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• English literature, with its rich and diverse tapestry, has evolved over centuries, reflecting the cultural, social, and political changes that have shaped the English-speaking world. The history of English literature is a captivating journey through time, marked by literary movements, influential writers, and the evolution of the English language itself.  In this article, we will know the Complete History of English Literature. So, Let’s Start the Journey.

Complete History of English Literature PPT Slides Notes

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Unveiling the Epochs: An Overview of the 8 Periods in English Literature

English literature, a kaleidoscope of literary treasures, unfolds across 8 distinct periods, each encapsulating the essence of its time. Let us embark on a chronological exploration of these periods:

Here’s a detailed timeline table of the history of English literature:

This comprehensive table outlines the major periods, time frames, key events, and notable works in the history of English literature.

After and Before

Before the Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (before 450):

• Pre-450: This period is often referred to as the prehistoric period, characterized by oral traditions, folklore, and tribal societies. The Germanic tribes, including the Anglo-Saxons, gradually migrated to the British Isles.

After the Modern Age (after 1950):

• Post-1950: The period after 1950 is considered contemporary literature, which encompasses a diverse range of literary movements and styles. Some key developments include the rise of postmodernism, the emergence of new voices from various cultural backgrounds, and the impact of technological advancements on literature.

It’s important to note that the classification of literary periods is somewhat arbitrary, and the transition between periods is not always clear-cut. The contemporary period is ongoing and continues to witness new literary movements, genres, and voices.

Old English (450–1066)

The earliest epoch lays the foundation for English literature with works like the epic poem “Beowulf.” Rooted in oral traditions, Old English literature reflects the cultural amalgamation of the Anglo-Saxons, encompassing heroic tales and expressions of early Christian influences.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Old English period (450–1066):

The Old English period serves as a crucial chapter in the history of English literature, marking the early stages of literary expression in the English language.

Middle English (1066–1500)

The Norman Conquest reshapes England, ushering in the Middle English period. Geoffrey Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales” stands as a testament to this era, where a melting pot of linguistic influences begins to shape the language, blending Old English with French and Latin elements.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Middle English period (1066–1500):

The Middle English period represents a crucial stage in the evolution of English literature, characterized by linguistic transformations, social changes, and the emergence of iconic literary works.

Renaissance (1500–1600)

The Renaissance heralds a revival of classical learning, arts, and literature. William Shakespeare, a luminary of this period, contributes timeless plays that transcend centuries. The era embraces humanism and intellectual exploration, setting the stage for profound literary achievements.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Renaissance period (1500–1600) in English literature:

The Renaissance period in English literature is characterized by a revival of classical ideas, artistic innovation, and the flourishing of some of the most renowned literary works in the English language.

Neoclassical (1600–1785)

The Neoclassical period, marked by reason and order, witnessed the emergence of literary giants like John Dryden and Alexander Pope. Satirical wit and adherence to classical forms define this era, as writers engage with societal norms and Enlightenment ideals.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Neoclassical period (1600–1785) in English literature:

The Neoclassical period in English literature reflects a departure from the emotional excesses of the preceding Renaissance, embracing reason, clarity, and a return to classical literary norms.

Romantic (1785–1832)

The Romantic period ushers in an emotional and imaginative surge, challenging the rationalism of the preceding era. Poets like William Wordsworth and Lord Byron delve into nature, individualism, and intense human emotions, leaving an indelible mark on the literary landscape.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Romantic period (1785–1832) in English literature:

The Romantic period in English literature is characterized by a celebration of individual expression, a deep connection with nature, and a rejection of the constraints imposed by the preceding Neoclassical era.

Victorian (1832–1901)

The Victorian era unfolds against the backdrop of an expanding British Empire and social upheavals. Dickens, Brontë, and Hardy capture the complexities of Victorian society through novels, while poets like Tennyson explore the profound shifts in societal values.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Victorian period (1832–1901) in English literature:

The Victorian period in English literature is marked by a diverse range of works that delve into the complexities of society, ethics, and the human psyche, reflecting the cultural and social dynamics of the time.

Edwardian (1901–1914)

The brief but significant Edwardian era witnesses the tail end of the Victorian mindset, setting the stage for modernist experimentation. As literature grapples with changing social dynamics and impending global conflict, voices like E.M. Forster and H.G. Wells emerge.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Edwardian period (1901–1914) in English literature:

The Edwardian period in English literature represents a transitional phase, characterized by a shifting literary landscape and the emergence of modernist tendencies that would come to full fruition in the subsequent decades.

Georgian (1910–1936)

Amidst the turmoil of World War I, Georgian poets, including Rupert Brooke and Siegfried Sassoon, express the disillusionment and trauma of the era. Modernist tendencies continue to evolve, questioning traditional forms and paving the way for literary innovation.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Georgian period (1910–1936) in English literature:

The Georgian period in English literature is characterized by a departure from traditional literary norms and the exploration of new forms and themes in the aftermath of World War I.

• In traversing these 8 periods, one witnesses the evolution of English literature as a dynamic reflection of societal shifts, intellectual currents, and the ceaseless creativity of literary minds. Each epoch contributes to the intricate tapestry of English literary heritage, ensuring its perpetual relevance in the ever-changing world of letters.

Complete History Of English Literature (In Details)

Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (450-1066)

The Old English or Anglo-Saxon period spans from the year 450 to 1066. This era is characterized by the emergence of early English literature, rooted in the cultural and linguistic traditions of the Anglo-Saxons.

• Bede – Ecclesiastical History of English People: Bede, an Anglo-Saxon monk, authored the “Ecclesiastical History of the English People,” a seminal work that chronicles the early history of England.
• King Alfred: King Alfred, also known as Alfred the Great, was a notable figure during this period. He played a crucial role in the defense against Viking invasions and promoted education and literature.

Here’s a table summarizing key aspects of the Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (450-1066) along with examples:

The Old English period is marked by the oral transmission of literature, strong ties to Germanic traditions, and the eventual influence of Christianity. “Beowulf” stands as a notable epic poem from this period, reflecting the heroic ethos and cultural values of the time.

(1066 – 1500)

Early middle or anglo-norman period (1066-1340).

The Early Middle or Anglo-Norman period extends from 1066 to 1340, marked by significant cultural and linguistic changes following the Norman Conquest of England.

I. Norman Conquest (1066)

The Norman Conquest, led by William, Duke of Normandy, resulted in the establishment of Norman rule in England. This event brought about a fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Norman cultures.

Here’s a table summarizing key aspects of the Early Middle or Anglo-Norman Period (1066-1340) with examples:

This period signifies a turning point in English history with the Norman Conquest, introducing Norman-French cultural influences and significantly impacting the language, legal systems, and societal structures in England.

II. Age of Chaucer (1340-1400)

Geoffrey Chaucer, often regarded as the father of English poetry, flourished during this period. His works, including “The Canterbury Tales,” exemplify the transition from Middle English to Early Modern English.

Here’s a table summarizing key aspects of the Age of Chaucer (1340-1400) with examples:

The Age of Chaucer represents a pivotal period in English literature, with Geoffrey Chaucer’s contributions shaping the literary landscape. His innovative use of the heroic couplet and the rich storytelling in “The Canterbury Tales” is exemplary of this era. The influence of Chaucer extended beyond his time, connecting with both the Renaissance and Reformation movements.

III.Late Middle or 15th Century (1400-1500)

The late Middle or 15th century period, spanning from 1400 to 1500, is characterized by a relative stagnation in English literature but marks the groundwork for subsequent literary developments.

Here’s a table summarizing key aspects of the Late Middle Period (15th century) with examples:

The Late Middle Period is often characterized as a relatively barren age for English literature, with one notable exception being the influential translation of the Bible by John Wycliff. This translation played a crucial role in shaping the linguistic and religious landscape of the time.

Barren Age of English Literature:   The 15th century is often considered a barren age for English literature, with notable exceptions such as the translation of the Bible by John Wycliffe.

The Renaissance / Renascence (1500-1660)

Preparation / dawn (1500-1558).

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Preparation/Dawn sub-period (1500-1558) during the Renaissance/Renascence, along with examples:

The Preparation/Dawn sub-period set the stage for the Renaissance by laying the foundation for the renewed interest in classical culture, individualism, and intellectual exploration. It was a period of transition and anticipation for the cultural and intellectual blossoming that followed.

The Humanism and Renewal of Learning during the Renaissance

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Humanism and Renewal of Learning during the Renaissance, along with examples:

The Humanism and Renewal of Learning during the Renaissance played a pivotal role in transforming intellectual, cultural, and economic landscapes, encouraging a fresh perspective on various aspects of life.

The Invention of the Printing Press and notable figures during the Renaissance

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Invention of the Printing Press and notable figures during the Renaissance, along with examples:

The invention of the printing press and the contributions of notable figures marked a transformative era in human history, fostering the dissemination of knowledge and cultural achievements during the Renaissance.

University Wits

A group of Seven scholars in the 16th century gave a new dimension to classical literature.

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the University Wits, including their individual contributions and educational backgrounds:

The University Wits were a dynamic group whose individual talents collectively shaped the literary landscape of the Renaissance, contributing significantly to the richness of English literature.

Euphues and Euphuism

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of John Lyly’s work, specifically focusing on “Euphues and Euphuism,” along with examples:

John Lyly’s “Euphues and Euphuism” is known for its distinctive prose style, marked by the use of euphuism and various literary devices, contributing to the ornate and elaborate nature of Elizabethan literature. The inclusion of euphemisms also showcases Lyly’s skill in crafting nuanced and sophisticated language.

1st Comedy, 1st Tragedy, 1st Play

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the mentioned works and figures:

This table outlines key works and figures associated with early English drama and the Renaissance period, showcasing the diversity and significance of literary contributions during this time.

Key Literary Contributions and Works of Renaissance Dramatists

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects and examples related to the mentioned literary figures and works:

This table highlights key attributes and examples related to Marlowe, Shakespeare, Robert Greene, and Thomas Kyd, showcasing their contributions to English literature and drama during the Renaissance.

Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Elizabethan Age, including its characteristics and notable figures:

This table provides a concise overview of the Elizabethan Age, highlighting its characteristics, key historical events, and the significant literary figures who contributed to the Golden Age of English poetry and drama during this period.

Jacobean Age – (1603-1625)

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Jacobean Age, including notable works and figures:

This table provides a concise overview of the Jacobean Age, emphasizing significant works, literary figures, and cultural developments during this period.

Decline / End of the Renaissance

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Decline/End of the Renaissance, including the Caroline Age, Commonwealth Period, and notable poets and events:

This revised table includes the details about the Caroline Age, the shift in poetry, and the Commonwealth Period, providing a more comprehensive overview of the decline and end of the Renaissance.

Also read: testbookpdf.com

Neo-Classical Age (1660-1798)

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Neo-Classical Age, focusing on its characteristics and notable features:

This table provides a concise overview of the Neo-Classical Age, outlining its literary characteristics, the use of satire, and the renewed emphasis on classical rules and artistic pursuits.

Restoration Age / Age of Dryden (1660-1700)

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Restoration Age, also known as the Age of Dryden, along with notable features and figures:

This table provides a brief overview of the Restoration Age, emphasizing its historical context, key literary figures, and notable literary contributions, including Dryden’s influence on criticism and the diverse literary genres of the time.

Augustan Age (1700-1745)

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Augustan Age, also known as the Age of Pope or Age of Reason, along with notable figures and features:

This table provides an overview of the Augustan Age, highlighting its literary characteristics, key authors, political context, and cultural shifts that shaped the period.

Age of Transition / Sensibility / Dr Johnson (1745 – 1798)

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Age of Transition, also known as the Sensibility era or the time of Dr. Johnson, along with notable features and figures:

This table provides a concise overview of the Age of Transition, emphasizing its characteristics, notable figures, and the transition from Pseudo-classicism to Romanticism.

Romantic Age / Age of Wordsworth (1798-1837) (1832)

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Romantic Age, also known as the Age of Wordsworth, along with notable features and figures:

This table provides a brief overview of the Romantic Age, highlighting its revolt against classical norms, influence of the French Revolution, and the emphasis on individual expression and nature.

Older and Younger Romantic Poets

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Older Romantics (Lake poets) and Younger Romantics, along with notable features and figures:

This table provides an overview of both the Older and Younger Romantics, showcasing their unique contributions and characteristics within the broader context of the Romantic movement.

Lyrical Ballads

Here’s a comprehensive table summarizing the key aspects of Lyrical Ballads, including poems and details about each edition:

This table provides a comprehensive overview of Lyrical Ballads, detailing the poems, editions, and additional content that shaped its significance in the Romantic Age.

Precursor of the Romantic Age

Here’s a table summarizing the key details of “The Seasons” by James Thomson, considered a precursor of the Romantic Age, along with its characteristics:

This table provides a concise overview of “The Seasons” by James Thomson, highlighting its characteristics and its role as a precursor to the Romantic Age.

Victorian Age (1837-1901) (1832-1901 )/ Tennyson

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Victorian Age, including notable features, characteristics, and representative figures:

This table provides an overview of the Victorian Age, capturing its key characteristics, significant events, and influential figures in literature.

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Modern Age (1901-1950)

Here’s a table summarizing the key aspects of the Modern Age (1901-1950), including the Edwardian Age, World War I, World War II, and notable literary figures:

This table provides an overview of the Modern Age, highlighting key periods, events, and influential figures in literature during this time.

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English Literature An Introduction

An Introduction in English literature English Literature: A Very Short Introduction discusses why literature matters, how narrative works, and what is distinctly English about English literature

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Literary Theory and Criticism

Home › History of English Literature › A Brief History of English Literature

A Brief History of English Literature

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on July 18, 2018 • ( 14 )

OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

The Old English language or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest form of English. The period is a long one and it is generally considered that Old English was spoken from about A.D. 600 to about 1100. Many of the poems of the period are pagan, in particular Widsith and Beowulf.

The greatest English poem, Beowulf is the first English epic. The author of Beowulf is anonymous. It is a story of a brave young man Beowulf in 3182 lines.  In this epic poem, Beowulf sails to Denmark with a band of warriors to save the King of Denmark, Hrothgar.  Beowulf saves Danish King Hrothgar from a terrible monster called Grendel. The mother of Grendel who sought vengeance for the death of her son was also killed by Beowulf. Beowulf was rewarded and became King. After a prosperous reign of some forty years, Beowulf slays a dragon but in the fight he himself receives a mortal wound and dies. The poem concludes with the funeral ceremonies in honour of the dead hero. Though the poem Beowulf is little interesting to contemporary readers, it is a very important poem in the Old English period because it gives an interesting picture of the life and practices of old days.

The difficulty encountered in reading Old English Literature lies in the fact that the language is very different from that of today. There was no rhyme in Old English poems. Instead they used alliteration.

Besides Beowulf , there are many other Old English poems. Widsith, Genesis A, Genesis B, Exodus, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Wife’s Lament, Husband’s Message, Christ and Satan, Daniel, Andreas, Guthlac, The Dream of the Rood, The Battle of Maldon etc. are some of the examples.

Two important figures in Old English poetry are Cynewulf and Caedmon. Cynewulf wrote religious poems and the four poems, Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, Christ and Elene are always credited with him. Caedmon is famous for his Hymn.

Alfred enriched Old English prose with his translations especially Bede’s Ecclesiastical History. Aelfric is another important prose writer during Old English period. He is famous for his Grammar, Homilies and Lives of the Saints. Aelfric’s prose is natural and easy and is very often alliterative.

Middle English Literature

Geoffrey Chaucer Poet Geoffrey Chaucer was born circa 1340 in London, England. In 1357 he became a public servant to Countess Elizabeth of Ulster and continued in that capacity with the British court throughout his lifetime.  The Canterbury Tales became his best known and most acclaimed work. He died in 1400 and was the first to be buried in Westminster Abbey’s Poet’s Corner.

Chaucer’s first major work was ‘The Book of the Duchess’, an elegy for the first wife of his patron John of Gaunt. Other works include ‘Parlement of Foules’, ‘The Legend of Good Women’ and ‘Troilus and Criseyde’. In 1387, he began his most famous work, ‘The Canterbury Tales’, in which a diverse group of people recount stories to pass the time on a pilgrimage to Canterbury.

William Langland ,   (born  c.  1330—died  c.  1400), presumed author of one of the greatest examples of Middle English alliterative poetry, generally known as  Piers Plowman,  an allegorical work with a complex variety of religious themes. One of the major achievements of  Piers Plowman  is that it translates the language and conceptions of the cloister into symbols and images that could be understood by the layman. In general, the language of the poem is simple and colloquial, but some of the author’s imagery is powerful and direct.

PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRAMA

In Europe, as in Greece, the drama had a distinctly religious origin. The first characters were drawn from the New Testament, and the object of the first plays was to make the church service more impressive, or to emphasize moral lessons by showing the reward of the good and the punishment of the evil doer. In the latter days of the Roman Empire the Church found the stage possessed by frightful plays, which debased the morals of a people already fallen too low. Reform seemed impossible; the corrupt drama was driven from the stage, and plays of every kind were forbidden. But mankind loves a spectacle, and soon the Church itself provided a substitute for the forbidden plays in the famous Mysteries and Miracles.

MIRACLE AND MYSTERY PLAYS

In France the name miracle was given to any play representing the lives of the saints, while the mystère represented scenes from the life of Christ or stories from the Old Testament associated with the coming of Messiah. In England this distinction was almost unknown; the name Miracle was used indiscriminately for all plays having their origin in the Bible or in the lives of the saints; and the name Mystery, to distinguish a certain class of plays, was not used until long after the religious drama had passed away.

The earliest Miracle of which we have any record in England is the Ludus de Sancta Katharina, which was performed in Dunstable about the year 1110. It is not known who wrote the original play of St. Catherine, but our first version was prepared by Geoffrey of St. Albans, a French schoolteacher of Dunstable. Whether or not the play was given in English is not known, but it was customary in the earliest plays for the chief actors to speak in Latin or French, to show their importance, while minor and comic parts of the same play were given in English.

For four centuries after this first recorded play the Miracles increased steadily in number and popularity in England. They were given first very simply and impressively in the churches; then, as the actors increased in number and the plays in liveliness, they overflowed to the churchyards; but when fun and hilarity began to predominate even in the most sacred representations, the scandalized priests forbade plays altogether on church grounds. By the year 1300 the Miracles were out of ecclesiastical hands and adopted eagerly by the town guilds; and in the following two centuries we find the Church preaching against the abuse of the religious drama which it had itself introduced, and which at first had served a purely religious purpose. But by this time the Miracles had taken strong hold upon the English people, and they continued to be immensely popular until, in the sixteenth century, they were replaced by the Elizabethan drama.

The early Miracle plays of England were divided into two classes: the first, given at Christmas, included all plays connected with the birth of Christ; the second, at Easter, included the plays relating to his death and triumph. By the beginning of the fourteenth century all these plays were, in various localities, united in single cycles beginning with the Creation and ending with the Final Judgment. The complete cycle was presented every spring, beginning on Corpus Christi day; and as the presentation of so many plays meant a continuous outdoor festival of a week or more, this day was looked forward to as the happiest of the whole year.

Probably every important town in England had its own cycle of plays for its own guilds to perform, but nearly all have been lost. At the present day only four cycles exist (except in the most fragmentary condition), and these, though they furnish an interesting commentary on the times, add very little to our literature. The four cycles are the Chester and York plays, so called from the towns in which they were given; the Towneley or Wakefield plays, named for the Towneley family, which for a long time owned the manuscript; and the Coventry plays, which on doubtful evidence have been associated with the Grey Friars (Franciscans) of Coventry. The Chester cycle has 25 plays, the Wakefield 30, the Coventry 42, and the York 48. It is impossible to fix either the date or the authorship of any of these plays; we only know certainly that they were in great favor from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. The York plays are generally considered to be the best; but those of Wakefield show more humor and variety, and better workmanship. The former cycle especially shows a certain unity resulting from its aim to represent the whole of man’s life from birth to death. The same thing is noticeable in Cursor Mundi , which, with the York and Wakefield cycles, belongs to the fourteenth century.

After these plays were written according to the general outline of the Bible stories, no change was tolerated, the audience insisting, like children at “Punch and Judy,” upon seeing the same things year after year. No originality in plot or treatment was possible, therefore; the only variety was in new songs and jokes, and in the pranks of the devil. Childish as such plays seem to us, they are part of the religious development of all uneducated people. Even now the Persian play of the “Martyrdom of Ali” is celebrated yearly, and the famous “Passion Play,” a true Miracle, is given every ten years at Oberammergau.

THE MORAL PERIOD OF THE DRAMA

The second or moral period of the drama is shown by the increasing prevalence of the Morality plays. In these the characters were allegorical personages,–Life, Death, Repentance, Goodness, Love, Greed, and other virtues and vices. The Moralities may be regarded, therefore, as the dramatic counterpart of the once popular allegorical poetry exemplified by the Romance of the Rose . It did not occur to our first, unknown dramatists to portray men and women as they are until they had first made characters of abstract human qualities. Nevertheless, the Morality marks a distinct advance over the Miracle in that it gave free scope to the imagination for new plots and incidents. In Spain and Portugal these plays, under the name auto , were wonderfully developed by the genius of Calderon and Gil Vicente; but in England the Morality was a dreary kind of performance, like the allegorical poetry which preceded it.

To enliven the audience the devil of the Miracle plays was introduced; and another lively personage called the Vice was the predecessor of our modern clown and jester. His business was to torment the “virtues” by mischievous pranks, and especially to make the devil’s life a burden by beating him with a bladder or a wooden sword at every opportunity. The Morality generally ended in the triumph of virtue, the devil leaping into hell-mouth with Vice on his back.

The best known of the Moralities is “Everyman,” which has recently been revived in England and America. The subject of the play is the summoning of every man by Death; and the moral is that nothing can take away the terror of the inevitable summons but an honest life and the comforts of religion. In its dramatic unity it suggests the pure Greek drama; there is no change of time or scene, and the stage is never empty from the beginning to the end of the performance. Other well-known Moralities are the “Pride of Life,” “Hyckescorner,” and “Castell of Perseverance.” In the latter, man is represented as shut up in a castle garrisoned by the virtues and besieged by the vices.

Like the Miracle plays, most of the old Moralities are of unknown date and origin. Of the known authors of Moralities, two of the best are John Skelton, who wrote “Magnificence,” and probably also “The Necromancer”; and Sir David Lindsay (1490-1555), “the poet of the Scotch Reformation,” whose religious business it was to make rulers uncomfortable by telling them unpleasant truths in the form of poetry. With these men a new element enters into the Moralities. They satirize or denounce abuses of Church and State, and introduce living personages thinly disguised as allegories; so that the stage first becomes a power in shaping events and correcting abuses.

THE INTERLUDES

It is impossible to draw any accurate line of distinction between the Moralities and Interludes. In general we may think of the latter as dramatic scenes, sometimes given by themselves (usually with music and singing) at banquets and entertainments where a little fun was wanted; and again slipped into a Miracle play to enliven the audience after a solemn scene. Thus on the margin of a page of one of the old Chester plays we read, “The boye and pigge when the kinges are gone.” Certainly this was no part of the original scene between Herod and the three kings. So also the quarrel between Noah and his wife is probably a late addition to an old play. The Interludes originated, undoubtedly, in a sense of humor; and to John Heywood (1497?-1580?), a favorite retainer and jester at the court of Mary, is due the credit for raising the Interlude to the distinct dramatic form known as comedy.

Heywood’s Interludes were written between 1520 and 1540. His most famous is “The Four P’s,” a contest of wit between a “Pardoner, a Palmer, a Pedlar and a Poticary.” The characters here strongly suggest those of Chaucer.  Another interesting Interlude is called “The Play of the Weather.” In this Jupiter and the gods assemble to listen to complaints about the weather and to reform abuses. Naturally everybody wants his own kind of weather. The climax is reached by a boy who announces that a boy’s pleasure consists in two things, catching birds and throwing snowballs, and begs for the weather to be such that he can always do both. Jupiter decides that he will do just as he pleases about the weather, and everybody goes home satisfied.

All these early plays were written, for the most part, in a mingling of prose and wretched doggerel, and add nothing to our literature. Their great work was to train actors, to keep alive the dramatic spirit, and to prepare the way for the true drama.

ELIZABEHAN POETRY AND PROSE

After the death of Geoffrey Chaucer in 1400, a century has gone without great literary outputs. This period is known as Barren Age of literature.

Even though there are many differences in their work, Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey are often mentioned together. Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced the Sonnet in England whereas Surrey wrote the first blank verse in English.

Thomas Wyatt followed the Italian poet Petrarch to compose sonnets. In this form, the 14 lines rhyme abbaabba (8) + 2 or 3 rhymes in the last six lines.

The Earl of Surrey’s blank verse is remarkable. Christopher Marlow, Shakespeare, Milton and many other writers made use of it.

Tottel’s Songs and Sonnets (1557) is the first printed anthology of English poetry. It contained 40 poems by Surrey and 96 by Wyatt. There were 135 by other authors. Some of these poems were fine, some childish.

In 1609, a collection of Shakespeare’s 154 sonnets was printed. These sonnets were addressed to one “Mr. W.H.”. The most probable explanation of the identity of “W.H.” is that he was William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke.

Other people mentioned in the sonnets are a girl, a rival poet, and a dark-eyed beauty.  Shakespeare’s two long poems, Venus and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece are notable.

One of the most important poets of Elizabethan period is Edmund Spenser (1552-1599). He has been addressed “the poets’ poet”. His pastoral poem, The Shepeard’s Calendar (1579) is in 12 books, one for each month of the year. Spenser’s Amoretti, 88 Petrarchan sonnets clebrates his progress of love. The joy of his marriage with Elizabeth Boyle is expressed in his ode Epithalamion. His Prothalamion is written in honour of the double marriage of the daughters of the Earl of Worester. Spenser’s allegorical poem, The Faerie Queene is his greatest achievement.  Spenser invented a special metre for The Faerie Queene . The verse has nine lines and the rhyme plan is ababbcbcc. This verse is known as the ‘Spenserian Stanza’.

Sir Philip Sidney is remembered for his prose romance, Arcadia . His critical essay Apology for Poetry, sonnet collection Astrophel and Stella are elegant.

Michael Drayton and Sir Walter Raleigh are other important poets of Elizabethan England. Famous Elizabethan dramatist Ben Jonson produced fine poems also.

The University Wits John Lyly, Thomas Kyd, George Peele, Thomas Lodge, Robert Green, Christopher Marlow, and Thomas Nash also wrote good number of poems. John Lyly is most widely known as the author of prose romance entitled Euphues. The style Lyly used in his Euphues is known as Euphuism. The sentences are long and complicated. It is filled with tricks and alliteration. Large number of similes are brought in.

John Donne’s works add the beauty of Elizabethan literature. He was the chief figure of Metaphysical Poetry. Donne’s poems are noted for its originality and striking images and conceits. Satires, Songs and Sonnets, Elegies, The Flea, A Valediction: forbidding mourning, A Valediction: of weeping etc. are his famous works.

Sir Francis Bacon is a versatile genius of Elizabethan England. He is considered as the father of English essays. His Essays first appeared in 1597, the second edition in 1612 and the third edition in 1625. Besides essays, he wrote The Advancement of Learning, New Atlantis and History of Henry VII.

Bacon’s popular essays are Of Truth, Of Friendship, Of Love, Of Travel, Of Parents and Children, Of Marriage and Single Life, Of Anger, Of Revenge, Of Death, etc.

Ben Jonson’s essays are compiled in The Timber or Discoveries. His essays are aphoristic like those of Bacon. Jonson is considered as the father of English literary criticism.

Many attempts were carried out to translate Bible into English. After the death of John Wycliff, William Tyndale tried on this project. Coverdale carried on the work of Tyndale. The Authorized Version of Bible was published in 1611.

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

The English dramas have gone through great transformation in Elizabethan period. The chief literary glory of the Elizabethan age was its drama. The first regular English comedy was Ralph Roister Doister written by Nicholas Udall. Another comedy Gammar Gurton’s Needle is about the loss and the finding of a needle with which the old woman Gammar Gurton mends clothes.

The first English tragedy was Gorboduc , in blank verse. The first three acts of Gorboduc writtern by Thomas Norton and the other two by Thomas Sackville.

The University Wits contributed hugely for the growth of Elizabethan drama. The University Wits were young men associated with Oxford and Cambridge. They were fond of heroic themes. The most notable figures are Christopher Marlow, Thomas Kyd, Thomas Nash, Thomas Lodge, Robert Greene, and George Peele.

Christopher Marlow was the greatest of pre-Shakespearean dramatist. Marlow wrote only tragedies. His most famous works are  Edward II, Tamburlaine the Great, The Jew of Malta, The Massacre at Paris, and Doctor Faustus. Marlow popularized the blank verse. Ben Jonson called it “the mighty line of Marlow”.

Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy is a Senecan play. It resembles Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Its horrific plot gave the play a great and lasting popularity.

The greatest literary figure of English, William Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon on April 26, 1564. He did odd jobs and left to London for a career. In London, he wrote plays for Lord Chamberlain’s company. Shakespeare’s plays can be classified as the following

1.The Early Comedies: in these immature plays the plots are not original. The characters are less finished and the style lacks the genius of Shakespeare. They are full of wit and word play. Of this type are The Comedy of Errors, Love’s Labour’s Lost, and The Two Gentlemen of Verona.

2.The English Histories: These plays show a rapid maturing of Shakespeare’s technique. His characterization has improved. The plays in this group are Richard II, Henry IV and Henry V.

3. The Mature Comedies: The jovial good humour of Sir Toby Belch in Twelfth Night, the urban worldywise comedy of Touchstone in As You Like It, and the comic scenes in The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing etc. are full of vitality. They contain many comic situations.

4.The  Sombre Plays: In this group are All’s Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure, and Trolius and Cressida . These plays show a cynical attitude to life and are realistic in plot.

5. The Great Tragedies : Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth , and King Lear are the climax of Shakespeare’s art. These plays stand supreme in intensity of emotion, depth of psychological insight, and power of style.

6. The Roman Plays: Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus etc. follow the great tragic period. Unlike Marlow, Shakespeare is relaxed in the intensity of tragedy.

7. The Last Plays: The notable last plays of Shakespeare are Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, and The Tempest.

The immense power and variety of Shakespeare’s work have led to the idea that one man cannot have written it all; yet it must be true that one man did. Thus Shakespeare remains as the greatest English dramatist even after four centuries of his death.

Other dramatist who flourished during the Elizabethan period is Ben Jonson. He introduced the “comedy of humours’’, which portrays the individual as dominated by one marked characteristic. He is best known for his Every Man  in his Humour. Other important plays of Jonson are Every Man out of his Humour, Volpone or the Fox, and The Alchemist,

John Webster’s The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi are important Elizabethan dramas. Thomas Dekker, Thomas Middleton, Thomas Heywood, Beaumont and Fletcher etc. are other noted Elizabethan playwrights.  

John Milton and His Time

John Milton (1608- 1674) was born in London and educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge. After leaving university, he studied at home. Milton was a great poet, polemic, pamphleteer, theologian, and parliamentarian. In 1643, Milton married a woman much younger than himself. She left Milton and did not return for two years. This unfortunate incident led Milton to write two strong pamphlets on divorce. The greatest of all his political writings is Areopagitica, a notable and impassioned plea for the liberty of the press.

Milton’s early poems include On Shakespeare, and On Arriving at the Age of Twenty-three. L’Allegro( the happy man and Il Penseroso (the sad man) two long narrative poems.  Comus is a masque written by Milton when he was at Cambridge.

His pastoral elegy Lycidas is on his friend, Edward King who drowned to death on a voyage to Ireland. Milton’s one of the sonnets deals with the theme of his blindness.

Milton is remembered for his greatest epic poem Paradise Lost. Paradise Lost contained twelve books and published in 1677. Milton composed it in blank verse. Paradise Lost covers the rebellion of Satan(Lucifer) in heaven and his expulsion. Paradise Lost contains hundreds of remarkable lines. Milton coined many words in this poem.

Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes are other two major poems of Milton.

Milton occupies a central position in English literature. He was a great Puritan and supported Oliver Cromwell in the Civil War. He wrote many pamphlet in support of parliament.

LYRIC POETS DURING MILTON’S PERIOD (THE CAVALIER POETS)

Milton’s period produced immense lyric poetry. These lyrical poets dealt chiefly with love and war.

Richard Lovelace’s Lucasta contains the best of his shorter pieces. His best known lyrics, such as To Althea, from Prison and To Lucasta, going in the Wars, are simple and sincere.

Sir John Suckling was a famous wit at court. His poems are generous and witty. His famous poem is  Ballad upon a Wedding.

Robert Herrick wrote some fresh and passionate lyrics. Among his best known shorter poems are To Althea, To Julia, and Cherry Ripe.

Philip Massinger and John Ford produced some notable in this period.

Many prose writers flourished during Milton’s age. Sir Thomas Browne is the best prose writer of the period. His ReligioMedici is a curious mixture of religious faith and scientific skepticism. Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or Vulgar Errors is another important work.

Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan, Thomas Fuller’s The History of the Holy War are other important prose works during this period. Izaac Walton’s biography of John Donne is a very famous work of Milton’s period. His Compleat Angler discusses the art of river fishing.

RESTORATION DRAMA AND PROSE

The Restoration of Charles II (1660) brought about a revolution in English literature. With the collapse of the Puritan Government there sprang up activities that had been so long suppressed. The Restoration encouraged levity in rules that often resulted in immoral and indecent plays.

John Dryden (1631-1700)

Dryden is the greatest literary figure of the Restoration. In his works, we have an excellent reflection of both the good and the bad tendencies of the age in which he lived. Before the Restoration, Dryden supported Oliver Cromwell. At the Restoration, Dryden changed his views and became loyal to Charles II. His poem Astrea Redux (1660) celebrated Charles II’s return.

Dryden’s Annus Mirabilis( Miracle Year) describes the terrors of Great Fire in London in 1666. Dryden appeared as the chief literary champion of the monarchy in his famous satirical allegory, Abasalom and Achitophel. John Dryden is now remembered for his greatest mock-heroic poem, Mac Flecknoe. Mac Flecknoe is a personal attack on his rival poet Thomas Shadwell.

Dryden’s other important poems are Religio Laici, and The Hind and the Panther.

John Dryden popularized heroic couplets in his dramas. Aurengaxebe, The Rival Ladies, The Conquest of Granada, Don Sebastian etc. are some of his famous plays.

His dramatic masterpiece is All for Love. Dryden polished the plot of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra in his All for Love.

As a prose writer, Dryden’s work, An Essay on Dramatic Poesie is worth mentioning.

John Bunyan’s greatest allegory, The Pilgrim’s Progress, The Holy War, 

Comedy of Manners

Restoration period produced a brilliant group of dramatists who made this age immortal in the history of English literature. These plays are hard and witty, comic and immoral. It was George Etheredge who introduced Comedy of Manners. His famous plays are She Would if She Could, The Man of Mode and Love in a Tub.

William Congreve is the greatest of Restoration comedy writers. His Love for Love, The Old Bachelor, The Way of the World and The Double Dealer are very popular.

William Wycherley is another important Restoration comedy playwright. His Country Wife, and Love in a Wood are notable plays.

Sir John Vanbrugh’s best three comedies are The Provoked Wife, The Relapse and The Confederacy.

ENGLISH POETS, 1660-1798

ALEXANDER POPE (1688-1744)

Alexander Pope was the undisputed master of both prose and verse. Pope wrote many poems and mock-epics attacking his rival poets and social condition of England. His Dunciad is an attack on dullness. He wrote An Essay on Criticism ( 1711) in heroic couplets. In 1712, Pope pubished The Rape of the Lock,  one of the most brilliant poems in English language. It is a mock-heroic poem dealing with the fight of two noble families.

An Essay on Man, Of the Characters of Women, and the translation of Illiad and Odyssey are his other major works.

Oliver Goldsmith wrote two popular poems in heroic couplets. They are The Traveller and The Deserted Village.

James Thompson is remembered for his long series of descriptive passages dealing with natural scenes in his poem The Seasons. He wrote another important poem The Castle of Indolence.

Edward Young produced a large amount of literary work of variable quality. The Last Day, The Love of Fame, and The Force of Religion are some of them.

Robert Blair ’s fame is chiefly dependent on his poem The Grave. It is a long blank verse poem of meditation on man’s morality.

Thomas Gray (1716-1771) is one of the greatest poets of English literature. His first poem was the Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College. Then after years of revision, he published his famous Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Its popularity had been maintained to the present day. Other important poems of Thomas Gray are Ode on a Favourite Cat, The Bard and The Progress of Poesy.

William Blake (1757-1827) is both a great poet and artist. His two collections of short lyrics are Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. His finest lyric is The Tiger.

Robert Burns is known as the national poet of Scotland. A Winter Night, O My Love is like a Red Red Rose, The Holy Fair etc. are some of his major poems.

William Cowper, William Collins, and William Shenstone are other notable poets before the Romanticism.

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROSE

DANIEL DEFOE (1659-1731)

Daniel Defoe wrote in bulk. His greatest work is the novel Robinson Crusoe. It is based on an actual event which took place during his time. Robinson Crusoe is considered to be one of the most popular novels in English language. He started a journal named The Review. His A Journal of the Plague Year deals with the Plague in London in 1665.

Sir Richard Steele and Joseph Addison worked together for many years. Richard Steele started the periodicals The Tatler, The Spectator, The Guardian, The English Man, and The Reader. Joseph Addison contributed in these periodicals and wrote columns. The imaginary character of Sir Roger de Coverley was very popular during the eighteenth century.

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) is one of the greatest satirists of English literature. His first noteworthy book was The Battle of the Books . A Tale of a Tub is a religious allegory like Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. His longest and most famous work is Gulliver’s Travels. Another important work of Jonathan Swift is A Modest Proposal.

Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) is very much famous for his Dictionary (1755). The Vanity of Human Wishes is a longish poem by him. Johnson started a paper named The Rambler. His The Lives of the Poets introduces fifty-two poets including Donne, Dryden, Pope, Milton, and Gray. Most of the information about Johnson is taken from his friend James Boswell’s biography Life of Samuel Johnson.

Edward Gibbon is famous for the great historical work, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. His Autobiography contains valuable material concerning his life.

Edmund Burke is one of the masters of English prose. He was a great orator also. His speech On American Taxation is very famous.  Revolution in France and A Letter to a Noble Lord are his notable pamphlets.

The letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Earl of Chesterfield, Thomas Gray and Cowper are good prose works in Eighteenth century literature.

The Birth of English Novel

The English novel proper was born about the middle of the eighteenth century. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) is considered as the father of English novel. He published his first novel Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded in 1740. This novel is written in the form of letters. Thus Pamela is an ‘epistolary novel’. The character Pamela is a poor and virtuous woman who marries a wicked man and afterwards reforms her husband. Richardson’s next novel Clarissa Harlowe was also constructed in the form of letters. Many critics consider Clarissa as Richardson’s masterpiece. Clarissa is the beautiful daughter of a severe father who wants her to marry against her will. Clarissa is a very long novel.

Henry Fielding (1707-1754) is another important novelist. He published Joseph Andrews in 1742. Joseph Andrews laughs at Samuel Richardson’s Pamela. His greatest novel is Tom Jones . Henry Fielding’s last novel is Amelia.

Tobias Smollett wrote a ‘picaresque novel’ titled The Adventures of Roderick Random. His other novels are The Adventures of Ferdinand and Humphry Clinker.

Laurence Sterne is now remembered for his masterpiece Tristram Shandy which was published in 1760. Another important work of Laurence Sterne is A Sentimental journey through France and Italy. These novels are unique in English literature. Sterne blends humour and pathos in his works.

Horace Walpole is famous both as a letter writer and novelist. His one and only novel The Castle of Otranto deals with the horrific and supernatural theme.

Other ‘terror novelists’ include William Beckford and Mrs Ann Radcliffe.

EARLY NINTEENTH CENTURY POETS (THE ROMANTICS)

The main stream of poetry in the eighteenth century had been orderly and polished, without much feeling for nature. The publication of the first edition of the Lyrical Ballads in 1798 came as a shock. The publication of Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was the beginning of the romantic age. They together with Southey are known as the Lake Poets, because they liked the Lake district in England and lived in it.

William Wordsworth ((1770-1850) was the poet of nature. In the preface to the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth set out his theory of poetry. He defined poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings and emotions”. His views on poetical style are the most revolutionary.

In his early career as a poet, Wordsworth wrote poems like An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. The Prelude is the record of his development as a poet. It is a philosophical poem. He wrote some of the best lyric poems in the English language like The Solitary Reaper, I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, Ode on the Itimations of Immorality, Resolution and Independence etc. Tintern Abbey is one of the greatest poems of Wordsworth.

Samuel Tylor Coleridge (1772-1814) wrote four poems for The Lyrical Ballads. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is the most noteworthy. Kubla Khan, Christabel, Dejection an Ode, Frost at Midnight etc. are other important poems. Biographia Literaria is his most valuable prose work. Coleridge’s lectures on Shakespeare are equally important.

Lord Byron’s Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage was based on his travels. Don Juan ranks as one of the greatest of satirical poems. The Vision of Judgment is a fine political satire in English.

PB Shelley (1792-1822) was a revolutionary figure of Romantic period. When Shelley was studying at Oxford, he wrote the pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism which caused his expulsion from the university. Queen Mab, The Revolt of Islam and Alastor are his early poems. Prometheus Unbound is a combination of the lyric and the drama. Shelley wrote some of the sweetest English lyrics like To a Skylark, The Cloud, To Night etc. Of his many odes, the most remarkable is  Ode to the West Wind. Adonais is an elegy on the death of John Keats.

John Keats (1795-1821) is another great Romantic poet who wrote some excellent poems in his short period of life. His Isabella deals with the murder of a lady’s lover by her two wicked brothers. The unfinished epic poem Hyperion is modelled on Milton’s Paradise Lost. The Eve of St Agnes is regarded as his finest narrative poem. The story of Lamia is taken from Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy. Endymion, Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode to Psyche, Ode on Melancholy and Ode to Autumn are very famous . His Letters give give a clear insight into his mind and artistic development.

Robert Southey is a minor Romantic poet. His poems, which are of great bulk, include Joan of Arc, Thalaba, and The Holly-tree. 4

LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY POETS (Victorian Poets)

Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-92) is a chief figure of later nineteenth century poetry. His volume of Poems contain notable poems like The Lady of Shalott, The Lotos-Eaters, Ulysses, Morte d’ Arthur. The story of Morte d’ Arthur is based on Thomas Malory’s poem Morte d’ Arthur. In Memoriam(1850) caused a great stir when it first appeared. It is a very long series of meditations upon the death of Arthur Henry Hallam, Tennyson’s college friend, who died at Vienna in 1833. In Memoriam is the most deeply emotional, and probably the greatest poetry he ever produced. Maud and Other Poems was received with amazement by the public. Idylls of the King, Enoch Arden, Harold etc. are his other works.

Robert Browning (1812-89) is an English poet and playwright whose mastery of dramatic monologues made him one of the foremost Victorian poets.  He popularized ‘dramatic monologue’. The Ring and the Book  is an epic-length poem in which he justifies the ways of God to humanity  Browning is popularly known by his shorter poems, such as  Porphyria’s Lover ,  Rabbi Ben Ezra ,  How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix , and  The Pied Piper of Hamelin . He married Elizabeth Barrett, another famous poet during the Victorian period. Fra Lippo Lippi Andrea Del Sarto and My Last Duchess are famous dramatic monologues.

Matthew Arnold  (1822-1888) was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the famed headmaster of Rugby School. Arnold is sometimes called the third great Victorian poet, along with Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning. Arnold valued natural scenery for its peace and permanence in contrast with the ceaseless change of human things. His descriptions are often picturesque, and marked by striking similes. Thyrsis, Dover Beach and The Scholar Gipsy are his notable poems.

Dante Gabriel Rossetti was an English poet, illustrator, painter and translator in the late nineteenth century England. Rossotti’s poems were criticized as belonging to the ‘Fleshy School’ of poetry. Rossetti wrote about nature with his eyes on it.

Elizabeth Barrett Browning, wife of Robert Browning wrote some excellent poems in her volume of Sonnets from the Portuguese.

AC Swinburne followed the style of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Swinburne’s famous poems works are Poems and Ballads and tristram of Lyonesse.

Edward Fitzgerald translated the Rubaiyat of the Persian poet Omar Khayyam. Fitzgerald’s translation is loose and did not stick too closely to the original.

Rudyard Kipling and Francis Thompson also wrote some good poems during the later nineteenth century.

Nineteenth Century Novelists  (Victorian Novelists)

Jane Austen 1775-1817 is one of the greatest novelists of nineteenth century English literature. Her first novel Pride and Prejudice (1813) deals with the life of middle class people. The style is smooth and charming. Her second novel Sense and Sensibility followed the same general lines of Pride and Prejudice. Northanger Abbey, Emma, Mansfield Park, and Persuasion are some of the other famous works. Jane Austen’s plots are skillfully constructed. Her characters are developed with minuteness and accuracy.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) is considered as one of the greatest English novelists. Dickens has contributed some evergreen characters to English literature. He was a busy successful novelist during his lifetime. The Pickwick Papers and Sketches by Boz are two early novels. Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby , David Copperfield, Hard Times, A Tale of Two Cities and Great Expectations are some of the most famous novels of Charles Dickens. No English novelists excel Dickens in the multiplicity of his characters and situations. He creates a whole world people for the readers. He sketched both lower and middle class people in London.

William Makepeace Thackeray was born in Calcutta and sent to England for education. William Thackeray is now chiefly remembered for his novel The Vanity Fair. While Dickens was in full tide of his success, Thackeray was struggling through neglect and contempt to recognition. Thackeray’s genius blossomed slowly. Thackeray’s characters are fearless and rough. He protested against the feeble characters of his time. The Rose and the Ring, Rebecca and Rowena, and The Four Georges are some of his works.

The Bront ë s Charlotte, Emily, and Anne were the daughters of an Irish clergy man Patrick Bront ë, who held a living in Yorkshire. Charlotte Bront ë ’ s first novel, The Professor failed to find a publisher and only appeared after her death. Jane Eyre is her greatest novel. the plot is weak and melodramatic. This was followed by Shirley and Villette. Her plots are overcharged and she is largely restricted to her own experiments.

Emily Brontë wrote less than Charlottë. Her one and only novel Wuthering Heights (1847) is unique in English literature. It is the passionate love story of Heathcliff and Catherine.

Anne Bronte ’s two novels, Agnes Grey and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall are much inferior to those of her sisters, for she lacks nearly all their power and intensity.

George Eliot (1819-1880) is the pen-name of Mary Ann Evans. Adam Bede was her first novel. Her next novel, The Mill on the Floss is partly autobiographical. Silas Marner is a shorter novel which gives excellent pictures of village life. Romola, Middle March and Daniel Deronda are other works of George Eliot.

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) published his first work Desperate Remedies anonymously. Under the Greenwood Tree, one of the lightest and most appealing of his novels established him as a writer. It was set in the rural area he was soon to make famous as Wessex. Far From the Madding Crowd is a tragi-comedy set in Wessex. The rural background of the story is an integral part of the novel, which reveals the emotional depths which underlie rustic life. The novel, The Return of the Native is a study of man’s helplessness before the mighty Fate. The Mayor of Casterbridge also deals with the theme of Man versus Destiny. Tess of the D’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure aroused the hostility of conventional readers due to their frank handling of sex and religion. At the beginning Tess of the D’Urbervilles was rejected by the publishers. The outcry with the publication of Jude the Obscure led Hardy in disgust to abandon novel writing. Thomas Hardy’s characters are mostly men and women living close to the soil.

Mary Shelley , the wife of Romantic poet PB Shelley is now remembered as a writer of her famous novel of terror, Frankestein. Frankestein can be regarded as the first attempt at science fiction. The Last Man is Mary Shelley’s another work.

Edgar Allan Poe was a master of Mystery stories. Poe’s powerful description of astonishing and unusual events has the attraction of terrible things. Some of his major works are The Mystery of Marie Roget, The Murders in the Rue Morgue, The Fall of the House of Usher and The Mystery of Red Death.

Besides poetry collections like The Lady of the Last Ministrel, Marmion, The Lady of the Lake, and The Lord of the Isles, Sir Walter Scott produced enormous number of novels. Waverly, Old Mortality, The Black Dwarf, The Pirate, and Kenilworth are some of them. He was too haste in writing novels and this led to the careless, imperfect stories. He has a great place in the field of historical novels.

Frederick Marryat ’s sea novels were popular in the nineteenth century. His earliest novel was The Naval Officer. All his best books deal with the sea. Marryat has a considerable gift for plain narrative and his humour is entertaining. Peter Simple, Jacob Faithful and Japhet in Search of His Father are some of his famous works.

R.L. Stevenson ’s The Tr easure Island, George Meredith ’s The Egoist, Edward Lytton ’s The Last Days of Pompeii, Charles Reade ’s Mask and Faces, Anthony Trollope ’s The Warden, Wilkie Collins ’s The Moonstone, Joseph Conard ’s Lord Jim, Nathaniel Hawthrone ’s The Scarlet Letter etc. are some of other famous works of nineteenth century English literature.

Other Nineteenth Century Prose

Charles Lamb is one of the greatest essayists of nineteenth century. Lamb started his career as a poet but is now remembered for his well-known Essays of Elia. His essays are unequal in English. He is so sensitive and so strong. Besides Essays of Elia, other famous essays are Dream Children and Tales from Shakespeare. His sister, Mary Lamb also wrote some significant essays.

William Hazlitt ’s reputation chiefly  rests on his lectures and essays on literary and general subjects. His lectures, Characters of Shakespeare’s Plays, The English Poets and The English Comic Writers are important.

Thomas De Quincey ’s famous work is Confessions of an English Opium Eater. It is written in the manner of dreams. His Reminiscences of the English Lake Poets contain some good chapters on Wordsworth and Coleridge.

Thomas Carlyle is another prose writer of nineteenth century. His works consisted of translations, essays, and biographies. Of these the best are his translation of Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, his The Life of Schiller, and his essays on Robert Burns and Walter Scott.

Thomas Macaulay (Lord Macaulay) wrote extensively. He contributed for The Encyclopedia of Britannica and The Edinburgh Review. His History of England is filled with numerous and picturesque details.

Charles Darwin is one of the greatest names in modern science. He devoted almost wholly to biological and allied studies. His chief works are The Voyage of the Beagle, Origin of Species, and The Descent of Man.

John Ruskin ’s works are of immense volume and complexity. His longest book is Modern Painters. The Seven Lamps of Architecture, and The Stones of Venice expound his views on artistic matters. Unto this Last is a series of articles on political economy.

Samuel Butler , the grandson of Dr. Samuel Butler was inspired by the Darwinian theory of evolution. Evolution Old and New, Unconcious Memory, Essays on Life, Art and Science, The Way of All Flesh etc. rank him as one of the greatest prose writers of ninteenth century. He was an acute and original thinker. He exposed all kinds of reliogious, political, and social shams and hypocrisies of his period.

Besides being a great poet, Mathew Arnold also excelled as an essayist. His prose works are large in bulk and wide in range. Of them all his critical essays are probably of the greatest value. Essays in Criticism, Culture and Anarchy, and Literature and Dogma have permanent value.

Lewis Carroll , another prose writer of ninteenth century is now remembered for her immortal work, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. Ever since its publication, this novel continues to be popular among both the children and adult readers.

Chapter 13 Twentieth-century novels and other prose

The long reign of Queen Victoria ended in 1901. There was a sweeping social reform and unprecedented progress. The reawakening of a social conscience was found its expression in the literature produced during this period.

Rudyard Kipling was born in Bombay but soon moved to Lahore. He worked as a news reporter in Lahore. Kipling was a prolific and versatile writer. His insistent proclamation of the superiority of the white races, his support for colonization, his belief in the progress and the value of the machine etc. found an echo on the hearts of many of his readers. His best-known prose works include Kim, Life’s Handicap, Debits and Credits, and Rewards and Fairies. He is now chiefly remembered for his greatest work, The Jungle Book.

E.M Forster wrote five novels in his life time. Where Angels Fear to Tread has well-drawn characters. Other novels are The Longest Journey, A Room with a View, Howards End, and A Passage to India. A Passage to India is unequal in English in its presentation of the complex problems which were to be found in the relationship between English and native people in India. E.M Forster portrayed the Indian scene in all its magic and all its wretchedness.

H.G Wells began his career as a journalist. He started his scientific romances with the publication of The Time Machine. The Invisible Man, The War of the Worlds, The First Men in the Moon and The Food of the Gods are some of his important science romances. Ann Veronica, Kipps and The History of Mr Polly are numbered among his sociological novels.

D.H Lawrence was a striking figure in the twentieth century literary world. He produced over forty volumes of fiction during his period. The White Peacock is his earliest novel. The largely autobiographical and extremely powerful novel was Sons and Lovers. It studies with great insight the relationship between a son and mother. By many, it is considered the best of all his works. Then came The Rainbow, suppressed as obscene, which treats again the conflict between man and woman. Women in Love is another important work. Lady Chatterley’s Lover is a novel in which sexual experience is handled with a wealth of physical detail and uninhibited language.  Lawrence also excelled both as a poet and short story writer.

James Joyce is a serious novelist, whose concern is chiefly with human relationships- man in relation to himself, to society, and to the whole race. He was born in Dublin, Ireland. His first work, Dubliners, is followed by a largely autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. It is an intense account of a developing writer. The protagonist of the story, Stephen Dedalus is James Joyce himself. The character Stephen Dedalus appears again in his highly complex novel, Ulysses published in 1922. Joyce’s mastery of language, his integrity, brilliance, and power is noticeable in his novel titled Finnefan’s Wake.

Virginia Woolf famed both as a literary critic and novelist. Her first novel, The Voyage Out is told in the conventional narrative manner. A deeper study of characters can be found in her later works such as Night and Day, Jacob’s Room, To the Lighthouse, Mrs. Dalloway and Orlando. In addition to her novels, Virginia Woolf wrote a number of essays on cultural subjects. Woolf rejected the conventional concepts of novel. She replaced emphasis on incident, external description, and straight forward narration by using the technique “ Stream of Consciousness ”. James Joyce and Virginia Woolf popularized this writing technique.

George Orwell became a figure of outstanding importance because of Animal Farm. It is a political allegory on the degeneration of communist ideals into dictatorship. Utterly different was Nineteen Eighty-Four on the surveillance of state over its citizen. Burmese Days and The Road to Wigan Pier are other works.

William Golding deals with man’s instinct to destroy what is good, whether it is material or spiritual.  His best known novel is Lord of the Flies . The Scorpion God, The Inheritors and Free Fall are other notable works.

Somerset Maugham was a realist who sketched the cosmopolitan life through his characters. The Moon and Sixpence, Mrs. Craddock and The Painted Veil are some of his novels. His best novel is Of Human Bondage. It is a study in frustration, which had a strong autobiographical element.

Kingsly Amis ’s Lucky Jim, Take a Girl like You, One Fat Englishman , and Girl are notable works in the twentieth century.

Twentieth Century Drama

After a hundred years of insignificance, drama again appeared as an important form in the twentieth century. Like the novelists in the 20 th century, most of the important dramatists were chiefly concerned with the contemporary social scene. Many playwrights experimented in the theatres. There were revolutionary changes in both the theme and presentation.

John Galsworthy was a social reformer who showed both sides of the problems in his plays. He had a warm sympathy for the victims of social injustice. Of his best-known plays The Silver Box deals with the inequality of justice, Strife with the struggle between Capital and Labour, Justice with the meaninglessness of judiciary system.

George Bernard Shaw is one of the greatest dramatists of 20 th century. The first Shavian play is considered to be Arms and the Man. It is an excellent and amusing stage piece which pokes fun at the romantic conception of the soldier. The Devil’s Disciple, Caesar and Cleopatra, and The Man of Destiny are also noteworthy. Man and Superman is Shaw’s most important play which deals the theme half seriously and half comically. Religion and social problems are again the main topics in Major Barbara. The Doctor’s Dilemma is an amusing satire. Social conventions and social weaknesses were treated again in Pygmalion , a witty and highly entertaining study of the class distinction. St Joan deals with the problems in Christianity. The Apple Cart, Geneva, The Millionaire, Too True to be Good and On the Rocks are Shaw’s minor plays.

J M Synge was the greatest dramatist in the rebirth of the Irish theatre. His plays are few in number but they are of a stature to place him among the greatest playwrights in the English language. Synge was inspired by the beauty of his surroundings, the humour, tragedy, and poetry of the life of the simple fisher-folk in the Isles of Aran. The Shadow of the Glen is a comedy based on an old folktale, which gives a good romantic picture of Irish peasant life. It was followed by Riders to the Sea, a powerful, deeply moving tragedy which deals with the toll taken by the sea in the lives of the fisher-folk of the Ireland. The Winker’s Wedding and The Well of the Saints are other notable works.

Samuel Beckett, the greatest proponent of Absurd Theatre is most famous for his play, Waiting for Godot. It is a static representation without structure or development, using only meandering, seemingly incoherent dialogue to suggest despair of a society in the post-World War period. Another famous play by Beckett is Endgame.

Harold Pinter was influenced by Samuel Beckett. His plays are quite short and set in an enclosed space. His characters are always in doubt about their function, and in fear of something or someone ‘outside’. The Birthday Party, The Dumb Waiter, A Night Out, The Homecoming and Silence are his most notable plays.

James Osborne’ s Look Back in Anger gave the strongest tonic to the concept of Angry Young Man . Watch it Come Down, A Portrait of Me, Inadmissible Evidence etc. are his other major works.

T.S Eliot wrote seven dramas. They are Sweeney Agonistes, The Rock, Murder in the Cathedral, The Family Reunion, The Cocktail Party, The Confidential Clerk and The Elder Statesman.

Juno and the Paycock, The Plough and the Stars, and The Silver Tassie marked Sean O’Casey out as the greatest new figure in the inter-War years. His own experience enabled him to study the life of the Dublin slums with the warm understanding.

Another leading playwright of 20 th century was Arnold Wesker. Wesker narrated the lives of working class people in his plays. Roots, Chicken Soup with Barley and I’m Talking about Jerusalem are his famous works.

Bertolt Brecht, J.B Priestley, Somerset Maugham, Christopher Fry, Peter Usinov, Tom Stoppard, Bernard Kops, Henry Livings, Alan Bennett et al are other important playwrights of twentieth century English literature.

Chapter 15 Twentieth Century Poetry

The greatest figure in the poetry of the early part of the Twentieth century was the Irish poet William Butler Yeats. Like so many of his contemporaries, Yeats was acutely conscious of the spiritual barrenness of his age. W.B Yeats sought to escape into the land of ‘faery’ and looked for his themes in Irish legend. He is one of the most difficult of modern poets. His trust was in the imagination and intuition of man rather than in scientific reasoning. Yeats believed in fairies, magic, and other forms of superstition. He studied Indian philosophy and Vedas. An Irish Seaman Foresees His Death, The Tower, The Green Helmet etc. are his major poems.

With possible excepion of Yeats, no twentieth century poet has been held in such esteem by his fellow-poets as T.S Eliot. Eliot’s first volume of verse, Prufrock and Other Observations portrays the boredom, emptiness, and pessimism of its days. His much discussed poem The Waste Land(1922) made a tremendous impact on the post-War generation, and it is considered one of the important documents of its age. The poem is difficult to understand in detail, but its general aim is clear. The poem is built round the symbols of drought and flood, representing death and rebirth. The poem progresses in five movements, “The Burial of the Dead”, “The Game of the Chess”, “The Fire Sermon”, “Death by Water”, and “What the Thunder Said”.  Eliot’s poem Ash Wednesday is probably his most difficult. Obscure images and symbols and the lack of a clear, logical structure make the poem difficult.

W.H Auden was an artist of great virtuosity, a ceaseless experimenter in verse form, with a fine ear for the rhythm and music of words. He was modern in tone and selection of themes. Auden’s later poems revealed a new note of mysticism in his approach to human problems. He was outspokingly anti-Romantic and stressed the objective attitude.

Thomas Hardy began his career as a poet. Though he was not able to find a publisher, he continued to write poetry. Hardy’s verses consist of short lyrics describing nature and natural beauty. Like his novels, the poems reveal concern with man’s unequal struggle against the mighty fate. Wessex Poems, Winter Words, and Collected Poems are his major poetry works.

G.M Hopkins is a unique figure in the history of English poetry. No modern poet has been the centre of more controversy or the cause of more misunderstanding. He was very unconventional in writing technique. He used Sprung-rhythm, counterpoint rhythm, internal rhythms, alliteration, assonance, and coinages in his poems.

Dylan Thomas was an enemy of intellectualism in verse. He drew upon the human body, sex, and the Old Testament for much of his imagery and complex word-play. His verses are splendidly colourful and musical. Appreciation of landscape, religious and mystical association, sadness and quietness were very often selected as themes for his verses.

Sylvia Plath and her husband Ted Hughes composed some brilliant poems in the 20 th century. Plath’s mental imbalance which brought  her to suicide can be seen in her poetry collections titled Ariel, The Colossus, and Crossing the Water. Ted Hughes was a poet of animal and nature. His major collection of poetry are The Hawk in the Rain, Woodwo, Crow, Crow Wakes and Eat Crow.

R.S Thomas, Philip Larkin, Kingsley Amis, Peter Porter, Seamus Heaney et al are also added the beauty of 20 th century English poetry.

The First World War brought to public notice many poets, particularly among the young men of armed forces, while it provided a new source of inspiration for writers of established reputation. Rupert Brooke, Slegfried Sassoon, and Wilfred Owen are the major War poets. Rupert Brooke ’s famous sonnet “If I should die, think only this of me” has appeared in so many anthologies of twentieth century verse. Brooke turned to nature and simple pleasures for inspiration. Sassoon wrote violent and embittered poems. Sassoon painted the horrors of life and death in the trenches and hospitals. Wilfred Owen was the greatest of the war poets. In the beginning of his literary career, Owen wrote in the romantic tradition of John Keats and Lord Tennyson. Owen was a gifted artist with a fine feeling for words. He greatly experimented in verse techniques.

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Tags: A Brief History of English Literature , Comedy of Manners , EARLY NINTEENTH CENTURY POETS , EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROSE , ELIZABEHAN POETRY AND PROSE , ELIZABETHAN DRAMA , Geoffrey Chaucer , Interlude , John Milton and His Time , LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY POETS , Literary Criticism , Literary Theory , Middle English Literature , Miracle plays , Morality plays , Nineteenth Century Novelists , Nineteenth Century Prose , OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE , POETS DURING MILTON’S PERIOD , RESTORATION DRAMA AND PROSE , Romanticism , The Birth of English Novel , THE CAVALIER POETS , Twentieth Century Drama , Twentieth Century Poetry , Victorian Literature , Victorian Novelists , War Poets , William Langland

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History of English Literature

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• Humanities and Social Sciences
• NOC:History of English Language and Literature (Video) 
• Co-ordinated by : IIT Madras
• Available from : 2017-06-08
• Intro Video
• Introduction : Literary History
• Locating the Starting Points : The Anglo-Saxon Period
• Old English period : Anglo-Saxon period
• Middle English Period : English Before Chaucer
• The Age of Chaucer
• Middle English period after Chaucer
• Middle English period after Chaucer-
• The Devolpment of english language - Tracing the Origins and Early Influences
• The Development of English Language - Old English to Middle English
• Introducing the Elizabethan Era - The English Reformation
• The Elizabethan Age : The Beginning Of a Golden Era
• Elizabethan Age : English Drama Before Shakespeare
• The Emergence of Elizabethan ' Romantic ' Drama
• The University Wits : A Prelude to Shakespeare
• The University Wits : A Prelude to Shakespeare-
• William Shakespeare : The Man, the Dramatist and an Age
• William Shakespeare : An Overview of his Drama
• Elizabethan Theatre
• Elizabethan Poetry and Prose
• The Jacobean Age
• The Jacobean Age (Continued)
• Jacobean Drama
• "Did Women Have a Renaissance?"
• The Caroline Period / The Age of Milton & The Interregnum
• The Caroline Period / The Age of Milton & The Interregnum (Continued)
• The Age of Milton : Prose & Poetry
• Changes in Language : Early Modern English
• Early Modern English (Continued)
• The Age of Restoration
• The Age of Dryden
• The Restoration Drama
• The Age Of Restoration (new)
• The Age of Pope / The Augustan Age
• The Age of Pope : Prose ( Perodicals,Essays and The Rise Of the Novel )
• The Age of Pope : Prose ( Perodicals,Essays and The Rise Of Novel ) Continued
• The Age of Pope Conclusion
• Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th Century
• The Age of Johnson (1745 - 1798)
• The Age of Johnson (Continued)
• The Rise of the Novel
• The Rise of the Novel ..
• The Rise of the Novel (Continued)
• The Rise of the Woman Writer in the 18th Century
• The Revival of Romance
• The Revival of Romance (Continued)
• The Revival of Romance..
• The Age of Romanticism: Introduction
• The Age of Wordsworth
• Age of Wordsworth (Continued)
• Age of Wordsworth (Continued)..
• Prose in the age of Romanticism
• Drama in the age of Romanticism
• Novel in the age of Romanticism
• Women writers in the Romantic age
• The Age of Tennyson : Victorian Era
• The Age of Tennyson : Victorian Poetry
• The Age of Tennyson : Victorian Poetry (Continued)
• The Age of Tennyson : Victorian Poetry (Continued) 1
• Prose in the Victorian Age
• Drama in the Victorian Age
• Victorian Novel and the Late Victorian Period
• The Age of Tennyson : Victorian Poetry (new)
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History of English Literature

Jan 05, 2020

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History of English Literature. Elizabethan Period (  1550 – 1620).  Renaissance period. In the 14th century in Italy The revelation of thought of Western European people from the middle age Their behaviours & thoughts were very limited  determined by traditions & church

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• english based
• humanism ism
• classic romantic drama
• thomas dekker philip massinger

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History of English Literature Elizabethan Period ( 1550 – 1620) The History of English Literature, YK, 2005/2006

Renaissance period • In the 14th century in Italy • The revelation of thought of Western European people from the middle age • Their behaviours & thoughts were very limited  determined by traditions & church • Arabian works, followed by Greeks’ classic works • Never happened before • Humanism  ism which believes that study about human’s written works (classic) is more advantageous for human needs generally than obsolete theology • Church’s authority replaced by science • Passive attitude changed with self-looking attitude The History of English Literature, YK, 2005/2006

More about general characteristics: • Characteristics: free, enthusiastic, individualistic, realistic, daring to act, having strong persistence in inventing new things & secularized • During Elizabeth I  Renaissance spirit was extremely strong in England  signified by patriotism, religious toleration, social harmony, intellectual improvement, & high spirit. All reflected in the works during that period (golden age) • Drama mostly developed very quickly (Shakespeare) • Early modern English • Synthetic grammar (using form of words to show the relation between sentences <old English>  Analytical grammar (using word order & functional words) • Language became simpler The History of English Literature, YK, 2005/2006

 Poetry • Edmund Spenser (1552 – 1599)  influenced by Chaucer • The Faery Queen written in new stanza pattern called “Spenserian Stanza” • Shepherd’s Calendar consists of 12 stanza, each represents one month  pastoral lives • Petrarch (The 14th century Italian artist)  allegorical purposes • Spencer was an idealist  depicted man how man should be depicted based on his sight. He didn’t have sense of humour  his works tended to reshuffle. He lived in his own imagination. To strengthen, he used some ancient words so that his poems were hard to understand • Many other active artists • Writing poems were just side work; mostly in the government, business & politics • Thomas Sackville, Philip Sydney, George Chapman, Michael Drayton The History of English Literature, YK, 2005/2006

 Prose • John Lily (1554 – 1606) Euphues the Anatomy of Wit (1578) feeling, moral contemplation  common characters  later known with “euphuism” : consisting of long sentences & full of metaphors • Pastoral romance Arcadia by Philip Sydney  now identical with “pastoral nature” • Picaresque Chronicle derived from Spanish “picaro” meaning “criminal”  pioneer of “gangster” novels  realistic story & rougher language  Thomas Nash (1567 – 1601) The Unfortunate Traveller, The Life of Jack Wilton (1594) • Renaissance created critical attitude  literature criticism (formerly in Italy spread out to Western Europe) • Apologia for Poetrie (1595) by Philip Sydney  the first literary criticism in English  based on Aristoteles’ principles  language used was very complicated • Non-fiction prose by Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626): a philosopher, politician, judge, & artist The Advancement of Learning and Essays • From “euphuism” to close-to-modern scientific prose style: short & condensed The History of English Literature, YK, 2005/2006

 Drama • Drama developed very rapidly during Elizabethan Age  reaching its artistic level, no longer used to teach religion or moral but to show human’s life • A drama talks about a matter or a conflict • Always started with “exposition”, followed with Complication” and then “Climax” or ‘Crisis’, closed with “Denoument”  solution (in comedy) and disaster (in tragedy) • Classic & Romantic Drama • Three unities: Time, place & act, supported with chorus • Ralph Roister Doister: the first comedy which applied classical principles The History of English Literature, YK, 2005/2006

More about drama…. • From classic to romantic  Marlowe, Shakespeare, John Lily & Thomas Kid • John Lily developing euphuism  comedies: Endymion, the Man in the Moon, Alexander and Campaspe.  classic Mythology and history  the first British playwright using “high comedy”  the life & gentle feeling of cultured people or top people • Thomas Kid The Spanish Tragedy (1585)  passion as the theme  inspired Marlowe & Shakespeare • Ben Jonson ( 1573-1637)  realism: Every Man in His Humour based on ancient Greek medical science about humour  there are four substances in human body: “blood”, “phlegm”, “choler”, & “black bile”. Volpone, The Alchemist. • Other playwrights  sensationalism: Beaumont, Fletcher, John Webster, Thomas Dekker & Philip Massinger. The History of English Literature, YK, 2005/2006

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Introduction and History of English literature

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Table of Contents

What is English Literature?

Literature is the reflection of life. It mirrors the society in which it is generated. The word literature comes from the Latin word ‘litaritura’ meaning “writing organized with letters”. We classify literature according to language, origin, historical period, genre, and subject matter.

Initially, literature was a form of entertainment for the people. Over time, it attained the purpose of reform as well. The writers stated highlighting the social issues in their writing. Thus, it became a medium to draw the audience’s attention to certain matters and urge them to think about the reform. From ancient civilizations to the modern era, indeed, all the works of literature have given us insight into the issues and trends prevailing at that time. Literature also provides escape from the ‘grim realities’ of life. While many people read to escape the boredom of their life. Moreover, the higher type of literature helps the reader to escape from trivial reality into significant reality.

English literature , however, emerged with the beginning of the history of English people. It refers to all the literary works (novels, short stories, poems, fiction, nonfiction, and plays) composed in English. The earliest works of English literature mirror the life lived by the people of that region at that specific period. For instance, all the changes undergone by English society from the earliest to the modern time have left their imprints on English literature. 

Being the literature of a nation characterized by the spirit of determination, adventure, and diligence, English literature is rich in vitality, diversity, and essence. 

A Brief History of English Literature

The introduction and history of English literature go side by side. You can’t get the complete introduction of English literature without going deep down in its history.

The history of English literature initiated with the history of the English race and kept on developing with the social development of the nation. When we analyze the history of English literature, we discover that it consists of eight (8) major periods and several ages. Each period or age of English literature is named after the central literary figure, or the important rulers of England, or certain literary movements. Moreover each period or phase of English literature has its distinct characteristics.

What are the ‘Eight (8) Major Periods’ of English Literature?

The major eight (8) periods in the history of English literature are:

• The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450–1066)
• The Anglo-Norman or Middle English period (1066–1500)
• The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)
• The Neoclassical Period (1660–1798)
• The Romantic Period (1798–1837)
• The Victorian Period (1837–1901)
• The Modern Period (1901-1945)
• The Contemporary Period (1945–Today)

A Brief Overview & Timeline of British Literary Periods

Let us briefly overview and analyze the history of English literature from the earliest times up to the present age.

1. The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450-1066 AD)

The Anglo-Saxon period in English literature refers to the time period between the 5th and 11th centuries, also known as the Early Medieval period.

The Angles and Saxons were the ancestors of the English race. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the early 5th Century, three Germanic tribes—the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—saw an opportunity to fill in the power gap and started migrating to Britain. The Anglo-Saxons were fearless, adventurous, and brave people. By 670 A.D. they had occupied the major part of the country, and the land of Anglos or Angloland —present day England—became their permanent abode.

The language brought by these Anglo-Saxon settlers together with some Latin and Celtic words became Old English. It is the earliest period of English literature, and it is characterized by its unique language, poetic forms, and themes. It includes diverse works of epic poetry ( Beowulf, The Wanderer) , religious texts, historical chronicles, and riddles (The Exeter Book riddles) written in Old English.

The Anglo-Saxon period lasted from the 5th Century AD to the Norman Conquest of 11th Century AD.

The Old English spoken by Anglo-Saxon people looks incomprehensible to today’s English-speakers. However, there are a good number of words that have survived in modern day English such as “day” , “year”, “kiss” , “love” , “arm” etc.

1.1 Anglo-Saxon Poetry

The Anglo-Saxons were fond of singing about battles, gods and their ancestral heroes. It is, however, these songs of religion, wars, and agriculture that marked the beginning of English poetry in ancient England. 

The Anglo-Saxon poetry was mostly sung instead of written. That’s why there are very few remnants left of it. Among them, the most famous one is Beowulf . It is the first English epic poem. Beowulf narrates a tale of the adventures of Beowulf, a brave hero. This poem, in fact, abounds in all sorts of references and allusions to great events and the fortunes of kings and nations.

After embracing Christianity, the Anglo-Saxon poets began to write religious poetry. Therefore, the major portion of Anglo-Saxon poetry encompasses religion. The most famous religious poets of the Anglo-Saxon period were Caedmon and Cynewulf. Caedmon is famous for his Hymn in which praises in honor of God. Cynewulf’s famous religious poems were Juliana , The Fates of the Apostles , Crist , and Elene . Among them , ‘Crist’ is the most popular one telling the event that occurred in the life of Jesus Christ.

1.2. The Anglo-Saxon Prose

The Anglo-Saxons replaced Latin prose with English which observed all the rules of ordinary speech in its construction. The famous Anglo-Saxon king, Alfred the Great, translated most of the famous Latin Chronicles in English. However, the second famous prose writer of the Anglo-Saxon period was, no doubt, Aelfric. He was actually a priest. Among his famous writings were Lives of the Saints, Homilies , and Gramma r. Moreover, compared to other contemporary prose writers of the period, Aelfric’s prose was easy and alliterative.

1.3. The Decline of Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxon period flourished until the Norman Conquest of 1066. After the defeat of Harold, the last of Saxon kings, by William who was the Conqueror of Normandy, France, the Anglo-Saxon period finally came to an end. In history, their ruling period extends roughly from 450 A.D. to 1066 A.D. 

There is no doubt that the Anglo-Saxons lived a life rich in courage, splendor, savagery, and sentiment. Their literature, thus, remarkably contains all these traits. It reflects all the main principles of their life, for instance, the love of personal freedom, religion, appreciation for womanhood, responsiveness to nature, and the struggle for glory.

2. The Anglo-Norman or Middle English Period (1066-1500 AD)

With the Norman conquest began a new era in the history of England literature. The Normans brought with them their rich French culture and language. The literature of this period comes under the category of Norman-French Literature or Anglo-French Literature. Since the Anglo-Norman period belonged to the Middle Ages or Medieval times in Britain History, we also call it the Middle English period in the history of English literature.

The Norman Conquest brought a radical change in English culture, law, language, and character. English became the language spoken only by the poor and powerless. While Norman-French became the language of the rich. It also became the symbol of social status and prestige. The Anglo-Normans wrote mainly to cater to the taste of Norman rulers. Moreover, only the monarchs and courtiers of that time had a right to encourage the literary writings.

We can’t deny the fact that the Norman Contest stimulated the awakening of the people, who extremely needed an outside stimulus at that time. Soon the people got influenced by a new vision and ultimately united in a common hope. As a result, the Anglo-Saxons’ hostility towards the Normans also turned into national unity. 

The Normans brought with them their soldiers, artisans, traders, chroniclers, minstrels, and scholars. With their help, they wanted to revive knowledge, record memorable events, celebrate victories, and sing of love and adventure. In addition, the most popular forms of writing for the Anglo-Normans were chronicles, religious and didactic writing, poetry, romances and drama.  

2.1. The Romances of Anglo-Norman Period

In contrast to the courage, seriousness, and savagery of the Anglo-Saxon literature, the Normans introduced romantic tales of love and adventure in literature. This made the Anglo-Norman period to be chivalric rather than a heroic one. Romance became the most popular form of literature during the Anglo-Norman or Middle English period. These romances were famous for their stories rather than poetry. Most of them, in fact, had their origin in Latin and French sources. They told the stories of King Arthur, The War of Troy, the mythical doings of Charlemagne, and Alexander the Great.

2.2. Chronicles in the Anglo-Norman Period  

In the Anglo-Norman period of English literature, chronicles became a well-established form of writing. These chronicles basically recorded the history of kings. Though written in the Anglo-Norman language, these chronicles, however, became the major source of historical knowledge for medieval people. Additionally, they contained historical events, and legendary material without any interpretation or comment by the author.

2.3. The Mystery and Miracle Plays

Another remarkable achievement of the Middle English Period, however, was religious or didactic writings. Under this category came the Mystery and Miracle plays. The Mystery plays were based on subjects taken from the Bible while the Miracle plays depicted the lives of saints. Since only the clergymen of the church had the authority to write and perform these plays, they chose Latin as the medium of writing and performing these plays.

2.4. The Morality Plays

In the Middle English period, Morality plays also became very popular. Allegory was, in fact, the main streak of these plays. In the Morality plays characters were personified abstractions presenting the conflict in the human soul. The sole purpose of these plays was to instruct the people through the Bible, lives of saints, and the conflict between good and evil. Hence, these plays also came under the category of religious and didactic writing of that period.

2.5. The Anglo-Norman Poets

Some of the famous poets of the Middle English period and their notable works are briefly discussed below:

2.5.1. Philippe de Thaun 

Philipe de Thaun was one of the earliest Anglo-Norman poets of the period. He was mainly famous for his two significant poems. The first one was ‘Livre des Creatures’’. It was a treatise on astronomy written around 1119. His second famous work was the allegorical poem ‘ Bestiaire ’ written around 1121 in the Anglo-Norman dialect.

2.5.2. Reginald of Canterbury 

Another famous Anglo-Norman poet is Reginald of Canterbury. He was a monk as well. His most famous poem is ‘ The Legend of St Malchus’ which was written around 1112.

2.5.3. Hilarius 

Hilarius was another Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century. He was an Englishman but wrote his poems in Latin. In his poems, he has mainly addressed to English persons.

2.5.4. Benoit de Sainte Maur 

Benoit de Sainte-Maure was a famous French poet in the 12th century. His most famous work was ‘ Roman de Troie’ (The Romance of Troy).

2.5.5. William Langland

One of the notable poets of the Middle Ages , William Langland emerged in the 14th century. He held a significant place in the history of English literature and wrote many important poems. His most famous poem is ‘ A Vision of Piers the Plowman’. As a satire on the corrupt religious practices, Langland’s poem clearly discusses the ethical problems of that time. Most of his poems are satirical in nature and bring about moral, political and social questions.

2.5.6. John Gower

John Gower also occupied a significant place in the development of English poetry of the Medieval period. He wrote around the 14th or 15th century bringing about the poems that represented the English culmination of courtly medieval poetry. His poems, indeed, proved that English can compete with the other languages that had distinguished themselves in poetry. Gower was mainly a narrative poet and a moralist. His most famous poem is Confession Amantis , written in the form of conversation between the divine interpreter and the poet. Like Chaucer, John Gower also played a significant role in developing English language as a thoroughly equipped medium of literature. 

2.6. The Age of Chaucer

Towards the end of the Middle English period came ‘ The Age of Chaucer ’, covering the period from 1343 to 1450. It is the most significant time period in the literary history of English literature. Chaucer made a fresh and distinct beginning in English literature and became the ‘Father of English literature’ as well as the ‘Father of English poetry’. Chaucer’s poetry has been widely read from his own day to the present time. He was not merely a bookman or the visionary, rather, he was a man of the world and its affairs.

Chaucer’s most significant work is Canterbury Tales . It is a collection of stories related by the pilgrims of different sections of society who are on their way to Thomas Becket’s shrine at Canterbury. A landmark in the history of English poetry, Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales enriched the English language and meter to an extent that could be conveniently used for any purpose. Furthermore, his introduction of a variety of characters into a single action and their engagement in animated dialogues fulfilled every requirement of the dramatists who were short of bringing their plays on the stage. Chaucer’s works also showed to the novelists the way to portray their characters.

2.6.1. Decline in English Poetry

Chaucer’s significance in the development of English literature is remarkable as he shifted poetry from the region of Theology and Metaphysics to the old classical principle of the direct imitation of nature. After Chaucer there came a decline in English poetry for about 100 years. The period from 1400 to the Renaissance was bereft of quality literature. The poets of that time period produced little work and merely imitated Chaucer and his contemporaries. 

Although the beginning of the Anglo-Norman Period is obvious, historians differ on when this period ended. Some historians say that it ended in 1144 or 1066, while for others it lasted up to 1450 or 1500. The Norman Conquest of England had, in fact, a profound effect in introducing various changes in the history of English literature. ‘ The Age of Chaucer was followed by The Renaissance Period also known as the Elizabethan Period or the Age of Shakespeare in the history of English literature.

3. The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)

The Renaissance Period in the history of English literature is also known as the Elizabethan Period or the Age of Shakespeare . It is, in fact, the ‘golden age’ in the history of English literature. After the Middle Ages in Europe came the Renaissance, meaning revival or rebirth. As a result, the darkness of the middle ages was replaced by the enlightenment of the human mind with the ‘Revival of Learning’, which the Renaissance prompted. 

The major characteristic of the Renaissance was its focus on Humanism i.e. man’s concern with himself as an object of observation. The Renaissance actually started Italy by Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch. However, it became popular in Europe during the Elizabethan Period. Beside focusing on the ‘study of mankind’, Renaissance had numerous subordinate trends which were actually the significant aspects of Humanism. These include:

• The rediscovery of classical antiquity, particularly of ancient Greece.
• The rediscovery of the external universe, and its importance for man.
• The problems of human personality.
• The enhanced sensitivity to formal beauty, and the cultivation of the aesthetic sense. 
• The belief that men are responsible for their own actions. 

Instead of looking up to some higher authority for guidance, as was done in The Middle Ages, the writers of the Renaissance Period found guidance from within. 

3.1. Elizabethan Drama

During the Renaissance Period the most important achievement in English literature was in the field of drama. The dramatists of this golden period include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson, Lyly, George Peele, Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene and others. All these writers produced prolific works. However, the greatest among all Elizabethan dramatists was Shakespeare in whose hands the Elizabethan drama reached its climax. He took English drama to the level which could not be surpassed till today. 

The main characteristics of the Elizabethan drama include–revenge themes, internal conflicts, good versus evil, melodramatic scenes, hero-villain protagonists, tragic-comedy, presence of supernatural beings such as ghosts and witches and the use of blank verse. Here are some famous dramatists of the Elizabethan Period:

3.1.1. Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)

There was a famous group of dramatists in the Elizabethan Period known as ‘University Wits’. It was actually a professional set of literary men. Of all the members of this group Marlowe was the greatest, while other dramatists such as Lyly, Peele, Greene, Lodge, and Nash were minor artists.

Nevertheless, Marlowe’s contributions to the Elizabethan drama were remarkable. Although his plays were different from Shakespeare’s in content and style, yet he raised the subject-matter of drama to a higher level. It was Marlowe who gave beauty, dignity, and poetic glow to the drama. There is no doubt that he did the groundwork on which Shakespeare built the grand edifice. Therefore, Marlowe has been rightly called “ the Father of English Dramatic Poetry. ”

Marlowe’s first play Tamburlaine appeared in 1587 and took the public on a storm due to its impetuous force, sensitivity to beauty, and splendid command of blank verse. His other famous work, however, include The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus which tells the story of a scholar who sells his soul to the devil for unlimited power and worldly enjoyment. The third famous tragic play of Marlowe is The Jew of Malta . Though it has a glorious opening, it is not as fine as Doctor Faustus. Marlowe’s last play is Edward II which is best from technical point of view but lacks the rhythmic beauty as well as grandeur of his earlier plays.

3.1.2. William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

It was Shakespeare, the greatest of all Elizabethan dramatists, who took English drama to the highest peak of fame. He was, indeed, a gifted man. His brilliant imagination, keen insight, and a creative mind gave new life to the old familiar stories and made them glow with tenderest feelings and deepest thoughts. His style and versification were extremely remarkable. He was not only the greatest dramatist of his time, but also a famous poet as well. His sonnets, replete with passion and aesthetic sense, also possess a significant place in the history of English literature. Although Shakespeare belonged to the Elizabethan Age, due to his universality he belongs to all times. 

Shakespeare’s works include non-dramatic poetry consisting of two narrative poems, Venice and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece , 154 sonnets, and 37 plays. His work as a dramatist extends over some 24 years (1588-1612), and is divided into four periods. Let’s briefly overview this period:

1577-1593: First Period

This period includes Shakespeare’s early experimental work. The famous works of this period are: the revision of old plays as the three parts of Henry VI and Titus Andronicus ; his first comedies— The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Love’s Labor’s Lost, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, and The Comedy of Errors ; his first chronicle play— Richard III ; and his most famous youthful tragedy— Romeo and Juliet.

1594-1600: Second Period

This period reveals Shakespeare’s development as a great thinker and artist. The works of this period includes Shakespeare’s great comedies and chronicle plays such as: The Merchant of Venice, Richard II, Henry IV, King John, Henry V, Part I and II, Much Ado About Nothing, The Training of the Shrew, As You Like It, The Merry Wives of Windsor, and Twelfth Night. 

1601-1608: Third Period

This period includes Shakespeare’s greatest tragedies and somber comedies. His main concern there is to reveal the darker side of human personality and its destructive passions. The major works of this period are: Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello, Julius Caesar, King Lear, All’s Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Coriolanus, Anthony and Cleopatra, Troilus and Cressida, and Timon of Athens.

1608-1612: Fourth Period

This period includes Shakespeare’s later dramatic romances and comedies. Here we see a decline in his power of thought and expression. Still his plays are tender and gracious. The famous works of this period are: The Winter’s Tale, The Tempest, and Cymbeline . He wrote all these plays in collaboration with other dramatists. 

3.1.3. Ben Johnson (1573-1637)

Ben Johnson was Shakespeare’s contemporary as well as a prominent dramatist of his times. But he was just the opposite of Shakespeare. A moralist, reformer, and a classist, Johnson in his works presented a true picture of contemporary society. He wrote his plays in a realistic manner and introduced his theory of ‘humour’. His famous comedies are: The Alchemist, Bartholomew, Fair, Volpone, Every Man in His Humour, Every Man Out of His Humour, and The Silent Woman.

3.1.4. Other Major Figures

There were many other playwrights who were part of the Golden Age of English Drama. For instance, Lyly wrote Euphues, Sapho and Phao, Midas, Endymion and Compaspe. Thomas Kyd wrote The Spanish Tragedy . Robert Greene wrote Orlando Furioso . Compared to the works of the greatest dramatists of this period, their works are of little importance.

3.1.5. The Puritan Age (1600-1660)

In the 17th century came the decline of the Renaissance spirit. The writers of that time either imitated the Elizabethan masters or paved new paths. The 17th century’s literature is divided into two periods— The Puritan Age or the Age of Milton (1600-1660) and the Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700). Up to 1660, Puritanism dominated the 17th Century. John Milton was the greatest representative of the Puritan spirit. The Puritan movement in literature is also called the second Renaissance because of the revival of man’s moral nature . It stood for people’s liberty from the shackles of the despotic ruler and introduced morality and high ideals in politics. 

John Milton (1608-1674) was the most significant poet of the Puritan Age. He was a great scholar of classical as well as Hebrew literature. A child of the Renaissance, Milton was also a great humanist. As an artist we may call him the last Elizabethan. Milton’s greatest poetical works are Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained , and Samson Agonistes . Besides Milton, the poetry of The School of Spencer, The Metaphysical Poets, and The Cavalier Poets also earned great fame. But no one of them was as noblest and indomitable representative of the Puritan spirit as John Milton.

Moreover, this period was rich in prose as well. Among the great prose writers of the Puritan Age include Francis Bacon, Milton, Robert Burton, Jeremy Tayler, Sir Thomas Brown and Clarendon. During this period we find English prose developing into a magniloquent and rich instrument capable of expressing all types of ideas, such as scientific, philosophical, poetic, religious and personal.

4. The Neoclassical Period (1660-1798)

The period between 1660 and 1798 is roughly marked as the Neoclassical Period in the history of English literature. Moreover, this time period is divided into two parts: the Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700), and the Classical Age or the Augustan Age (18 Century). The Classical Age is further divided into two distinct periods–the Age of Pope (1700-1744) and the Age of Johnson (1744-1784) . 

4.1. The Restoration Period (1660-1700)

The period from 1660 to 1700 is called the Restoration Period because monarchy was restored in England, and Charles II came back to England from his exile in France and became the King. It is also known as the Age of Dryden because Dryden was the most significant literary figure of the age. The Puritans who were previously controlling the country were finally defeated. As a result, a reaction was launched against whatever they held sacred. All restraints and discipline were casted away, and a tide of indecency and frivolity swept the country. Since Charles II and his followers had enjoyed a gay life during their exile in France, they introduced same foppery and looseness in England as well. 

As a result, the people were deprived of the old Elizabethan spirit with its patriotism, creative vigor and the love of adventure and romance. Moreover, the Puritan spirit with its moral discipline and love of liberty also became a thing of the past. The writers of this period made two important contributions to English literature. The first was in the form of realism and the second was a tendency to preciseness. 

4.1.1 The Restoration Poetry

The Restoration Poetry was mostly realistic and satirical. It was mostly written in the heroic couplet, of which Dryden was the greatest master. He was the most important figure of the Restoration Period and made great achievements in the fields of poetry, drama and prose.  In fact, he was the only poet of his age worth mentioning. He wrote in a lucid and forceful style that laid the foundation of the classical school of poetry in England.

Furthermore, Dryden’s poetry is divided into three groups: Doctrinal Poems , Political Satires, and The Fables . His famous political satires include Absalom and Achitophel and The Medal . Dryden’s famous doctrinal poems are Religio Laici and The Hind and the Panther . His fables, written in narrative form, entitle him to rank among the best story-tellers in verse in England. Palamon and Arcite can be examined in this regard. Dryden’s poetry displays all the characteristics of the Restoration Period and is, therefore, thoroughly representative of that age.

4.1.1 The Restoration Drama and Prose

Restoration drama showed entirely new trends due to the long break with the past. It was extremely influenced by the new age that was deficient in poetic feeling, imagination, and emotional approach to life. Rather, it focused on prose as the medium of expression, and had a realistic, intellectual and critical approach to human life and its problems. 

The Comedy of Manners was the most famous form of drama during the Restoration Period. It portrayed the sophistical life of society’s dominant class—its insolence, gaiety, intrigue and foppery. The most popular Restoration dramatist was William Congreve. He wrote the best comedies, for instance, Love for Love and The Way of the World . The chief writer of heroic tragedy was Dryden. His famous tragic plays include Tyrannic Love, All for Love, and The Conquest of Granada .

In the field of prose, the Restoration Period held its head higher than poetry and drama. A unique prose style evolved for the first time. This style could be used for plain narrative, practical business, and argumentative exposition of intricate topics. Dryden was the dominant leader and practitioner of that new prose style. Other famous prose writers of the period were John Bunyan, John Tillotson, William Temple, Thomas Sprat, and Viscount Halifax. Besides Dryden, John Bunyan was the greatest prose writer of the age. His most famous work is The Pilgrim’s Progress .

4.2. The Classical or Augustan Age (18th Century)

The 18th century in English literature is called the Classical Age or the Augustan Age . We also call it the Age of Reason or the Age of Good Sense . The writers of the age produced works of great significance and merit. The major characteristics of the Restoration period—precision and realism—were carried to further perfection. It was during the 18th century that for the first time in the history of English literature prose occupied the front position. 

The most important feature of the 18th Century was the origin and development of the novel. This new literary form, which at present holds a prominent place, was fed and nourished by the great masters such as Defoe, Richardson, Smollet, Fielding, and others. All these writers laid the secure foundation of this new form.

4.2.1 The Age of Pope (1700-1744)

The earlier part of the 18th Century is called the Age of Pope , since Alexander Pope was the dominating figure in that period. The poetry of the Age of Pope is not of a high order. Still, it has some distinct merits such as the creation of a technically beautiful verse, the clarity of its expression and the finished art of satire.

The famous poets of this age include Alexander Pope (the greatest of all poets of this age), Matthew Prior, John Gay, Edward Young and others. However, the greatest prose writers of this age were Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. The prose of this age exhibits the classical qualities—for instance, vigor, clarity, and direct statement. 

4.2.2 The Age of Johnson (1744-1784)

The later half of the Augustan Age was dominated by Dr. Samuel Johnson and is, therefore, called the Age of Johnson . During this age, cracks had begun to appear in the edifice of classicism and there were clear signs of revolt in favor of the Romantic spirit. It was especially noticeable in the field of poetry. The poets who showed romantic leanings in their poetry are the precursors of the Romantic Revival. These poets include James Thomson, William Blake, Thomas Gray, William Cowper, William Collins, and George Crabbe. Due to its Romantic inclinations, we also call the Age of Johnson as the Age of Transition in English Literature .

The dominating prose writers of this age were Samuel Johnson, Edmund Burke, and Edward Gibbon. They were, indeed, the pillars of the Age of Johnson and represented in themselves the highest achievements of English prose. After the Age of Johnson came the Romantic Period. The Neoclassical period officially ended in 1798 when William Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge published the ‘Lyrical Ballads’.

5. The Romantic Period (1798-1837)

The most flourished period in the history of English literature is the Romantic Period . It was a revolt against the Classical school of the 18th Century. Wordsworth, Coleridge , Southey, Shelley, Keats, and Byron  belonged to this period. The Romantic Age was basically the age of poetry. With the publication of Lyrical Ballads , Wordsworth and Coleridge introduced a new form of poetry in opposition to the poetry of the Classical school.

The Romantic poets focused on the simplicity of language and chose the language of the common people. They looked back to the Elizabethan masters—Shakespeare, Spenser and others—in order to take inspiration from them. Their poems usually dealt with the events of everyday life. The Romantic poets proved that if the trivial aspects of nature and the common things of life are treated in the right way, they could be as interesting and significant as the grand aspects of nature and life. 

The prose writers of the Romantic period also rejected the Augustan style of writing. They reverted to the ponderous, poetical and flowery prose of the Renaissance. Since the Romantic Age was characterized by the excess of emotions, it produced a new type of novel—the Gothic Novel —which soon became popular among the multitude of readers with its Gothic elements such as supernatural, gloomy settings and bizarre situations. 

5.1 Difference Between Classicism and Romanticism

Romanticism was explicitly opposed to Classicism. While the Classical Age was the age of prose, the Romantic Age was the age of poetry. During the Romantic Period, poetry became the proper medium of the expression of thoughts, emotions, and imaginative process of the artist. Classicism laid stress upon the impersonal aspects of life, whereas Romantic literature openly shifted the center of art to the personal aspects of individuals. 

Moreover, the heroic couplet was the only form of writing poetry in the Classical Age. While in the Romantic Period, the poets focused on simple and natural diction. The liberty of the poet from the shackles of the literary rules was the watchword of the Romantic movement . Thus, Romantic literature is a genuinely creative literature focusing on the highest creative faculty of man.

6. The Victorian Period (1837–1901)

Beginning in the second quarter of the 19th Century, the Victorian Period is so long as well as complicated. Moreover, there are numerous great writers who flourished during that period. That’s why, for the sake of convenience, the Victorian Period is divided into two further periods— Early Victorian Period (1837-1870) and Later Victorian Period (1870-1901) . 

6.1. Early Victorian Period

The Earlier Victorian Period was, in fact, dominated by middle class supremacy, the age of ‘laissez-fair’ or free trade, and of unrestricted competition. The great writers of this period were Robert Browning, Alfred Tennyson, Charles Dickens, Matthew Arnold, Carlyle, Thackeray and Ruskin. All these poets, novelists, and prose writers, in spite of their individual differences, exhibited the same approach to contemporary issues. Due to this, they form a certain homogenous group possessing the same social, literary, and moral values.

6.2. Later Victorian Period

The Later Victorian Period began after 1870. The most prominent writers of that period were Christiana Rossetti, Charles Swinburne, George Eliot, William Morris, Thomas Hardy, Oscar Wilde, Pater and others. In poetry, Morris, Swinburne and Rossetti were the protagonists of a new literary movement—the Pre-Raphaelite Movement . Later on, this movement was followed by the Aesthetic Movement. Its protagonists were Oscar Wilde, Earnest Dowson, Arthur Symons and Lionel Pigot Johnson. In the field of novels, however, George Eliot laid the foundation of the ‘Modern Psychological Novel’, followed by Thomas Hardy and Meredith. 

The Victorian Period exhibits a unique and complex amalgamation of two opposites— Romanticism and Classicism. Basically, its inclination towards Classicism was due its rational approach to the problems of life, deeply moral attitude, and a search for stability and balance. On the other hand, it exhibited close proximity to the Romantic spirit which had not completely exhausted itself but suddenly ended due to the following reasons:

• the premature deaths of Keats, Byron, and Shelley. 
• the disillusionment resulted from industrialization and material prosperity.
• the social and economic unrest.

Courtesy: By The Book

7. The Modern Period (1901-1945)

From the beginning of the 20th Century started the Modern Period in English literature. The most significant feature of Modern literature was that it opposed the general attitude of Victorian writers and people to life and its problems. During the first decade of the 20th Century, the young people regarded the Victorian age as hypocritical, and the Victorian ideals as superficial, mean and stupid. This rebellion hugely affected modern literature which was directed by moral values, spiritual ideals as well as mental attitudes that were dramatically opposed to those of the Victorians. 

Moreover, the Modernists no longer believed in the sanctity of home life as Victorians did. They also reacted against the Victorians’ attitude of self complacency and self perfection. Since the modern writers could no longer write in the old manner, they devised their own. If they wrote about the contempt of money, natural beauty, divine love, and the sentiments of home and life , they were considered running the risk of striking a false note. Even if they treated the same themes, they had to do it tactfully to evoke unique thoughts and emotions. The modern writers, therefore, had to cultivate a fresh point of view employing fresh techniques. 

The main cause of this attitude of interrogations and disintegration of old values was the impact of scientific thought on the people. Many writers of the 20th Century began to study and contemplate seriously over the writings of Karl Marx, Engles, Ruskin, Morris etc. and  discuss practical suggestions for the reconstruction of society. The 20th Century literature is full of experimentation and adventures peculiar to the modern age—an age of transition and discovery.

7.1. Modern Poetry

Modern poetry followed an entirely different tradition from the Romantic and Victorian tradition of poetry. The modern poets believed that the poet’s business was to be uniquely himself, and to project his personality through the medium of his art. Poetry to them was a method of discovering one’s self, and then a means of projecting this discovery.

T. S. Eliot is the chief representative of modern poetry. A greatest poet as well as a critic, he reinforced his political theories by his own poetry, and thus exerted a tremendous influence on modern poetry. His most famous poems include The Waste Land , The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, The Dry Salvages, East Coker, and Little Gidding . Other famous modern poets are Robert Bridges, Gerard Manley Hopkins, A. E. Houseman, Wilfred Owen, W. B. Yeats and others.

7.2. Modern Drama

Drama in England suffered a decline for about two centuries after the death of Shakespeare and his contemporaries. It was revived, however, in the last decade of the 19th Century. The two important dramatists who took a significant part in the revival of drama were the Irish men— George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde . Shaw practiced the Comedy of Idea , whereas Wilde practiced the new Comedy of Manners . Shaw, a great thinker, represented the Puritan side of the Anglo-Irish tradition. Wilde, on the other hand, was fond of a luxurious life. He was not a deep thinker as Shaw was and his attitude to life was essentially a playful and entertaining one. 

Besides the comedy of manners and ideas, another type of drama evolved in England under the influence of the Irish Dramatic Movement. Its originators were Lady Gregory  and W. B. Yeats. The two important dramatists of this movement were J. M. Synge and Sean O’ Casey. Other famous modern dramatists include Harold Pinter, John Galsworthy, John Masefield, J. M. Berrie, and Harley Granville-Barker. 

7.3. Modern Novel

The modern novel is realistic as well as psychological. The Modern novelists had introduced into the novel subtle points of view, reserved and refined characters, and intangible delicacies of motive. All these had never been attempted before by any English novelist. The modern novelist in their works employed the ‘stream of consciousness’ technique. This technique not only helped them to reveal the character completely and present development in character. Besides being realistic and psychological, the modern novelists were quite frank with sexual matters. 

The modern novelists who dominated the earlier part of the 20th Century were H. G. Bells, Arnold Bennett, Henry James, Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling, John Galsworthy and E. M. Foster. From the beginning of World War I new experiments were made in the field of literature on account of the new forces which resulted from war and broke the old tradition. The writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, Adlous Huxley, D. H. Laurence, and Somerset Maugham made the greatest contribution to this century. 

8. The Contemporary Period (1945–Today)

After World War II, new trends appeared in English literature. Although poetry was the most memorable form to come out of World War I, the novel was the form which told the stories of World War II. This was because mass media, cinema, newspapers, and radio had changed the way of information and entertainment. There were many writers who wrote about war. For instance, Henry Greene’s novels— Nothing (1950), The End of Affair (1951), and A Burnt-out Case (1961) deal with war. These novels explore regions of human unhappiness  in many different areas of the world.

Then came Samuel Beckett, best known for his plays, who described interior feelings of lonely souls in his works. In this regard came his novels Murphy (1938) and How It Is (1961) . Similarly, the novels of George Orwell also possess political intention. As a socialist, Orwell believed in equality. His famous works are Animal Farm (1945) , and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) . 

8.1. The Novel from 1950s and 1960s

Certainly, each decade in the history of English literature introduced different ways of writing. In the 1950s, a new generation of writers appeared, with new subjects and issues. These writers include Colin Wilson, John Wain, Alan Sillitoe, Muriel Spark, Doris Lessing, William Golding and others. The most successful comic novel of the 1950s was Kingsley Amis’s Lucky Jim (1954). It was, in fact, one of the first novels to have a university setting.  

William Golding was one of the great story-tellers of his time. He always explored in his novels the things which form human behavior. His famous novels are Lord of the Flies (1954) and The Inheritors (1955) . From the 1970s, the novel took several directions. The four main directions were:

• the focus on foreign and local regional voices.
• the focus on more female voices. 
• the academic or campus novel.
• the coming of the kind of fantasy known as Magic Realism.

Thus, British literature of the contemporary period mainly includes reality-based stories having strong characters and realistic themes. The Settings of contemporary novels are usually the current or modern era. In their novels and poetry, the contemporary writers deal with such themes as war, racism, identity, family, home, and a search for goodness in humanity.

For this article, I consulted the following books: 

• Andrew Sanders’s The Short Oxford History of English Literature
• Robert Barnard’s A Short History of English Literature 
• Stephen Coote’s The Penguin Short History of English Literature 

Read on, Readers!

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History of English Literature

• Updated on  
• Dec 1, 2023

The history of English Literature begins with the Germanic tradition of the Anglo-Saxon settlers. Beowulf is the earliest and most popular work in Old English Literature . As the Normans conquered England, Middle English replaced Old English and was used by the father of English Literature, Geoffrey Chaucer in his famous work, The Canterbury Tales. William Shakespeare came to be considered the most iconic and greatest writer in the history of English Literature as he is revered for his legendary plays and sonnets. Continue reading the blog article below to explore more about the exciting history and evolution of the greatest literary works and to download the History of  English  Literature PDF.

Periods of English Literature

History of English Literature Summary

Looking for history of English Literature notes? We have summarized the long history of English Literature in its important 8 periods. Let’s explore some of these major periods of the English Literature in further detail:

• Old English Literature: 5th – 14th Century

Medieval English Literature: 14th to 15th Century

• Elizabethan Age or The Golden Age of English Literature: 16th Century to Early 17th Century

Restoration Age (17th-18th Century)

The 18th century english literature, the romantic period: from 19th century, 20th century literature, 8 periods in the history of english literature.

The oldest English literature was in Old English which is the earliest form of English and is a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects. The history of English Literature is spread over different eras including Old English or Anglo-Saxon, The Renaissance, the Victorian Era, the Modern Era, Postmodern era, amongst others.

What are the 8 Periods of English Literature? The most important 8 periods of English Literature are:

• Old English (Anglo-Saxon Period): 450–1066
• Middle English Period : 1066-1500
• Renaissance: 1500-1600
• Neoclassical Period : 1600-1785
• Romantic Period: 1785-1832
• Victorian Age : 1832-1901
• Edwardian Period : 1901-1914
• Georgian Period : 1910-1936
• Modern Period : Early 20th century
• Postmodern Period : Mid-20th century

Geoffrey Chaucer is considered the father of English Literature.

The History of English Literature PDF

History of english literature books.

There are many prominent texts to study the history of English Literature and understand its different literary periods and historical timeline. Here are some of the best History of English Literature Books:

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An Outline History of English Literature

Here is a detailed outline of the History of English Literature from its beginning from the Classical Period to the Post-Modern Age:

Old English Literature: 5th-14th Century

The history of English Literature starts with the Germanic tradition of Anglo-Saxon settlers which were around 5th to 11th century AD and the first long narrative poems in the history of English Literature were Beowulf and Widsith . These two were highly narrative poems of this early period of the history of English Literature. Beowulf is be considered as the first English Epic poem and some of the other famous works produced during the Old English Literature include, Genesis, Exodus, The Wanderer, Wife’s lament, Husband’s message, The battle of Maldon etc. Earlier, to understand the temperament of readers, writers would make use of alteration rather than a rhyming scheme. Moreover, some of the famous writers of old English literature were Cynewulf and Caedmon. 

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Also referred to as the Later Middle English Literary Period, the Medieval English Literature comprises of a diverse range of works as the population of England during this time was literate and a considerable portion was also bilingual and trilingual. Geoffrey Chaucer is amongst the highly regarded poets within the period of 1342 to 1400 and was renowned for his courtly love poetry including the famous “ Canterbury Tales” though it was left incomplete; “The House of Fame”, and ‘ The Book of the Duchess’ . He became one of the core political servants in Britains’s court. William Langland’s famous religious works including “Piers Plowman” also deserves a crucial mention as it represents another popular genre of this period of English Literature which was secular and religious prose. 

During the era of Medieval English Literature, the most esteemed works also include morality plays, miracle plays and interludes. ‘Everyman’ was a noted Morality play of the time and Miracle plays were taken from the Bible and were frequently performed in churches. 

Elizabethan Age a.k.a. The Golden Age of English Literature: (16th Century to Early 17th Century)

Bringing a distinctive paradigm shift in the history of English Literature, the Elizabethan Age represents the brilliant century of all the periods and is also known as the Golden Age. Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard (Earl of Surrey) has a massive contribution to this age. Thomas introduced Sonnets to Great Britain and the Earl of Surrey brought the use of blank verse which was later utilised by celebrated Elizabethan writers like Shakespeare, Christopher Marlow, John Milton, to name a few. ‘Tottel’s Miscellany’ is considered as the first printed book amongst the different poetry works of this period. 

The Golden Age in the history of English Literature brought a gallery of authors of genius and literary masterpieces. It was a dynamic age filled with intellectual and religious revolutions and upheavals. As the new humanism surged, there were many significant works like Sir Thomas Hoby’s Castiglione and Sir Thomas North’s Plutarch. Edmund Spenser is another prolific names in Golden age who is also known as the poet’s poet. His famous poem in 1579, ‘The Shapaheardes Calander’ under 89 sonnets got highly popular. Sir Philip Sidney’s ‘ Archadia’, ‘Michel Drayton’, ‘Sir Walter Raleigh’, ‘Ben Johnson’ are some of the important names in the medieval English literature. There was a famous group in the Golden age which was known as the ‘University Wits.’ This group would include noted alumni writers from the University of Cambridge and University of Oxford . John Lyly, Christopher Marlow, Thomas Nashe, George Peele were some of the celebrated names under this group. 

John Donne also played a greater role in metaphysical poetry and beautiful sonnets of the Elizabethan age. Sir Francis Bacon popularized the scientific method of analysis and wrote many intellectual and analytical essays in this period. Moreover, Literary Dramas have a crucial role to play in making this age Golden. The first comedy play under this age was ‘Ralph Roister Doister’ by Nicholas Udall. From ‘Hamlet’, ‘King Lear’, ‘Othello’ and ‘Julius Ceasar’ to ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’ , ‘As You Like It’ and ‘Romeo and Juliet’ , William Shakespeare contributed many historical dramas and tragedies as well as romantic plays and comedies to the Golden Age. Notable writers of the Elizabethan era also include John Milton, John Webster, Thomas Kyd, George Peele, Ben Jonson, amongst others.

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Another revolutionary change in the history of English literature was brought forward by the Restoration Age which immensely reflected the political conflict of the late 17th century. John Dryden emerged as one of the prominent literary figures of this age. He wrote a famous heroic poem, ‘ Astra Radix’ and was also known for ‘ Mac Flecknoe’. To attack his contemporaries, he wrote mock poems and wrote ‘essay on criticism’ Oliver Goldsmith’s The traveller and the deserted village was highly popular in this era. Another prominent writer for the Restoration Literature was John Milton, a well-known controversialist who wrote the famous Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes . Thomas Gray, William Blake, Robert Burns are unavoidable names whose literary work has been highly acclaimed. The eminent philosopher of this era was John Locke who wrote many essays like ‘The Essay Concerning Human Understanding’ and most of his works delved deeper into the unravelling the workings of the civil society as well as debate and explorations on the human intelligence.

We challenge you to test your knowledge of English Literature with this English Quiz !

Concluding the Restoration period of the history of English Literature, the 18th century witnessed the publication of political literature as well as the advent of novels. Robert Harley, Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift were amongst the major political writers of this era. During the mid 18th and late 18th century, novels were introduced in the world. Daniel Defoe experimented with the prose narrative and wrote a novel called ‘Robinson Crusoe’. He was one of the esteemed and prominent writers to introduce novel writing to the literary world. In prose writing, Richard Steel and Jonathan Swift are also some of the popular names in prose writing as they were renowned for their satirical style of writing.

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The Romantic age of the history of English literature experimented with the earlier forms of poetry and brought many interesting genres of prose fiction. The key feature of the poetry of this period was the emphasis laid on individual thought and personal feeling. William Blake, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge were the brilliant poetry geniuses of this era as they curated glorious works rooted in nature, love, romance as well as contemporary thought. The later Romantics were Shelley, Keats and Byron who carried on the legacy in the 20th century. The novels of this era were written as a form of entertainment to the now literate public and were a stern commentary on many prominent events such as the French Revolution. The Gothic novel is an important invention in prose fiction and some of its prominent writers were Horace Walpole, Matthew Lewis, Ann Radcliffe and Mary Shelley. On the other hand, Jane Austen stood by the conservation form of prose fiction through popular romantic novels like Pride and Prejudice, Emma, Persuasion, Northanger Abbey , to name a few.

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After the end of the victorian age, the modern history of English literature began with the beginning of the 20th century. Rudyard Kipling is considered as one of the greatest writers in this century. He was born in India and then moved to Lahore and was a supporter of colonization. His main works include Kim, Life’s handicap , apart from the significant book ‘the Jungle Book’. Some prominent contributions to the 20th-century literature were EM Foster’s ‘ A Passage to India’, H. G Wells, The Time Machine, The Invisible Man, First Man on the Moon’ etc.

D.H Lawrance has the greatest contribution to this century. James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, George Orwell, William Golding, John Galsworthy, George Bernard Shaw, Harold Pinter, T.S Elliot are some of the prolific names which were popular for their 20th-century dramas. In poetry literature of the 20th century, William Butler Yeats, T.S Eliot, W.H Auden, Thomas Hardy, G.M Hopkins, Dylan Thomas, are some of the resounding names of poetry landscape in this era of the history of English literature. Some of the prolific war poets include Rupert Brooke, Siegfried Sassoon & Wilfred Owen. 

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History of Indian English Literature

The history of Indian English literature originally started with poets and writers like Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, Rabindranath Tagore and Sri Aurobindo . While most of the Indian writers continued to write in their native languages, these authors adopted English and marked a beginning to what we can now call the history of Indian English literature. Here are some of the key features of the history of Indian English literature:

• The history of Indian English literature gets a bit complicated, especially during the period which marked the freedom struggle for independence and the period following independence. English being the language of colonisers, the Indian writers who adopted English were highly criticised for their choice. 
• During these conflicts, many writers came forth to justify the use of English. One such writer was Sujit Mukherjee who said that English acts as a “link language” in the Indian subcontinent . What he meant by this is that India is a linguistically diverse land not many people understood the regional languages. Like Hindi was not understood by the majority of people from the southern and northeastern parts of India. In such a scenario, a language was needed which could connect the masses and English became that language. As a result, Indian English literature started gaining the prominence that it has today. 
• Writers like R.K. Narayan and Salman Rushdie brought out their own version of English by incorporating certain Indian words into their otherwise English texts. Later this came to be known as “chutnification”. And this is how Indian writers made a foreign language into their own. 
• With time, Indian English literature became the lens through which the outside world looked at India. They become carriers of a collective history. For instance, in “Malgudi days”, R.K. Narayan paints the picture of the Indian rural community with all their beliefs and traditions. 
• Writers like Salman Rushdie and Khushwant Singh tried to capture the horrors of partition in their writings. In a sense, with time Indian English writing became the common ground on which various histories were inscribed. And this process continues even today. 
• One other significant part of the history of English Literature in India is the period when writers started translating their works. For example, Rabindranath Tagore decided to translate “Gitanjali” which was written in Bengali into English. And this translation process leads to the creation of a separate branch called Indian writing in translation. 
• When we look at contemporary Indian English fiction like those of authors like Arundhati Roy, Aravind Adiga , to name a few, we realise that Indian writing in English still remains as a cultural artefact that tells compelling stories about the various cultures of India. It still is a medium through which we could get a better understanding of the cultures and beliefs of the people of India.

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The history of English Literature starts with the Anglo-Saxons and Germanic settlers in Anglo-Saxon England in the 5th century, c.450. The oldest English literature was in Old English which is the earliest form of English and is a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects. Beowolf is the earliest and most popular work in Old English Literature.

The most important 8 periods of English Literature are: 1. Old English (Anglo-Saxon Period): 450–1066 2. Middle English Period: 1066-1500 3. The Renaissance: 1500-1600 4. The Neoclassical Period: 1600-1785 5. The Romantic Period: 1785-1832 6. The Victorian Age: 1832-1901 7. The Edwardian Period: 1901-1914 8. The Georgian Period: 1910-1936 9. The Modern Period: Early 20th century 10. The Postmodern Period: Mid-20th century

Geoffrey Chaucer is referred to as the father of English Literature and was renowned for his courtly love poetry including the famous “ Canterbury Tales” though it was left incomplete; “The House of Fame”, and ‘ The Book of the Duchess’ .

The first historical period of English Literature is the Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period (450-1066).

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14 comments

I am happy to read the information like this .we need more such as the details of the social , and political background of each era .

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Really extraordinary material

Great work 💓💓💓

Thank you for your comment!

Thanks a lot for the post

These is much helpable👍

Thankyou Ankita!

Good version 👌

Hi, Sir! Thank you for liking our blog! Here we are referring you some other blogs to read: History Of Indian Civil Services History of Indian Art The History of the Braille Script, the Language of the Blind

Hi, Sir Thank you for liking our blog! Here we are referring you some other blogs to read: History Of Indian Civil Services History of Indian Art The History of the Braille Script, the Language of the Blind

Such an extraordinary document.Thank you for provided us this type of material.

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