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• The four main types of essay | Quick guide with examples

The Four Main Types of Essay | Quick Guide with Examples

Published on September 4, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade. There are many different types of essay, but they are often defined in four categories: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive essays.

Argumentative and expository essays are focused on conveying information and making clear points, while narrative and descriptive essays are about exercising creativity and writing in an interesting way. At university level, argumentative essays are the most common type. 

In high school and college, you will also often have to write textual analysis essays, which test your skills in close reading and interpretation.

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Table of contents

Argumentative essays, expository essays, narrative essays, descriptive essays, textual analysis essays, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of essays.

An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a strong thesis statement —a clearly defined stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince the reader of your thesis using evidence (such as quotations ) and analysis.

Argumentative essays test your ability to research and present your own position on a topic. This is the most common type of essay at college level—most papers you write will involve some kind of argumentation.

The essay is divided into an introduction, body, and conclusion:

• The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement
• The body presents your evidence and arguments
• The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its importance

The example below is a paragraph from the body of an argumentative essay about the effects of the internet on education. Mouse over it to learn more.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic.

Expository essays test your familiarity with a topic and your ability to organize and convey information. They are commonly assigned at high school or in exam questions at college level.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides some general background, the body presents the details, and the conclusion summarizes the information presented.

A typical body paragraph from an expository essay about the invention of the printing press is shown below. Mouse over it to learn more.

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you have not experienced.

Narrative essays test your ability to build up a narrative in an engaging, well-structured way. They are much more personal and creative than other kinds of academic writing . Writing a personal statement for an application requires the same skills as a narrative essay.

A narrative essay isn’t strictly divided into introduction, body, and conclusion, but it should still begin by setting up the narrative and finish by expressing the point of the story—what you learned from your experience, or why it made an impression on you.

Mouse over the example below, a short narrative essay responding to the prompt “Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself,” to explore its structure.

Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the humanities. My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious than classes like English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But recently I had an experience that taught me my academic interests are more flexible than I had thought: I took my first philosophy class.

Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students and wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined something pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But what I got was something quite different.

A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-haired, buttoned-up old man I had half-expected. And rather than pulling us into pedantic arguments about obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us on our level. To talk free will, we looked at our own choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas we had faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d discovered that questions with no right answer can turn out to be the most interesting ones.

The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not just because it was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I can actually get a lot out of subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me—in more ways than one—to look at things with an open mind.

A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative essays, they allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are more tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or object, rather than telling a whole story.

Descriptive essays test your ability to use language creatively, making striking word choices to convey a memorable picture of what you’re describing.

A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should usually begin by introducing the object of your description and end by drawing an overall picture of it. The important thing is to use careful word choices and figurative language to create an original description of your object.

Mouse over the example below, a response to the prompt “Describe a place you love to spend time in,” to learn more about descriptive essays.

On Sunday afternoons I like to spend my time in the garden behind my house. The garden is narrow but long, a corridor of green extending from the back of the house, and I sit on a lawn chair at the far end to read and relax. I am in my small peaceful paradise: the shade of the tree, the feel of the grass on my feet, the gentle activity of the fish in the pond beside me.

My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above. From his perch he can watch over his little kingdom and keep an eye on the neighbours. He does this until the barking of next door’s dog scares him from his post and he bolts for the cat flap to govern from the safety of the kitchen.

With that, I am left alone with the fish, whose whole world is the pond by my feet. The fish explore the pond every day as if for the first time, prodding and inspecting every stone. I sometimes feel the same about sitting here in the garden; I know the place better than anyone, but whenever I return I still feel compelled to pay attention to all its details and novelties—a new bird perched in the tree, the growth of the grass, and the movement of the insects it shelters…

Sitting out in the garden, I feel serene. I feel at home. And yet I always feel there is more to discover. The bounds of my garden may be small, but there is a whole world contained within it, and it is one I will never get tired of inhabiting.

Though every essay type tests your writing skills, some essays also test your ability to read carefully and critically. In a textual analysis essay, you don’t just present information on a topic, but closely analyze a text to explain how it achieves certain effects.

Rhetorical analysis

A rhetorical analysis looks at a persuasive text (e.g. a speech, an essay, a political cartoon) in terms of the rhetorical devices it uses, and evaluates their effectiveness.

The goal is not to state whether you agree with the author’s argument but to look at how they have constructed it.

The introduction of a rhetorical analysis presents the text, some background information, and your thesis statement; the body comprises the analysis itself; and the conclusion wraps up your analysis of the text, emphasizing its relevance to broader concerns.

The example below is from a rhetorical analysis of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech . Mouse over it to learn more.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

Literary analysis

A literary analysis essay presents a close reading of a work of literature—e.g. a poem or novel—to explore the choices made by the author and how they help to convey the text’s theme. It is not simply a book report or a review, but an in-depth interpretation of the text.

Literary analysis looks at things like setting, characters, themes, and figurative language. The goal is to closely analyze what the author conveys and how.

The introduction of a literary analysis essay presents the text and background, and provides your thesis statement; the body consists of close readings of the text with quotations and analysis in support of your argument; and the conclusion emphasizes what your approach tells us about the text.

Mouse over the example below, the introduction to a literary analysis essay on Frankenstein , to learn more.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

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At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

• In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
• In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
• In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

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8 Types of Learning Styles | The Definitive Guide

• March 7, 2024

Table of Contents

Visual learning style, auditory learning style, kinesthetic learning style, reading/writing, logical/analytical learners, social/linguistic learners, solitary learners, nature learners, how do students learn best, cognitive factors influencing learning styles, emotional factors impacting learning styles, assessment and feedback for learning optimization, what are learning styles, and why are they important, how can teachers accommodate diverse learning styles in the classroom, is there a single best learning style for all students, how can students identify their preferred learning style, are there other factors besides learning styles that influence how students learn.

Every student has a strategy they use to remember information more efficiently while studying. Some of them take notes; some make diagrams; some prefer to listen to lectures, etc. Since no learning style fits all students, scientists have conducted research in order to understand the way students learn new information best.

Let’s look at the different types of learning they have distinguished.

What Are the Main Four Types of Learning in Education?

We mentioned before that scientists have for years tried to understand the best ways students learn through research. One of the popular theories, to this day, is the VARK model. This model identifies four types of learners: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and reading/writing .

Most people are a combination of these four styles, but more times than not, they have a predominant style of learning. Each of these styles has a complementary way of teaching. Now, let’s see the characteristics each of these styles entails and how best to make use of them.

Visual learners are individuals who prefer to take in their information visually—be that with maps, graphs, diagrams, charts, and others. However, they don’t necessarily respond well to photos or videos, rather needing their information using different visual aids such as patterns and shapes.

The best way to present to visual learners is by showing them the relationship between different ideas visually. For instance, when explaining a scientific process, it can be done by using a flow chart.

Auditory learners are individuals who learn better when they take in information in auditory form when it is heard or spoken. They are prone to sorting their ideas after speaking rather than thinking ideas through before. Since, to them, saying things out loud helps them understand the concept.

If they are learning a second language or a new theory, auditory learners learn best when information is presented to them via strategies that involve talking, such as lectures and group discussions. They can benefit from repeating the lessons, utilizing technology for recordings of the lectures, doing group activities that require classmates to explain ideas, etc.

Kinesthetic learners are individuals who prefer to learn by doing. They enjoy a hands-on experience. They are usually more in touch with reality and more connected to it, which is why they require using tactile experience to understand something better.

The best way to present new information to a kinesthetic learner is through personal experience, practice, examples, or simulations. For instance, they can remember an experiment by recreating it themselves.

Reading/writing learners consume information best when it’s in words, whether that’s by writing it down or reading it. To them, text is more powerful than any kind of visual or auditory representation of an idea. These individuals usually perform very well on written assignments.

There are different ways to get a reading/writing learner to engage and understand a certain lesson. For instance, it would be best to have them describe charts and diagrams by written statements, take written quizzes on the topics, or give them written assignments.

Other Types of Learning Styles

Now that we have discussed some learning styles that have been around for a while, it’s time we dug a little deeper and introduced some other lesser-known learning styles. It is important to note that not everyone agrees on the types of learning styles, their names, or even their number. Recent studies and theories from psychologists and experts in the field suggest that there are anywhere between 3 to 170 different types of learning styles . Other types of learning styles, based on one of the senses and a social aspect, include:

As the name suggests, analytical learners depend on logic and analytical skills to understand a particular subject. These types of learners search for connections, causes, patterns, and results in their learning. A teacher can engage and motivate these students by posing questions that require interpretation, using material that activates problem-solving skills, and stimulating students to reach conclusions based on facts or reasoning.

These types of learners favor educational lessons that include peer work or participation. Social/ linguistic learners get two things out of this participation: socializing (which they love) and a better understanding of a subject. Teachers can motivate these types of learners by using role-playing and different communication activities , such as encouraging student interaction (asking questions, sharing stories, etc.).

Otherwise known as solo learners, these students are the opposite of social learners. Solitary learners prefer to study alone without having to interact with other learners. Individual work is a solo student’s forte. Teachers can help these types of learners by using activities that require individual work (including keeping a diary) and problem-solving skills, recognizing a student’s individual accomplishments, etc.

These types of learners excel when in contact with nature. A nature learner’s ideal study environment is a calm and relaxing environment. If we had to compare nature learners with another type, it would be tactile learners. The only difference is the nature part of this deal, as nature learners need to be outside to learn better. While learning in nature may not always be possible, teachers can still nurture this learning style in students by assigning hands-on activities, having classes outdoors when possible, and using nature examples when explaining a new lesson.

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Given that everyone has a unique learning method, it would be wrong to say that a specific learning style is the best way to go. However, understanding your or your child’s style of learning is very important.

Since the way someone best consumes information can be a deciding factor in their academic success, understanding what kind of learner they are is vital. You can do this by trying all four methods of learning and then deciding which one helps you remember best. Once you know what kind of style fits you, you can tailor your studies to fit your needs.

Additional Insights into Learning Styles

Understanding learning styles encompasses a broader spectrum beyond just the VARK model, delving into cognitive, emotional, and environmental factors influencing how individuals prefer to learn. 

Cognitive styles, such as sequential versus global processing, contribute significantly to learning preferences. Sequential learners thrive on step-by-step instruction, while global learners prefer grasping the big picture first. Factors like attention span, memory capacity, and processing speed also shape learning preferences.

Emotional elements, including motivation and self-esteem, play a crucial role in individuals engaging with different learning styles. Students with high confidence and motivation may readily explore various learning approaches, while those with lower self-esteem might stick to familiar methods. 

Moreover, the learning environment, encompassing aspects like noise level, lighting, and physical comfort, can significantly impact receptiveness to different learning styles. Flexibility in the environment, such as offering study location choices or adjusting classroom setups, helps accommodate diverse preferences.

Teaching Strategies for Diverse Learning Styles

Personalized strategies tailored to individual learning styles can enhance engagement and comprehension in teaching. Teachers can provide various learning materials, allow students to choose assignments, or offer alternative assessment methods to cater to varied preferences. 

Integrating technology, such as interactive multimedia presentations or online forums, further supports different learning modes. Collaborative learning opportunities, including group activities and peer tutoring, benefit students with social or linguistic learning preferences by fostering interaction and discussion. Conversely, solitary learners may thrive in environments where they can work independently.

Continuous assessment and feedback mechanisms are integral in identifying students’ preferred learning styles and adjusting instructional strategies accordingly. Regular feedback enables students to reflect on their learning processes and refine study habits based on their unique styles. 

Moreover, professional development programs for educators can provide training on recognizing and accommodating diverse learning styles in the classroom. Teachers can learn effective instructional strategies tailored to different preferences and gain insights into creating inclusive learning environments. 

By embracing the multifaceted nature of learning styles, educators can cultivate environments that cater to the diverse needs of all students.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Learning styles refer to individual preferences and approaches to acquiring knowledge. Understanding one’s learning style can enhance comprehension and academic success by tailoring study methods to fit individual needs.

Teachers can accommodate diverse learning styles by offering a variety of learning materials, allowing for student choice in assignments, integrating technology, fostering collaborative learning opportunities, and providing personalized feedback and support.

No, there is no single best learning style for all students. Every individual has a unique learning method that suits them best. It’s essential to explore different learning styles and determine which one works most effectively for each student.

Students can identify their preferred learning style by experimenting with different study methods, such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and reading/writing techniques. Reflecting on which methods result in better comprehension and retention can help determine their preferred style.

Yes, besides learning styles, other factors such as cognitive abilities, emotional factors like motivation and self-esteem, environmental conditions, and teaching methods also influence how students learn. It’s essential to consider these factors holistically when designing educational strategies.

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Create Your Course

The 7 main types of learning styles (and how to teach to them), share this article.

Understanding the 7 main types of learning styles and how to teach them will help both your students and your courses be more successful.

When it comes to learning something new, we all absorb information at different rates and understand it differently too. Some students get new concepts right away; others need to sit and ponder for some time before they can arrive at similar conclusions.

Why? The answer lies in the type of learning styles different students feel more comfortable with. In other words, we respond to information in different ways depending on how it is presented to us.

Clearly, different types of learning styles exist, and there are lots of debates in pedagogy about what they are and how to adapt to them.

For practical purposes, it’s recommended to ensure that your course or presentation covers the 7 main types of learning.

In this article, we’ll break down the 7 types of learning styles, and give practical tips for how you can improve your own teaching styles , whether it’s in higher education or an online course you plan to create on the side.

Skip ahead:

What are the 7 types of learning styles?

How to accommodate different types of learning styles online.

• How to help students understand their different types of learning styles

How to create an online course for all

In the academic literature, the most common model for the types of learning you can find is referred to as VARK.

VARK is an acronym that stands for Visual, Auditory, Reading & Writing, and Kinesthetic. While these learning methods are the most recognized, there are people that do not fit into these boxes and prefer to learn differently. So we’re adding three more learning types to our list, including Logical, Social, and Solitary.

Visual learners

Visual learners are individuals that learn more through images, diagrams, charts, graphs, presentations, and anything that illustrates ideas. These people often doodle and make all kinds of visual notes of their own as it helps them retain information better. 

When teaching visual learners, the goal isn’t just to incorporate images and infographics into your lesson. It’s about helping them visualize the relationships between different pieces of data or information as they learn. 

Gamified lessons are a great way to teach visual learners as they’re interactive and aesthetically appealing. You should also give handouts, create presentations, and search for useful infographics to support your lessons.

Since visual information can be pretty dense, give your students enough time to absorb all the new knowledge and make their own connections between visual clues.

Auditory/aural learners

The auditory style of learning is quite the opposite of the visual one. Auditory learners are people that absorb information better when it is presented in audio format (i.e. the lessons are spoken). This type of learner prefers to learn by listening and might not take any notes at all. They also ask questions often or repeat what they have just heard aloud to remember it better.

Aural learners are often not afraid of speaking up and are great at explaining themselves. When teaching auditory learners, keep in mind that they shouldn’t stay quiet for long periods of time. So plan a few activities where you can exchange ideas or ask questions. Watching videos or listening to audio during class will also help with retaining new information.

Reading and writing (or verbal) learners

Reading & Writing learners absorb information best when they use words, whether they’re reading or writing them. To verbal learners, written words are more powerful and granular than images or spoken words, so they’re excellent at writing essays, articles, books, etc. 

To support the way reading-writing students learn best, ensure they have time to take ample notes and allocate extra time for reading. This type of learner also does really well at remote learning, on their own schedule. Including reading materials and writing assignments in their homework should also yield good results.

Kinesthetic/tactile learners

Kinesthetic learners use different senses to absorb information. They prefer to learn by doing or experiencing what they’re being taught. These types of learners are tactile and need to live through experiences to truly understand something new. This makes it a bit challenging to prepare for them in a regular class setting. 

As you try to teach tactile learners, note that they can’t sit still for long and need more frequent breaks than others. You need to get them moving and come up with activities that reinforce the information that was just covered in class. Acting out different roles is great; games are excellent; even collaborative writing on a whiteboard should work fine. If applicable, you can also organize hands-on laboratory sessions, immersions, and workshops.

In general, try to bring every abstract idea into the real world to help kinesthetic learners succeed.

Logical/analytical learners 

As the name implies, logical learners rely on logic to process information and understand a particular subject. They search for causes and patterns to create a connection between different kinds of information. Many times, these connections are not obvious to people to learn differently, but they make perfect sense to logical learners. 

Logical learners generally do well with facts, statistics, sequential lists, and problem-solving tasks to mention a few. 

As a teacher, you can engage logical learners by asking open-ended or obscure questions that require them to apply their own interpretation. You should also use teaching material that helps them hone their problem-solving skills and encourages them to form conclusions based on facts and critical thinking. 

Social/interpersonal learners 

Social or interpersonal learners love socializing with others and working in groups so they learn best during lessons that require them to interact with their peers . Think study groups, peer discussions, and class quizzes. 

To effectively teach interpersonal learners, you’ll need to make teamwork a core part of your lessons. Encourage student interaction by asking questions and sharing stories. You can also incorporate group activities and role-playing into your lessons, and divide the students into study groups.  

Solitary/intrapersonal learners 

Solitary learning is the opposite of social learning. Solitary, or solo, learners prefer to study alone without interacting with other people. These learners are quite good at motivating themselves and doing individual work. In contrast, they generally don’t do well with teamwork or group discussions.

To help students like this, you should encourage activities that require individual work, such as journaling, which allows them to reflect on themselves and improve their skills. You should also acknowledge your students’ individual accomplishments and help them refine their problem-solving skills. 

Are there any unique intelligence types commonly shared by your students? Adapting to these different types of intelligence can help you can design a course best suited to help your students succeed.

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How to help students understand their different types of learning styles 

Unless you’re teaching preschoolers, most students probably already realize the type of learning style that fits them best. But some students do get it wrong.

The key here is to observe every student carefully and plan your content for different learning styles right from the start.

Another idea is to implement as much individual learning as you can and then customize that learning for each student. So you can have visual auditory activities, riddles for logical learners, games for kinesthetic learners, reading activities, writing tasks, drawing challenges, and more.

When you’re creating your first course online, it’s important to dedicate enough time to planning out its structure. Don’t just think that a successful course consists of five uploaded videos.

Think about how you present the new knowledge. Where it makes sense to pause and give students the time to reflect. Where to include activities to review the new material. Adapting to the different learning types that people exhibit can help you design an online course best suited to help your students succeed.

That being said, here are some tips to help you tailor your course to each learning style, or at least create enough balance. 

Visual learners 

Since visual learners like to see or observe images, diagrams, demonstrations, etc., to understand a topic, here’s how you can create a course for them: 

• Include graphics, cartoons, or illustrations of concepts 
• Use flashcards to review course material 
• Use flow charts or maps to organize materials 
• Highlight and color code notes to organize materials 
• Use color-coded tables to compare and contrast elements 
• Use a whiteboard to explain important information
• Have students play around with different font styles and sizes to improve readability 

Auditory learners prefer to absorb information by listening to spoken words, so they do well when teachers give spoken instructions and lessons. Here’s how to cater to this learning type through your online course: 

• Converse with your students about the subject or topic 
• Ask your students questions after each lesson and have them answer you (through the spoken word)
• Have them record lectures and review them with you 
• Have articles, essays, and comprehension passages out to them
• As you teach, explain your methods, questions, and answers 
• Ask for oral summaries of the course material 
• If you teach math or any other math-related course, use a talking calculator 
• Create an audio file that your students can listen to
• Create a video of you teaching your lesson to your student
• Include a YouTube video or podcast episode for your students to listen to
• Organize a live Q & A session where students can talk to you and other learners to help them better understand the subject

Reading and writing (or verbal) learners 

This one is pretty straightforward. Verbal learners learn best when they read or write (or both), so here are some practical ways to include that in your online course:

• Have your students write summaries about the lesson 
• If you teach language or literature, assign them stories and essays that they’d have to read out loud to understand
• If your course is video-based, add transcripts to aid your students’ learning process
• Make lists of important parts of your lesson to help your students memorize them
• Provide downloadable notes and checklists that your students can review after they’ve finished each chapter of your course
• Encourage extra reading by including links to a post on your blog or another website in the course
• Use some type of body movement or rhythm, such as snapping your fingers, mouthing, or pacing, while reciting the material your students should learn

Since kinesthetic learners like to experience hands-on what they learn with their senses — holding, touching, hearing, and doing. So instead of churning out instructions and expecting to follow, do these instead: 

• Encourage them to experiment with textured paper, and different sizes of pencils, pens, and crayons to jot down information
• If you teach diction or language, give them words that they should incorporate into their daily conversations with other people
• Encourage students to dramatize or act out lesson concepts to understand them better 

Logical learners are great at recognizing patterns, analyzing information, and solving problems. So in your online course, you need to structure your lessons to help them hone these abilities. Here are some things you can do:

• Come up with tasks that require them to solve problems. This is easy if you teach math or a math-related course
• Create charts and graphs that your students need to interpret to fully grasp the lesson
• Ask open-ended questions that require critical thinking 
• Create a mystery for your students to solve with clues that require logical thinking or math
• Pose an issue/topic to your students and ask them to address it from multiple perspectives

Since social learners prefer to discuss or interact with others, you should set up your course to include group activities. Here’s how you can do that:

• Encourage them to discuss the course concept with their classmates
• Get your students involved in forum discussions
• Create a platform (via Slack, Discord, etc.) for group discussions
• Pair two or more social students to teach each other the course material
• If you’re offering a cohort-based course , you can encourage students to make their own presentations and explain them to the rest of the class

Solitary learners prefer to learn alone. So when designing your course, you need to take that into consideration and provide these learners a means to work by themselves. Here are some things you can try: 

• Encourage them to do assignments by themselves
• Break down big projects into smaller ones to help them manage time efficiently
• Give them activities that require them to do research on their own
• When they’re faced with problems regarding the topic, let them try to work around it on their own. But let them know that they are welcome to ask you for help if they need to
• Encourage them to speak up when you ask them questions as it builds their communication skills 
• Explore blended learning , if possible, by combining teacher-led classes with self-guided assignments and extra ideas that students can explore on their own.

Now that you’re ready to teach something to everyone, you might be wondering what you actually need to do to create your online courses. Well, start with a platform.

Thinkific is an intuitive and easy-to-use platform any instructor can use to create online courses that would resonate with all types of learning styles. Include videos, audio, presentations, quizzes, and assignments in your curriculum. Guide courses in real-time or pre-record information in advance. It’s your choice.

In addition, creating a course on Thinkific doesn’t require you to know any programming. You can use a professionally designed template and customize it with a drag-and-drop editor to get exactly the course you want in just a few hours. Try it yourself to see how easy it can be.

This blog was originally published in August 2017, it has since been updated in March 2023. 

Althea Storm is a B2B SaaS writer who specializes in creating data-driven content that drives traffic and increases conversions for businesses. She has worked with top companies like AdEspresso, HubSpot, Aura, and Thinkific. When she's not writing web content, she's curled up in a chair reading a crime thriller or solving a Rubik's cube.

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What are the 7 different learning styles and do they work?

You may have heard of the idea that we all respond best to different styles of learning. That is exactly what the seven learning styles theory supports. All of the styles capture an individual strength that likely helps a person retain information more effectively. They each focus on one of the five senses or involve a social aspect. This theory is popular because, by finding an individual learner’s style and tailoring teaching to it, it was thought their efficiency could be improved. The 7 styles of the theory are:

• kinaesthetic

However, more recent studies have debunked this theory as an effective way of teaching and highlighted it as a neuromyth. This Guardian article says, ‘Such neuromyths create a false impression of individuals’ abilities, leading to expectations and excuses that are detrimental to learning in general, which is a cost in the long term.’

In other words, attempting to put learners into boxes and trying to only give them material that matches their “style” isn’t going to make them retain information any better. Most people benefit from a range of teaching techniques, and utilising different learning methods can actually improve learners’ adaptability.

Nevertheless, it’s certainly true that there are a variety of learning methods people respond to. So, just for fun, we’ve produced 7 different explanations of the 7 styles, each using techniques that learners of that style should find most useful.

Have a look through each one, and ask yourself: do you find them all equally engaging? Is there one (or more) that you prefer above the others? Maybe you have your own learning techniques that aren’t covered by any of the learning styles. Or perhaps you find one style more useful for this exercise, but when learning German verbs or mathematical formulae you know you prefer another? How effectively we learn isn’t just affected by the medium, but the content too.

While the 7 styles theory isn’t going to give you your one definitive style, you might still pick up a few useful techniques.

Visual or spatial learners supposedly retain information best by viewing pictures or images and respond well to colours and mind maps. These logos represent the main aspect of each learning style. Do you like to learn by remembering symbols and images?

Fill in the form to view a free, full sized, printable version.

Kinaesthetic

According to the theory, kinaesthetic learners are all about doing things physically. Role playing, using things like flashcards or carrying out the action physically can help them learn things better. Print and build this seven-sided die to see whether a hands-on approach could help you retain information.

Aural or auditory-musical learners should retain the most information after hearing it. Click below to listen to this recital of the different learning styles: do you tune out or find yourself remembering more than if you read the transcript?

Fill in the form to download and listen to the aural learning style.

Social, or interpersonal learners are meant to work best when they participate in study activities with other people such as quizzing each other or having a study group. Print and use these Top Trumps style cards with a group of friends.

Solitary, or intrapersonal learners supposedly work best alone. Making notes and reciting them back are useful activities when studying by yourself. Most of us will have to do some solitary revision at some point in our lives, so download and complete this worksheet to see if it works for you.

Verbal, or linguistic learners are supposed to respond well to written or spoken words, using tools like rhymes and acronyms. Download and complete this worksheet to figure out if these could be techniques that work for you.

Logical, or mathematical learners use logic and structures in order to learn effectively. If you’re good with numbers and statistics, you might find the logical style in this essay helpful. Have a read below:

What are the 7 Different Learning Styles?

Learning styles is the theory that learners can be categorised depending on how they take in information. Therefore, teaching students according to their specific learning styles will result in improved learning. While there is no concrete evidence to support the success of these learning styles, a 2012 study revealed that 93% of teachers in the UK agree that students learn better when they receive information in their preferred learning style.

These learning styles derived from Howard Gardner’s 1960s theory of Multiple Intelligences. This theory states that: “we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves.” This essay plans to outline the seven different learning styles while categorising them into three main categories: personal, sensory and informational. It will then recommend study methods for each type of learner.

1. Personal Learning Styles

The personal category links learning styles which depend on other persons to be present or absent. These are different from other learning styles which focus on how the learner takes in information, instead they depend greatly on the learners’ surroundings and whether they are studying with or without people. These types of styles split into Interpersonal learners or intrapersonal learners.

1.1 Interpersonal Learners

Interpersonal learners work best in groups and social elements help improve their concentration. Debates, group study and interactions are the best methods. Interestingly, while they work best in groups, they also have the most empathy when it comes to others. “Interpersonal intelligence builds on a core capacity to notice distinctions among others – in particular, contrasts in their moods, temperaments, motivations and intentions.”

1.2 Intrapersonal Learners

Intrapersonal learners are also known as solitary learners. Unlike interpersonal learners they work best when studying alone. They are known to be interested in philosophy, psychology and theology because of their proficiency in self-reflection.

“They’re in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions,” said a 2008 study on bridging educational divides. Unsurprisingly, these are the most independent learners from all the seven styles. Recommended study methods for intrapersonal learners include keeping a journal and finding a personal interest in the topics being studied.

2. Sensory Learning Styles

The sensory category links learning styles which use the senses. These are split into spatial/visual learners, auditory-musical learners and kinaesthetic learners. According to various studies of the sensory learning styles, roughly 65 percent of the population are visual learners, 30 percent are auditory learners and 5 percent are kinaesthetic learners. However, many students show traits of multiple learning styles.

2.1 Spatial Learners

Spatial learners are visualisers, which is why they’re also known as ‘visual learners’. As educational writer Stacy Mantle describes , these types of learners are good at working with colours and pictures and using the “mind’s eye.” Visual learners use spatial understanding; thus Gardner discusses that their problem solving is useful for navigation and map reading. This type of learning is also helpful for visualising an object from different angles and in playing chess.

2.2 Auditory-Musical Learners

Auditory-musical learners take in information through their sensitivity to rhythm and sound.  They have the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone . “Good or bad, their response to any music they hear is immediate, and they tend to be more in tune with nature sounds, and the sounds of their environment than their counterparts,” said Gilam in a study about multiple kinds of intelligence . The best methods for auditory-musical learners are to study with music in the background or to turn their notes into rhymes.

2.3 Kinaesthetic Learners

Kinaesthetic learners take in information through the use of their body and touch. Obvious kinaesthetic learners include dancers or surgeons. For these physical learners, a hands-on education and carrying out the activity themselves is more effective than listening to an explanation. According to Mantle, many of these kinaesthetic learners are often misdiagnosed as having Attention Deficit Hyper Activity Disorder, usually because they often have more energy than other types of learners.

3. Informational Learning Styles

The last category for the learning styles is informational, which refers simply to how the brain parses information, many in form of language or data. These learning styles do not depend on the senses or the learner’s social surroundings. Informational learners can be split into linguistic learners or mathematical learners.

3.1 Linguistic Learners

Linguistic learners, which are also known as verbal learners, work best with words. Whether information is spoken or written, these learners memorise information through language use. Gardner states “the linguistic intelligence is activated when individuals encounter the sounds of a language or when they wish to communicate something verbally to another person.” However, this learning style doesn’t correlate exclusively with the spoken word. For example, deaf people could demonstrate linguistic intelligence through the use of signs, according to Gardner.

For linguistic learners, recommended approaches include reading writing and telling stories. So taking notes while reading is a successful method of study.

3.2 Mathematical Learners

As the name implies, mathematical learners work best using numbers, structures and reasoning, this is why they are also referred to as logical learners. According to Mantle, these learners make the best engineers and work by categorising and classifying abstract patterns or relationships. Gardner notes a similarity between mathematical and musical learners, because both are drawn to structural patterns, which can often exist in music.

To summarise, despite the lack of substantial evidence supporting the success of these learning styles, they remain widely popular and are still used in schools throughout the country. According to this Wired article “Parents, understandably, like to think that their children are receiving a tailored education. Teachers, also understandably, like to think that they are sensitive to each child’s needs and many are clearly motivated to find out more about how to fulfil this ideal.” However, while there is still value in tailoring teaching methods based on the content and intended audience, attempting to strictly organise individuals into specific styles is not likely to be helpful, and could even prevent them from developing more rounded learning skills.

Jarrett goes on to describe how “learning is improved (for most everyone) by combining different activities – such as drawing alongside more passive study.” While it is not as useful as once thought for categorising learners, the 7 learning styles theory may still be of some use in making both teachers and learners alike aware of a greater variety of learning techniques and methods.

Our courses are designed to embed these fundamental learning styles so that our learners can cover the curriculum in a way that suits them. You can find our CIPD courses here, where you can request a brochure or start online today.

CIPD Level 3 HR Courses : The CIPD Level 3 Certificate in People Practice is ideal for anyone looking to start a career in either HR or Learning and Development. CIPD Level 5 HR Courses : The CIPD Level 5 Associate Diploma in People Management will help you build on your existing HR knowledge. CIPD Level 5 L&D Courses : The CIPD Level 5 Diploma in Organisational Learning and Development is the most comprehensive course available for L&D professionals, ideal for you if you want to formalise your existing experience, skills and knowledge. CIPD Level 7 HR Courses : The CIPD Level 7 Advanced Diploma is aimed at expanding learners’ autonomy so they can strategically direct organisations and their people.

If you aspire to become a digital marketing manager or explore the senior level of your career have a look at the squared digital marketing programme .

Did you find any of these techniques helpful? You probably don’t fit neatly into one “style” in the way people used to think, but we hope this has helped you to figure out some of your preferred learning methods so you can plan for future study sessions!

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4 Types of Learning Styles: How to Accommodate a Diverse Group of Students

By Callie Malvik on 08/17/2020

We all experience the world in unique ways, and with that comes variation in the ways we learn best. Understanding these different types of learning styles can drastically impact the way teachers handle their students, set up group projects and adapt individual learning. Without understanding and acknowledging these different ways of learning, teachers might end up with a handful of students lagging behind their classmates—in part because their unique learning style hasn’t been activated.

Part of your responsibility as an educator is to adjust your lessons to the unique group of students you are working with at any given time. The best teachers can cater to each student’s strengths, ensuring they are truly grasping the information.

So how do you meet the needs of different types of learners in your class? Join us as we outline the four types of learning styles and how teachers can practically apply this information in their classrooms.

Ways of learning: A closer look at 4 learning styles

Learning styles and preferences take on a variety of forms—and not all people fit neatly into one category. But generally speaking, these are the most common types of learners:

1. Visual learners

How to recognize visual learners in your class: Someone with a preference for visual learning is partial to seeing and observing things, including pictures, diagrams, written directions and more. This is also referred to as the “spatial” learning style. Students who learn through sight understand information better when it’s presented in a visual way. These are your doodling students, your list makers and your students who take notes.

How to cater to visual learners: The whiteboard or smartboard is your best friend when teaching these types of learners. Give students opportunities to draw pictures and diagrams on the board, or ask students to doodle examples based on the topic they’re learning. Teachers catering to visual learners should regularly make handouts and use presentations. Visual learners may also need more time to process material, as they observe the visual cues before them. So be sure to give students a little time and space to absorb the information.

2. Auditory learners

How to recognize auditory learners in your class: Auditory learners tend to learn better when the subject matter is reinforced by sound. These students would much rather listen to a lecture than read written notes, and they often use their own voices to reinforce new concepts and ideas. These types of learners prefer reading out loud to themselves. They aren’t afraid to speak up in class and are great at verbally explaining things. Additionally, they may be slower at reading and may often repeat things a teacher tells them.

How to cater to auditory learners: Since these students generally find it hard to stay quiet for long periods of time, get your auditory learners involved in the lecture by asking them to repeat new concepts back to you. Ask questions and let them answer. Invoke group discussions so your auditory and verbal processors can properly take in and understand the information they’re being presented with. Watching videos and using music or audiotapes are also helpful ways of learning for this group.

3. Kinesthetic learners

How to recognize kinesthetic learners in your class: Kinesthetic learners, sometimes called tactile learners, learn through experiencing or doing things. They like to get involved by acting out events or using their hands to touch and handle in order to understand concepts. These types of learners might struggle to sit still and often excel at sports or like to dance. They may need to take more frequent breaks when studying.

How to cater to kinesthetic learners: The best way teachers can help these students learn is by getting them moving. Instruct students to act out a certain scene from a book or a lesson you’re teaching. Also try encouraging these students by incorporating movement into lessons: pacing to help memorize, learning games that involve moving around the classroom or having students write on the whiteboard as part of an activity.

Once kinesthetic learners can physically sense what they’re studying, abstract ideas and difficult concepts become easier to understand.

4. Reading/writing learners

How to recognize reading/writing learners in your class: According to the VARK Modalities theory developed by Fleming and Mills in 1992, reading/writing learners prefer to learn through written words. While there is some overlap with visual learning, these types of learners are drawn to expression through writing, reading articles or books, writing in diaries, looking up words in the dictionary and searching the internet for just about everything.

How to cater to reading/writing learners: Of the four learning styles, this is probably the easiest to cater to since much of the traditional educational system tends to center on writing essays, doing research and reading books. Be mindful about allowing plenty of time for these students to absorb information through the written word, and give them opportunities to get their ideas out on paper as well.

Embrace all types of learning

Understanding these different learning styles doesn’t end in the classroom. By equipping students with tools in their early years, teachers are empowering them for their futures. Pinpointing how a child learns best can dramatically affect their ability to connect with the topics you’re teaching, as well as how they participate with the rest of the class.

Now that you have some tactics in your back pocket to accommodate different ways of learning, you may be curious about classroom management strategies. Learn more in our article, “ Proven Classroom Management Tips for Preschool Teachers . ”

EDITOR’S NOTE: This article was originally published in 2018. It has since been updated to include information relevant to 2020.

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Overview of VARK Learning Styles

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Aron Janssen, MD is board certified in child, adolescent, and adult psychiatry and is the vice chair of child and adolescent psychiatry Northwestern University.

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VARK Learning Styles

• Find Your Style
• Kinesthetic

Why It Matters

Frequently asked questions.

Learning styles are a popular concept in psychology and education and are intended to identify how people learn best. VARK learning styles suggest that there are four main types of learners: visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic.

The idea that students learn best when teaching methods and school activities match their learning styles, strengths, and preferences grew in popularity in the 1970s and 1980s. However, most evidence suggests that personal learning preferences have little to no actual influence on learning outcomes.

While the existing research has found that matching teaching methods to learning styles has no influence on educational outcomes, the concept of learning styles remains extremely popular.

There are many different ways of categorizing learning styles , but Neil Fleming's VARK model is one of the most popular. Fleming introduced an inventory in 1987 that was designed to help students and others learn more about their individual learning preferences.

According to the VARK model, learners are identified by whether they have a preference for:

• Visual learning (pictures, movies, diagrams)
• Auditory learning (music, discussion, lectures)
• Reading and writing (making lists, reading textbooks, taking notes)
• Kinesthetic learning (movement, experiments, hands-on activities)

The VARK model refers to the four sensory modalities that describe different learning preferences. The model suggests that these modalities reflect how students learn best.

What Type of Learner Are You?

In order to identify which type of learner people are, Fleming developed a self-report inventory that posed a series of situations. Respondents select the answers that best match their preferred approach to learning.

Imagine that you are learning how to perform a new physical skill such as riding a bike or dancing a certain style of dance. In which way would you learn this skill the best?

• Look at pictures of people performing the skill. (Visual)
• Listen to an expert explain how to do the task. (Auditory)
• Read about how to perform the task in a book. (Reading/Writing)
• Watch someone else perform the skill and then trying it yourself. (Kinesthetic)

Visual Learners

Visual learners learn best by seeing. Graphic displays such as charts, diagrams, illustrations, handouts, and videos are all helpful learning tools for visual learners.

Visual learners prefer this type of learning would rather see information presented in a visual rather than in written form.

Do you think you might be a visual learner? Then consider the following questions:

• Are art, beauty, and aesthetics important to you?
• Does visualizing information in your mind help you remember it better?
• Do you have to see information in order to remember it?
• Do you pay close attention to body language ?

If you can answer yes to most of these questions, chances are good that you have a visual learning style. You may find it helpful to incorporate things like pictures and graphs when you are learning new information.

Aural Learners

Aural (or auditory) learners learn best by hearing information. They tend to get a great deal out of lectures and are good at remembering things they are told.

Are you an auditory learner? Consider the following questions:

• Do you create songs to help remember information?
• Does reading out loud help you remember information better?
• Do you prefer to listen to class lectures rather than reading from the textbook?
• Would you prefer to listen to a recording of your class lectures or a podcast rather than going over your class notes?

If you answered yes to most of these questions, then you are probably an auditory learner. You might find things like audiobooks and podcasts helpful for learning new things.

Reading and Writing Learners

Reading and writing learners prefer to take in information that is displayed as words and text. Could you be a reading and writing learner? Read through the following questions and think about whether they might apply to you.

• Do you enjoy making lists, reading definitions, and creating presentations?
• Do you find reading your textbook to be a great way to learn new information?
• Do you take a lot of notes during class and while reading textbooks?
• Do you prefer it when teachers make use of overheads and handouts?

If you answered yes to these questions, it is likely that you have a strong preference for the reading and writing style of learning. You might find it helpful to write down information in order to help you learn and remember it.

Kinesthetic Learners

Kinesthetic (or tactile) learners learn best by touching and doing. Hands-on experience is important for kinesthetic learners.

Not sure if you're a kinesthetic learner? Answer these questions to find out:

• Are you good at applied activities such as painting, cooking, mechanics, sports, and woodworking?
• Do you enjoy performing tasks that involve directly manipulating objects and materials?
• Do you have to actually practice doing something in order to learn it?
• Is it difficult for you to sit still for long periods of time?

If you responded yes to these questions, then you are most likely a kinesthetic learner. Taking classes that give you practical, hands-on experience may be helpful when you want to acquire a new skill.

The validity of the VARK model as well as other learning style theories has been questioned and criticized extensively. Some critics have suggested that labeling students as having one specific learning style can actually be a hindrance to learning.

One large-scale look at learning style models suggested that the instruments designed to assess individual learning styles were questionable.  

The VARK model remains fairly popular among both students and educators despite these criticisms. Students may feel drawn to a particular learning style. Others may find that their learning preferences lie somewhere in the middle, such as finding both visual and auditory learning equally appealing.

People might find that understanding their own learning preferences can be helpful. If you know that visual learning appeals to you most, using visual study strategies in conjunction with other learning methods might help you remember and enjoy your studies more.

If no single learning preference calls out to you or you change preferences based on the situation or the type of information you are learning, you probably have what is known as a multimodal style .

For example, you might rely on your reading and writing preferences when you are dealing with a class that requires a great deal of book reading and note-taking, such as a history of psychology course. During an art class, you might depend more on your visual and kinesthetic preferences as you take in pictorial information and learn new techniques.

The four VARK learning styles are visual learners, aural learners, reading and writing learners, and kinesthetic learners.

According to some data, the most common is a multimodal learning style referred to as VARK Type Two, which involves exhibiting a range of learning preferences. People with this learning style tend to collect information more slowly and take time to make decisions.

In terms of single preferences, kinesthetic is by far the most common, accounting for 22.8% of respondents.

Pashler H, Mcdaniel M, Rohrer D, Bjork R. Learning styles: concepts and evidence . Psychol Sci Public Interest . 2008;9(3):105-19. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x

VARK Learn Limited. VARK research - what do we know about VARK ?

Fleming N. Introduction to Vark .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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4: Types of Essays

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• Ann Inoshita, Karyl Garland, Kate Sims, Jeanne K. Tsutsui Keuma, and Tasha Williams
• University of Hawaii via University of Hawaiʻi OER

Learning Objectives

Student will be able to do the following after reading this chapter:

• Apply essay structure to various rhetorical modes.
• Provide the required components of a specific essay assignment.
• 4.1: Introduction Rhetorical modes are simply the ways in which people effectively communicate through language. Sometimes writers incorporate a variety of modes in any one essay. For example, a persuasive essay may include paragraphs showing cause and effect, description, and narrative. The rhetorical mode writers choose depends on the purpose for writing. Rhetorical modes are a set of tools that will allow students greater flexibility and effectiveness in communicating with their audience and expressing ideas.
• 4.2.1: Memoir or Personal Narrative- Learning Lessons from the Personal
• 4.2.1.1: Exploring the Past to Understand the Present
• 4.2.1.2: Trailblazer
• 4.2.1.3: Glance at Genre- Conflict, Detail, and Revelation
• 4.3: Process Analysis A process analysis essay explains how to do something or how something works. In either case, the formula for a process analysis essay remains the same. The process is articulated into clear, definitive steps. Almost everything writers do involves following a step-by-step process. From riding a bike as children to learning various jobs as adults, writers initially needed instructions to effectively execute the task.
• 4.4: Evaluation This section discusses the purpose and structure of evaluation, as many students prepare to write their own evaluative essays.
• 4.5: Comparison and Contrast
• 4.6.1: Persuasion/Argument

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33 What Is Learning?

[latexpage]

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain how learned behaviors are different from instincts and reflexes
• Define learning
• Recognize and define three basic forms of learning—classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning

Birds build nests and migrate as winter approaches. Infants suckle at their mother’s breast. Dogs shake water off wet fur. Salmon swim upstream to spawn, and spiders spin intricate webs. What do these seemingly unrelated behaviors have in common? They all are unlearned behaviors. Both instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors that organisms are born with. Reflexes are a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment. They tend to be simpler than instincts, involve the activity of specific body parts and systems (e.g., the knee-jerk reflex and the contraction of the pupil in bright light), and involve more primitive centers of the central nervous system (e.g., the spinal cord and the medulla). In contrast, instincts are innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as aging and the change of seasons. They are more complex patterns of behavior, involve movement of the organism as a whole (e.g., sexual activity and migration), and involve higher brain centers.

Both reflexes and instincts help an organism adapt to its environment and do not have to be learned. For example, every healthy human baby has a sucking reflex, present at birth. Babies are born knowing how to suck on a nipple, whether artificial (from a bottle) or human. Nobody teaches the baby to suck, just as no one teaches a sea turtle hatchling to move toward the ocean. Learning, like reflexes and instincts, allows an organism to adapt to its environment. But unlike instincts and reflexes, learned behaviors involve change and experience: learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. In contrast to the innate behaviors discussed above, learning involves acquiring knowledge and skills through experience. Looking back at our surfing scenario, Julian will have to spend much more time training with his surfboard before he learns how to ride the waves like his father.

Learning to surf, as well as any complex learning process (e.g., learning about the discipline of psychology), involves a complex interaction of conscious and unconscious processes. Learning has traditionally been studied in terms of its simplest components—the associations our minds automatically make between events. Our minds have a natural tendency to connect events that occur closely together or in sequence. Associative learning occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment. You will see that associative learning is central to all three basic learning processes discussed in this chapter; classical conditioning tends to involve unconscious processes, operant conditioning tends to involve conscious processes, and observational learning adds social and cognitive layers to all the basic associative processes, both conscious and unconscious. These learning processes will be discussed in detail later in the chapter, but it is helpful to have a brief overview of each as you begin to explore how learning is understood from a psychological perspective.

In classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, organisms learn to associate events—or stimuli—that repeatedly happen together. We experience this process throughout our daily lives. For example, you might see a flash of lightning in the sky during a storm and then hear a loud boom of thunder. The sound of the thunder naturally makes you jump (loud noises have that effect by reflex). Because lightning reliably predicts the impending boom of thunder, you may associate the two and jump when you see lightning. Psychological researchers study this associative process by focusing on what can be seen and measured—behaviors. Researchers ask if one stimulus triggers a reflex, can we train a different stimulus to trigger that same reflex? In operant conditioning, organisms learn, again, to associate events—a behavior and its consequence (reinforcement or punishment). A pleasant consequence encourages more of that behavior in the future, whereas a punishment deters the behavior. Imagine you are teaching your dog, Hodor, to sit. You tell Hodor to sit, and give him a treat when he does. After repeated experiences, Hodor begins to associate the act of sitting with receiving a treat. He learns that the consequence of sitting is that he gets a doggie biscuit ( [link] ). Conversely, if the dog is punished when exhibiting a behavior, it becomes conditioned to avoid that behavior (e.g., receiving a small shock when crossing the boundary of an invisible electric fence).

Observational learning extends the effective range of both classical and operant conditioning. In contrast to classical and operant conditioning, in which learning occurs only through direct experience, observational learning is the process of watching others and then imitating what they do. A lot of learning among humans and other animals comes from observational learning. To get an idea of the extra effective range that observational learning brings, consider Ben and his son Julian from the introduction. How might observation help Julian learn to surf, as opposed to learning by trial and error alone? By watching his father, he can imitate the moves that bring success and avoid the moves that lead to failure. Can you think of something you have learned how to do after watching someone else?

All of the approaches covered in this chapter are part of a particular tradition in psychology, called behaviorism, which we discuss in the next section. However, these approaches do not represent the entire study of learning. Separate traditions of learning have taken shape within different fields of psychology, such as memory and cognition, so you will find that other chapters will round out your understanding of the topic. Over time these traditions tend to converge. For example, in this chapter you will see how cognition has come to play a larger role in behaviorism, whose more extreme adherents once insisted that behaviors are triggered by the environment with no intervening thought.

Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others.

Review Questions

Which of the following is an example of a reflex that occurs at some point in the development of a human being?

• child riding a bike
• teen socializing
• infant sucking on a nipple
• toddler walking

Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that ________.

• occurs as a result of experience
• is found only in humans
• occurs by observing others

Two forms of associative learning are ________ and ________.

• classical conditioning; operant conditioning
• classical conditioning; Pavlovian conditioning
• operant conditioning; observational learning
• operant conditioning; learning conditioning

In ________ the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the behavior.

• associative learning
• observational learning
• operant conditioning
• classical conditioning

Critical Thinking Questions

Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning. How are they alike? How do they differ?

Both classical and operant conditioning involve learning by association. In classical conditioning, responses are involuntary and automatic; however, responses are voluntary and learned in operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the stimulus) comes before the behavior; in operant conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the consequence) comes after the behavior. Also, whereas classical conditioning involves an organism forming an association between an involuntary (reflexive) response and a stimulus, operant conditioning involves an organism forming an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

What is the difference between a reflex and a learned behavior?

A reflex is a behavior that humans are born knowing how to do, such as sucking or blushing; these behaviors happen automatically in response to stimuli in the environment. Learned behaviors are things that humans are not born knowing how to do, such as swimming and surfing. Learned behaviors are not automatic; they occur as a result of practice or repeated experience in a situation.

Personal Application Questions

What is your personal definition of learning? How do your ideas about learning compare with the definition of learning presented in this text?

What kinds of things have you learned through the process of classical conditioning? Operant conditioning? Observational learning? How did you learn them?

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Types of Learning Theories and Models Essay

Introduction, learning models, reference list.

The brain is by far the most complex organ in the human body. Its ability to receive, decipher, and store massive amounts of information is to say the least amazing. Over the years scientists and other medical practitioners have dedicated their time and resources into trying to understand how it works, what makes it work and how it relates and functions with other organs in the human physiology. As such, they have developed theories that indeed help divide it according to various parts and their functionality.

As a result, in-depth research has ensued as pertaining to how the brain processes our thoughts, assists in locomotion and most importantly how it helps us learn and actually retain knowledge and experience. An individual’s ability to learn and retain most of the knowledge greatly depends on the learning model adopted.

Using the case provided, this study shall focus on the creation and retention of memory as some of the core functions of the brain. Using documented proof, the discussion shall set to ascertain the fact that human memory does indeed comprise multiple cognitive systems as regarding to the different types of learning theories and models.

Every field of research must always have a main focus through which questions and answers for that particular study are structured and provided. This having being said, learning research evolves around the belief that there are different types of memory systems that are interconnected and interact with each other to provide a particular outcome.

Additionally, these systems are sub divided into those that handle long- term memories and those that are in charge of short- term memories. The task, hence, is not to define the mechanism of memorizing events and thing, but to explain why some events fail to be remembered by a person.

Contrast and compare of learning models in relation to analyze the case

The process of learning implies memorizing and retaining events and models of behavior, which enables individuals to change and adjust to new conditions. With regard to the case studying the problems of memorizing and rejecting the experience, it is purposeful to study Freud’s regression theory of human behavior and Skinner’s theory of behavior science, particularly the study of reinforcement that shapes the occurrence of particular behavior patterns (Chance, 2008, p. 160).

Freudian theory of resurgence, or regression, is the recurrence of reinforced behavior that is attached to a tendency to use more primitive modes of behavior because the new ones turn out to be unacceptable in particular situations. In psychology, this learning mode takes place when the actions performed are removed from our consciousness to an unconscious state. Hence, if a particular model of behavior fails to be effective in a situation, it will continue to decrease in frequency.

This pattern of learning and behavior can be interpreted as a defense mechanism being a particular form of adjusting to a situation. Unlike Freud, Skinner insists on the fact that reinforcement, but not extinction, can also lead to a failure to adjust to new forms of behavior, if the reinforcement is negative (Chance, 2008, p. 157).

Apparently, negative experience stimulates the removal or even avoidance of an adverse event. Skinner’s theory is apposed to Freud’s position about the defense mechanism. In particular, reinforcement facilitates the frequencies of behavior whereas the process of extinction leads to a decrease in the behavior frequency.

Extinction makes an individual return to previously established patterns via the decrease of using new methods whereas reinforcement lies in strengthening the existing behavior pattern. In both cases, both reinforcement and extinction lead to a decline in a future probability of an occurrence of new models of behavior.

Analyzing the case under consideration, both theories explain the problem of memory loss, but differently. In particular, Maura’ problem is closely connected with reinforcement and extinction procedures serving as a defense mechanism. Memory loss, therefore, occurs when she encounters a negative experience and, on the contrary a negative experience occurs when she is disappointed by the relationships with her partner.

Such reactions and process are also associated with the specifics of memory systems that include patterns of perceptual learning, and emotional responses (Nevid, 2008, p. 189). In order to explain the problem, it is necessary to analyze the case from the viewpoint of memory organization.

Judging from the case, Maura repeats certain patterns of behavior due to the inability to adjust to new experience, or due to the ignorance of other models of behavior.

She refuses to remember previous behavior patterns because her episodic memory is unable to accumulate experience for constructing a successive chain of life episodes (Chance, 2008, p. 335). The reason for such disorganization can lie in Maura’s reluctance to endeavor negative experience once more.

Explaining the case problems with regard to a particular model

After considering both theories thoroughly, it is quite challenging to decide which learning mode explains best the case. In particular, Freudian theory of resurgence explains why Maura constantly returns to previous pattern of behavior and, in this respect, Maura’s loss of memory can be explained as her desire to return to initially established repetitive patterns and inability to switch from psychological form to another.

Skinner’s model also manages to provide an explanation to Maura’s losses of memory through reinforcement of negative experience.

Hence, when Maura finds out that her partner fails to make a greater romantic commitment, which is a negative condition for her, she tries to do everything possible to stop the influence of bad experience. In other words, loss of memory is strengthened by the consequence of avoiding hurt and disappointment in relations.

The above-presented considerations show that Skinner’s model is more consistent in explaining the mechanism of Maura’s action because it explains why she makes use of the same patterns and why she is unable to adjust to changes. Moreover, Skinner’s theory also explains why Maura resorts to the same actions.

Designing a Modification Program for a Patient Using Skinner’s Model

Due to the fact that Skinner’s theory of learning and behavior is based on using past patterns and consequences as the trigger of future actions, it is necessary to work out a modification plan that would impose change on initially established patterns of behavior that will enable Maura to employ new forms of learning.

A particular emphasis should be made on acquiring experience of past events and changing patterns in accordance with that experience. The starting point should be placed at the moment when Maura seeks to find a greater romantic commitment from her partner. This is the stage when it is necessary to introduce another factor impelling the patient to make other decisions.

According to Skinner, it is possible to shape another learning approaching by means other methods of reinforcement. For example, it would be purposeful to understand the reason why Maura choose a particular type of partners and why she wants them to be romantically oriented.

Considering Ethical Issues While Choosing a Modification Plan

Certainly, every aspect of psychological development of individuals must be considered with regard to ethical issues. In this respect, language is the core in designing a modification plan because it depends on cultural, social and, emotional acceptance of individuals’ actions (Wierzbicka, 1986, p. 593).

The assumption that human emotions are universal and they do not depend on cultures and, therefore, language should not affect psychological state of the patient under consideration. Aside from language consideration, it is also necessary to analyze morale with regard to psychology. In particular, a modification plan will take morality and human emotions in the deepest consideration to cognize Maura’s memory systems.

Learning and behavior are closely interconnected as learning is acquired through experience which shapes behavioral patterns. Inability to learn and gain experience leads to returning to repetitive patterns. In this study, I set out to explore life experiences of Maura and how various learning models can explain her predicaments.

In order to explain the reasons of the presented pathology, the presented modification plan has been based on Skinner’s theory of behavior disclosing the role of positive and negative reinforcements in shaping behavioral patterns.

Although both, Freudian and Skinner’s models have efficiently justified the cases, Maura’ problem will be solved with the help of the latter as memory loss is closely connected with negative reinforcement. In particular, the presented program will be aimed at shifting from using negative reinforcement to positive one.

Chance, P. (2008). Learning and behavior: Active Learning Edition . US: Cengage Learning.

Nevid, J. S. (2008). Psychology: Concepts and Applications . US: Cengage Learning.

Wierzbicka, A. (1986). Human Emotions: Universal or Culture Specific? American Anthropologist. 88(3), pp. 584-594.

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The 7 Types of Essays Every Student Needs to Know

Words are a powerful tool that can shape our thoughts and ideas. In the academic world, students are often required to express their knowledge and opinions through written essays. However, with so many different types of essays to choose from, it can be overwhelming to know where to start. That’s why we’ve compiled a comprehensive guide to the seven types of essays every student needs to know.

Another common type of essay is the persuasive essay, which seeks to convince the reader of a particular viewpoint. This type of essay uses logic, reasoning, and evidence to support its arguments and counter any opposing views. Persuasive essays are commonly used in debates, speeches, and opinion articles.

Next, we have the narrative essay, which is more personal in nature. This type of essay tells a story and allows the writer to express their personality, experiences, and emotions. Unlike other essays, narrative essays can use first-person pronouns and often have a relaxed, conversational tone. They are commonly used for college applications, personal statements, and creative writing assignments.

The analytical essay is another important type of essay that requires students to analyze and interpret a literary work, film, or any other form of media. In this essay, students need to provide a critical analysis of the chosen piece, discussing its themes, symbolism, and character development. Analytical essays are commonly assigned in English literature and film studies courses.

The descriptive essay is all about using words to paint a vivid picture in the reader’s mind. This type of essay allows students to employ their senses and create a sensory experience for the reader. Descriptive essays are often used in creative writing classes and can help develop a student’s ability to use descriptive language effectively.

Lastly, we have the argumentative essay, which is similar to the persuasive essay but requires a more in-depth analysis and stronger evidence. Argumentative essays present a well-reasoned argument or claim and require students to support their position with facts, examples, and logical reasoning. This type of essay is commonly assigned in philosophy, sociology, and political science courses.

Now that you are familiar with the seven types of essays, you can confidently tackle any writing assignment that comes your way. Remember to always follow the specific guidelines provided by your instructor and to check your work for any grammatical or spelling errors. Writing essays may be difficult at times, but with practice and guidance, you will become a master at crafting compelling and well-structured pieces.

Argumentative Essays: How to Persuade Your Audience

Unlike other types of essays, argumentative essays require the writer to take a stand on a specific topic and present arguments to back it up. They should provide clear and concise explanations on why their viewpoint is valid and why the opposing viewpoints are not.

When writing an argumentative essay, it is important to have a strong thesis statement that clearly states your position on the topic. This thesis statement should be supported by well-researched evidence and examples.

One of the ways to strengthen an argumentative essay is by using persuasive language and rhetorical devices such as rhetorical questions , metaphors, and analogies. These techniques can help grab the reader’s attention and make the arguments more compelling.

Argumentative essays should be written in the third-person point of view. Avoid using first-person pronouns such as “I” and “you.” Instead, focus on presenting objective evidence and logical reasoning to support your claims.

When writing an argumentative essay, it is important to anticipate and address counterarguments. By addressing counterarguments, the writer acknowledges the existence of opposing viewpoints and demonstrates their ability to refute them. This strengthens the overall argument and shows that the writer has carefully considered all perspectives on the topic.

As with any type of writing, it is crucial to revise and edit your argumentative essay to polish it to perfection. Check for grammar and spelling errors, clarity of sentences, and coherence of ideas. Make sure your essay flows smoothly and that each paragraph supports the main thesis.

Argumentative essays can cover a wide range of topics, from political and social issues to scientific or mathematical concepts. Regardless of the topic, the key is to present a strong, well-supported argument that is persuasive and convincing to your audience.

So, if you’re ready to join the powerful world of argumentative writing, start working on your persuasive essay today. Remember to gather the necessary evidence, establish a clear thesis statement, and consider your audience’s perspective. By following these guidelines, you can become a master of the art of persuasion.

Narrative Essays: Telling a Captivating Story

When working on a narrative essay, the first-person point of view is commonly used, as it allows students to directly connect with the reader and convey their experiences and emotions. Students should capitalize on this style by using vivid descriptions and sensory details to paint a vivid picture of the event or story they’re sharing. By doing so, they’ll better engage the reader and make the narrative more powerful and captivating.

Humorous or lighthearted anecdotes can also be effective in narrative essays, making them more entertaining and enjoyable to read. By adding humor, students can create a positive tone and leave a lasting impression on the reader. However, humor should be used carefully and in moderation, depending on the topic and audience.

Narrative essays can cover a wide range of topics, from personal experiences and travel adventures to fictional stories and imaginative creations. The key is to select a topic that is meaningful to the writer and has the potential to captivate the reader. It’s important to note that while narratives need to be engaging, they should also have a clear structure and a purpose.

One common mistake students make when writing narrative essays is including too much irrelevant information or going off-topic. To avoid this, students should stay focused and ensure that every sentence and event is directly related to the main theme or message of the essay.

Expository Essays: Explaining and Informing

In the body paragraphs, you should provide detailed explanations and examples to support your thesis statement. These examples can be personal anecdotes, facts, statistics, or quotes from experts. Make sure to organize your ideas in a logical order to help the readers follow your arguments.

An expository essay usually concludes with a strong closing paragraph that summarizes the main points and restates the thesis statement in a different way. This helps leave a lasting impression on the readers.

Expository essays can cover a wide range of topics, from academic subjects to personal experiences. They can be informative, persuasive, or even humorous, depending on the writer’s tone and purpose.

When writing an expository essay, it is important to pay attention to grammar and punctuation. Check for errors such as missing commas, incorrect capitalization, and run-on sentences. Using Grammarly or other grammar-checking tools can be helpful in this process.

In addition, make sure to use appropriate components such as ellipsis, dashes, and other punctuation marks to enhance the clarity and flow of your essay. These components can help break down the information and make it easier for readers to understand.

Overall, expository essays are a great way to share information and explain complex ideas. They can help applicants stand out from their peers and make a strong impression on college admissions committees. By following the guidelines and using the components mentioned above, you can create a well-structured and engaging expository essay.

Descriptive Essays: Painting a Vivid Picture

Descriptive essays often use language that is rich in sensory details, such as sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch. By employing descriptive techniques, the writer can transport the reader to the scene, making them feel as if they are experiencing it firsthand.

One common way to structure a descriptive essay is to use a compare-and-contrast approach. This allows the writer to highlight the similarities and differences between two or more objects or subjects, creating a more dynamic and engaging description.

Before working on a descriptive essay, it is important to brainstorm and choose a topic that is interesting and meaningful to you. Consider selecting a theme, event, or person that has had a significant impact on your life or has left a lasting impression.

Remember to avoid common grammar and punctuation mistakes, such as run-on sentences, comma splices, and missing hyphens. Check your writing for clarity, coherence, and proper sentence structure. Polish your essay by proofreading it for any errors before submitting it.

A descriptive essay can be a valuable tool for expressing oneself creatively and exploring different writing techniques. It allows the writer to experiment with language and imagery, creating a unique and engaging piece of writing.

Compare and Contrast Essays: Finding Similarities and Differences

When writing a compare and contrast essay, the first-person perspective should not be used. Instead, the writer should analyze the subjects objectively, using third-person language. This helps to maintain an analytical tone and keep the focus on the comparison rather than personal opinions or experiences.

It’s important to use effective transition words and phrases to help readers follow the comparison. Words like “similarly,” “likewise,” “on the other hand,” and “in contrast” can be used to show the relationship between the subjects being compared.

When working on a compare and contrast essay, it is advisable to read other pieces of writing on the same topic to get a better understanding of different writing styles and approaches. This can help the student to polish their own writing and become a better writer.

Here’s an example of how a compare and contrast essay might look:

Comparing and contrasting two popular fruits: apples and oranges.

Body Paragraph 1:

The first difference between apples and oranges is their outward appearance. Apples are usually round, while oranges are spherical with a bumpy texture. This difference in shape and texture can affect the way they are eaten and perceived by individuals.

Body Paragraph 2:

Another difference is the taste. Apples are generally sweeter, while oranges have a tangy and citrusy flavor. These different taste profiles can appeal to different individuals based on their personal preference and personality.

Body Paragraph 3:

As you can see, a well-written compare and contrast essay provides a comprehensive analysis of the subjects being compared. It looks at both the similarities and differences, allowing the reader to gain a better understanding of the topic at hand.

Cause and Effect Essays: Analyzing the Root Causes and Consequences

Cause and effect essays are a common type of academic writing that analyzes the root causes of a particular event or situation and examines their consequences. These essays are often used in college applications, as they require critical thinking and the ability to analyze complex topics.

The Structure of a Cause and Effect Essay

The body paragraphs of a cause and effect essay usually contain the main points and arguments. These paragraphs can be organized in several different ways, including chronological order, order of importance, or the use of compare-and-contrast techniques to highlight differences and similarities.

Tips for Writing a Cause and Effect Essay

Here are some tips to help you write a great cause and effect essay:

• Choose a topic that you are interested in and that has enough available information for you to analyze.
• Research and gather relevant data and sources to support your arguments. Remember to cite your sources properly using a bibliography or a specific citation style.
• Use clear and concise language and avoid using complex or technical terms unless necessary.
• Organize your essay using appropriate grammar and sentence structure. Use transitional words and phrases to indicate cause and effect relationships.
• Make sure to establish a clear connection between the causes and their consequences. Avoid jumping from one point to another without proper explanation or analysis.
• Proofread and edit your essay to fix any spelling or grammar errors. You can use tools like Grammarly to help you with this task.

In summary, cause and effect essays are a common type of academic writing that require critical thinking and analysis. They are often used in college applications and can be difficult to write. However, by following the proper structure and using the right techniques, you can create a compelling and informative essay that effectively analyzes the root causes and consequences of a given topic.

What are the common types of essays?

The common types of essays are: descriptive, narrative, expository, persuasive, argumentative, compare and contrast, and cause and effect essays.

What is a descriptive essay?

A descriptive essay is an essay that paints a vivid picture of a person, place, thing, or event using sensory details.

What is a persuasive essay?

A persuasive essay is an essay that aims to convince the reader to adopt a particular viewpoint or take a specific action. It presents arguments and evidence to support the author’s opinion.

What is a compare and contrast essay?

A compare and contrast essay is an essay that analyzes the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. It focuses on identifying the characteristics and qualities that make each subject unique or similar.

By Alex Koliada, PhD

Alex Koliada, PhD, is a well-known doctor. He is famous for studying aging, genetics, and other medical conditions. He works at the Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics. His scientific research has been published in the most reputable international magazines. Alex holds a BA in English and Comparative Literature from the University of Southern California , and a TEFL certification from The Boston Language Institute.

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Three Main Basic Types of Learning Styles, Essay Example

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There are three main basic types of learning styles.  These are defined as being: (1) Visual (2) Auditory and (3) Kinesthetic.

Using Visual Learning Styles

When communicating using visual learning styles you tend to focus upon  using images, pictures, colors, and maps to organize information and communicate with others. The concept of ” a picture speaks 1000 words means that you can easily visualize objects, plans and outcomes in your mind’s eye. Visual learning also provides you with good spatial senses, meaning you can understand space and direction more readily.  For example : you rarely get lost if you have and read a map to find your way around. Whiteboards are very good for scribbling ideas on and using different coloured pens for differentiation and coding purposes.

Using Auditory Learning Styles

Auditory learners are those that assimilate learning best by hearing things.  These learning types respond best to lectures as opposed to writing and research.  A good technique for auditory learners is the speech recognition tool available on most PC’s.  Auditory learners seem to possess a capability for determining the true meaning of someone’s words by listening to the auditory signal and the fluctuations in speech tone.  The concept of saying a Phone number allowed and then remembering the number by the way it was said.

Kinesthetic Learning Style

This type of learning style is aimed at those who learn by the experience of doing things.  This relates to physical contact like sport and exercise. The tactile response to learning by touching and feeling objects.   An example might be woodworking, metal craft or gardening.  This is a question of being sensitive or in tune with the world around you.  Such people are more energized and prefer to use hand gestures to communicate.  With this collaborative learning process you have objects and use the touch senses in order to describe them.

Extravert Personality Types

Those people with an extravert personality tend to project their energy outwards. Essentially to people thinking outside of themselves.  These people tend to be much more naturally expressive, confident, socially interactive with a diverse range of interests.  Extroverts lend themselves well to brainstorming sessions , in large groups of similar personality, where they can use all of their creative and imaginitive skills. These people are great for exploring new ideas and concepts and attract personality types like artists, inventors, actors etc.

Intravert Personality Types

These people tend to reflect their energies inwards and more geared towards their own personal feelings, reactions and perceptions.  They are often much more reserved people and prefer privacy, inner reflection.  They will be much more cautious in their relationships but have a greater depth of focus on the subject matter.  These people often work best as individuals or small groups where there energies can be focused towards specific problem solving scenarios. Good examples of this type are Scientists, Mathematicians, analysts etc.

Power Players

These types like to have things their own way and are obsessed with winning or victory. Authoritarian by nature, they demand respect and recognition.  Power players are very self-opinionated and like to control debates.  Ruthless by nature they are not afraid of casting aside those who get in their way from achieving personal aims and objectives.  The belief in their opinions being factual statements tends to make them fixed in thinking and predictable in behaviour.  Such people are both difficult to control and communicate with and extremely disruptive of group dynamics.  The best way of communicating with these people is by assigning difficult tasks and getting them to deal with new business ventures.  These type of people open up new territories, the pioneers of the business world.

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A.I. Is Learning What It Means to Be Alive

Given troves of data about genes and cells, A.I. models have made some surprising discoveries. What could they teach us someday?

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By Carl Zimmer

• Published March 10, 2024 Updated March 12, 2024

In 1889, a French doctor named Francois-Gilbert Viault climbed down from a mountain in the Andes, drew blood from his arm and inspected it under a microscope. Dr. Viault’s red blood cells, which ferry oxygen, had surged 42 percent. He had discovered a mysterious power of the human body: When it needs more of these crucial cells, it can make them on demand.

In the early 1900s, scientists theorized that a hormone was the cause. They called the theoretical hormone erythropoietin, or “red maker” in Greek. Seven decades later, researchers found actual erythropoietin after filtering 670 gallons of urine .

And about 50 years after that, biologists in Israel announced they had found a rare kidney cell that makes the hormone when oxygen drops too low. It’s called the Norn cell , named after the Norse deities who were believed to control human fate.

It took humans 134 years to discover Norn cells. Last summer, computers in California discovered them on their own in just six weeks.

The discovery came about when researchers at Stanford programmed the computers to teach themselves biology. The computers ran an artificial intelligence program similar to ChatGPT, the popular bot that became fluent with language after training on billions of pieces of text from the internet. But the Stanford researchers trained their computers on raw data about millions of real cells and their chemical and genetic makeup.

The researchers did not tell the computers what these measurements meant. They did not explain that different kinds of cells have different biochemical profiles. They did not define which cells catch light in our eyes, for example, or which ones make antibodies.

The computers crunched the data on their own, creating a model of all the cells based on their similarity to each other in a vast, multidimensional space. When the machines were done, they had learned an astonishing amount . They could classify a cell they had never seen before as one of over 1,000 different types. One of those was the Norn cell.

“That’s remarkable, because nobody ever told the model that a Norn cell exists in the kidney,” said Jure Leskovec, a computer scientist at Stanford who trained the computers.

The software is one of several new A.I.-powered programs, known as foundation models, that are setting their sights on the fundamentals of biology. The models are not simply tidying up the information that biologists are collecting. They are making discoveries about how genes work and how cells develop.

As the models scale up, with ever more laboratory data and computing power, scientists predict that they will start making more profound discoveries. They may reveal secrets about cancer and other diseases. They may figure out recipes for turning one kind of cell into another.

“A vital discovery about biology that otherwise would not have been made by the biologists — I think we’re going to see that at some point,” said Dr. Eric Topol, the director of the Scripps Research Translational Institute.

Just how far they will go is a matter of debate. While some skeptics think the models are going to hit a wall, more optimistic scientists believe that foundation models will even tackle the biggest biological question of them all: What separates life from nonlife?

Heart Cells and Mole Rats

Biologists have long sought to understand how the different cells in our bodies use genes to do the many things we need to stay alive.

About a decade ago, researchers started industrial-scale experiments to fish out genetic bits from individual cells. They recorded what they found in catalogs, or “ cell atlases ,” that swelled with billions of pieces of data.

Dr. Christina Theodoris, a medical resident at Boston Children’s Hospital, was reading about a new kind of A.I. model made by Google engineers in 2017 for language translations. The researchers provided the model with millions of sentences in English, along with their translations into German and French. The model developed the power to translate sentences it hadn’t seen before. Dr. Theodoris wondered if a similar model could teach itself to make sense of the data in cell atlases.

In 2021, she struggled to find a lab that might let her try to build one. “There was a lot of skepticism that this approach would work at all,” she said.

Shirley Liu, a computational biologist at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, gave her a shot. Dr. Theodoris pulled data from 106 published human studies, which collectively included 30 million cells, and fed it all into a program she created called GeneFormer.

The model gained a deep understanding of how our genes behave in different cells. It predicted, for example, that shutting down a gene called TEAD4 in a certain type of heart cell would severely disrupt it. When her team put the prediction to the test in real cells called cardiomyocytes, the beating of the heart cells grew weaker.

In another test, she and her colleagues showed GeneFormer heart cells from people with defective heartbeat rhythms as well as from healthy people. “Then we said, Now tell us what changes we need to happen to the unhealthy cells to make them healthy,” said Dr. Theodoris, who now works as a computational biologist at the Gladstone Institutes in San Francisco.

GeneFormer recommended reducing the activity of four genes that had never before been linked to heart disease. Dr. Theodoris’s team followed the model’s advice, knocking down each of the four genes. In two out of the four cases, the treatment improved how the cells contracted.

The Stanford team got into the foundation-model business after helping to build one of the biggest databases of cells in the world, known as CellXGene . Beginning in August, the researchers trained their computers on the 33 million cells in the database, focusing on a type of genetic information called messenger RNA. They also fed the model the three-dimensional structures of proteins, which are the products of genes.

From this data, the model — known as Universal Cell Embedding, or U.C.E. — calculated the similarity among cells, grouping them into more than 1,000 clusters according to how they used their genes. The clusters corresponded to types of cells discovered by generations of biologists.

U.C.E. also taught itself some important things about how the cells develop from a single fertilized egg. For example, U.C.E. recognized that all the cells in the body can be grouped according to which of three layers they came from in the early embryo.

“It essentially rediscovered developmental biology,” said Stephen Quake, a biophysicist at Stanford who helped develop U.C.E.

The model was also able to transfer its knowledge to new species. Presented with the genetic profile of cells from an animal that it had never seen before — a naked mole rat, say — U.C.E. could identify many of its cell types.

“You can bring a completely new organism — chicken, frog, fish, whatever — you can put it in, and you will get something useful out,” Dr. Leskovec said.

After U.C.E. discovered the Norn cells, Dr. Leskovec and his colleagues looked in the CellXGene database to see where they had come from. While many of the cells had been taken from kidneys, some had come from lungs or other organs. It was possible, the researchers speculated, that previously unknown Norn cells were scattered across the body.

Dr. Katalin Susztak, a physician-scientist at the University of Pennsylvania who studies Norn cells, said that the finding whetted her curiosity. “I want to check these cells,” she said.

She is skeptical that the model found true Norn cells outside the kidneys, since the erythropoietin hormone hasn’t been found in other places. But the new cells may sense oxygen as Norn cells do.

In other words, U.C.E. may have discovered a new type of cell before biologists did.

An ‘Internet of Cells’

Just like ChatGPT , biological models sometimes get things wrong. Kasia Kedzierska, a computational biologist at the University of Oxford, and her colleagues recently gave GeneFormer and another foundation model , scGPT, a battery of tests . They presented the models with cell atlases they hadn’t seen before and had them perform tasks such as classifying the cells into types. The models performed well on some tasks, but in other cases they fared poorly compared with simpler computer programs.

Dr. Kedzierska said she had great hopes for the models but that, for now, “they should not be used out of the box without a proper understanding of their limitations.”

Dr. Leskovec said that the models were improving as scientists trained them on more data. But compared with ChatGPT’s training on the entire internet, the latest cell atlases offer only a modest amount of information. “I’d like an entire internet of cells,” he said.

More cells are on the way as bigger cell atlases come online. And scientists are gleaning different kinds of data from each of the cells in those atlases. Some scientists are cataloging the molecules that stick to genes, or taking photographs of cells to illuminate the precise location of their proteins. All of that information will allow foundation models to draw lessons about what makes cells work.

Scientists are also developing tools that let foundation models combine what they’re learning on their own with what flesh-and-blood biologists have already discovered. The idea would be to connect the findings in thousands of published scientific papers to the databases of cell measurements.

With enough data and computing power, scientists say, they may eventually create a complete mathematical representation of a cell.

“That’s going to be hugely revolutionary for the field of biology,” said Bo Wang, a computational biologist at the University of Toronto and the creator of scGPT. With this virtual cell, he speculated, it would be possible to predict what a real cell would do in any situation. Scientists could run entire experiments on their computers rather than in petri dishes.

Dr. Quake suspects that foundation models will learn not just about the kinds of cells that currently reside in our bodies but also about kinds of cells that could exist. He speculates that only certain combinations of biochemistry can keep a cell alive. Dr. Quake dreams of using foundation models to make a map showing the realm of the possible, beyond which life cannot exist.

“I think these models are going to help us get some really fundamental understanding of the cell, which is going to provide some insight into what life really is,” Dr. Quake said.

Having a map of what’s possible and impossible to sustain life might also mean that scientists could actually create new cells that don’t yet exist in nature. The foundation model might be able to concoct chemical recipes that transform ordinary cells into new, extraordinary ones. Those new cells might devour plaque in blood vessels or explore a diseased organ to report back on its condition.

“It’s very ‘Fantastic Voyage ’- ish,” Dr. Quake admitted. “But who knows what the future is going to hold?”

If foundation models live up to Dr. Quake’s dreams, they will also raise a number of new risks. On Friday, more than 80 biologists and A.I. experts signed a call for the technology to be regulated so that it cannot be used to create new biological weapons. Such a concern might apply to new kinds of cells produced by the models.

Privacy breaches could happen even sooner. Researchers hope to program personalized foundation models that would look at an individual’s unique genome and the particular way that it works in cells. That new dimension of knowledge could reveal how different versions of genes affect the way cells work. But it could also give the owners of a foundation model some of the most intimate knowledge imaginable about the people who donated their DNA and cells to science.

Some scientists have their doubts about how far foundational models will make it down the road to “Fantastic Voyage,” however. The models are only as good as the data they are fed. Making an important new discovery about life may depend on having data on hand that we haven’t figured out how to collect. We might not even know what data the models need.

“They might make some new discoveries of interest,” said Sara Walker, a physicist at Arizona State University who studies the physical basis of life. “But ultimately they are limited when it comes to new fundamental advances.”

Still, the performance of foundation models has already led their creators to wonder about the role of human biologists in a world where computers make important insights on their own. Traditionally, biologists have been rewarded for creative and time-consuming experiments that uncover some of the workings of life. But computers may be able to see those workings in a matter of weeks, days or even hours by scanning billions of cells for patterns we can’t see.

“It’s going to force a complete rethink of what we consider creativity,” Dr. Quake said. “Professors should be very, very nervous.”

Carl Zimmer covers news about science for The Times and writes the Origins column . More about Carl Zimmer

Explore Our Coverage of Artificial Intelligence

News  and Analysis

OpenAI unveiled Voice Engine , an A.I. technology that can recreate a person’s voice from a 15-second recording.

Amazon said it had added $2.75 billion to its investment in Anthropic , an A.I. start-up that competes with companies like OpenAI and Google.

Gov. Bill Lee of Tennessee signed a bill  to prevent the use of A.I. to copy a performer’s voice. It is the first such measure in the United States.

French regulators said Google failed to notify news publishers  that it was using their articles to train its A.I. algorithms, part of a wider ruling against the company for its negotiating practices with media outlets.

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How In-School Tutoring Benefits Both Attendance and Math Scores

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Tutoring has become a popular prescription for academic recovery, thanks to lots of evidence showing that sustained tutoring blocks at least three times a week can boost students’ improvement trajectories.

Now, two new research studies conclude that one of the critical pieces is making sure it happens during school hours—not outside of them. What’s more, students themselves seem to want to come to school when they know they’re going to receive personalized attention.

In essence, the two findings suggest compounding benefits for embedding extra help in the school day: academic improvement and better attendance.

On March 27, researchers at Chicago University’s Education Lab released preliminary findings from a study of two school districts in Chicago and Georgia showing “meaningful” improvement in math scores for the 2,200 students in grades K-11 who received tutoring.

The gains equaled about two-thirds of a year of math learning—improvement that is in line with other studies on tutoring, even though students on average got less tutoring time than in other studies.

“These gains are strikingly like the ones we’ve seen in previous studies on tutoring. The difference is that the implementation was much lower [from other efforts]. ... It shows that even tutoring done in a sub-optimal way can be beneficial,” said Monica Bhatt, a senior research director at the University of Chicago’s Education Lab, and one of the authors of the study.

Doing in-school tutoring can be challenging. So some principals have devised new support systems and designated on-site coordinators to organize the programs.

Those efforts have helped pay dividends for attendance, too. In the second study , released earlier this month, researchers with Stanford University’s National Student Support Accelerator found that students are 7 percent less likely to be absent on days they have scheduled tutoring sessions. The study, conducted over the 2022-23 school year, examined absenteeism rates of 4,478 students in 141 schools in the District of Columbia.

“There are lots of reasons why students are absent. Being disengaged in school is one reason,” said Nancy Waymack, the director of partnerships and policy at the NSSA."Tutoring is one way that students can have one more meaningful relationship in school. Tutoring can be one tool to move the needle in the right direction.”

Taken together, the studies point out a growing connection between tutoring, student attendance, and test scores. The critical factor: Committing to tutoring at school, not as an add-on.

“It shouldn’t be ad-hoc, or on-demand. It’s not homework help,” said Bhatt. “The message to school leaders is to protect the tutoring block in school.”

Contrasting two types of tutoring

Bhatt’s team initially picked four sites to study tutoring interventions over the 2022-23 school year to contrast two different kinds of tutoring. Fulton County in Ga., and Chicago Public Schools offered tutoring in school, while the other two sites—schools in New Mexico districts and a mid-size urban California school district—respectively offered evening and weekend slots, or after-school sessions.

In New Mexico’s case, only 527 students signed up for evening or weekend classes out of a total 34,000 that were eligible, and only about two thirds actually attended. In California, the urban school district that the researchers wanted to study saw a much lower rate of participation. In both cases, the participant numbers were too low to conduct a random-assignment study.

“The districts found that after-school or weekend programs are dependent on kids or their parents raising their hands. And it’s not the same set of kids who may need this tutoring the most,” noted Bhatt. “If we want to ameliorate education inequalities, we have to meet kids where they are literally, and in terms of where they are academically.”

For the other two districts, Bhatt’s team analyzed test scores for 429 students out of the 548 K-11 students randomized across 13 Chicago schools. One group was offered the tutoring at least three times a week at school. Schools picked which students would be part of the sample and school leaders prioritized students in the bottom quartile in terms of performance. All the students were offered tutoring at least three times a week for 30-minute sessions.

In Fulton County, Ga., the team studied outcomes of 1,163 students out of the 1,500 selected across 17 schools. Reading help was offered to students in grades 3-8, and math help was offered to students in grade 9.

In both cases, the treatment group received a much higher number of tutoring sessions, on average. (The control group also received some tutoring sessions).

As for the Stanford study, it’s part of an ongoing look at tutoring sponsored by the District of Columbia’s Office of the State Superintendent of Education, examining who received tutoring and how much it boosted learning.

“One of the things that stood out was the impact on attendance,” said Wymack. “We were able to compare how often students came to school on days when there was tutoring vs. days there wasn’t a session planned.”

The studies both point towards the benefits of fitting tutoring in during the school day. It means a more diverse set of students will have access to additiona help. And if instruction is differentiated for everybody, Bhatt added, students who need tutoring support the most will feel less stigmatized. And the findings are also good information as recovery dollars begin to dwindle.

“We felt an urgency to release these preliminary results because school leaders are making decisions about where to spend their remaining ESSER dollars,” said Bhatt., referring to the federal aid for schools.

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What Is Anomaly Detection in Machine Learning?

Learn about anomaly detection in machine learning, including types of anomalies, various anomaly detection techniques, and industry applications.

Anomaly detection is a data-related task where algorithms work to identify outliers. These outliers are important as inconsistencies within the data may be a cause for concern. Identifying any outliers or anomalies is important in order to avoid misrepresenting a data set or address any problems they potentially represent. Successful anomaly detection has the potential to help businesses in several ways, including minimizing costs, retaining customers, and managing time. Using machine learning strategies for anomaly detection is helping increase the rate at which you can identify anomalies, and in this article, you will learn about how various machine learning algorithms are making an impact in this space.

Read more: What Is Machine Learning? Definition, Types, and Examples

Anomaly detection in machine learning

Anomaly detection in machine learning is the process of using machine learning models to identify anomalies rapidly. This serves several purposes, whether to maintain clean, high-quality data that you will use for processing or specific business purposes. By ensuring quality data, organizations can have trust in their analysis, leading to better decision-making. 

Although anomaly detection techniques have previously existed, more modern efforts that utilize machine learning can automatically detect outliers. The main advantages of anomaly detection in machine learning include the ability to handle significant volumes of data, high dimensional data from various sources, a high success rate in identifying anomalies, and the ability to have real-time detection.

Types of anomalies

Anomalies can present themselves in different ways. While some anomalies are merely outliers that happen suddenly, other anomalies are less obvious. In some cases, anomalies can appear as a gradual change over time, slowly altering the data. 

Two ways you can classify anomalies are intentional versus unintentional: 

Intentional anomalies occur because of a specific event, such as a cyber attack on a company's network.

Unintentional anomalies instead arise due to an error at some point during data collection, such as a human error miscalculation, damaging the quality of a data set. 

When looking closer at the relationships within data, three more types of anomalies exist; contextual anomalies, point anomalies, and collective anomalies:

Contextual anomalies are similar to intentional anomalies in the way that they can occur due to specific events. 

Point anomalies are outliers that stand out from other data points within a data set. 

Collective anomalies are data points that sequentially occur and may need closer investigation to determine if it’s a cause for concern.

Anomaly detection techniques and algorithms

The right anomaly detection technique depends greatly on the type of data you're working with and how much of the data has labels versus unlabeled. Anomaly detection techniques fall into one of three categories: unsupervised anomaly detection, supervised anomaly detection, and semi-supervised anomaly detection. 

1. Unsupervised anomaly detection

Unsupervised anomaly detection is a popular approach to anomaly detection in machine learning. This is because unlabeled anomalous data is more common, allowing the unsupervised anomaly detection algorithm to make discoveries on its own, with no need for labels. This technique is seen in deep learning, using algorithms such as artificial neural networks, isolation forests, and one-class support vector machines. You can see unsupervised anomaly detection used in areas such as fraud detection and detecting medical anomalies. 

2. Supervised anomaly detection

Supervised anomaly detection requires the use of labeled data, unlike unsupervised learning methods. The downside of this is the fact that the algorithm can only detect anomalies that it’s seen before in its training data. This requires providing the algorithm with enough examples of anomalies and proper data. Examples of supervised anomaly detection algorithms include random forests and k-nearest neighbors. Some of the industry applications for these algorithms are detecting fraudulent transactions as well as detecting any defects that occur during manufacturing.

3. Semi-supervised anomaly detection

Semi-supervised anomaly detection blends together facets of both supervised and unsupervised anomaly detection methods, with the ability to handle some labeled data, in addition to large amounts of unlabeled data. Using labeled data gives you more control over the training process, potentially leading to better outcomes. An example of a semi-supervised anomaly detection algorithm is linear regression. Use cases for these algorithms include highly complex and industry-specific systems, as well as fraud detection.

Challenges of anomaly detection

Anomaly detection in machine learning does come with certain challenges. Unsupervised and supervised approaches can sometimes return too many false positives. This means that extra effort has to then go into developing a better model, as well as identifying the false positives in the first place. The results of anomaly detection also aren’t always simple to interpret, making it necessary to have employees properly equipped with skills to understand what they’re reviewing. 

Anomaly detection requires some specific data features as well. The data you use to develop a trained algorithm needs to be clean, with no duplicate information or incomplete data sets. Additionally, the size of the data set you use for training matters. If you don’t have a big enough training set, the model can’t accurately develop the model. To make up for a lack of data, one option is to implement synthetic data sets.  

Anomaly detection use cases

Implementing anomaly detection is useful across a wide range of industries. Here’s a look at specific use cases:

In e-commerce, anomaly detection allows businesses to measure changes in conversion rate. This allows you to quickly spot the issues causing these changes, whether due to seasonal changes, website issues, or other technical problems.

When businesses partner with content creators on social media, it’s important to ensure they’re working with real people and not fraudulent accounts. Anomaly detection algorithms can identify behavior that is concerning in this context.

The cybersecurity industry benefits greatly from anomaly detection, with the power to differentiate potentially malicious activity that can cause damage to the system from standard online actions. 

Anomaly detection helps with the monitoring of information technology systems, observing metrics that provide context to the overall performance of a system.

Getting started with Coursera

On Coursera, you can explore highly rated courses to learn more about machine learning and anomaly detection. Introduction to Machine Learning from Duke University can help you learn more about foundational machine learning topics, including logistic regression and neural networks.

Unsupervised Learning, Recommenders, Reinforcement Learning from DeepLearning.AI is another great option to gain skills in anomaly detection and expand your knowledge of unsupervised and supervised learning techniques.

Keep reading

Coursera staff.

Editorial Team

Coursera’s editorial team is comprised of highly experienced professional editors, writers, and fact...

This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

Study of different autism types finds shared mechanism that may respond to drugs

Researchers detect similar disruptions in the neural development of genetic and unexplained autism.

An analysis of how brains with different forms of autism develop has revealed common underlying mechanisms that may respond to existing medications.

For the study, Rutgers Health researchers used a technique called induced pluripotent stem cells to transform the blood cells of people with both genetic and unexplained (or idiopathic) autism spectrum disorder (ASD) into early brain cells called neural precursor cells. As the precursor cells from both groups matured in the lab, defects in a common signaling pathway that controls structural proteins led them to struggle with an important step in cell differentiation, the growth of neurites, and the cell migration needed for proper brain architecture.

Although some cell lines exhibited too much activity in this mTOR pathway, while others exhibited too little, the researchers could correct both problems and spur better cell differentiation with existing drugs that either stimulate or inhibit the activity of mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin).

"Cells in a dish are not fully human cells that have developed in a fetus and functioned in a person, but they are a lot closer than mouse cells," said Emanuel DiCicco-Bloom, a professor of neuroscience and cell biology/pediatrics at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and senior author of the study in eLife.

"This finding is particularly interesting because the process of growing new synaptic spines when people learn things is completely analogous to the processes we observed in the cells we used for this experiment: growing axons and migrating during fetal development," DiCicco-Bloom said. "So even though this experiment mimicked a process you'd see during early to mid-pregnancy, the same process involving structural proteins is happening right now in you and me, which means that if we took cells from people with autism and found this abnormal regulation of mTOR in their cells in a dish, those people might be candidates as adults for mTOR regulating drugs to improve their function."

The visible symptoms of ASD vary widely but typically feature some repetitive behaviors and some impairment in communication and social interaction. The condition's incidence has increased from about 1 in 150 children in 2000 to 1 in 36 children in 2020, according to the

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Roughly 10 to 15 percent of people with ASD have genes that are known to elevate their risk for ASD. Other cases are idiopathic, meaning they are unexplained.

Rutgers Health researchers began the study with blood from three unrelated people with idiopathic ASD, ages 4 to 14 years, with the expectation of finding person-specific differences in the processes occurring during development in utero. When the researchers used the pluripotent stem cell technique to transform blood cells into the sort of neuron precursors typically found in fetal brains, they unexpectedly found many similarities, including abnormalities in the mTOR pathway, which regulates cell creation, metabolism, neurite growth, remodeling and destruction, among many other functions.

The researchers then gained access to blood cells from another three patients with ASD caused by a particular genetic abnormality associated with about 1 percent of ASD, deletion of genes on chromosome 16, called 16p11.2 deletion. They performed the same experiment and found the same disruptions in neuron development.

Subsequent analysis showed that the mTOR signaling disruptions in some patients stemmed from excessive amounts of a particular molecule, while the disruptions in others stemmed from insufficient amounts. In either case, the researchers could use existing medications approved for use in other conditions to correct the problem and stimulate normal development.

The study team has already begun a follow-up investigation to see if people with ASD stemming from other genetic causes exhibit similar disruptions in mTOR activity during development. If mTOR signaling disruption proves a common feature of ASD, tests of mTOR function could help clinicians diagnose the condition more accurately and differentiate it from other conditions with similar effects.

"A couple of very rare genetic types of autism have already been linked to the mTOR pathway, but this is the first to connect mTOR with genes in the 16p11.2 area, which does not have mTOR on it, and with three presumably different types of idiopathic autism from three unrelated people," said Smrithi Prem, lead author of the study and a psychiatry resident at Penn Medicine who led the study as an MD/PhD student at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School.

"These findings also echo something that has appeared in studies of other conditions, that not all people with mTOR dysregulation have excessive activation that needs inhibition," Prem said. "There are two kinds of mTOR dysregulation, but most trials we've run on people with mTOR dysregulation have only used inhibitors. Our findings showed that cells from two of the people we studied needed more mTOR, not less, and that may spur trials that give different types of mTOR treatment to different individual patients."

• Brain Tumor
• Immune System
• Child Development
• Learning Disorders
• Disorders and Syndromes
• Alzheimer's disease
• Autistic spectrum
• Mammal classification
• Birth control
• Erectile dysfunction
• Sleep disorder

Story Source:

Materials provided by Rutgers University . Original written by Andrew Smith. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Smrithi Prem, Bharati Dev, Cynthia Peng, Monal Mehta, Rohan Alibutud, Robert J Connacher, Madeline St Thomas, Xiaofeng Zhou, Paul Matteson, Jinchuan Xing, James H Millonig, Emanuel DiCicco-Bloom. Dysregulation of mTOR signaling mediates common neurite and migration defects in both idiopathic and 16p11.2 deletion autism neural precursor cells . eLife , 2024; 13 DOI: 10.7554/eLife.82809

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