective surfaces. Regular cleaning and calibration are necessary to ensure the accuracy of readings.

Introduction to barometers

Barometers measure atmospheric pressure, which is the force exerted by the weight of the atmosphere. Pressure changes can indicate shifting weather patterns, making barometers a valuable forecasting tool.

Types of barometers (mercury, aneroid, and electronic)

• Mercury barometers consist of a glass tube filled with mercury, with one end submerged in a reservoir of mercury. The height of the mercury column corresponds to the atmospheric pressure .
• Aneroid barometers use a sealed, flexible metal chamber that expands or contracts with changes in pressure. A mechanical linkage translates these movements into pressure readings.
• Electronic barometers employ sensors that convert pressure changes into electrical signals, which are then displayed as pressure readings.

Atmospheric pressure and its role in weather forecasting

High pressure is usually associated with stable and dry weather, while low pressure typically brings wet and stormy conditions. By tracking changes in atmospheric pressure, meteorologists can predict the arrival of weather systems and forecast their intensity.

Hygrometers

Introduction to hygrometers.

Hygrometers measure humidity, the amount of water vapor in the air. Humidity affects human comfort, plant growth, and the likelihood of fog and precipitation.

Types of hygrometers (hair, psychrometer, and electronic)

• Hair hygrometers use a strand of human or animal hair, which changes length with variations in humidity. The change in length is then translated into a humidity reading.
• Psychrometers consist of two thermometers, one with a wet bulb and one with a dry bulb. The difference in readings between the two thermometers is used to calculate relative humidity.
• Electronic hygrometers use sensors that detect changes in humidity by measuring electrical resistance or capacitance.

The significance of humidity in weather forecasting

High humidity can increase the likelihood of precipitation and the formation of fog. It can also lead to higher heat indexes, making the air feel hotter than it actually is. Monitoring humidity levels helps meteorologists predict local weather conditions and potential hazards.

Anemometers

Introduction to anemometers.

Anemometers measure wind speed and direction , which are critical factors in weather forecasting and essential data for aviation, marine transportation, and wind energy production.

Types of anemometers (cup, vane, hot-wire, and ultrasonic)

• Cup anemometers use rotating cups to measure wind speed, with the rotation rate proportional to the wind speed.
• Vane anemometers use a wind vane to determine wind direction and a propeller to measure wind speed.
• Hot-wire anemometers measure wind speed based on the cooling effect of air on a heated wire.
• Ultrasonic anemometers utilize sound waves to measure wind speed and direction without moving parts, making them more durable and less prone to mechanical failure.

Wind speed, direction, and their influence on weather

Wind speed and direction affect temperature, humidity, and the movement of weather systems. By analyzing wind patterns, meteorologists can predict the development and movement of high and low-pressure systems, which in turn influence local weather conditions.

Rain Gauges

Introduction to rain gauges.

Rain gauges measure the amount of precipitation, which is vital for agriculture, water resource management, and flood prediction.

Types of rain gauges (standard, tipping bucket, and optical)

• Standard rain gauges are simple containers that collect rain, with the accumulated precipitation measured manually.
• Tipping bucket rain gauges use a see-saw mechanism to automatically record rainfall amounts, providing a time series of precipitation data.
• Optical rain gauges employ a laser or infrared beam to detect raindrop size and frequency, allowing for the calculation of precipitation rates.

The role of precipitation data in weather prediction

Precipitation data is crucial for predicting the likelihood of floods, droughts, and other weather-related hazards. Accurate measurements of rainfall can also improve the accuracy of weather forecasting models and help refine climate predictions.

Weather Balloons

Introduction to weather balloons.

Weather balloons are large, helium-filled balloons that carry instruments called radiosondes into the upper atmosphere. They provide valuable data on temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind at various altitudes.

The role of radiosondes in upper-air data collection

Radiosondes are small, lightweight instrument packages attached to weather balloons. As the balloon ascends, the radiosonde transmits real-time atmospheric data back to a ground-based receiving station. This information helps meteorologists create detailed vertical profiles of the atmosphere and improves the accuracy of weather forecasts.

Insights gained from weather balloon data

Data from weather balloons is essential for understanding atmospheric dynamics, validating satellite observations, and initializing weather forecasting models. Regular weather balloon launches provide a consistent stream of high-quality data that helps meteorologists track the development and movement of weather systems.

Remote Sensing Equipment

Overview of remote sensing in meteorology.

Remote sensing techniques allow meteorologists to observe the atmosphere and Earth’s surface without direct contact. These methods use advanced technology, such as radar and satellites, to collect data on weather systems and monitor the environment.

Weather radar (Doppler, dual-polarization, and phased array)

• Doppler radar detects precipitation and measures its intensity, as well as wind velocity within storm systems. This information helps meteorologists track severe weather events, such as tornadoes and thunderstorms .
• Dual-polarization radar emits both horizontal and vertical pulses, providing a more detailed view of precipitation structure and improving rainfall estimation and hail detection.
• Phased array radar uses electronically steered beams to rapidly scan the atmosphere, significantly reducing data collection time and enhancing severe weather detection capabilities.

Weather satellites (geostationary and polar-orbiting)

• Geostationary satellites orbit the Earth at an altitude that matches the planet’s rotation, remaining in a fixed position relative to the ground. They provide continuous, high-resolution imagery of the atmosphere and are particularly valuable for monitoring weather systems in real-time.
• Polar-orbiting satellites circle the Earth in a north-south direction, passing close to the poles. They offer global coverage and collect detailed data on atmospheric and surface conditions, which is crucial for long-range weather forecasts and climate studies.

Ground-Based Weather Monitoring Networks

Introduction to weather monitoring networks.

Weather monitoring networks are collections of meteorological stations that work together to provide comprehensive, high-quality data on atmospheric conditions. These networks play a critical role in weather forecasting and climate research.

Examples of prominent networks (NWS Cooperative Observer Program, Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow Network)

• NWS Cooperative Observer Program ( COOP ) is a network of volunteer-operated weather stations across the United States that collect daily temperature and precipitation data. This information is vital for climate monitoring and the verification of weather forecasts.
• Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow Network (CoCoRaHS) is a grassroots volunteer network that measures and maps precipitation data. This data helps meteorologists better understand local-scale precipitation patterns and contributes to flood and drought monitoring efforts.

Weather Forecasting Models

Introduction to weather forecasting models.

Weather forecasting models use mathematical equations to simulate the behavior of the atmosphere. By inputting observed data and making assumptions about future conditions, these models generate predictions of temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation.

Numerical weather prediction models (global, regional, and ensemble)

• Global models cover the entire Earth and provide coarse-resolution forecasts for extended periods, typically up to 10 days in advance.
• Regional models focus on specific geographic areas and offer higher-resolution forecasts, usually for shorter timeframes.
• Ensemble models combine multiple forecasts with slightly different initial conditions to generate a range of possible outcomes, which helps account for uncertainties in weather predictions.

Machine learning and artificial intelligence in weather forecasting

Machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques are increasingly being applied to weather forecasting. These methods can help identify complex patterns in large datasets, improve the accuracy of forecasts, and reduce the reliance on human intervention. AI-based systems can also learn from past forecasting errors and adapt to new data, making them valuable tools for refining weather prediction models.

Advanced Weather Instruments and Emerging Technologies

Lidar and microwave radiometers.

Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) uses laser pulses to measure the distance to objects and can be employed to study atmospheric properties, such as aerosol concentrations and cloud structure. Microwave radiometers detect natural microwave radiation emitted by atmospheric gases, allowing for the remote measurement of temperature, humidity, and precipitation.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and drones

UAVs and drones offer new ways to collect weather data, particularly in hard-to-reach areas and during extreme weather events. Equipped with various sensors, these vehicles can gather high-resolution data on temperature, humidity, wind, and other atmospheric parameters, improving the quality of weather forecasts.

Internet of Things (IoT) and smart sensors

IoT and smart sensors enable the real-time monitoring of weather conditions across large areas. These connected devices can collect and transmit data on temperature, humidity, wind speed, and precipitation, enhancing the accuracy of local weather forecasts and supporting decision-making in various sectors.

Personal Weather Stations

Introduction to personal weather stations.

Personal weather stations are small, user-friendly devices that allow individuals and organizations to monitor local weather conditions. These systems typically include sensors for temperature, humidity, wind speed, and precipitation, as well as software for data analysis and visualization.

Components and features of popular personal weather station models

Popular personal weather station models usually include a suite of sensors, a data logger, and a display or software for viewing the data. Some models also offer internet connectivity for remote monitoring and data sharing with online weather communities.

Tips for setting up and maintaining a personal weather station

When setting up a personal weather station, it’s essential to choose a location with good exposure to wind and precipitation, away from obstructions and heat sources. Regular maintenance, such as cleaning and calibration, is necessary to ensure the accuracy and longevity of the equipment.

Key takeaways from the article

Weather instruments and equipment play a vital role in understanding and predicting atmospheric conditions. From traditional tools like thermometers and barometers to advanced technologies like remote sensing and AI, these devices help us prepare for and respond to the challenges posed by our ever-changing environment.

The future of weather instruments and equipment

As technology advances, we can expect to see further improvements in weather instruments and equipment. New sensors, communication methods, and data analysis techniques will likely lead to more accurate and timely weather forecasts, benefiting society in numerous ways.

Frequently Asked Questions

What weather instruments are essential for a basic weather station.

A basic weather station should include a thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, anemometer, and rain gauge to measure temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, and precipitation, respectively.

How can I get involved in citizen weather monitoring networks?

To participate in citizen weather monitoring networks, you can purchase a personal weather station, install it according to the network’s guidelines, and share your data with the community. Examples of such networks include the NWS Cooperative Observer Program and the Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow Network.

What are the limitations of weather instruments and forecasting models?

Weather instruments can be subject to measurement errors, improper installation, and maintenance issues, which can affect their accuracy. Forecasting models, on the other hand, are limited by the quality of input data, the complexity of atmospheric processes, and uncertainties in future conditions. Despite these limitations, advances in technology and data analysis techniques continue to improve the accuracy and reliability of weather forecasts.

How can I become a meteorologist or pursue a career in weather forecasting?

To become a meteorologist, you typically need to obtain a bachelor’s degree in meteorology, atmospheric science, or a related field. Some positions may require a master’s or doctoral degree, particularly in research and academia. Additionally, internships and practical experience can help you gain valuable skills and enhance your job prospects in the field of weather forecasting.

Can weather instruments be used to study climate change?

Yes, weather instruments and equipment are essential for studying climate change. Long-term records of temperature, precipitation, humidity, and other atmospheric parameters provide valuable insights into climate trends and variations. Additionally, remote sensing data from satellites and advanced sensors, such as lidar and microwave radiometers, can help researchers monitor and analyze the impacts of climate change on the Earth’s atmosphere and surface.

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1. Introduction

Note that as a general rule throughout this text, you may click on any diagram to see an enlarged view of it. The new image will appear in a new "pop-up" window. Close the pop-up window by clicking on the "x" in the top right hand corner.

The principle parameters which we study in relation to "weather" and "climate" are:

(i) Air temperature (ii) Air pressure (iii) Humidity (iv) Clouds - existence of, types (v) Precipitation (rain, snow hail etc.) (vi) Visibility (vii) Wind (viii) Solar radiation

Once these parameters are known, other parameters such as dew point, relative humidity, frost point and so forth may be determined as "secondary parameters".

Despite the fact that these different phenomena affect our lives in many ways, it turns out that the human body is not particularly good at quantifying these characteristics. Water which feels cold to one person may feel warm to another, depending on what that person has been doing. For example, after a swim in an ice-cold lake, even water at air temperature may seem warm, whereas a person who has not been immersed in such conditions recently may consider the same water as cool.

In addition, sometimes we are simply not very good at quantifying things. An example is wind speed. We can get an impression of wind speed by how severely it blows the leaves on the trees around, but that isn't too effective in winter if there are no leaves on the trees. One can get a crude sense of direction by watching where objects are blown, or by holding a wetted finger up in the breeze and finding the orientation which produces the fastest cooling. But these methods are only approximate, and it became evident to early observers that more quantitative measuring instruments were needed.

2. A Brief History of the Early Instruments of Meteorology

Even with these tools, application was often only qualitative. For example, weather-vanes (often with a metal replica of rooster added for aesthetic effect (in which case they were called "weather-cocks")) were used for little more than determining the general wind direction e.g. whether it was blowing from say the north or north-west. Cup anemometers gave a measure of the wind speed, but this figure was not always quantitatively recorded.

There were several critical periods in the development of meteorology, and the scientific application of measurement tools was one of these. Other critical periods include the development of sophisticated computer simulations for weather forecasting, and the advent of the space-age, with weather satellites being placed into space.

3. Modern Instruments

In the following sections, we will describe various types of modern meteorological tools. We will begin with the lower atmosphere, but will also discuss instruments for measurements at heights to 100 km in altitude at a later point. We will also briefly allude to more modern developments.

Weather stations usually measure pressure, temperature, daily maximum and minimum temperature, wind speeds, wind directions, humidity, cloud cover, solar radiation (often at several wavelengths), and precipitation. A good weather station must meet quite stringent requirements. For example, they must be in an open field, so that local buildings and obstructions do not distort their measurements of wind speed and direction. They must be free of shade, and must meet other important criteria. All instruments also need to be carefully calibrated, and regularly serviced.

The following photographs show examples of the types of instruments used (click on the small photographs to see enlargements).

However, it should be noted that not all thermometers use expansion of a liquid in a glass column like the one shown here. Modern devices often are built so that the temperature can be digitized onto a computer, and therefore use electronic means to measure the temperature. For example, some thermometers employ the fact that the electrical resistance of resistor elements changes as a function of temperature. Others use the properties of thermocouples. If it is possible to record the temperature digitally, there is of course no need to have special devices to determine temperature maxima and minima, since it is easy to record the data at small time steps over the whole day, and then use software to search the data base for local maxima and minima.

As shown in the picture of the aneroid barometer, this instrument relies on a sealed, flexible unit which contains air at a fixed volume. As the atmospheric air pressure changes, this membrane expands and contracts, altering the position of a needle on the barometer. Mercury barometers use an evacuated tube, and Mercury rises or falls within this tube as the atmospheric pressure changes, pushing the Mercury higher or lower in the tube.

Some more sensitive instruments rely on other features related to pressure. For example, so-called "micro-barographs" are sufficiently sensitive that they can detect pressure changes as small as 1 Pascal or less, and these use tiny silicon diaphragms attached to a capacitance gauge to perform their measurements. The diaphragm bends to different degrees depending on the external pressure, altering the capacitance of the attached capacitor. Data from these instruments can easily be recorded digitally, allowing high time-resolution studies of pressure-wave events in the atmosphere. They usually need to be carefully calibrated against more conventional microbarographs.

In order to allow automation and digitization, some modern rain-gauges (called "tipping bucket rain-gauges") tip their contents out onto a measuring scale at regular intervals, (e.g. 1 minute) and the contents are electronically weighed and stored digitally. The total accumulation can be determined by summing all the weights over the course of the rain event.

Wind measuring instruments of this type usually are referred to as wind anemometers . Because the tails of the vanes are designed to face away from the wind, they are usually organized with a point on the other side which points into the wind. Hence they indicate the direction from which the wind comes.

In relation to clouds, it is also not uncommon to record the percentage of cloud cover, and often all-sky cameras are used to do this. A simple all-sky camera can be made by photographing the image seen in a highly polished metal sphere with a radius of typically 15-30 cm.

Some meteorological sites also include special sensors to measure solar radiation . Sometimes this is done over all wavelengths, and sometimes it is done in discrete wavelength bands. The ultra-violet visible band is a common one to observe, due to its importance in relation to ozone loss, but other common wavelengths include those at which plants are most sensitive (particularly useful for horticulture and gardening).

Humidity is another important quantity in meteorology (both absolute and relative humidity), but in the earlier times it proved very hard to quantify, even though human beings are very sensitive to it. The history of the measurement of humidity is quite fascinating, and involves some quite ingenious developments.

This Assmann ventilated psychrometer is in fact an adaptation of a much older instrument called the "sling psychrometer", which works on the same principle as the Assman unit. However, with the sling psychrometer the air flow which causes the evaporation from the wet-bulb is not generated by a fan, but rather by whirling the unit around one's head at high speed. As with the Assman unit, the humidity is read from a table which specifies the relation between the temperature difference on the wet and dry bulb thermometers, and the (relative) humidity. Such a table can be found, for example, in Aguado and Burt, "Understanding Weather and Climate", 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, p. 103. A similar table can also be found in appendix D of your text book.

More recent humidity meters use a capacitor which consists of two metal plates separated by a thin polymer film. The film absorbs or exudes water vapour as the humidity increases or decreases, thus changing the dielectric constant of the film. This in turn changes the capacitance of the unit, which can be recorded electronically. The capacitance can then be converted to a measure of humidity using suitable conversion formulae. These instruments are very portable and can be calibrated to quite high accuracy.

Other instruments that are used to measure the humidity include the electrical hygrometer , the infrared hygrometer , the dew-point hygrometer and the dew cell . The electrical hygrometer passes an electrical current through a carbon-coated plate, and measures the change in resistance across the plate due to absorption or release of water vapour as the humidity changes. The infrared hygrometer measures the absorption of infrared light as it passes through air, with absorption being greater when the absolute humidity is greater. The dew-point hygrometer measures the temperature at which condensation is produced on a cold plate, and uses this information to work out the humidity. Finally, the dew cell actually measures the vapour pressure of the air directly. See the text book on page 121 for further discussion of this device (last paragraph on the page).

This summarizes the main surface level instruments, although the list is certainly not complete. We now turn to measurements above the surface.

4. Upper Atmosphere Instruments

While measurements at ground level are clearly important, scientists have long recognized that it would be necessary to measure at higher altitudes as well if we were ever to really understand our atmospheric environment. We have already mentioned the balloon flight of James Glaisher, but more sustained upper level studies really began towards the end of the 1800's, and into the early 1900's, with the work of R. Assmann (1845-1918) and L. P. Teisserenc de Bort (1855-1913). These scientists developed various instruments which could operate while being flown on kites and balloons. An example is the Assmann ventilated psychrometer, which we have already discussed. These scientists then developed the art of flying their instrument collectives on kites, in aircraft and under balloons. However, they still needed to collect the instruments to record the data.

A major advance in upper air studies came with the development of radio techniques which permitted the information stored on the instruments to be transmitted back to the ground, so that even if the balloon was lost, the user would still have a copy of the information. Vaisala in Finland was a key player in this field, and his work in this area led to the development of the Vaisala company, one of the largest builders of meteorological equipment in the world today.

Nowadays, balloons are launched from thousands of sites around the world, carrying special packages which record temperature, pressure and humidity. Typically these balloons are all launched twice per day, at 0000 and 1200 Greenwich Mean Time, although other times can certainly be used for special experiments. Radio methods are also used to track the balloons (either using navigation systems or GPS techniques), so that the wind speeds at upper heights can also be determined.

Due to the decrease of the atmospheric pressure outside of the balloon, the balloons expand as they rise, in order to maintain pressure equilibrium on the inner and outer surfaces of the balloon. Eventually the balloons become so large that they burst, at which point they fall back to earth. Typically a balloon will reach an altitude of 20-25 km, but specially designed balloons can reach heights of 35 km.

These balloons carry radiosondes aloft with them. Over the years these instruments have become smaller and lighter. They are also relatively cheap - typically in the range of $100 to $200. Generally the balloons fly to an upper altitude of around 20 km, where-upon they burst, as we have already described. By the time they burst, they have often drifted horizontally by as much as 100 km (depending on wind conditions). In some cases small parachutes are attached to the radiosondes, and they float down and can occasionally be recovered. More often than not, however, the radiosondes are sent up without a parachute, and the radiosonde just falls to earth and is lost. The expense of recovering these radiosondes usually exceeds the cost of building new ones for each flight. The sondes are usually made with a large percentage of styrofoam, so they are light enough that they cause no damage if they hit an object on the ground.

You can read more about this in the November, 1999 issue of "Scientific American". A great deal of modern technology was needed in order to make a balloon which could stay aloft for sufficiently long, and there was also a need for strong involvement from meteorologists to direct the balloon into the right wind conditions to ensure its continued forward motion.

Another common form of "upper air" platform is instrumented aircraft. Aircraft can exist which can fly to great heights - even into the stratosphere- and these are often used for special experiments. Such aircraft have even been flown into the middle of hurricanes.

5. Rockets and Satellites

In the previous section, we implicitly treated any part of the atmosphere above ground-level as the "upper atmosphere". In fact, scientists have somewhat stricter nomenclature. You are aware of the layers of the atmosphere which are defined by temperature mean gradients i.e. the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. But scientists also use another classification. The region from 10 to 100 km altitude is often called the middle atmosphere , and the region above 100 km is then the "upper atmosphere". For many years the "middle atmosphere" was often referred to as the "ignorosphere", as we were ignorant of its characteristics. However, in the years from 1980 to 2000, many scientists (including this particular author!) have worked vigorously to improve our understanding of this region. This has been done especially with high altitude balloons, radars, optical sensing and imaging techniques, lasers and lidars, rockets and satellites. Other interesting tools have included studies of meteors, and even studies of sound propagation. (Interestingly, the stratosphere was first surmised because of casual observations by observers in relation to the sounds of explosives being detonated in WWII - it turned out that observers close to the source, and hundreds of kilometres from the source, could often both hear the sounds, but intermediate observers could not. This was speculated to be due to a layer of warm air above the troposphere refracting the sound waves back down to the ground at large distances, and this speculation eventually proved correct. More details about these earlier types of studies can be found in a book by A.P. Mitra entitled The Upper Atmosphere , Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1952. Note that in the 1950's, 60's and early 70's, the region that we now call the "middle atmosphere" was considered as part of the "upper atmosphere").

I will not discuss all of these techniques here. The discussion of radar is left to another section of this course, and I have already said something about balloons. A useful discussion about lasers and lidars can be found at pcl.physics.uwo.ca and click on "General Introduction to Lidar". (Click on the "back" arrow at the top left hand corner of the screen to return to this page.) Passive optical methods will not be discussed here, although they are a powerful class of techniques in their own right, and can be used to produce detailed images of the structure of wave events in the middle atmosphere. My concentration here will be on rocketry and satellites.

5(i) Rockets

These rockets carry a variety of different payloads, and the compositions of the payloads vary from rocket to rocket, depending on the planned experiments. Examples include pressure sensors, density sensors, mass spectrometers, dust detectors (for detecting meteoric dust), ion gauges, Langmuir probes, electron density gauges, and many others. Scientists are continually thinking of new experiments to perform, because the middle atmosphere is a fascinating region, containing phenomena relating to both neutral and plasma dynamics. In the section below I will highlight just some of the many experiments performed. It should also be noted that measurement of temperatures at these high altitudes is not simply a matter of flying a thermometer through the region, because the very low densities (and associated large molecular mean free paths) and the high rocket speeds (kilometres per second)make it difficult for slower sensors to respond fast enough to make meaningful measurements. Special techniques need to be employed even for a measurement as "simple" as temperature, and past experiments have utilized experiments like measuring the speed of sound in the different height regimes using grenade explosions as sources, and measurements of atmospheric scale heights from pressure and density variations with altitude.

Many other rocket experiments are carried out, but there is currently no real regular world-wide program of middle atmosphere rocket measurements like the radiosonde program. Much of the information about the long term variability of middle atmosphere winds is determined by radars and satellites. This brings us to out next topic.

5(ii) Satellites

As rockets became more powerful, it was eventually possible to use them to place satellites in orbit. The first successful satellite was lifted to orbit by Russian scientists and engineers on October 4, 1957, and was called Sputnik. Since then, many other satellites have been placed in orbit. Currently there are 8,600 objects in Earth-orbit which have sizes in excess of 10 cm across.

Copyright W.K. Hocking, 2000.

Last updated 31 October 2000

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Essay on Weather [ Types, Importance in Life ]

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Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It includes temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, visibility, and pressure. The following Essay on Weather talks about its meaning and concept, types and how weather is important for us.

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Essay on Weather | Types of Weather | Weather vs Climate

Weather is one of the most important aspects of our lives. It can have a huge impact on our mood, our health, and even our ability to function properly during the day. That’s why it’s so important to understand the different types of weather and how they can affect us.

Types of Weather

There are four main types of weather: sunny, cloudy, rainy, and snowy. Each type of weather has its own set of benefits and drawbacks.

Sunny: Sunny weather is great for outdoor activities and spending time in the sun. However, it can also be very hot and dry, which can be dangerous for people with certain medical conditions.

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Cloudy: Cloudy weather is cooler than sunny weather, but it can also be more humid. This type of weather is good for people who don’t like the heat but don’t want to deal with the cold.

Rainy: Rainy weather is perfect for activities that involve water, such as swimming or fishing. However, it can also be very muddy and wet, which can make it difficult to get around.

Snowy: Snowy weather is great for winter activities like skiing and sledding. However, it can also be very cold and dangerous for people who are not used to the cold weather.

Weather vs Climate:

Weather is the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere in a particular place, while climate is the average weather conditions in that place over a long period of time. Climate varies from place to place around the world. The climate in a tropical rainforest is very different from the climate in a desert.

Importance of Climate

Climate is important because it determines the types of plants and animals that can live in a particular place. For example, tropical rainforests have a very different climate from deserts. This means that different types of plants and animals can live in each environment.

Changes in Climate:

Climate change is a long-term shift in the average conditions of the atmosphere over a large area. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole. Climate change has been happening for millions of years, but it is only recently that humans have begun to impact the climate on a global scale.

Steps that we can take to Promote Healthy Weather

There are many things we can do to help promote healthy weather. Some of these steps include:

1. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by using less energy and switching to renewable sources of energy 2. Protecting and restoring forests, which play a vital role in regulating the climate 3. Improving agricultural practices to reduce methane emissions from livestock 4. Conserving water to reduce the amount of energy needed to pump and treat it

Weather is an important part of our lives and can have a big impact on our mood, health, and ability to function properly. There are four main types of weather: sunny, cloudy, rainy, and snowy. Each type of weather has its own set of benefits and drawbacks. Climate is important because it determines the types of plants and animals that can live in a particular place.

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Climate change is a long-term shift in the average conditions of the atmosphere over a large area. There are many things we can do to help promote healthy weather, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, protecting and restoring forests, and improving agricultural practices.

Short Essay on Weather For Students:

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. It includes various elements such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and air pressure. Weather plays an important role in our daily lives as it affects our activities and influences our mood.

Importance of Weather

Weather has a significant impact on human life. It affects agriculture, transportation, tourism, health, and even the economy. Farmers rely on weather conditions for their crops to grow while tourists plan their trips based on favorable weather conditions. Weather also has an effect on mental health as certain weather patterns can lead to seasonal affective disorder (SAD).

Factors Affecting Weather

The main factors that influence the weather are latitude, altitude, topography, and global air circulation patterns. Latitude determines the amount of sunlight received, while altitude affects temperature and precipitation. The shape of the land and presence of water bodies can also affect weather patterns.

Weather conditions can vary greatly depending on geographical location and time of year. Some common types of weather include sunny, cloudy, rainy, snowy, windy, hot, cold, and humid.

Sunny Weather

Sunny weather is characterized by clear skies with abundant sunshine. It usually occurs when high pressure systems dominate the area.

Cloudy Weather

Cloudy weather refers to a condition where the sky is covered with clouds blocking out the sun’s rays. This type of weather often occurs during low-pressure systems.

Rainy Weather

Rainy weather is characterized by precipitation in the form of rain. It can be caused by warm air rising and condensing into water droplets, which then fall to the ground.

Snowy Weather

Snowy weather occurs when temperatures are low enough for precipitation to freeze and fall as snow. This type of weather often brings hazardous driving conditions and can lead to school or work closures.

Windy Weather

Windy weather refers to a condition where there is a strong movement of air. It can be caused by differences in air pressure between two areas or by geographical features such as mountains.

Hot Weather

Hot weather is characterized by high temperatures and humidity levels. It can cause heat-related illnesses such as heatstroke and dehydration if precautions are not taken.

Cold Weather

Cold weather is characterized by low temperatures and can bring about freezing conditions, which can be dangerous for both humans and animals.

Humid Weather

Humid weather refers to a condition where there is a high level of water vapor in the air. It can make hot or cold temperatures feel even more extreme and uncomfortable.

Weather affects our lives in many ways, from influencing our daily activities to shaping our emotions. Understanding the different types of weather and the factors that influence them can help us better prepare for any changes in the forecast. As we continue to face the impacts of climate change, it becomes even more important to pay attention to the weather and take necessary precautions to protect ourselves and our environment.

How do you write a weather essay?

A weather essay typically begins with an introduction about the significance of weather, followed by a description of different weather phenomena, their impact on daily life, and any relevant data or statistics. It should also include personal observations or experiences related to weather and conclude with a summary or reflection.

What is weather in 100 words?

Weather refers to the atmospheric conditions in a specific place and time. It encompasses elements such as temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, cloud cover, and precipitation. Weather can change rapidly and has a profound impact on daily life, agriculture, transportation, and various industries.

It is observed and forecasted by meteorologists using tools like weather stations, satellites, and computer models. Understanding and predicting weather is essential for planning outdoor activities, preparing for extreme conditions, and mitigating the effects of severe weather events like storms, hurricanes, and droughts.

What is weather in short notes?

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere in a particular place at a specific time. It includes elements like temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, cloud cover, and precipitation. Weather conditions can vary from day to day and even within hours.

Meteorologists study and forecast weather using various instruments and technology to provide information for planning activities, predicting severe weather events, and understanding climate patterns over time.

How do you start a weather paragraph?

A weather paragraph can begin by describing the current weather conditions in a specific location or by introducing the topic of weather in a broader sense. You can use attention-grabbing phrases or statistics to engage the reader’s interest.

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Measuring the weather – a timeline.

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This timeline lets you see the historical developments in technology related to weather monitoring, measuring and forecasting. It also shows how scientific thinking changed over the centuries as modern science developed, and how society has influenced scientific thinking. A full transcript is underneath the timeline.

Technological processes and inventions

Developing scientific ideas and concepts, societal influences.

Although a scientist may be credited with a new idea or the invention of new tools or technology, in many cases, these developments are built upon the foundations laid by earlier work. In some cases, attributing the actual credit for an idea or invention is very difficult and often debated. Over time, many refinements in weather tools continue to be made as new materials, technologies and understandings are developed.

Scientists build their research and theories upon the knowledge and understandings of earlier scientists. Over time, these ideas and techniques can be revised or replaced in the light of new research. Many changes to key science ideas are accepted gradually and are tested through research by many people. Many of the entries in this column illustrate how and when some of the fundamental aspects of the nature of modern science first developed.

Some of the developments in weather monitoring technology were able to occur due to the development, influence and transfer of ideas and technology from other fields of science. Some ideas and inventions were also heavily influenced by the societal and religious background of the times.

3000 BC – Beginnings of meteorology

Ancient Indian writings are the first to include discussions about the weather, cloud formations and so on.

650 BC – Babylonians predict the weather

The Babylonians use cloud observations to make weather predictions.

600 BC – First public weather forecasts

Weather forecasts in Greece are formally issued to help people plan their seasonal cropping activities. The study of weather patterns becomes known as meteorology. This term comes from the Greek word ‘meteoros’, which means ‘high in the sky’.

400–500 BC – First rainfall records kept

Rain gauges are one of the most ancient weather instruments. Ancient Greeks and people in India are the first known to keep rainfall records. These rain gauges are relatively simple – containers designed to collect rain.

350 BC – Weather patterns described by Aristotle

Greek philosopher Aristotle writes Meteorology , which describes all current knowledge about climate and weather.

206 BC – First hygrometers used

Hygrometers measure the humidity of the air. Ancient hygrometers are in use in China during the Western Han dynasty and help the Chinese planning to plant crops.

200 BC – Compasses invented in China

Compasses work on the principle that the Earth has a magnetic field that the magnetic pointer aligns with. This enables direction to be determined.

Image: Creative Commons 3.0

100 BC – Windsocks used

Windsocks originally come from Japan and China, but no one is sure exactly how long they have been used. Windsocks are used as a basic guide to wind direction and speed.

48 BC – Earliest weather vane erected

The earliest weather vane we know about is built in Greece by the astronomer Andronicus and erected in honour of the Greek god Triton. It is in the shape of a man with the tail of a fish and measures between 4 and 8 feet long. A weather vane points in the direction of least resistance, with the front end having less resistance than the back, thereby showing the direction of the wind. Try the activity Making a weather vane and compass .

10–70 – Thermoscopes invented

Hero of Alexandria invents the first thermoscope. It demonstrates changes in heat by showing the expansion and contraction of water within a sealed glass tube. Thermoscopes are the forerunners of thermometers.

950 – Māori weather forecasting begins

Close observation of environmental clues allows Māori to develop localised systems for weather prediction.

Image: Dmitry Pichugin, 123RF Ltd

1441 – First standardised rain gauge

The first standardised rain gauge is invented in Korea. It is called a Cheugugi and is 32 cm high with a diameter of 15 cm.

Image: Model of ancient Korean rain gauge invented by Jang Yeong-sil, courtesy Steve46814, Creative Commons 3.0

1450 – First mechanical anemometer

Leon Battista Alberti is the original inventor of the anemometer, which is later improved upon by Robert Hooke. Try the activity Making an anemometer .

Image: Version of a cup anemometer, ca. 1846. Public domain.

1450 – First western hygrometer

A hygrometer measures humidity – the amount of moisture in the air.

The first of these is attributed to Nicolas of Cusa, based on a design drawn by Leonardo Da Vinci.

1593 – 1700s – Development of thermometers and temperature scales

From 1593, several inventors, including Isaac Newton , work on the idea of measuring temperature. Try the activity Making a thermometer .

1612 – Human temperature measured

From 1593, several inventors work on the idea of measuring temperature. In 1612, Italian inventor Santorio Santorio adds a numerical scale on his thermoscope and it is used to take human temperature.

1643 – First barometer

Evangelista Torricelli invents the first barometer – his first version is over 35 feet tall! The word barometer is derived from the Greek word ‘baros’, meaning weight, and the Greek word ‘metron’, meaning measure. It measures changes in air pressure. High air pressure tends to indicate fair weather, and low air pressure can indicate poor or rainy weather. Early barometers contain water, but later versions contain mercury. Try the activity Making a barometer .

Image: Liquid barometer, ClipArt Library.com

1714 – First reliable thermometer

Daniel Fahrenheit is credited with the invention of the first reliable thermometer, constructed using glass and mercury. He is also credited with the production of the first reproducible thermometers in 1709, where different thermometers could be produced showing the same temperature in the same situation.

Image: Late 18th century mercury thermometer, courtesy Museo Galileo, Creative Commons 4.0

1724 – Fahrenheit temperature scale devised

Daniel Fahrenheit devises the first reliable temperature scale where ice melts at 32°, body temperature is 98.6° and water boils at 212°. The Fahrenheit scale is still used in the USA today.

1742 – Celsius temperature scale devised

Anders Celsius suggests temperature should be measured on a 100-point scale, where the boiling point of water is 0° and freezing point is 100°.

1744 – Modern Celsius scale developed

The Celsius scale developed by Celsius in 1742 is reversed in 1744 when Carl Linnaeus suggests it makes better sense to show freezing at 0°C and boiling at 100°C. This scale is now the standard scale for everyday temperature recording throughout most of the world.

1783 – Hygrometer developments

A more reliable hygrometer is developed by Horace Benedict de Saussure. It uses a human hair that curls or straightens due to different humidity in the air.

Image: Early hygrometer made by Andrew J Lloyd, early 20th century. Public domain.

1802 – Clouds given Latin names

Different types of clouds are described and named in Latin – the international language of science at the time. Try the activity Clouds and the weather .

1806 – Beaufort wind speed scale devised

Francis Beaufort devises a system for describing wind speeds based on the effects they have on the environment. This is called the Beaufort scale .

1844 – Aneroid barometer invented

First invented by Lucien Vidi, a French scientist, this barometer doesn’t contain liquid as most previous designs have. Small changes in air pressure cause the mechanism within to expand or contract, and this movement is transferred to a needle on the front of the case. This design has been improved steadily over the years and is the basis of modern barometers.

Barometer readings are the basis of all weather forecasting as the changes in air pressure are predictive of future weather, unlike many of the other weather instruments. The units used are atmospheres (atm) or bars. One atm/bar is the air pressure at sea level at 15°C.

Image: Inner workings of an aneroid barometer, ca. 1905. Public domain.

1846 – The Invention of the cup anemometer

The cup anemometer is invented by English astronomer John Robinson. ‘Anemos’ is the Greek word for wind. Anemometers measure wind speed – wind will make the cups of an anemometer spin around, the speed of the spin depending on the strength of the wind. Wind speed is measured in knots or on the Beaufort scale.

1847 – First independent weather station

A stable kite is sent up in the air in England to make observations at altitude, using self-recording instruments.

1848 – Kelvin temperature scale devised

Lord Kelvin devises the Kelvin temperature scale, which is used by scientists worldwide. It has the same magnitude as Celsius but starts with 0° at absolute zero (the coldest temperature anything in the universe can be), which is the equivalent of -273.55°C.

Image: Lord Kelvin. Public domain

1860 – Co-ordinated weather forecasting

Fitzroy in England is collecting data and publishing his weather forecasts and the Smithsonian Institution in America is doing the same. Over the next few years, meteorological organisations are set up worldwide.

1893 – First pyranometer

A pyranometer measures solar radiation. These are developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and continue to develop today. They are now included as a piece of standard equipment in most weather stations.

1896 – First documented use of weather balloons

Leon Teisserenc launches thousands of weather balloons in France, and his work contributes greatly to our understandings about the atmosphere.

Image: University of Waikato

1905 – Ship to shore weather reports

Ships gain access to relevant weather information and forecasts from land-based stations via radio and are also able to send weather reports from the sea to the shore.

1926 – Anemometer improvements

Canadian scientist John Patterson invents the three-cup anemometer for the Meteorological Service of Canada. Anemometers continue to be developed from this time that have greater accuracy and far less error, calculating wind speed from the average cup speed.

Image: A weather station with a 3 cup anemometer on top. Thitiwat Junkasemkullanunt, 123RF Ltd.

1940 onwards – Radar is used to observe the weather

Radar is used to generate precise weather predictions and storm and hurricane warnings as well as allowing for improved understandings of weather systems.

1960 – First successful weather satellite launched

TIROS–1 spends 78 days recording and relaying thousands of weather images to NASA.

1969 – Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale created

Although hurricanes had been named for centuries and given personal names since 1887, they are now given alphabetical names and the strength is now given on a scale of 1–5. The Saffir-Simpson scale is widely used internationally, although New Zealand tends to use the Australian Tropical Cyclone Category System.

1971 – The Fujita scale for rating tornadoes introduced

Japanese-American storm researcher Ted Fujita develops a scale for rating tornadoes.

1975 – First geostationary operational environmental satellite launched

This satellite is designed to track hurricanes and is the first of the sophisticated set of weather monitoring satellites in orbit today.

Image: Satellite image of Cyclone Gita (February 2018), courtesy of MetService NZ.

1980 – Satellite receiving equipment installed in NZ

Dishes are installed to collect weather information from both geostationary and polar orbiting satellites.

1989 onwards – Weather radar installations in NZ

Starting with Mount Tamahunga in Auckland in 1989 and prioritising cities with international airports, weather radar is installed systematically across the country.

1995 onwards – NZ weather satellites

New Zealand partners with JMA (Japan Meteorological Agency) to receive data from the GMS5 satellite, which provides service for the Asia-Pacific region. This technology improves with time, providing better resolution images and more useful information.

1999 – First high-performance computing facility in NZ

NIWA sets up the first high-performance computing facility, which includes a supercomputer ( FitzRoy ) to deal with all the data related to NIWA’s various research tasks and also generates weather forecasts for the public.

2000 onwards – Automated weather recordings in NZ

Automatic weather stations systems are developed, allowing for automated weather observations to be reported every minute.

3000 BC – Use of observational data

Careful observation of the natural world is inherent within all societies across the world to build understandings of how the world works. Observations of local weather patterns are important for survival, and this knowledge is often understood by all members of a society.

600 BC onwards – Meteorology develops as a subject

Meteorology continues to be a subject of discussion for scientists and philosophers for many centuries BC across the northern hemisphere and through until the early AD centuries. People who specialise in meteorology often use the information to generate useful weather predictions that are sometimes shared with the general public.

950 – Mātauranga Māori

Over time, through observation and by developing a close relationship with the environment, Māori build the understandings needed to interpret environmental clues about weather and climate in Aotearoa. Much of this knowledge is finely attuned to particular regions.

1441 – Standardisation

The first standardised rain gauge represents an example of the value of standardisation to science. Standardisation of equipment, measurements and processes allow comparisons to be made from place to place and over time. This is an important aspect of modern science.

1500s–1900 – Latin increasingly used for scientific vocabulary

As modern science develops in Europe from the time of the Renaissance, the use of Latin as the preferred scientific language increases. By the 1890s, most specialist scientific vocabulary is in Latin. A common language allows for scientific definitions and concepts to be clearly communicated across the world.

1624 – The term thermometer is coined

Up until this time, the concept of temperature – comparing hot versus cold on a scale – hasn’t been commonly understood and no one has yet successfully devised a device or scale to measure it. The word thermometer is derived from the Greek word ‘thermos’, meaning hot, and the Greek word ‘metron’, meaning measure. Several temperature scales are developed.

1600 onwards – Collaboration of scientists

Evangelista Torricelli is one of many Italian mathematicians and scientists working in the time of Galileo. This is a time of the scientific renaissance where natural philosophy is being replaced by modern science and many scientists are working together, building on each other’s ideas and developing new understandings about the natural world.

Image: Painting of Evangelista Torricelli by Lorenzo Lippi (circa 1647). Public domain

1600s–1800s – Scientific revolution

Accumulation of knowledge about the world is well under way across all fields of science. This is epitomised by the publication of Isaac Newton’s Principia in 1687. Many scientists work in a variety of fields. See some of our other timelines for other major discoveries around this time, for example, History of gases and plasmas .

Image: Andrew Dunn, Creative Commons 2.0 Generic

1774 – Systematic collection of barometric readings

Systematic collection of data is integral to the development of modern science. The Royal Society in England begins to take and record twice-daily barometric readings in 1774 and allows long-term records to be kept.

1857 – Link made between isobars and wind

Dutch meteorologist Christopher Buys-Ballot makes the link between isobars and wind and comes up with an easy rule to follow – for the southern hemisphere, “To look into the wind, the low pressure is on the left.”

1860 – Using data to predict the weather

Using data from a variety of sources to create a picture is fundamental to modern science. Robert Fitzroy, captain of Darwin’s ship HMS Beagle from 1828–1836, becomes known as the father of forecasting. He pioneers the science of weather forecasting, combining observations and data from weather monitoring instruments to make predictions about the weather, which are then regularly reported to the public.

1861 – NZ Government involved in meteorology

An auditor is appointed by the New Zealand Government to begin a programme of regular weather observations. This involves buying the first state-owned thermometers.

1882 – First weather maps published in NZ

Leading New Zealand newspapers start regularly publishing weather maps for the public.

1874 – Storm warnings issued to ships and harbours in NZ

Responsibility for forecasting the weather, using all the information available at the time, is taken on by the Marine Department. Storm warnings are issued that help harbourmasters around the country to make decisions to reduce shipwrecks, and the system is adopted after a successful trial.

1928 – New applications of technology

Air pressure changes with altitude. Specially adapted portable barometers, called altimeters, are used to measure the height above or below sea level. Paul Kollsman invents the world’s first accurate altimeter in 1928. It converts barometric pressure into distance above sea level in feet, allowing pilots to fly blind.

1992 – NZ MetService and NIWA established

MetService is mandated to provide national weather services for New Zealand, based on information collected from a wide variety of sources. NIWA is mandated to “promote and facilitate the application of the results of research and technological developments”. This is an example of a co-ordinated approach to the gathering, analysis and sharing of scientific data between scientists and between scientists and the public.

1996 – Public weather broadcasts

This is an example of a trend where science is being shared with the public – it is no longer just the domain of the experts

3000 BC – Early weather forecasting

All societies rely upon the weather for survival, so we can assume that weather forecasting is practised well before written records begin. Many indigenous societies pass on their weather–reading skills orally.

600 BC – Urbanisation

Many members of society are working closely with the land, and urbanisation is also occurring. Weather forecasting is developing into a specialised skill, with information being gathered and then disseminated to the general public.

100 BC – Windsocks in battle and on the sea

The wind sail, originally used to direct oxygen into a ship’s lower compartments, may have inspired the development of the windsock in the Western world. By the time of the Romans, windsocks are known in Europe – the Romans use them as military banners.

Image: Modern windsock, Adaptice, 123RF Ltd. Roman military banner (or draco) in re-enactment, B.Codrin, Creative Commons 3.0

48 BC – Weather vanes become popular

It is popular for the houses of the wealthy Greeks around this time to have weather vanes erected on the roof. They are often very ornate, as the wind is thought to have divine powers.

800 – Papal decree

The Pope decrees that all churches have a weather vane shaped as a rooster placed on their steeple or dome to remind people of their faith – this is where the term weather cock comes from.

Image: Close up detail from the Bayeux Tapestries (ca. 1065) of a weather vane being installed on Westminster Abbey. Public domain.

950 onwards – Māori knowledge of weather

As Māori arrive in Aotearoa, they have to learn about their new environment. Over the centuries, they develop extensive knowledge about local weather and climate conditions. These learnings form the basis of traditional and modern agriculture, fishing, medicine, education and kaitiakitanga (guardianship).

1300 onwards – Compasses in common use

Compasses are used as navigation devices across the northern hemisphere from China to Western Europe.

Image: Nautical compass from the 16th century. Luis García, Creative Commons 3.0

1600 onwards – The beginnings of modern science

The views of the natural world held by the church are being increasingly challenged. This era is the first in Europe where the world is being measured and not simply accepted as divine.

1642 onwards – Ships record weather observations around NZ

From the first encounters of Europeans with the New Zealand climate, much weather information is recorded – mostly in ships’ logs, as recording the weather at sea is routine. The influence of shipping on weather reporting continues until shipping becomes the less dominant form of transport around New Zealand.

1830s and 1840s – Telegraph machines invented

The development of the telegraph machine makes the collection of a range of weather data from various regions possible, as it allows information to be sent across long distances. Increased ability to communicate efficiently is transforming how both society and science operate.

Image: Morse telegraph machine, F.Sergio, 123RF Ltd

1844 onwards – Barometers become very common

Barometers become very popular and are common in homes and on farms, boats and small aircraft, as well as being used in meteorology.

1904 – Electronics history begins

With the invention of the vacuum diode by JA Fleming in 1904, the history of electronics begins. Electricity is new, and applications of this new technology revolutionise society and the possibilities for science. Accuracy in weather forecasting and measurement improve with every generation of electronic technological development.

1925 – Windsocks common at all airports

Of all pieces of weather equipment, the windsock has remained the least altered in terms of design and technology.

1905 – Weather reports are sent from ship to shore

The invention and improvements of radio allow data to be sent long distances quickly and allows for more accurate weather forecasting.

1935 onwards – Radar is used to improve weather forecasting

Practical radar systems are developed and a variety of applications ensue, including the development of more accurate weather forecasting. It also allows weather to be viewed on a bigger, more international scale.

1960 onwards – Satellites and space technology

The development of space technology and the capability to launch craft high in the atmosphere allows for the development of weather monitoring technology on a global level.

1970 onwards – Weather radar networks expand worldwide

Weather radar is becoming standardised and develops into networks where various agencies across the world can share and compare data. This is an example of the increasing co-operation of scientists and the sharing of scientific data on a global scale.

1992 – Crown Research Institutes Act

In a world first, New Zealand alters its approach to public science and establishes a commercial company, NZ MetService, owned by the government, to create money that will support the science of weather forecasting and reduce the costs to the taxpayer. NIWA is also established as a CRI to “provide understanding of climate and the atmosphere and increase resilience to weather and climate hazards”.

1996 – TV weather broadcasts

Developments in TV graphics allow the public to see and interpret the weather forecast for themselves.

1998 onwards – Use of computers

Computers are routinely and increasingly used to assist weather observations and forecasting. Developments of information technology and software and miniaturisation of electronic components leads to increased sophistication and accuracy in the areas of radar imagery, surface observations and satellite imagery. Worldwide sharing of weather data is now standard practice.

2000 onwards – Increased accuracy and sophistication

Miniaturisation of electronic components allows for a range of more sophisticated equipment in all fields. Weather forecasting technology such as miniaturised weather stations, electronic barometers and smartphone apps increase accuracy and public access to weather data.

Weather forecasting

Weather has been important for human survival throughout history, affecting a wide range of human activities such as travel, navigation, events and celebrations, planting, harvesting, hunting and ...

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Student-Constructed Weather Instruments Facilitate Scientific Inquiry

Journal of College Science Teaching—January/February 2020 (Volume 49, Issue 3)

By Cindy Shellito

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Students in introductory college science courses often have a simplified understanding of the scientific method. To introduce students to the complexity of the scientific process and the value of empirical observations, I implemented a semesterlong assignment that required introductory-level college science students to build and calibrate weather instruments from household materials. Students built their choice of a thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, or an anemometer, with a calibrated scale to record changes. Students then observed weather with their instruments for a period of 5 days and wrote reports on their instruments and observations. I evaluated these reports to determine how well students engaged in the scientific processes, including experimentation with their instruments and analysis of their data. Assessment data suggests this assignment successfully engages students in the process of scientific inquiry and helps them gain research experience as well as a better understanding of what goes into empirical observations. It also has potential to help students build quantitative skills in data analysis and interpretation. The exploratory structure of this assignment could be successfully adapted for use in introductory-level courses in other science disciplines.

Introductory college science courses can offer students opportunities to build a fundamental understanding of basic scientific principles that will serve them in everyday life while experiencing the richness and complexity involved in pursuing science. Numerous studies have shown that student engagement and scientific literacy increases with more opportunities for scientific inquiry, such as hands-on activities and interactive problem solving ( Krajcik & Sutherland, 2010 ; Meers, Egan Demers, & Savarese, 2004 ; Yang, 2010 ). Quantitative reasoning skills in data analysis and interpretation also improve with active learning methods and real-world applications (e.g., Marshall & Swan, 2006 ; McFarland, 2010 ). Although the use of clickers has broadened and improved opportunities for interaction in large lecture courses ( Van Daele, Frijns, & Lievens, 2017 ), hands-on learning opportunities are still not optimal in all courses ( Lawrenz, Huffman, & Appeldoorn, 2005 ). It is a logistical challenge to incorporate activities in a large classroom or lecture hall setting. These circumstances call for creative approaches that can give students a hands-on learning experience while keeping logistics manageable for faculty ( Dean & Wright, 2017 ).

Many introductory science class students have learned a version of the scientific process that bears little resemblance to what is involved in the pursuit of scientific inquiry ( Harwood, 2004 ; Herreid, 2010 ). Meteorology lends itself well to offering students opportunities to become engaged in science through observation and experimentation as it offers a natural opportunity for students to apply their understanding to something that they observe and experience on a daily basis. Many students take meteorology courses to satisfy general education requirements. Students have a natural curiosity about the environment and weather, as they have been observing weather their entire lives. Thus, a genuine interest in the environment also drives them to take these types of courses ( Samara, 2015 ).

Meteorology presents its own unique challenges. First, introductory meteorology courses are content heavy, with a lot of new terminology. This makes applying the new material, in the short time span of a semester, a difficult prospect ( Kahl, 2008 ). Also, the highly variable nature of the atmosphere makes it difficult to plan hands-on activities and assignments built around a specific theme or topic that is also related to analysis of daily weather observations.

To address these challenges, I implemented an assignment in my introductory meteorology course that required students to build and calibrate their own weather instruments from simple, household materials. The assignment introduced students to the research process and taught them about the properties of the atmosphere, as well as the process of recording, analyzing, and sharing data in the form of a report. It gave them an opportunity to learn about the nature of scientific observation, and about themselves, as scientists. Project-based assignments such as this have the effect of building self-efficacy ( Fencl & Scheel, 2005 ) and moving students away from simple versions of scientific methodologies they may have learned elsewhere toward a more authentic understanding of the process of scientific inquiry ( Harwood, 2004 ; Understanding Science 101, ). They also have the potential to improve quantitative reasoning skills by having students gather and examine data ( Klug, Carey, Richardson, & Gougis, 2017 ).

Course context

The weather instrument assignment was introduced in a general meteorology course at a large public university (for assignment details, see Appendix 1, available at ). This course satisfies one of the science requirements for the university’s general education curriculum. Students who take the course range from freshman to senior and span a wide range of majors. This course is required for some students majoring in Earth Sciences (this includes students emphasizing meteorology, environmental science, or secondary earth science education), as well as students majoring or minoring in Environmental Studies. All together, these earth and environmental science students comprise about 20% of students enrolled in any given section of this course. There are three 50-minute lectures each week, as well as one 2.5-hour lab session taught by a graduate teaching assistant.

The weather instrument assignment

By the third week of the semester, students have had some introduction to the properties of the atmosphere and meteorological variables that are observed on a daily basis. Students then build a weather instrument, develop a numerical scale for it, calibrate it, compile data, and submit a report consisting of 5 days of weather observations at home. They needed to include a detailed description of their experiences constructing their instruments and their efforts to evaluate the data they collected from their instruments. Whether or not they got their instruments to work, I asked them to document everything they did, so that they could develop an understanding of the importance of keeping detailed records. A timeline of the assignment with specific student tasks is presented in Table 1 .

I analyzed student reports using four criteria ( Table 2 ). Specifically, I was looking for evidence that they could engage in the scientific process by designing their instruments and evaluating them through data collection and analysis. I also collected assessment data on the final exam in the form of an essay question designed to test quantitative reasoning. The question required students to evaluate a calibration curve. Student perceptions and attitudes about the assignment were collected from feedback forms on the day they brought their instruments to lab and from end-of-semester evaluation and course feedback forms.

Student reports needed to provide a brief summary of the historical development of the chosen instrument and a description of the basic physical principles governing its operation. I provided them with suggestions for websites that included instructions on how to build meteorological instruments from household materials. Most websites with instructions for homemade weather instruments are written for elementary and secondary school students and teachers. The fact that students must create a numerical scale for the instrument before they make weather observations, as well as verify the data they collect and evaluate the consistency of their instrument, adds a level of complexity. Throughout a 5-day observing period, students evaluated the performance of their instruments with verifications using local weather observations online or another instrument. Over three semesters, 153 students completed this assignment: 46 in spring 2012, 49 in fall 2012, and 58 in fall 2013. Lectures, assignments, and exams varied minimally from one course offering to the next. The percentage of students that constructed each type of instrument is illustrated in Figure 1 .

Percentages of students who constructed each type of weather instrument ( n = 153).

In addition to the observations with their constructed instrument, students kept a record of cloud types, percentage of sky cover, and perceptions of other weather variables (temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, based on skin sensations). As they did with their constructed instruments, students were required to verify the accuracy of their perceptions using another instrument or using data available from the campus weather station or National Weather Service online. The goal of this activity was to give them an idea of how their perceptions of temperature, relative humidity, or wind speed informed their personal estimates, and how those differed from empirical observations. This aspect of the assignment provided a unique opportunity to discuss the importance of empirical measurements.

Construction and evaluation of their weather instruments not only gave students the experience of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, but also introduced them to the element of trial and error inherent in most experimental designs. In the 10th week of the semester, students brought their weather instruments to their lab session and worked in groups with others who built similar instruments (see Figure 2 for examples). They discussed optimal instrument design and observing techniques and whether their instruments needed any significant revisions. I also prompted them to apply some of the basic principles of physical meteorology that we had covered in lecture to an interpretation of the weather that they had observed with their instruments. After the lab, students made improvements to their instruments, recalibrated them, and used them to make another 5 days of weather observations.

Sample instruments constructed by students for the assignment: (A) aneroid barometer built by stretching a balloon over the mouth of a mason jar, (B) wet-bulb hygrometer constructed from a cup of water and two thermometers, and (C) cup (spinning) anemometer constructed from Dixie cups and straws.

Students’ grades were always a concern as they often worried about instrument failure. In this assignment, I weighted the grade on how thorough they were in attempting to build the instrument and test it, as well as how well they documented what they did. I made it clear to them that their grade did not depend on whether their instruments were fully functional and accurate, but on their efforts to understand why they were not.

Outcomes and impact

The first criterion in Table 2 addresses student understanding of the fundamental operating principle of their instrument. Nearly all students who completed the assignment could provide a general description of how their instrument worked, and nearly all built an instrument that was at least able to respond to changes in weather.

The second criterion addresses whether students have learned to calibrate their observation through trial and error and comparison with another instrument. Development of a scale for their instrument and comparison with another instrument gave students an opportunity to learn about the value of the empirical method. Depending on the type of instrument that a student constructed, designing and testing of a scale could be quite difficult. About 70% of students used observations of instrument behavior to create a scale that was based on observed changes compared with those of another instrument. The remaining students attempted to build scales that were arbitrary and did not compare with any other data sources.

Constructing a calibration curve (third criterion in Table 2 ) allowed students to determine if their instrument was precise, if not always accurate, in comparison with another instrument. For many students, this was the most difficult part of the assignment. Students were asked to plot their own observation against a verification from another instrument or a weather observation reported online (as depicted in Figure 3 ). Despite very explicit instructions, many students created two separate plots: one with their observations and another with their verifications. Only 25.4% of all students constructed the calibration curve correctly, according to directions, despite multiple opportunities to learn how in class or lab. About 30% of students constructed another type of graph that compared their observation with the verification, which allowed them to examine accuracy, if not consistency, and 44.6% of students simply did not do this part of the assignment. Nevertheless, it was clear to many of the students who made plots (and even to some who didn’t) that their instruments had trouble responding consistently. This is to be expected in this assignment and, in fact, provided a great opportunity for discussion and reflection in class. Ultimately, discussions like this contribute to the development of quantitative reasoning. In subsequent course offerings, I have been able to increase the number of students who complete the calibration curve by walking them through the process of evaluating their data multiple times, and by providing examples in class and in lab session.

An exam question and graph that were given to students on the final exam at the end of the semester to assess whether students could interpret a calibration curve.

The fourth criterion addressed whether students were able to identify problems and actively work to improve their instruments (or at least whether they recommended improvements). A majority of students cited problems with their instrument design as the source of difference between their own observation and their verification. Their explanations included the use of flimsy materials, as well as the fact that, in the case of building barometers and thermometers, the instruments were likely responding to changes in both temperature and pressure. A majority of students (65%) made changes to their instruments either prior to or during their 5-day observation period. (Not all of them sought to recalibrate after making adjustments. Some did not make adjustments as they either didn’t know what to do or didn’t feel that they needed adjustments.)

Evaluating a calibration curve on an exam

Figure 3 depicts a question I asked students on the final exam as part of the assessment for this project, and Figure 4 shows the most common types of responses to that question. Some students gave multiple interpretations for the graph, particularly if they were unsure. In summarizing responses, each of those multiple responses is counted as an individual response. Despite the fact that so many students did not plot a calibration curve with their data, approximately 60% of all responses from students expressed the idea that the curve had something to do with accuracy or correlation or was a line of best fit (which is true but doesn’t address significance). This suggests that they were able to interpret an analysis, even if they were unable to complete the analysis themselves. About 15% of all responses indicated that the curve was a “trend line” but did not provide additional information, and about 33% of students responded with the misconception that the curve represented an “average” of the observations.

Various types of responses given by students in their interpretation of the calibration curve, and the frequency of those responses expressed as percent of total number of explanations provided for the chart.

Student perception of the assignment overall

Some students were initially a bit put off that they would be required to complete a project that is usually directed toward younger students, but they quickly discovered that constructing an instrument and getting it to work consistently and accurately was not an easy task. Students also commented that their perceptions of weather (estimates of temperature, etc., based on skin sensations) almost never matched with the empirical observations. From a survey administered at the end of the semester, 93% of students stated that they felt they had learned something from the assignment. About 30% of all students mentioned that they had learned a specific skill, technique, or process, and about 15% of students mentioned that the assignment helped them understand some aspect of the science of meteorology.

Some examples of comments include: “I felt like a real scientist. It allowed me to see what ‘research’ might be like.” “I learned that designing instruments is tricky business but that the concepts were surprisingly straightforward.” “Overall I found this project enlightening and fun. I will probably try to do something a little simpler with my own class once I am teaching in an elementary school.”

Conclusions

This assignment required students to plan and conduct investigations, analyze and interpret data, use basic math to analyze their observations, and develop explanations for what they saw. Overall, it was successful in engaging most students in empirical observation and hands-on problem-solving with their instruments. It also helped them become familiar with the role of uncertainty in scientific explorations. The structure of this assignment required students to give each other feedback on their instrumental design and observational protocol, to make scientific observations, and to submit a report. This could be easily adopted in other introductory college science courses.

A few students in each class said that they felt hopeless in getting things to work correctly. For this reason, it is important to support students with opportunities to share their experiences in the process of scientific discovery. Remind students that they are pursuing research, and that they are learning about the scientific process. It also helps to break the project into pieces and have checkpoints along the way. Including discussions about how each particular stage of the project mimics the scientific process (including fixing errors, reporting, and peer review)seems to help ease frustration and helps students be more patient with the process. Students are never comfortable with ambiguity, and there needs to be discussion about this and about how documenting everything they do, even if it doesn’t work, can help them learn. Finally, introductory science students need direction and practice reading graphs. This is where an assignment like this has the largest potential to help students build their quantitative skills in data analysis and interpretation. These are all things that help them become lifelong learners, whether or not they become scientists.

Cindy Shellito ( [email protected] ) is a professor of meteorology in the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Northern Colorado.

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Geography Notes

Instruments used for the study of weather | atmosphere | geography.

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After the study of weather, weather elements and weather maps. It is really important for the students of geography to attain knowledge about the instruments used for the study of weather. Following are the instruments that are used for the study of weather: 1. Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer 2. Aneroid Barometer 3. Wind Vane 4. Animometer 5. Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer 6. Rain Gauge.

Instrument # 1. Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer:

Temperature of wind is one of the most important aspects in the study of weather. Commonly to measure the temperature a narrow tube of glass is used which have alcohol or mercury in it. A scale is printed on tube which is divided into 0° to 100°c. This scale shows boiling to freezing points temperature of water In India, degree Celsius/centigrade scale is used. In some countries Fahrenheit scale is also used. In Fahrenheit scale, boiling point is 212° and freezing point is 32°.

These two scales may be converted in one another according to the following methods:

C = 5/9 (F – 32) or F = 9/5 (C + 32)

Figures & statistics of daily temperature are required for weather maps. For this we use a special thermometer and we do not have to check it again and again. After setting it once when we check it after 24 hours then we will get information about the maximum and minimum temperature of last day. This thermometer has narrow ‘U’ shape tube and has bulbs on its both ends.

The bulb on left side is completely filled with Alcohol while bulb on right side is partially filled with Alcohol and ‘U’ shaped tube is filled with mercury. Two iron pins (Pieces of thin wire having size about 1 cm) are placed above mercury on both sides. These pins move on their place due to the up and down movement of mercury.

Movement of mercury has been controlled by the left bulb completely filled with alcohol. As the temperature rises, the Alcohol expands which results in the downward movement of mercury in the left tube and upward movement in right side tube because of this iron pin moves upward in the right side tube.

On the other hand viscosity/density of alcohol is less than the iron pin in the left tube because of which mercury moves down without making any change in the position of iron pin in right tube represents the highest temperature.

As the temperature starts decreasing, the alcohol in the bulb of left tube starts shrinking and because of this mercury starts retreating. To be more specific, mercury retreats in right funnel while rising in left funnel.

If temperature goes on decreasing, the iron wire gets rising in left funnel with the help of rising mercury. This process continues till temperature does not reach at lowest ebb. Finally lower end of iron wire shows minimum temperature.

It is mentionable here that temperature scale decreases as we go higher in left funnel whereas the scale increases upwards in right funnel. This helps in narrating minimum and maximum temperature through the thermometer. To set the thermometer we have to set pieces of iron wire daily with the help of magnet. Iron wires need to touch the mercury in both the funnels.

For this purpose small magnet is used. This activity should not be carried out at highest or lowest temperature, evening time is best for this processing so that on next morning we can record the lowest temperature of night and in the evening we can record the highest temperature of the day recorded in the afternoon.

With the help of these figures we can find out daily mean temperature, daily mean temperature difference. Monthly mean temperature, Annual temperature difference and daily normal temperature.

Instrument # 2. Aneroid Barometer:

Air pressure is an important aspect of air. Like all physical items, air also contains weight. Air pressure of a particular place changes within a short span of time and it also varies from place to place. Information of every second of Air pressure is necessary for the intimation about rain, winds, storm, clear weather etc.

This information is important for pilots and fisher’s Aneroid barometer has been used to measure the air pressure. Air forces Navy and Mountaineers use this to measure the pressure and also to find out the height from the sea level. Liquids are not used in this device/it is a small round metal box in which vacuum is created.

With the increase in air pressure the cap of box moves down and it rises with the decrease in pressure. Although the change in air pressure brings a little change in the cap but it has been multiplied with the help of levers.

These levers are connected with a needle, so that the change in pressure can be recorded on the scale of dial made on the box and it can be measure in centimeter, Inches and Millibars. Inspite of these units sometimes words like storm, rain, clear, dry etc. are also printed on scale so that a person who is not aware about the details of air pressure, can also acquire information about air pressure.

It is also important to mention that to record the change in air pressure on timely basis a red colour needle is fixed on the glass cap of the device. Needle fixed above is set in the direction air pressure needle is with the change in air pressure, pressure needle changes its position and change may be noted accordingly.

Instrument # 3. Wind Vane:

Wind is another aspect of weather, as we know that winds move from high pressure to low pressure areas. Direction and speed of winds is very important in the study of weather. A simple instrument has been used to find out the direction of winds and it can be easily made. A light weight metal piece has been used in it and it might be in the shape of ‘arrow’ or ‘cock’. Its one end is narrow and other is wide.

This metal piece is connected with a iron rod in such a way that it can easily rotate. When wind blows the narrow part of metal piece point towards that direction from which wind is blowing towards this device.

Four iron connected diagonally to one another and pointing towards four directions namely North, South, East and West are fixed beneath this instrument.

Commonly these devices are installed 10 meters higher than land so that it may face moving wind freely. These are installed at wide open places and above the enclosed building.

It is really important to mention a fact for the information of students that name given to the winds is related with their direction. E.g. winds coming towards Punjab from east a (Purab) are known as ‘Pura’ and winds coming from west (Passhim) are known as ‘Pasho or Pashwa’. Similarly there are southern and mountainous winds.

Instrument # 4. Animometer:

After direction of winds, other aspect is speed of winds. Speed of winds is measured with the help of Animometer. There are various Animometers with Slight differences but Robinson Cup Animometer is used the most. It is made of three or four metaled hemispherical cups installed at the horizontal spokes resting upon vertical spindle. These cups start rotating with even hardly blowing wind and with the help of axle and gear attached beneath. Speed of wind meter per second is noted.

Instrument # 5. Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer :

As we know wind always have gaseous part of water in it. Amount of vapours vary with time and place. Presence of vapours in wind is directly related with temperature. Gaseous form of water in atmosphere is known as ‘Humidity’.

There are three main measurements of humidity: Absolute, Relative and Specific. Among these three relative humidity is the most used because the prior information about saturation of air plays a vital role in the prediction of rain and relative humidity describes it better than other two types of humidity.

The ratio of water vapours present in air at particular temperature and capability of air to carry humidity is known as absolute humidity. This is measured and represented in percentage.

Dry and wet bulb thermometer is used to measure the absolute humidity. This thermometer has two casual thermometers installed on a wooden board in upright position the bulb of one of the thermometer is wrapped in cloth and another end of that cloth is dipped in water in such a way that bulb of this thermometer remain wet.

This thermometer is known as wet bulb thermometer. The second thermometer is not covered by any cloth and is left open. This is known as dry bulb thermometer. Both the thermometers record different temperature & because temperature of wet bulb is lesser than that of dry bulb because of coolness created by moisture & evaporation.

The difference between the temperatures of these two thermometers is directly related with the moisture present in air, meaning thereby, if moisture is higher, evaporation shall be more and it shall create more cooling effect resulting into greater difference of temperature between two thermometers.

It means that the temperature recorded by wet bulb thermometer is always low as compared to the dry bulb thermometer. A special table (chart) is used to check the atmospheric humidity, which is provided on the purchase of this device. Its sample is given below.

E.g. If the temp. of dry bulb thermometer of a place is 90° F and the temperature of wet bulb thermometer is 82°F and their difference is 8°F. Now to calculate the absolute humidity, we refer to the chart in which temperature of dry bulb thermometer being 90°F and difference between two thermometers being 8°F, humidity shall be 71%.

Commonly absolute humidity has been recorded at 8:30 in the morning and 5:30 in the evening. This device should not be exposed to direct sunlight. For this weather scientists use a special wooden box which protects this device from direct sunlight but wind passes through it freely. This device is installed away from buildings and trees in an open place at the height of 1 meter from the ground. This device is also used for other weather devices also, such as Stevenson screen.

Instrument # 6. Rain Gauge:

Falling of water vapours from air/sky in the form of drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, grapple and ail is known as precipitation. It has been measured in centimeters or inches. When we say that a particular place has received 10 millimeter rainfall then it means that if the water do not move below the surface and it is not converted into vapours due to evaporation and Run off process do not take place then a 10 millimeter high layer of water will be collected at that place.

To measure the rain fall a simple device is used which has two metal cylinders and a funnel. Bigger cylinder has a funnel by same size and its narrower side opens in the cylinder which accumulates rain water.

Funnel is kept 10 centimeter below the big cylinder so that water droplets do not fall out because of any kind of movement.

Smaller cylinder is actually a measurement jar with milimeters, centimeters and inches marked on it. Measurement jar and the funnel have areas with specific ratio. This measurement jar is narrow cylindrical jar so that it may measure even slightest of rain water.

In weather maps of India figures of rainfall are included on the basis of total rainfall during last 24 hours at a particular place. Basically these are recorded at 8 O’clock in the morning.

This device should be used at an open place away from buildings and trees, where rainfall can be recorded freely. It should be kept 1 foot high from the ground so that water droplets after striking the ground do not enter into funnel. It should be placed away from children and animals at a safe place so that we can protect it from falling.

Drawing of Isotherms, Isobars and Isohyets:

There is only one method to draw Isotherms, Isobars and Isohyets or any other kind of isolate lines on maps.

First of all figures about maximum places are required for given map. Larger the number of figures, result has better representation. Second step is to identify the places which have maximum and minimum value of isopleths so that variation value may be finalized. Third and last step is to draw isopleths which is to be begun from lowest value to upper value grades. The isopleth with highest value is to be drawn in the end.

For the facility of students can practice with the figures of local place or other states with the help of their teachers. Prepare isobar and isohyet maps also.

Related Articles:

• Air Pressure: Factors & Distribution | Atmosphere | Earth | Geography
• Term Paper on Relative Humidity | Atmosphere | Earth | Geography
• Absolute Humidity and Its Variation | Atmosphere | Earth | Geography
• Top 8 Types of Weather Instruments | Topography | Geography

Geography , Atmosphere , Weather , Study of Weather

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Lesson Weather Basics

Grade Level: 8 (6-8)

Time Required: 15 minutes

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Subject Areas: Earth and Space, Science and Technology

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Engineers analyze information about weather when designing instruments such as barometers, thermometers and anemometers, as well as software that integrates complex weather information for meteorologists to use. Civil engineers utilize weather data when designing houses and other structures, to ensure that those designs are appropriate for the climate of their locations. Environmental engineers analyze weather measurements to determine the placement and effectiveness of renewable energy technologies, such as wind farms and solar arrays. Engineers also serve an important role in designing products that enable people to more comfortably adjust to the weather (for example, waterproof jackets, heated driveways and sunscreen, among many other weather-resistant goods).

After this lesson, students should be able to:

• Describe the role of the sun in the Earth's weather systems.
• List four factors that influence weather systems and the instruments used to measure them.
• Explain several ways that engineers analyze and use weather measurements to inform their designs.

Educational Standards Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) , a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g. , by state; within source by type; e.g. , science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc .

Ngss: next generation science standards - science, international technology and engineering educators association - technology.

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State Standards

Colorado - science.

Have you ever left your house without a jacket on what turned out to be a freezing cold day? Or, have you ever been caught in the rain without an umbrella because you thought it was going to be a nice, sunny day? All of us have probably had days when we were dressed inappropriately for the weather — maybe sometimes due to incorrect weather forecasts or weather that changes abruptly. Weather is a chaotic and ever-changing system, making it sometimes difficult to predict. Meteorologists are responsible for forecasting the weather up to a few days in advance, which — due to the nature of the Earth's atmosphere — can be a tricky job. Engineers are responsible for analyzing those changing weather patterns in our atmosphere and using that information to design sensitive instruments to collect the weather data from the ground, in the air or even in space. Do meteorologists and engineers work together? You bet!

Weather can, at times, change quickly and unexpectedly; at other times, it seems steady and reliable, or slow to change. Some weather patterns can be cause for concern or even life threatening, such as a severe blizzard causing unsafe road conditions or a lengthy drought destroying crops and leaving people without a water source. In these cases, being able to predict weather and adjust to it is not only important for comfort, but for survival as well.

When we say weather, we are talking about things taking place in the Earth's atmosphere over the short term, such as hours or days. Most of our weather is directed by the sun. Areas close to the equator receive more energy from the sun than those closer to the Earth's poles and within those areas, the various surfaces (such as oceans, forests, deserts, etc.) have different abilities to soak up the sun's rays. The resulting temperatures have the biggest affect on the Earth's weather. How is temperature measured? It is measured with an instrument called a thermometer . The tilt of the Earth (which leads to the different seasons) also affects the amount of direct sunlight a specific area receives, leading to even more temperature differences.

These temperature differences affect the atmospheric (or air) pressure around us. When air is heated, it expands, which lowers the air pressure. The reverse is also true. Differences in air pressure can cause all types of weather. For example, air naturally moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, and this movement causes wind. Also, different air pressures are associated with different types of weather. Moving air masses and air pressure are two factors that help us determine what the weather is going to be in an area on a given day. A barometer is the instrument that helps us measure the air pressure around us. An anemometer is the instrument that helps us determine the speed that the air is moving.

Humidity also affects the weather. The amount of humidity, or water vapor in the air, indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew or fog. The presence of water vapor in the air is also dictated by the sun, as solar energy powers the Earth's water cycle. The water cycle is the term used to describe the continuous movement of water over, above and beneath the Earth's surface, which includes (among other things) evaporation, precipitation and condensation, as illustrated in Figure 2.

Evaporation is the process by which liquid water from our planet's surface is transformed into gaseous water in the atmosphere. Precipitation is condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, hail or sleet. Condensation describes the transformation of water vapor into liquid water droplets in the air, producing clouds and or fog. Humidity is measured by an instrument called a hygrometer .

Some common forms of weather on Earth include wind, clouds, rain and snow. More extreme weather, such as blizzards, tornadoes and hurricanes, occur much less frequently. These phenomena occur almost uniquely in the layer of the atmosphere closest to the Earth's surface, referred to as the troposphere .

The Earth's weather is constantly changing. Weather can also alter the Earth, including erosion of rocks and soil into tiny particles that can change the chemistry of the Earth's surface. Over time, mountains can be formed or torn down completely, due to weathering. Human activity can also impact the weather, through agriculture, industry and even everyday use of cars and electricity. These affects can lead to extreme weather, such as drought, flooding and storms. Because of the threat to weather from human activity that might cause reduction in food, resources and human health, humans have tried to control the weather. Engineers have worked to develop technologies to manage flooding, increase precipitation and reduce hail.

Engineers are not only involved in weather forecasting, but using weather measurements to inform their design of many other things. Civil engineers analyze weather data to help them design houses, bridges and other structures that are appropriate for the weather and climate in that area. Environmental engineers also study weather data to determine where to place energy technologies, such as wind farms and solar arrays. Materials engineers work with the way different materials are affected by weather — they even design clothing for different climates. (Refer to the hands-on associated activity Dress for Succes for student teams to design and analyze types of materials for functionality and durability under specific weather conditions.) Computer engineers might develop the software that helps put all of the weather measurements together in a way that makes sense for meteorologists and communities. And then there is a whole group of engineers that work with extreme weather, designing instruments, structures and processes to keep us safe from things like storms, blizzards and hurricanes.

Lesson Background and Concepts for Teachers

The sun is the main factor in the Earth's weather systems. The sun takes up as much space as 1.3 million Earths put together and is about 27,000,000°F (14,999,982°C) at its core and 10,000°F (5,538°C) at its surface. Very hot! Light from the sun travels 186,000 miles per second, so even though the sun is located 92,980,000 miles away, it only takes 8 minutes and 20 seconds for light from the sun to reach the Earth's surface.

When the sun's rays hit the Earth directly, they heat the Earth more than when they hit it at an angle. This fact explains why we experience seasonal temperature variations. During the summer, for example, the Earth's angle allows the sun's rays to hit a given region directly, whereas during the winter, the same rays would hit that region at an angle, allowing warmer temperatures during the summer than the winter.

The Earth's atmosphere is broken up into five layers. The troposphere refers to the atmospheric layer closest to the Earth's surface, extending from the surface itself out 7 miles. Weather occurs in the troposphere. The other four layers, from closest to the Earth to farthest away, are the stratosphere , mesosphere , thermosphere and exosphere .

The Earth's atmosphere holds some of the heat our planet receives from the sun. Without the atmosphere, it would be freezing cold during the night. The moon, for example, does not have an atmosphere, and its temperatures typically measure approximately 250°F on the side facing the sun but a very low -290°F on the side facing away from the sun.

Three basic types of clouds occur in the Earth's atmosphere and give us an easy visual of the weather forecast — cumulus , stratus and cirrus .

Cumulus clouds resemble cotton balls — large and puffy, but flat along the bottom (see Figure 3). These clouds are formed by warm air rising quickly over a small area.

Stratus clouds, as shown in Figure 4, are layered and streaky, with indistinct edges. They are formed by a large, moist air mass rising slowly.

Cirrus clouds are white, wispy, thin and broad, giving them the appearance of feathers in the sky!

While there are only three primary cloud types (cumulus, stratus, and cirrus) other, more specific, cloud types can be formed from these basics. For example, cumulonimbus clouds form out of cumulous clouds. As the name suggests (nimbus means rain-producing), these clouds can bring rain, snow, or hail. Nimbostratus clouds form from stratus clouds and are also able to produce rain or snow. The clouds vary because they are formed at different heights, wind speeds, and temperatures, all in the presence of varying amounts of water vapor.

• Dress for Success - Student teams design and analyze types of materials for functionality and durability under specific weather conditions. They take measurements of their prototype layered materials' performance in simulated conditions of wind, rain and heat or cold.

As we have learned, weather can be unpredictable and confusing or consistent and steady, and its effects can be dangerous or not even noticeable. It all depends on what is happening in the atmosphere. What are the four factors we discussed that affect the weather we experience? (Answer: temperature, humidity, air movement and air pressure)

The ability to detect weather patterns and adjust to them is important to our comfort and, sometimes, is necessary for our survival. With the different instruments designed by engineers to help meteorologists in their weather forecasts, we can understand what is going on with the Earth's weather. We can use this information to see how the Earth is changing and how human activity affects the weather.

Engineers also use weather information to inform their other designs. Weather plays an important role in the design of structures, renewable energy technologies, extreme weather protection systems and even high-tech clothing.

air pressure: The weight of the Earth's atmosphere over an area.

anemometer: An instrument that measures wind speed.

atmosphere: Five different layers of air that surround the Earth.

barometer: An instrument that measures air pressure.

climate: The average atmospheric conditions a region tends to have over many years.

humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air.

hygrometer: The instrument used to measure humidity.

meteorologist: A scientist who specializes in the study and forecasting of weather

precipitation: Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface.

troposphere: The lowest portion of the Earth's atmosphere.

water vapor: Water in the gas phase that is present in the air.

weather: Phenomena in the atmosphere of a planet over short periods of time, such as hours or days.

wind speed: The speed of moving air.

Pre-Lesson Assessment

Discussion Question s: Ask students the following questions and discuss as a class. Write student responses on the classroom board.

• What visual observations would you use to predict the weather? (Possible examples: If the sky is filled with big, black clouds, expect it to rain; if no clouds are in the sky, expect it to be very windy.
• Where can you find weather forecasts? (Possible answers: Watch the TV or Internet news, call a weather line, listen to the radio, read the weather section of the local newspaper.)
• Based on today's weather, what do you think tomorrow's weather will be like? Why?

Post-Introduction Assessment

Question/Answer : Have students answer the following questions and discuss as a class.

• What controls most of the Earth's weather? Why? (Answer: The sun; areas close to the equator receive more energy from the sun than those closer to the Earth's poles and within those areas, the various surfaces [such as oceans, forests, deserts, etc.] have different abilities to soak up the sun's rays. The resulting temperatures have the biggest affect on the Earth's weather.)
• Does human activity impact the weather? How? (Answer: Humans can impact the weather through agriculture, industry and even everyday use of cars and electricity.)
• Does the impact of human activity really make a difference? (Answer: Human effects, such as acid rain and greenhouse gases, can lead to extreme weather, such as drought, flooding and storms.)
• List several technologies or processes designed by engineers considering weather measurements. (Possible answers: Houses, bridges, software, renewable energy resources [such as wind farms and solar arrays], materials, technologies to reduce hail.)

Matching : Create a list of the weather factors, and instruments used to measure them, on the board. Randomly write the weather factor on the left side of the board and the instruments on the right side of the board. As a class, have the students match the correct sides together. For example:

temperature ~ thermometer

humidity ~ hygrometer

air pressure ~ barometer

air movement ~ anemometer

Lesson Summary Assessment

Weather Forecast : Have students look at a weather forecast for their entire state or country. Are the individual measurements of humidity (rain), temperature, air pressure and air movement (wind) available? How are the individual measurements displayed? Engineers help design the instruments that take these measurements on ground or from space. Engineers also develop the software to generate the displays of how weather systems are moving and changing each day. Does the display for the weather forecast give you all the information you need? Are there different ways to display the information? What do you think is the most useful display? Have students think about all of these questions and design their own display of weather forecasting information for the weather in their area.

Lesson Extension Activities

Have students research the effect of human activity on the weather. What have engineers done to help reduce these effects?

Have students compare and contrast weather in different cities in the United States. Have them write a paragraph explaining the difference in temperatures using such concepts as elevation, proximity to the ocean, distance from the equator, etc.

Have students look at the weather of different countries around the world and look for connections. Which countries are experiencing similar weather patterns and what is happening in their city? Have the students try to determine different country's current seasons. Do they see a pattern to the seasons of different places around the world?

Students consider how weather forecasting plays an important part in their daily lives. They learn about the history of weather forecasting — from old weather proverbs to modern forecasting equipment — and how improvements in weather technology have saved lives by providing advance warning of natura...

Students learn about floods, discovering that different types of floods occur from different water sources, but primarily from heavy rainfall. Students learn what makes floods dangerous and what engineers design to predict, control and survive floods.

Students examine in detail the water cycle components and phase transitions, and then learn how water moves through the human-made urban environment. Students show their understanding of the process by writing a description of the path of a water droplet through the urban water cycle, from the dropl...

Students are introduced to air masses, with an emphasis on the differences between and characteristics of high- versus low-pressure air systems. Students explore actual data by comparing maps of high- and low-pressure air masses to radar data showing where weather is occurring

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, Satellite Services Division (SSD), accessed December 21, 2007. http://www.goes.noaa.gov/GIFS/ECW1.JPG

Perlman, Howard. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Water Science for Schools, December 18, 2007, accessed December 21, 2007. Originally found at: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/graphics/wcmaindiagram2.jpg

Web Weather for Kids. The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR). Accessed December 21, 2007. http://www.eo.ucar.edu/webweather/cumulus.html

Watanabe, Susan. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, accessed December 21, 2007. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/earth/cirrus_browse.jpg

Contributors

Supporting program, acknowledgements.

The contents of this digital library curriculum were developed under grants from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation (GK-12 grant no. 0338362). However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the Department of Education or National Science Foundation, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

Last modified: August 7, 2020

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• Uses of Meteorological Instruments

An Overview of Meteorological Instruments

In order to determine the weather, we have to measure different parameters like the temperature, pressure, precipitation, wind speed, etc. Thus, we have different types of weather instruments to measure these different parameters. In this article, we will first state some different types of meteorological instruments and then discuss what they are used for, lastly we will discuss briefly about the rain gauge, which is an instrument used to measure rainfall, one of the most important parameters to determine the weather in any area. 

What are Meteorological Instruments?

Meteorology is the study of weather conditions around us and Meteorological instruments are the equipment which Meteorologists use to study and measure different parameters determining the weather in any area, at any given time. There are various different kinds and types of meteorological instruments , each responsible for measuring a different parameter, some of which are: 

Thermometer 

Weather Instruments Pictures

Thermometer  

Barometer 

Meteorological Instruments and Their Uses

There are several different types of meteorological instruments, each measuring a different parameter. In this section, we will state some of them and also discuss the uses of meteorological instruments: 

Thermometer

A thermometer, as the name suggests, is used to measure temperature of the air as well as the sea surface. 

A barometer is an instrument used to measure the atmospheric pressure. 

A hygrometer is an instrument that is used to measure the humidity in any area, at any given time. 

It is a meteorological instrument that is used to measure the wind speed in an area. 

Pyranometer 

A Pyranometer is used to measure the solar radiation that an area receives during day time. 

It is used to measure rainfall.

Wind Sock 

It is another instrument which is used to measure not only the general wind speed but also the general wind direction. 

Wind Vane 

A wind vane also known as the weather vane or a weathercock is an instrument which is used to determine and show the direction in which the wind is moving. 

Instruments Used to Measure Rainfall

The instrument which is used to measure rainfall is the Rain Gauge. We also have a snow gauge which along with the rain gauge is used to measure the precipitation. In this section, we will discuss the most common instrument used to measure rainfall, which is the rain gauge. 

A rain gauge is used to gather and measure the amount of liquid precipitation that is the rain in a predefined area and over a set period of time. The main purpose of the instrument is to determine the depth of precipitation, thereby measuring the amount of rainfall in that area. 

The setup includes a collection container attached to a measuring scale and is set in an open area. The precipitation is measured in terms of the height of the precipitation water collected in that container per given time and is usually expressed in millimetres. 

Sample Questions

State whether the statements mentioned below are correctly stated or not. 

1. Rainfall is equivalent to precipitation. 

Ans : False, precipitation can be of different types, one of which is liquid precipitation that is rainfall, other than that we also have snowfall which comes under precipitation. 

2. A barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure. 

Ans: True. 

3. Using present day technology, we can determine both the speed and direction of wind. 

Complete the statements that follow by filling in the blanks.

4. A hygrometer is used to measure ________ in an area. 

Ans: humidity. 

5. The speed and direction of the wind can be measured by an instrument known as _________. 

Ans: windsock 

6. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of _______ and _________. 

Ans: air, sea surface

Summary 

Meteorological instruments are weather instruments which are used to measure different parameters which determine the weather around us. There are several different types, some of which we discussed in this article such as thermometer, barometer, anemometer, hygrometer, rain gauge, windsock, etc. A rain gauge is an instrument used to measure the liquid precipitation (rainfall) in a predefined area, over a set period of time. 

FAQs on Uses of Meteorological Instruments

1. Weather is measured in which unit?

Usually while determining the weather, we mainly talk about three parameters, which are the temperature, the precipitation, and the wind speed. The temperature is measured in Degree Celsius, the precipitation in millimetres, and the wind speed in metres per second. 

2. Can we measure the clouds? If yes, which instrument is used to measure the clouds?

Yes, we can also measure the clouds. The instrument used to measure clouds in the sky is a Ceilometer. It uses laser or other light sources to determine the height of the cloud base and it can also determine the aerosol concentration in any certain cloud. 

3. What are the seven elements which are usually measured to determine the weather in an area?

The primary elements and atmospheric conditions which help us determine the weather are precipitation, humidity, temperature, pressure, cloudiness, and wind speed and direction. 

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Joseph henry a life in science.

Learn about the scientific research of Joseph Henry (1797–1878), first Smithsonian Secretary and renowned physicist, and how he helped set the Institution on its course.

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Meteorology

Can you imagine a time when weather forecasts were not available, or when people did not know that storms followed predictable paths? The science of meteorology was in its infancy when the Smithsonian was founded in 1846, but over the next three decades, the Institution developed a national network for collecting meteorological data, and made possible some of the earliest weather forecasts.

When Joseph Henry  became the Smithsonian's first Secretary     in 1846, he brought with him a longstanding interest in meteorology. In the 1820s, as a professor at the Albany Academy in New York, he had proofed data sent in by weather observers throughout the state. During his time at Princeton University in the 1830s and 1840s, Henry continued to stay abreast of meteorological research .

THE PROBLEM OF AMERICAN STORMS

THE METEOROLOGICAL PROJECT

By 1859, the logs of daily observations that the Smithsonian's weather observers mailed to the Institution every month had created a massive backlog of data. Henry hired Professor James H. Coffin of Lafayette College to reduce the raw data, and Coffin employed "from twelve to fifteen persons, many of them female," as "computers" to process the data, but they struggled to keep up with the large amount of work. 2 Henry himself struggled to answer the many questions raised by observers in the correspondence that frequently accompanied their registers. "Letters are often received asking for information on meteorological and other subjects. These embrace a very wide range of inquiry, and, with the other letters received, make large demands on the time of the secretary," Henry wrote in his annual report for 1859. 3 Some observers expressed annoyance that the data they had loyally provided for years was not being published , while others requested compensation in the form of Smithsonian publications. On the other hand, for observers such as Ernst Kapp, who had been an acquaintance of Karl Marx before emigrating from Germany to rural Texas, simply keeping up a correspondence with the Smithsonian was satisfactory, as it provided an opportunity for intellectual and scientific companionship. 4  

TRANSFERRING WEATHER OBSERVATION TO THE US GOVERNMENT

With its other obligations, by the mid-1850s the Smithsonian could not afford to operate the meteorology program on its own and enlisted the agricultural division of the Patent Office to distribute and collect weather registers, and to pay the wages of those employed to reduce data. In exchange, Joseph Henry wrote a series of lengthy essays for the Patent Commissioner's annual reports. Five installments of his " Meteorology in Its Connection with Agriculture "     were published by the Patent Office, whose agricultural reports were likely read by many of the farmers who participated in the Smithsonian's observer network . After the Patent Office stopped supporting the meteorological project in 1860, 5 the Agriculture Department assisted the Smithsonian with collecting data shortly after its establishment in 1862. 6

In 1870, Henry succeeded in transferring the weather forecasting system to an arm of the federal government—the War Department's Signal Service. The Smithsonian's meteorological network had recovered and now included more than five hundred individual observers as well as 140 Army posts. In 1874, the Signal Service took over the volunteer observer system . 11 For Henry, the transfer of the meteorological project to the Army was in keeping with his long-held belief that the Smithsonian should "devote its energies to no field of research which can be as well cultivated by other means." 12   The Army continued to be responsible for weather data collection and forecasting until the establishment of the US Weather Bureau, later renamed the National Weather Service, in 1891.

FURTHER RESOURCES

Frank Rives Millikan, " Joseph Henry: Father of the Weather Service ," Smithsonian Institution Archives.

1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 1878 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1879), 26. "The works of the Institution on many orders of insects, and on fresh-water and land shells, reptiles, birds, mammals, &c., were all based more or less entirely on collections and information obtained by the Smithsonian observers." Return to text

2 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 1857 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1858), 28. Return to text

3 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 1859 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1860), 46. Return to text

4 Frank Millikan, " Joseph Henry: Father of the Weather Service ," Smithsonian Institution Archives; Ernst Kapp to Joseph Henry, 12 December 1859 and 2 January 1859, Record Unit 60, Box 4; Ernst Kapp to the Smithsonian Institution, 27 April 1859, National Archives, Records of the Weather Bureau (RG 27), Letters Received. Return to text

5 Joseph Henry to James Coffin, 19 May 1860, in The Smithsonian Years: January 1858–December 1865,  Marc Rothenberg, Kathleen W. Dorman, and Frank R. Millikan, eds., vol. 10 of The Papers of Joseph Henry (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution in association with Science History Publications/USA, 2004), 156–157, doc. 80. Return to text

6 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 1863 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1864), 32. Return to text

7 Charles J. Meriwether to Joseph Henry, 20 July 1866, National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 27: Records of the Weather Bureau . Return to text

8 W.G. Fuller to Joesph Henry, 9 August 1862, National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 27: Records of the Weather Bureau ; E.M. Murch to Joseph Henry, 14 April 1865, Smithsonian Institution Archives, Record Unit 26 . Return to text

9 Meriwether to Henry, 20 July 1866. Return to text

10 Joseph Henry to Robert H. Lambourn, 9 January 1863, Hagley Museum and Library , Accession 1364: Thomas H. Savery Miscellany. Return to text

11 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 1873 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1874) 31. Return to text

12 Ibid. Return to text

Wet weather but a warm welcome at Glasgow’s Refuweegee – a photo-essay

Katherine Anne Rose spent months documenting the Scottish charity, which welcomes and supports forcibly displaced people with the help of the local community

R efuweegee is a play on the words “refugee” and “weegie”, affectionate slang for a Glaswegian. The charity was founded in December 2015 by Selina Hales, a Glasgow native who wanted to welcome displaced people in the city after seeing news coverage of Syrians escaping war and persecution and crossing into Europe. Glasgow has the largest refugee population in the UK outside London.

The scale and reach of charities such as Refuweegee have rapidly grown over the last few years, in part due to the rising numbers of asylum seekers but also because of the generosity and involvement of the local community. The charity has expanded to a network of more than 200 volunteers across Glasgow.

Refuweege merchandise with the charity’s slogan: ‘We’re all fae somewhere.’

Among other services, Refuweegee provides welcome packs to people newly arrived in the city. It has supplied more than 10,000 packs, which include essentials for Glasgow such as umbrellas and gloves as well as Scottish treats such as Irn-Bru and Tunnock’s tea cakes. It also makes up little backpacks for children that include books, games and toys.

Welcome packs with hand-written letters from the local community

The item that makes them unique is a hand-written letter from a local Glaswegian welcoming them. It is difficult to imagine yourself alone on foreign soil without speaking the native language. The letter is a touching and connecting gesture for people in a new and often distant location. It offers a marked contrast to the anonymous protocols of the asylum system.

The charity also prepares food parcels for families and people living in hotel accommodation where no kitchen facilities are available.

Food being prepared for last year’s Christmas party

One way in which they offer essentials such as toiletries and clothing is by having a “free shop”, a large space filled with donations from local people and companies. Refugees can book a slot to browse the shop and take what they want. Volunteers replenish the stock between appointments, and any gaps in supplies such as toothpaste, deodorants or nappies are often very quickly replenished by the public when a shout-out is put on to their social media accounts.

Lily replenishes the toiletries at the free shop

As someone with young children myself, the little packets with toys and games are a poignant way of imagining the hardship of being forcibly displaced. I have three children who have so many toys and games at home, and yet it can still feel hard to keep them entertained and content. I am reminded of the privileges of my life, the privileges that should be rights for everyone. The freedom to be comfortable, safe and fed. And to play.

Olha Reshetova holds a pysanky workshop. Pysanky is a Ukrainian tradition of egg decoration at Easter

The individual stories that come from the work are remarkable. It has been difficult to capture this photographically because of respect for the privacy of individuals, but hopefully I can can convey something of the care and joy that is given to people whose lives are hard to imagine; people who are trying to live on £8 a week when I have just spent that amount on parking. There are people who have saved their allowance for weeks just to be able to afford the train fare to visit Refuweegee from as far away as Aberdeen.

Stephan and Abdul enjoy the playroom at Refuweegee

Party dresses donated by the local community

I talk to the volunteers at the free shop as they prepare for the next booked slot of 15 people. “One young schoolboy had left his bag on the bus. We were able to put a new schoolbag together with a pencil case. What seems small to us makes a big difference,” says Ellie as she searches for a winter coat that will fit a five-year-old. One family visiting the shop reveals that their little girl is soon to turn two. The staff are able to turn to a rail of party dresses and pick out one for her, complete with hair band and shoes.

A mother checks to see if a dress fits her daughter and, right, Brogan entertains children while their parents browse the free shop

Refuweegee can provide art therapy for traumatised children and English classes for their parents. They are able to do this because local communities make it possible with their donations and their understanding of need.

It is also a space for people to meet, socialise and rest.

Hales told the Equalities, Human Rights and Civil Justice Committee last year that “space” had become one of the most essential things that Refuweegee provides, because people can be isolated in single hotel rooms for long periods.

People take part in the conversation club designed to help people learn and practice English

The space they have created here feels welcoming, and I can imagine the relief that it provides for those who don’t have a place like this elsewhere in their lives.

Refuweegee is a testament to the city’s slogan: “People make Glasgow.” It makes me more optimistic witnessing the efforts of Refuweegee and the local community to support people who need and deserve it.

Awa, a regular volunteer, with her son Abdul and, right, founder Selina Hales

Refuweegee will be taking part in Glasgow Kiltwalk 2024 on 28 April to raise funds to help people access nutritious food. Please click here to donate

• Immigration and asylum
• Voluntary sector

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Watch CBS News

Uri Berliner, NPR editor who criticized the network of liberal bias, says he's resigning

By Aimee Picchi

Edited By Anne Marie Lee

April 17, 2024 / 12:21 PM EDT / CBS News

Uri Berliner, a senior editor at National Public Radio who had been suspended from his job after claiming the network had "lost America's trust" by pushing progressive views while suppressing dissenting opinions, said he is resigning from the broadcaster.

"I am resigning from NPR, a great American institution where I have worked for 25 years," Berliner wrote in his resignation letter to NPR CEO Katherine Maher, and which he posted in part on X, the former Twitter. "I cannot work in a newsroom where I am disparaged by a new CEO whose divisive views confirm the very problems at NPR I cite in my Free Press essay."

My resignation letter to NPR CEO @krmaher pic.twitter.com/0hafVbcZAK — Uri Berliner (@uberliner) April 17, 2024

Berliner's resignation comes eight days after he published an  essay  in the Free Press that caused a firestorm of debate with his allegations that NPR was suppressing dissenting voices. In response to his critique, some conservatives, including former President Donald Trump, called on the government to "defund" the organization. 

Maher, who became NPR's CEO in March, wrote a staff memo a few days after publication of Berliner's essay addressing his criticisms of the organization's editorial process. Among Berliner's claims are that NPR is failing to consider other viewpoints and that it is fixated on diversity, equity and inclusion initiatives.

"Questioning whether our people are serving our mission with integrity, based on little more than the recognition of their identity, is profoundly disrespectful, hurtful and demeaning," Maher wrote. 

Some of Berliner's NPR colleagues also took issue with the essay, with "Morning Edition" host Steve Inskeep  writing on his Substack  that the article was "filled with errors and omissions."

"The errors do make NPR look bad, because it's embarrassing that an NPR journalist would make so many," Inskeep wrote.

Berliner's suspension, which occurred Friday, was  reported  by NPR media correspondent David Folkenflik. NPR declined to comment to CBS News about Berliner's resignation. "NPR does not comment on individual personnel matters," a spokesperson said.

Aimee Picchi is the associate managing editor for CBS MoneyWatch, where she covers business and personal finance. She previously worked at Bloomberg News and has written for national news outlets including USA Today and Consumer Reports.

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