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How to do legal research in 3 steps

Knowing where to start a difficult legal research project can be a challenge. But if you already understand the basics of legal research, the process can be significantly easier — not to mention quicker.

Solid research skills are crucial to crafting a winning argument. So, whether you are a law school student or a seasoned attorney with years of experience, knowing how to perform legal research is important — including where to start and the steps to follow.

What is legal research, and where do I start? 

Black's Law Dictionary defines legal research as “[t]he finding and assembling of authorities that bear on a question of law." But what does that actually mean? It means that legal research is the process you use to identify and find the laws — including statutes, regulations, and court opinions — that apply to the facts of your case.

In most instances, the purpose of legal research is to find support for a specific legal issue or decision. For example, attorneys must conduct legal research if they need court opinions — that is, case law — to back up a legal argument they are making in a motion or brief filed with the court.

Alternatively, lawyers may need legal research to provide clients with accurate legal guidance . In the case of law students, they often use legal research to complete memos and briefs for class. But these are just a few situations in which legal research is necessary.

Why is legal research hard?

Each step — from defining research questions to synthesizing findings — demands critical thinking and rigorous analysis.

1. Identifying the legal issue is not so straightforward. Legal research involves interpreting many legal precedents and theories to justify your questions. Finding the right issue takes time and patience.

2. There's too much to research. Attorneys now face a great deal of case law and statutory material. The sheer volume forces the researcher to be efficient by following a methodology based on a solid foundation of legal knowledge and principles.

3. The law is a fluid doctrine. It changes with time, and staying updated with the latest legal codes, precedents, and statutes means the most resourceful lawyer needs to assess the relevance and importance of new decisions.

Legal research can pose quite a challenge, but professionals can improve it at every stage of the process . 

Step 1: Key questions to ask yourself when starting legal research

Before you begin looking for laws and court opinions, you first need to define the scope of your legal research project. There are several key questions you can use to help do this.

What are the facts?

Always gather the essential facts so you know the “who, what, why, when, where, and how” of your case. Take the time to write everything down, especially since you will likely need to include a statement of facts in an eventual filing or brief anyway. Even if you don't think a fact may be relevant now, write it down because it may be relevant later. These facts will also be helpful when identifying your legal issue.

What is the actual legal issue?

You will never know what to research if you don't know what your legal issue is. Does your client need help collecting money from an insurance company following a car accident involving a negligent driver? How about a criminal case involving excluding evidence found during an alleged illegal stop?

No matter the legal research project, you must identify the relevant legal problem and the outcome or relief sought. This information will guide your research so you can stay focused and on topic.

What is the relevant jurisdiction?

Don't cast your net too wide regarding legal research; you should focus on the relevant jurisdiction. For example, does your case deal with federal or state law? If it is state law, which state? You may find a case in California state court that is precisely on point, but it won't be beneficial if your legal project involves New York law.

Where to start legal research: The library, online, or even AI?

In years past, future attorneys were trained in law school to perform research in the library. But now, you can find almost everything from the library — and more — online. While you can certainly still use the library if you want, you will probably be costing yourself valuable time if you do.

When it comes to online research, some people start with free legal research options , including search engines like Google or Bing. But to ensure your legal research is comprehensive, you will want to use an online research service designed specifically for the law, such as Westlaw . Not only do online solutions like Westlaw have all the legal sources you need, but they also include artificial intelligence research features that help make quick work of your research

Step 2: How to find relevant case law and other primary sources of law

Now that you have gathered the facts and know your legal issue, the next step is knowing what to look for. After all, you will need the law to support your legal argument, whether providing guidance to a client or writing an internal memo, brief, or some other legal document.

But what type of law do you need? The answer: primary sources of law. Some of the more important types of primary law include:

• Case law, which are court opinions or decisions issued by federal or state courts
• Statutes, including legislation passed by both the U.S. Congress and state lawmakers
• Regulations, including those issued by either federal or state agencies
• Constitutions, both federal and state

Searching for primary sources of law

So, if it's primary law you want, it makes sense to begin searching there first, right? Not so fast. While you will need primary sources of law to support your case, in many instances, it is much easier — and a more efficient use of your time — to begin your search with secondary sources such as practice guides, treatises, and legal articles.

Why? Because secondary sources provide a thorough overview of legal topics, meaning you don't have to start your research from scratch. After secondary sources, you can move on to primary sources of law.

For example, while no two legal research projects are the same, the order in which you will want to search different types of sources may look something like this:

• Secondary sources . If you are researching a new legal principle or an unfamiliar area of the law, the best place to start is secondary sources, including law journals, practice guides , legal encyclopedias, and treatises. They are a good jumping-off point for legal research since they've already done the work for you. As an added bonus, they can save you additional time since they often identify and cite important statutes and seminal cases.
• Case law . If you have already found some case law in secondary sources, great, you have something to work with. But if not, don't fret. You can still search for relevant case law in a variety of ways, including running a search in a case law research tool.

Once you find a helpful case, you can use it to find others. For example, in Westlaw, most cases contain headnotes that summarize each of the case's important legal issues. These headnotes are also assigned a Key Number based on the topic associated with that legal issue. So, once you find a good case, you can use the headnotes and Key Numbers within it to quickly find more relevant case law.

• Statutes and regulations . In many instances, secondary sources and case law list the statutes and regulations relevant to your legal issue. But if you haven't found anything yet, you can still search for statutes and regs online like you do with cases.

Once you know which statute or reg is pertinent to your case, pull up the annotated version on Westlaw. Why the annotated version? Because the annotations will include vital information, such as a list of important cases that cite your statute or reg. Sometimes, these cases are even organized by topic — just one more way to find the case law you need to support your legal argument.

Keep in mind, though, that legal research isn't always a linear process. You may start out going from source to source as outlined above and then find yourself needing to go back to secondary sources once you have a better grasp of the legal issue. In other instances, you may even find the answer you are looking for in a source not listed above, like a sample brief filed with the court by another attorney. Ultimately, you need to go where the information takes you.

Step 3: Make sure you are using ‘good’ law

One of the most important steps with every legal research project is to verify that you are using “good" law — meaning a court hasn't invalidated it or struck it down in some way. After all, it probably won't look good to a judge if you cite a case that has been overruled or use a statute deemed unconstitutional. It doesn't necessarily mean you can never cite these sources; you just need to take a closer look before you do.

The simplest way to find out if something is still good law is to use a legal tool known as a citator, which will show you subsequent cases that have cited your source as well as any negative history, including if it has been overruled, reversed, questioned, or merely differentiated.

For instance, if a case, statute, or regulation has any negative history — and therefore may no longer be good law — KeyCite, the citator on Westlaw, will warn you. Specifically, KeyCite will show a flag or icon at the top of the document, along with a little blurb about the negative history. This alert system allows you to quickly know if there may be anything you need to worry about.

Some examples of these flags and icons include:

• A red flag on a case warns you it is no longer good for at least one point of law, meaning it may have been overruled or reversed on appeal.
• A yellow flag on a case warns that it has some negative history but is not expressly overruled or reversed, meaning another court may have criticized it or pointed out the holding was limited to a specific fact pattern.
• A blue-striped flag on a case warns you that it has been appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court or the U.S. Court of Appeals.
• The KeyCite Overruling Risk icon on a case warns you that the case may be implicitly undermined because it relies on another case that has been overruled.

Another bonus of using a citator like KeyCite is that it also provides a list of other cases that merely cite your source — it can lead to additional sources you previously didn't know about.

Perseverance is vital when it comes to legal research

Given that legal research is a complex process, it will likely come as no surprise that this guide cannot provide everything you need to know.

There is a reason why there are entire law school courses and countless books focused solely on legal research methodology. In fact, many attorneys will spend their entire careers honing their research skills — and even then, they may not have perfected the process.

So, if you are just beginning, don't get discouraged if you find legal research difficult — almost everyone does at first. With enough time, patience, and dedication, you can master the art of legal research.

Thomson Reuters originally published this article on November 10, 2020.

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Legal Research Strategy

Preliminary analysis, organization, secondary sources, primary sources, updating research, identifying an end point, getting help, about this guide.

This guide will walk a beginning researcher though the legal research process step-by-step. These materials are created with the 1L Legal Research & Writing course in mind. However, these resources will also assist upper-level students engaged in any legal research project.

How to Strategize

Legal research must be comprehensive and precise.  One contrary source that you miss may invalidate other sources you plan to rely on.  Sticking to a strategy will save you time, ensure completeness, and improve your work product. 

Follow These Steps

Running Time: 3 minutes, 13 seconds.

Make sure that you don't miss any steps by using our:

• Legal Research Strategy Checklist

If you get stuck at any time during the process, check this out:

• Ten Tips for Moving Beyond the Brick Wall in the Legal Research Process, by Marsha L. Baum

Understanding the Legal Questions

A legal question often originates as a problem or story about a series of events. In law school, these stories are called fact patterns. In practice, facts may arise from a manager or an interview with a potential client. Start by doing the following:

• Read anything you have been given
• Analyze the facts and frame the legal issues
• Assess what you know and need to learn
• Note the jurisdiction and any primary law you have been given
• Generate potential search terms

Jurisdiction

Legal rules will vary depending on where geographically your legal question will be answered. You must determine the jurisdiction in which your claim will be heard. These resources can help you learn more about jurisdiction and how it is determined:

• Legal Treatises on Jurisdiction
• LII Wex Entry on Jurisdiction

This map indicates which states are in each federal appellate circuit:

Getting Started

Once you have begun your research, you will need to keep track of your work. Logging your research will help you to avoid missing sources and explain your research strategy. You will likely be asked to explain your research process when in practice. Researchers can keep paper logs, folders on Westlaw or Lexis, or online citation management platforms.

Organizational Methods

Tracking with paper or excel.

Many researchers create their own tracking charts.  Be sure to include:

• Search Date
• Topics/Keywords/Search Strategy
• Citation to Relevant Source Found
• Save Locations
• Follow Up Needed

Consider using the following research log as a starting place: 

• Sample Research Log

Tracking with Folders

Westlaw and Lexis offer options to create folders, then save and organize your materials there.

• Lexis Advance Folders
• Westlaw Edge Folders

Tracking with Citation Management Software

For long term projects, platforms such as Zotero, EndNote, Mendeley, or Refworks might be useful. These are good tools to keep your research well organized. Note, however, that none of these platforms substitute for doing your own proper Bluebook citations. Learn more about citation management software on our other research guides:

• Guide to Zotero for Harvard Law Students by Harvard Law School Library Research Services Last Updated Sep 12, 2023 182 views this year

Types of Sources

There are three different types of sources: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary.  When doing legal research you will be using mostly primary and secondary sources.  We will explore these different types of sources in the sections below.

Secondary sources often explain legal principles more thoroughly than a single case or statute. Starting with them can help you save time.

Secondary sources are particularly useful for:

• Learning the basics of a particular area of law
• Understanding key terms of art in an area
• Identifying essential cases and statutes

Consider the following when deciding which type of secondary source is right for you:

• Scope/Breadth
• Depth of Treatment
• Currentness/Reliability

For a deep dive into secondary sources visit:

• Secondary Sources: ALRs, Encyclopedias, Law Reviews, Restatements, & Treatises by Catherine Biondo Last Updated Sep 12, 2023 3131 views this year

Legal Dictionaries & Encyclopedias

Legal dictionaries.

Legal dictionaries are similar to other dictionaries that you have likely used before.

• Black's Law Dictionary
• Ballentine's Law Dictionary

Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias contain brief, broad summaries of legal topics, providing introductions and explaining terms of art. They also provide citations to primary law and relevant major law review articles.  

Here are the two major national encyclopedias:

• American Jurisprudence (AmJur) This resource is also available in Westlaw & Lexis .
• Corpus Juris Secundum (CJS)

Treatises are books on legal topics.  These books are a good place to begin your research.  They provide explanation, analysis, and citations to the most relevant primary sources. Treatises range from single subject overviews to deep treatments of broad subject areas.

It is important to check the date when the treatise was published. Many are either not updated, or are updated through the release of newer editions.

To find a relevant treatise explore:

• Legal Treatises by Subject by Catherine Biondo Last Updated Sep 12, 2023 2280 views this year

American Law Reports (ALR)

American Law Reports (ALR) contains in-depth articles on narrow topics of the law. ALR articles, are often called annotations. They provide background, analysis, and citations to relevant cases, statutes, articles, and other annotations. ALR annotations are invaluable tools to quickly find primary law on narrow legal questions.

This resource is available in both Westlaw and Lexis:

• American Law Reports on Westlaw (includes index)
• American Law Reports on Lexis

Law Reviews & Journals

Law reviews are scholarly publications, usually edited by law students in conjunction with faculty members. They contain both lengthy articles and shorter essays by professors and lawyers. They also contain comments, notes, or developments in the law written by law students. Articles often focus on new or emerging areas of law and may offer critical commentary. Some law reviews are dedicated to a particular topic while others are general. Occasionally, law reviews will include issues devoted to proceedings of panels and symposia.

Law review and journal articles are extremely narrow and deep with extensive references. 

To find law review articles visit:

• Law Journal Library on HeinOnline
• Law Reviews & Journals on LexisNexis
• Law Reviews & Journals on Westlaw

Restatements

Restatements are highly regarded distillations of common law, prepared by the American Law Institute (ALI). ALI is a prestigious organization comprised of judges, professors, and lawyers. They distill the "black letter law" from cases to indicate trends in common law. Resulting in a “restatement” of existing common law into a series of principles or rules. Occasionally, they make recommendations on what a rule of law should be.

Restatements are not primary law. However, they are considered persuasive authority by many courts.

Restatements are organized into chapters, titles, and sections.  Sections contain the following:

• a concisely stated rule of law,
• comments to clarify the rule,
• hypothetical examples,
• explanation of purpose, and
• exceptions to the rule  

To access restatements visit:

• American Law Institute Library on HeinOnline
• Restatements & Principles of the Law on LexisNexis
• Restatements & Principles of Law on Westlaw

Primary Authority

Primary authority is "authority that issues directly from a law-making body."   Authority , Black's Law Dictionary (11th ed. 2019).   Sources of primary authority include:

• Constitutions
• Statutes 

Regulations

Access to primary legal sources is available through:

• Bloomberg Law
• Free & Low Cost Alternatives

Statutes (also called legislation) are "laws enacted by legislative bodies", such as Congress and state legislatures.  Statute , Black's Law Dictionary (11th ed. 2019).

We typically start primary law research here. If there is a controlling statute, cases you look for later will interpret that law. There are two types of statutes, annotated and unannotated.

Annotated codes are a great place to start your research. They combine statutory language with citations to cases, regulations, secondary sources, and other relevant statutes. This can quickly connect you to the most relevant cases related to a particular law. Unannotated Codes provide only the text of the statute without editorial additions. Unannotated codes, however, are more often considered official and used for citation purposes.

For a deep dive on federal and state statutes, visit:

• Statutes: US and State Codes by Mindy Kent Last Updated Feb 16, 2024 1801 views this year
• 50 State Surveys

Want to learn more about the history or legislative intent of a law?  Learn how to get started here:

• Legislative History Get an introduction to legislative histories in less than 5 minutes.
• Federal Legislative History Research Guide

Regulations are rules made by executive departments and agencies. Not every legal question will require you to search regulations. However, many areas of law are affected by regulations. So make sure not to skip this step if they are relevant to your question.

To learn more about working with regulations, visit:

• Administrative Law Research by AJ Blechner Last Updated Sep 12, 2023 384 views this year

Case Basics

In many areas, finding relevant caselaw will comprise a significant part of your research. This Is particularly true in legal areas that rely heavily on common law principles.

Running Time: 3 minutes, 10 seconds.

Unpublished Cases

Up to  86% of federal case opinions are unpublished. You must determine whether your jurisdiction will consider these unpublished cases as persuasive authority. The Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure have an overarching rule, Rule 32.1  Each circuit also has local rules regarding citations to unpublished opinions. You must understand both the Federal Rule and the rule in your jurisdiction.

• Federal and Local Rules of Appellate Procedure 32.1 (Dec. 2021).
• Type of Opinion or Order Filed in Cases Terminated on the Merits, by Circuit (Sept. 2021).

Each state also has its own local rules which can often be accessed through:

• State Bar Associations
• State Courts Websites

First Circuit

• First Circuit Court Rule 32.1.0

Second Circuit

• Second Circuit Court Rule 32.1.1

Third Circuit

• Third Circuit Court Rule 5.7

Fourth Circuit

• Fourth Circuit Court Rule 32.1

Fifth Circuit

• Fifth Circuit Court Rule 47.5

Sixth Circuit

• Sixth Circuit Court Rule 32.1

Seventh Circuit

• Seventh Circuit Court Rule 32.1

Eighth Circuit

• Eighth Circuit Court Rule 32.1A

Ninth Circuit

• Ninth Circuit Court Rule 36-3

Tenth Circuit

• Tenth Circuit Court Rule 32.1

Eleventh Circuit

• Eleventh Circuit Court Rule 32.1

D.C. Circuit

• D.C. Circuit Court Rule 32.1

Federal Circuit

• Federal Circuit Court Rule 32.1

Finding Cases

Headnotes show the key legal points in a case. Legal databases use these headnotes to guide researchers to other cases on the same topic. They also use them to organize concepts explored in cases by subject. Publishers, like Westlaw and Lexis, create headnotes, so they are not consistent across databases.

Headnotes are organized by subject into an outline that allows you to search by subject. This outline is known as a "digest of cases." By browsing or searching the digest you can retrieve all headnotes covering a particular topic. This can help you identify particularly important cases on the relevant subject.

Running Time: 4 minutes, 43 seconds.

Each major legal database has its own digest:

• Topic Navigator (Lexis)
• Key Digest System (Westlaw)

Start by identifying a relevant topic in a digest.  Then you can limit those results to your jurisdiction for more relevant results.  Sometimes, you can keyword search within only the results on your topic in your jurisdiction.  This is a particularly powerful research method.

One Good Case Method

After following the steps above, you will have identified some relevant cases on your topic. You can use good cases you find to locate other cases addressing the same topic. These other cases often apply similar rules to a range of diverse fact patterns.

• in Lexis click "More Like This Headnote"
• in Westlaw click "Cases that Cite This Headnote"

to focus on the terms of art or key words in a particular headnote. You can use this feature to find more cases with similar language and concepts.  ​

Ways to Use Citators

A citator is "a catalogued list of cases, statutes, and other legal sources showing the subsequent history and current precedential value of those sources.  Citators allow researchers to verify the authority of a precedent and to find additional sources relating to a given subject." Citator , Black's Law Dictionary (11th ed. 2019).

Each major legal database has its own citator.  The two most popular are Keycite on Westlaw and Shepard's on Lexis.

• Keycite Information Page
• Shepard's Information Page

Making Sure Your Case is Still Good Law

This video answers common questions about citators:

For step-by-step instructions on how to use Keycite and Shepard's see the following:

• Shepard's Video Tutorial
• Shepard's Handout
• Shepard's Editorial Phrase Dictionary
• KeyCite Video Tutorial
• KeyCite Handout
• KeyCite Editorial Phrase Dictionary

Using Citators For

Citators serve three purposes: (1) case validation, (2) better understanding, and (3) additional research.

Case Validation

Is my case or statute good law?

• Parallel citations
• Prior and subsequent history
• Negative treatment suggesting you should no longer cite to holding.

Better Understanding

Has the law in this area changed?

• Later cases on the same point of law
• Positive treatment, explaining or expanding the law.
• Negative Treatment, narrowing or distinguishing the law.

Track Research

Who is citing and writing about my case or statute?

• Secondary sources that discuss your case or statute.
• Cases in other jurisdictions that discuss your case or statute.

Knowing When to Start Writing

For more guidance on when to stop your research see:

• Terminating Research, by Christina L. Kunz

Automated Services

Automated services can check your work and ensure that you are not missing important resources. You can learn more about several automated brief check services.  However, these services are not a replacement for conducting your own diligent research .

• Automated Brief Check Instructional Video

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• Last Updated: Sep 21, 2023 2:56 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/law/researchstrategy

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How to Make a Research Paper Title with Examples

What is a research paper title and why does it matter?

A research paper title summarizes the aim and purpose of your research study. Making a title for your research is one of the most important decisions when writing an article to publish in journals. The research title is the first thing that journal editors and reviewers see when they look at your paper and the only piece of information that fellow researchers will see in a database or search engine query. Good titles that are concise and contain all the relevant terms have been shown to increase citation counts and Altmetric scores .

Therefore, when you title research work, make sure it captures all of the relevant aspects of your study, including the specific topic and problem being investigated. It also should present these elements in a way that is accessible and will captivate readers. Follow these steps to learn how to make a good research title for your work.

How to Make a Research Paper Title in 5 Steps

You might wonder how you are supposed to pick a title from all the content that your manuscript contains—how are you supposed to choose? What will make your research paper title come up in search engines and what will make the people in your field read it? 

In a nutshell, your research title should accurately capture what you have done, it should sound interesting to the people who work on the same or a similar topic, and it should contain the important title keywords that other researchers use when looking for literature in databases. To make the title writing process as simple as possible, we have broken it down into 5 simple steps.

Step 1: Answer some key questions about your research paper

What does your paper seek to answer and what does it accomplish? Try to answer these questions as briefly as possible. You can create these questions by going through each section of your paper and finding the MOST relevant information to make a research title.

Step 2: Identify research study keywords

Now that you have answers to your research questions, find the most important parts of these responses and make these your study keywords. Note that you should only choose the most important terms for your keywords–journals usually request anywhere from 3 to 8 keywords maximum.

Step 3: Research title writing: use these keywords

“We employed a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to assess how waiting list volume affects the outcomes of liver transplantation in patients; results indicate a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and negative prognosis after the transplant procedure.”

The sentence above is clearly much too long for a research paper title. This is why you will trim and polish your title in the next two steps.

Step 4: Create a working research paper title

To create a working title, remove elements that make it a complete “sentence” but keep everything that is important to what the study is about. Delete all unnecessary and redundant words that are not central to the study or that researchers would most likely not use in a database search.

“ We employed a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to assess how the waiting list volume affects the outcome of liver transplantation in patients ; results indicate a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis after transplant procedure ”

Now shift some words around for proper syntax and rephrase it a bit to shorten the length and make it leaner and more natural. What you are left with is:

“A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome of transplantation and showing a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis” (Word Count: 38)

This text is getting closer to what we want in a research title, which is just the most important information. But note that the word count for this working title is still 38 words, whereas the average length of published journal article titles is 16 words or fewer. Therefore, we should eliminate some words and phrases that are not essential to this title.

Step 5: Remove any nonessential words and phrases from your title

Because the number of patients studied and the exact outcome are not the most essential parts of this paper, remove these elements first:

 “A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcomes of transplantation and showing a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis” (Word Count: 19)

In addition, the methods used in a study are not usually the most searched-for keywords in databases and represent additional details that you may want to remove to make your title leaner. So what is left is:

“Assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome and prognosis in liver transplantation patients” (Word Count: 15)

In this final version of the title, one can immediately recognize the subject and what objectives the study aims to achieve. Note that the most important terms appear at the beginning and end of the title: “Assessing,” which is the main action of the study, is placed at the beginning; and “liver transplantation patients,” the specific subject of the study, is placed at the end.

This will aid significantly in your research paper title being found in search engines and database queries, which means that a lot more researchers will be able to locate your article once it is published. In fact, a 2014 review of more than 150,000 papers submitted to the UK’s Research Excellence Framework (REF) database found the style of a paper’s title impacted the number of citations it would typically receive. In most disciplines, articles with shorter, more concise titles yielded more citations.

Adding a Research Paper Subtitle

If your title might require a subtitle to provide more immediate details about your methodology or sample, you can do this by adding this information after a colon:

“ : a case study of US adult patients ages 20-25”

If we abide strictly by our word count rule this may not be necessary or recommended. But every journal has its own standard formatting and style guidelines for research paper titles, so it is a good idea to be aware of the specific journal author instructions , not just when you write the manuscript but also to decide how to create a good title for it.

Research Paper Title Examples

The title examples in the following table illustrate how a title can be interesting but incomplete, complete by uninteresting, complete and interesting but too informal in tone, or some other combination of these. A good research paper title should meet all the requirements in the four columns below.

Tips on Formulating a Good Research Paper Title

In addition to the steps given above, there are a few other important things you want to keep in mind when it comes to how to write a research paper title, regarding formatting, word count, and content:

• Write the title after you’ve written your paper and abstract
• Include all of the essential terms in your paper
• Keep it short and to the point (~16 words or fewer)
• Avoid unnecessary jargon and abbreviations
• Use keywords that capture the content of your paper
• Never include a period at the end—your title is NOT a sentence

Research Paper Writing Resources

We hope this article has been helpful in teaching you how to craft your research paper title. But you might still want to dig deeper into different journal title formats and categories that might be more suitable for specific article types or need help with writing a cover letter for your manuscript submission.

In addition to getting English proofreading services , including paper editing services , before submission to journals, be sure to visit our academic resources papers. Here you can find dozens of articles on manuscript writing, from drafting an outline to finding a target journal to submit to.

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Writing Effective Research Paper Titles: Advice and Examples

Are you ready to submit your research paper for publication but haven't settled on a title yet? Do you have a title but aren't sure if it will be the right one for the journal editor or research database search engines? This article will help you fine tune or create an effective research paper title for your work.

Now that you have finished your research and analysis, and you're ready to take the final step before sending your work to journal editors and reviewers. The first thing journal editors and search engine results will see and show is your research paper title. Creating an effective research paper title is highly important to getting your paper in front of the right people. It is also going to be the only part of your paper that is available to everyone for free, and it will be what search engines use to index and show your work in search results. You therefore must design a clear and persuasive title that accurately represents your work.

When writing an effective research paper title, you want to ensure that the title includes all the relevant aspects of your work. Showcase those aspects in a way that entices the audience to read more. Be sure to use the nomenclature common in your field of study, because that will help your work show up in more search results and it will grab the attention of journal editors looking for articles that clearly represent the industry. If you are studying landslides, for example, you will want to include keywords relating to soil composition or grain size; if you are working on a study about organ transplants, then include the specific feature or procedure that affected successful transplants. Identify what parts of your research are going to interest your intended audience.

There are two key pieces of information that people will need to see in your paper title: the subject and the objective. Because you are already familiar with your study and its purpose, creating an effective research paper title is simply a matter of whittling down the words that describe the important aspects of your paper. The advice below will help you take steps to identify key areas of your research, organize the information, and trim it down to the right size for a title.

Develop a topic statement

To get started, consider a topic statement of your paper that includes the subject and scope of the study. The first step in building a topic statement is to ask yourself the following questions:

• What is your research paper about? "My paper is about gene therapy and how it can improve cognitive function in dementia patients."
• What was the subject of your study? "I used data from 40 dementia patients from 10 states in the US."
• What method did you use to perform your research? "I performed a randomized trial."
• What were the results? "My study showed that gene therapy improved cognitive function in those who received the treatment."

Once you have answered those questions (such as in the example answers above), make a list of the keywords you used. For this example, those keywords would include the following:

• gene therapy
• cognitive function
• 40 dementia patients
• improved cognitive function
• 10 states in the US
• randomized trial

Then, create your topic statement using those keywords. It might read something like this:

"This study is a randomized trial that investigates whether gene therapy improved cognitive function in 40 dementia patients from 10 states in the US. The results show improved cognitive function in those who received the treatment."

This statement has 36 words — too long for a title. However, it does contain the main required elements: the subject and the objective. It also includes a summary of the results, which can be used to increase the persuasive nature of the title. If you are writing this down on paper, it may be helpful to underline or circle the keywords you used in the statement, as this will help you visually see how the keywords work together in your statement.

Trim the statement

The next step is to remove all unnecessary words to create a working title. Unnecessary words include elements that make the sentences complete sentences. Also remove words that are not central to your study or that would not be used in a research database search.

" This study is a randomized trial that investigates whether gene therapy improved cognitive function in 40 dementia patients from 10 states in the US. The results show improved cognitive function in those who received the treatment ."

Next, take those words and move them around to form a new phrase. This may take a few tries to get it right, but it is worth the time.

"A randomized trial investigating whether gene therapy improved cognitive function in 40 dementia patients from 10 states in the US showed improved cognitive function."

This sample now has 24 words. We still need to get it down to the ideal 15 or fewer total words, with just the exact information journal editors will want. One way to do this is to use the keywords at the beginning and end of your title. Remove any irrelevant facts that other researchers will not be searching for. For example, the method you used is not usually the most searched-for keyword.

" A randomized trial investigating whether gene therapy improved cognitive function in 40 dementia patients from 10 states in the US showed improved cognitive function. "

The final result may be something like this:

"Investigating the impact of gene therapy on cognitive function in dementia patients"

The resulting title has 13 words, had the main action at the beginning, and the main subject of the study at the end. This is a good example of how to create an effective research paper title that will increase journal editors' and reviewers' interest, and it may even help your paper receive more citations down the road.

Main tips to remember

If you are working on your first research paper title, the process can seem intimidating. Even with the process outlined above, creating the best research paper title possible for your work can be difficult and time consuming. Be sure to set aside a good amount of time to developing your title so that you don't feel rushed. Some writers go through 20 or more iterations before they arrive at a title that achieves effectiveness, persuasiveness, and clarity of purpose all in one.

In addition to the above process, keep the following main tips in mind when writing an effective research paper title:

• Write your paper and abstract first, then work on your title. This will make the process much easier than trying to nail a title down without a full, finished paper to start from.
• Keep your title short! Do not include more than 15 words.
• Do not use a period at the end of your title.
• Be sure that the keywords you use truly represent the content of your paper.
• Do not use abbreviations in your title.
• Include all essential key terms from your paper. This ensures your paper will be indexed properly in research databases and search engines. If you are unsure of the best keywords to use, talk to an academic librarian at your institution. They can help you identify keyword and search trends in your research field.

Examples of research paper titles

The lists below illustrate what effective and ineffective research paper titles look like. Use these examples to help guide your research paper title.

Effective titles

• Nurses on the Move: A Quantitative Report on How Meditation Can Improve Nurse Performance
• Correction of the ion transport defect in cystic fibrosis transgenic mice by gene therapy
• Landslide mapping techniques and their use in the assessment of the landslide hazard
• HLA compatibility and organ transplant survival: Collaborative Transplant Study

Ineffective titles

• Meditation Gurus
• The landslide story
• Landslide hazard and risk assessment
• Pharmacodynamics of oral ganciclovir and valganciclovir in solid organ transplant recipients

No matter what kind of field you are doing research in, you have the opportunity to create an amazing and effective research paper title that will engage your readers and get your paper in front of the journal editors and reviewers you want. By taking the time to go through the title development process, you will finish your work with a title that matches the work outlined in your research paper.

Header photo by Stokkete .

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List of Paper Titles and Abstracts

• Arlene S. Kanter (Syracuse University College of Law), “Reframing the Right to Equality for People with Disabilities”
• Ravi Malhotra (Faculty of Law, Common Law Section, University of Ottawa), “The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in Canadian and American Jurisprudence”
• Freya Kodar (Faculty of Law, University of Victoria), “Exploring the Accommodation Gap: Pensions and Income Security for Persons with Disabilities in Canada”
• Stephen A. Rosenbaum , (Berkeley Law, University of California, Berkeley), “Une Procédure en Difficulté: A Radical Blueprint for Resolving “Special” Education Disputes through an Inquisitorial Process”
• Aloke Chatterjee   (Faculty of Law, University of New Brunswick), “Can We Advance Disability Rights through the Class Action?” 
• Mark Weber (DePaul University, College of Law), “Immigration and Disability in the United States and Canada”
• Carrie Griffin Basas (Appellate and Civil Rights Attorney, Seattle, WA, M.Ed Candidate, University of Washington), “Advocacy Fatigue: Self-Care, Disability Discrimination, and Legal Attrition”
• Bonnie M. Lashewicz & Eniola Salami , BHSc., Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary  (University of Calgary), “More than meets the eye: Relational autonomy and decision-making by adults with disabilities”
• Elizabeth Pendo (Saint Louis University School of Law), “Disability and Health Care”
• Laverne Jacobs (University of Windsor, Faculty of Law | Berkeley Law, University of California), “Do Disabled Voices Make a Difference?: Exploring Equality and Fairness in the Enactment of Accessibility Standards in Ontario”

The social model of disability recognizes the obligation of societies to address the rights of people with disabilities by removing legal, attitudinal and physical barriers to their inclusion in society. This view stands in contrast to other models of disability which focus on people with disabilities as in need of charity, pity, or medical treatment. The most notable example of a human rights law that incorporates the social model of disability is the new Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities (CRPD), which was adopted by the United Nations in 2006 and which has now been ratified by 151 countries. This treaty represents a new era in the development of disability rights.  It challenges policy makers, scholars, advocates, and activists to reframe the meaning of equality for people with disabilities. Despite the development of existing regional and domestic laws that seek to protect the rights of people with disabilities to equality, significant gaps remain in the level of employment, access to education and health care, social acceptance, and the overall quality of life for children and adults with disabilities in the US and other countries throughout the world.  After reviewing the history of the development of domestic and regional disability laws as well as the CRPD, I will argue that in order to realize the goal of inclusion and acceptance for people with all types of disabilities, countries such as the US should rethink their commitment to traditional notions of equality and independence, and instead consider theories that have been developed within the field of disability studies to inform the development of  a new disability rights jurisprudence, particularly as it relates to, what I call, a new right to interdependence and support.

This paper seeks to explore how the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has been applied in Canadian and American law. Coming into force in 2008 and ratified by Canada in 2010, the CRPD was the fastest negotiated international treaty in history. Yet it has not been ratified in the United States. The CRPD sets out various rights including with respect to education, health and work and employment. Using the work of Harold Koh and Melissa Waters on transnational judicial dialogue, I examine how the CRPD has been applied in the case law and assess its potential for social transformation in the two countries. I explore whether we may ultimately see a convergence between domestic disability rights law in Canada and the United States and the principles enunciated in the CRPD. While CRPD jurisprudence is in its infancy, I also consider why the CRPD to date has seemingly had more purchase in Canada than in the United States, specifically analyzing the competing schools of thought relating to the legal requirements for treaty implementation. I suggest, however, that the entire history of disability rights in Canada has always been influenced by international developments since at least the 1970s. This contrasts with the much more domestic orientation of activists with disabilities who fought for increased wheelchair access in the aftermath of the Vietnam War and later the adoption of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. This more overt international orientation in Canada has implications for future judicial attitudes toward interpretation of the CRPD.

Canadian scholars and policy-makers have identified a significant “accommodation gap” for persons with disabilities participating in the Canadian labour force,  and suggest that as the population ages this gap is likely to grow. While much has been written about measures to improve disability accommodation in the workplace, less attention has been paid to the retirement security implications of this accommodation gap. This paper explores these implications in two contexts: the Canada Pension Plan (CPP), a near universal employment-related contributory defined benefit pension plan, and the private workplace disability benefits schemes, which provide disability benefits before regular retirement age (currently age 65) when workers begin to draw their pension benefits. This paper turns a critical disability lens on these inter-related disability benefits systems to investigate whether they are (1) creating retirement insecurity for people with disabilities who have participated in the labour force; and (2) facilitating workplace accommodation gaps.

• Stephen A. Rosenbaum, (Berkeley Law, University of California, Berkeley), “Une Procédure en Difficulté: A Radical Blueprint for Resolving “Special” Education Disputes through an Inquisitorial Process” 

Adversarial adjudication as a means for resolving education disputes at the administrative level, viz., determining the appropriate array of interventions and services for students with disabilities, has had many critics over the years. Asking a judge to weigh the parent and student’s legal position under the US Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) against that of the school administration may not be the optimal method for designating a pupil’s instructional program—nor a good use of time and money. 

In this paper, I lay out a blueprint for radical change, looking for inspiration in part to Canada for the inquisitorial model reflected in some of its provincial proceedings, and to the role of educators as tribunal members (as they sometimes are in special ed hearings concerning les enfants en difficulté).  Could this be a better approach than an “agency trial”?  It may be heresy for a students’ attorney to argue that the voice of the disabled youth and her family should not be on equal footing with that of the educational professional, nor should law be privileged over pedagogy. However, there would still be a place for informal dispute resolution, at the IEP (Individual Educational Program) table or at mediation, as well as ardent advocacy (both micro and macro) by parents and students—and an appeal to a court of law in limited circumstances.  The savings in time, cost and angst could be channeled instead into more applied research, hiring local district experts, parental involvement inside and outside the classroom, and genuine collaboration between families and professional educators.  A provocative concept for consideration? I hope so.

• Aloke Chatterjee  (Faculty of Law, University of New Brunswick), “Can We Advance Disability Rights through the Class Action?”

Despite the inclusion of disability as a prohibited ground of discrimination in both the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the various Canadian human rights codes, disability advocates in Canada have had only mixed results in advancing the full inclusion of persons with disabilities through litigation.  This puzzle has led some commentators to focus on how disability differs from other prohibited grounds of discrimination, to argue for the reformulation of the substantive law of discrimination, and even to question the utility of rights in the first place.  By contrast, I seek to understand the puzzle through the lens of procedure.  In this paper, I assess the suitability of the class action as a vehicle for advancing disability rights.   

Here, as in other contexts, I maintain that procedural adjudication has emerged as an important site for the legal construction of disability and vulnerability and that judicial discretion at these sites has been exercised contrary to Charter values and human rights principles.  Hence, I reluctantly conclude that the class action holds less promise for advancing disability rights than is conventionally thought.   

• Mark Weber (DePaul University College of Law), “Immigration and Disability in the United States and Canada”

Disability arises from the dynamic between people’s physical and mental conditions and the physical and attitudinal barriers in the environment. Applying this idea about disability to United States and Canadian immigration law calls attention to barriers to entry and citizenship for individuals who have disabilities.

Historically, North American law excluded many classes of immigrants, including those with intellectual disabilities, mental illness, physical defects, and other conditions thought likely to cause dependency. Though exclusions for individuals likely to draw excessive public resources and those with communicable diseases still exist in Canada and the United States, in recent years the United States permitted legalization for severely disabled undocumented immigrants already in the country, and both countries abolished most exclusions from entry for immigrants with specific disabling conditions. Liberalization also occurred with regard to citizenship requirements.

Problems continue, however. Under United States law, effectively unreviewable discretion remains with regard to the likely-public-charge exclusion, because consular officers abroad decide unilaterally whether to issue immigrant visas. Moreover, conduct related to mental disability, including petty criminality, can result in removal from the United States, and individuals with mental disabilities have few safeguards in removal proceedings. In Canada, the federal court recently upheld an order of deportation for a family of immigrants from France that included a child with a severe disability, rejecting appeals on humanitarian grounds. Similar cases are pending. The relaxation of exclusions and of requirements for citizenship illustrates a significant, though conspicuously incomplete, removal of disability-related barriers in North American law and society.

The need for self-advocacy and community organizing is a constant in the lives of people with disabilities. In enforcing their rights under civil rights laws, people with disabilities are drawn into a game of attrition through litigation—where their limited economic means, community supports, and physical and mental resources are leveraged against them as they have to choose between basic needs and broader policy changes and legal justice for all. This phenomenon can best be described as “advocacy fatigue.” I define advocacy fatigue as the increased strain on emotional, physical, material, social, and wellness resources that comes from continued exposure to system inequities and inequalities and the need to advocate for the preservation and advancement of one’s rights and autonomy. Advocacy fatigue can diminish emotional and physical health, career prospects, and financial security because of the ongoing exposure to stress and discrimination.

While this concept has been explored in part under the term “compassion fatigue” in fields such as social work, teaching, and nursing, I view it broadly and inclusively. Other scholars have focused their work on the negative effects of crisis and care-giving on professionals paid to do that kind of work.

While those concerns should inform public policy and professional training, this kind of emphasis on providers has left out the traumas that come from reliving discrimination and being placed in a disadvantaged position in an adversarial system that views disability rights as the bestowal of charity.

Using a disability studies perspective, I will first define advocacy fatigue, drawing on such fields as psychology, gender studies, critical race theory, and socio-legal studies. Then, I will show how concerns in the professional literature around care-giving have reinforced views of people with disabilities as the sources of problems, rather than the bearers of them. I will conclude by presenting examples of advocacy fatigue in action in education, work, and healthcare, and offer strategies for better capturing and responding to this experience in the United States and Canada.

• Bonnie M. Lashewicz (University of Calgary) and Eniola Salami, BHSc., Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary, “More than meets the eye: Relational autonomy and decision-making by adults with disabilities”

Bonnie Lashewicz, PhD., Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary Eniola Salami, BHSc., Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary;

In Canadian law, the concept of autonomy is individualistic in nature, manifest as the capacity, or legal ability of an individual to actively understand the purpose and consequences of their actions, including through comprehending and weighing risks and benefits (Conway, 2012). Ethicists and feminist scholars critique such conceptualizations of autonomy and instead, argue the importance of “relational autonomy” which is predicated on the view that actions result from one’s own volition in combination with the influence of one’s social and relational connections. In this paper, we examine the dynamics and implications of relational autonomy in decision making by adults with disabilities by studying adults with disabilities in interaction with their caregiving family members. Our purpose is to contribute understandings of how and in what ways family caregiving relational contexts both support and hinder decision-making by adults with disabilities. We begin with an overview of conceptualizations and applications of autonomy, then illustrate relational autonomy dynamics through comparative analysis of data from two women with disabilities who were interviewed together with their family caregivers about successes and struggles in giving and receiving support and making decisions. These two women, and their family caregivers (N=9) are selected from a larger sample of adults with disabilities and their family caregivers (N = 55) because both the contrasts and the similarities between their situations are striking, and taken together, illustrative of a range of ways in which decision making is supported and hindered. We conclude by upholding the importance of relational autonomy for legal understandings of decision-making yet we caution that critical examination of relationship dynamics is vital.

Maintaining health and wellness is vital to experiencing a full life, maintaining independence, and participating in society. Unfortunately, nearly 25 years after the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act, people with disabilities face multiple barriers to adequate health care and report poorer health status than people without disabilities. These persistent and pervasive inequities have serious consequences for the health and well-being of millions of people.

When disability-based barriers, disparities, and discrimination in the health care system have been addressed, the predominant approach has been through the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act. However, the ADA has not been as helpful as hoped in addressing these challenges. While the right to nondiscriminatory access to health care provided by the ADA can and should be protected, it is worth exploring additional and complementary ways to support and advance those same goals. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 (ACA), offers new tools, as it contains several provisions aimed at improving access to health care for people with disabilities.

This paper will outline the key health disparities and barriers to care experienced by people with disabilities in the U.S., and examine the promise and progress of the ADA in addressing those inequities. It will also explore the challenges that remain, and recommend how the ADA and ACA might work together to improve the health and health care of patients with disabilities.

• Laverne Jacobs (University of Windsor, Faculty of Law | Berkeley Law, University of California), “Do ‘Disabled’ Voices Make a Difference?: Exploring Equality and Fairness in the Enactment of Accessibility Standards in Ontario”

Rights adjudication occupies a large part of public law analysis and theorizing. At the same time, using adjudication to achieve equality, particularly to vindicate the rights of persons with disabilities, has proven to be a formidable and often dissatisfying exercise. This paper shifts the focus from rights adjudication to the law-making process as a means of providing access to justice, and uses the development of accessibility standards in Ontario as a case study. Since the enactment of the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act in 2005, the Ontario government has been working towards instituting a proactive approach to regulating disability discrimination, with the goal of full accessibility in the province by 2025. A central and unique feature of this legislation is the required inclusion of persons with disabilities and various stakeholders in a legislated consultation process used to develop the accessibility standards themselves. The Ontario legislation has been followed in Manitoba which has enacted legislation to provide comparable accessibility standards through a similar process.

When faced with the prospect of creating accessibility standards for persons with disabilities, how should governments respond to ensure the valorization of human rights? Has including a role for persons with disabilities in standard development committees led to a perception of fairness in standards development? Using government records obtained through freedom of information requests, qualitative interviews with persons with disabilities and other key actors, as well as theoretical analysis, this study examines the ways in which government mediates the equality rights claims of persons with disabilities and the competing interests of other stakeholders in the accessibility standard-setting process. It aims ultimately to theorize about how persons with disabilities and multi-interest government-appointed committees may interact effectively to further minority rights.

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How to Conduct Legal Research

September 21, 2021

Conducting legal research can challenge even the most skilled law practitioners.

As laws evolve across jurisdictions, it can be a difficult to keep pace with every legal development. Equally daunting is the ability to track and glean insights into stakeholder strategies and legal responses. Without quick and easy access to the right tools, the legal research upon which case strategy hinges may face cost, personnel, and litigation outcome challenges.

Bloomberg Law’s artificial intelligence-driven tools drastically reduce the time to perform legal research. Whether you seek quick answers to legal research definitions, or general guidance on the legal research process, Bloomberg Law’s Core Litigation Skills Toolkit has you covered.

What is legal research?

Legal research is the process of uncovering and understanding all of the legal precedents, laws, regulations, and other legal authorities that apply in a case and inform an attorney’s course of action.

Legal research often involves case law research, which is the practice of identifying and interpreting the most relevant cases concerning the topic at issue. Legal research can also involve a deep dive into a judge’s past rulings or opposing counsel’s record of success.

Research is not a process that has a finite start and end, but remains ongoing throughout every phase of a legal matter. It is a cornerstone of a litigator’s skills.

[Learn how our integrated, time-saving litigation research tools allow litigators to streamline their work and get answers quickly.]

Where do I begin my legal research?

Beginning your legal research will look different for each assignment. At the outset, ensure that you understand your goal by asking questions and taking careful notes. Ask about background case information, logistical issues such as filing deadlines, the client/matter number, and billing instructions.

It’s also important to consider how your legal research will be used. Is the research to be used for a pending motion? If you are helping with a motion for summary judgment, for example, your goal is to find cases that are in the same procedural posture as yours and come out favorably for your side (i.e., if your client is the one filing the motion, try to find cases where a motion for summary judgment was granted, not denied). Keep in mind the burden of proof for different kinds of motions.

Finally, but no less important, assess the key facts of the case. Who are the relevant parties? Where is the jurisdiction? Who is the judge? Note all case details that come to mind.

What if I’m new to the practice area or specific legal issue?

While conducting legal research, it is easy to go down rabbit holes. Resist the urge to start by reviewing individual cases, which may prove irrelevant. Start instead with secondary sources, which often provide a prevailing statement of the law for a specific topic. These sources will save time and orient you to the area of the law and key issues.

Litigation Practical Guidance provides the essentials including step-by-step guidance, expert legal analysis, and a preview of next steps. Source citations are included in all Practical Guidance, and you can filter Points of Law, Smart Code®, and court opinions searches to get the jurisdiction-specific cases or statutes you need.

Searching across Points of Law will help to get your bearings on an issue before diving into reading the cases in full. Points of Law uses machine learning to identify key legal principles expressed in court opinions, which are easily searchable by keyword and jurisdiction. This tool helps you quickly find other cases that have expressed the same Point of Law, and directs you to related Points of Law that might be relevant to your research. It is automatically updated with the most recent opinions, saving you time and helping you quickly drill down to the relevant cases.

How do I respond to the opposing side’s brief?

Whether a brief is yours or that of the opposing party, Bloomberg Law’s Brief Analyzer is an essential component in the legal research process. It reduces the time spent analyzing a brief, identifying relevant authorities, and preparing a solid response.

To start, navigate to Brief Analyzer available from the Bloomberg Law homepage, within the Litigation Intelligence Center , or from Docket Key search results for briefs.

Simply upload the opposing side’s brief into the tool, and Brief Analyzer will generate a report of the cited authorities and arguments contained in the brief.

You can easily view a comparison with the brief and analysis side by side. It will also point you directly to relevant cases, Points of Law, and Practical Guidance to jump start your research.

[ How to Write a Legal Brief – Learn how to shorten the legal research cycle and give your legal brief a competitive advantage.]

How to optimize your search.

Crafting searches is a critical skill when it comes to legal research. Although many legal research platforms, including Bloomberg Law, offer natural language searching, terms and connectors (also called Boolean) searching is still a vital legal research skill and should be used when searching across court opinions, dockets, Points of Law, and other primary and secondary sources.

When you conduct a natural language search, the search engine applies algorithms to rank your results. Why a certain case is ranked as it is may not be obvious. This makes it harder to interpret whether the search is giving you everything you need. It is also harder to efficiently and effectively manipulate your search terms to zero in on the results you want. Using Boolean searching gives you better control over your search and greater confidence in your results.

The good news? Bloomberg Law does not charge by the search for court opinion searches. If your initial search was much too broad or much too narrow, you do not have to worry about immediately running a new and improved search.

Follow these tips when beginning a search to ensure that you do not miss relevant materials:

• Make sure you do not have typos in your search string.
• Search the appropriate source or section of the research platform. It is possible to search only within a practice area, jurisdiction, secondary resource, or other grouping of materials.
• Make sure you know which terms and connectors are utilized by the platform you are working on and what they mean – there is no uniform standard set of terms of connectors utilized by all platforms.
• Include in your search all possible terms the court might use, or alternate ways the court may address an issue. It is best to group the alternatives together within a parenthetical, connected by OR between each term.
• Consider including single and multiple character wildcards when relevant. Using a single character wildcard (an asterisk) and/or a multiple character wildcard (an exclamation point) helps you capture all word variations – even those you might not have envisioned.
• Try using a tool that helps you find additional relevant case law. When you find relevant authority, use BCITE on Bloomberg Law to find all other cases and/or sources that cite back to that case. When in BCITE, click on the Citing Documents tab, and search by keyword to narrow the results. Alternatively, you can use the court’s language or ruling to search Points of Law and find other cases that addressed the same issue or reached the same ruling.

[Bloomberg Law subscribers can access a complete checklist of search term best practices . Not a subscriber? Request a Demo .]

How can legal research help with drafting or strategy?

Before drafting a motion or brief, search for examples of what firm lawyers filed with the court in similar cases. You can likely find recent examples in your firm’s internal document system or search Bloomberg Law’s dockets. If possible, look for things filed before the same judge so you can get a quick check on rules/procedures to be followed (and by the same partner when possible so you can get an idea of their style preferences).

Careful docket search provides a wealth of information about relevant cases, jurisdictions, judges, and opposing counsel. On Bloomberg Law, type “Dockets Search” in the Go bar or find the dockets search box in the Litigation Intelligence Center .

If you do not know the specific docket number and/or court, use the docket search functionality Docket Key . Select from any of 20 categories, including motions, briefs, and orders, across all 94 federal district courts, to pinpoint the exact filing of choice.

Dockets can also help you access lots of information to guide your case strategy. For example, if you are considering filing a particular type of motion, such as a sanctions motion, you can use dockets to help determine how frequently your judge grants sanctions motions. You can also use dockets to see how similar cases before your judge proceeded through discovery.

If you are researching expert witnesses, you can use dockets to help determine if the expert has been recently excluded from a case, or whether their opinion has been limited. If so, this will help you determine whether the expert is a good fit for your case.

Dockets are a powerful research tool that allow you to search across filings to support your argument. Stay apprised of docket updates with the “Create Alert” option on Bloomberg Law.

Dive deeper into competitive research.

For even more competitive research insights, dive into Bloomberg Law’s Litigation Analytics – this is available in the Litigation tab on the homepage. Data here helps attorneys develop litigation strategy, predict possible outcomes, and better advise clients.

To start, under Litigation Analytics , leverage the Attorney tab to view case history and preview legal strategies the opposition may practice against you. Also, within Litigation Analytics, use the Court tab to get aggregate motion and appeal outcome rates across all federal courts, with the option to run comparisons across jurisdictions, and filter by company, law firm, and attorney.

Use the Judge tab to glean insights from cited opinions, and past and current decisions by motion and appeal outcomes. Also view litigation analytics in the right rail of court opinions.

Docket search can also offer intel on your opponent. Has your opponent filed similar lawsuits or made similar arguments before? How did those cases pan out? You can learn a lot about an opponent from past appearances in court.

How do I validate case law citations?

Checking the status of case law is essential in legal research. Rely on Bloomberg Law’s proprietary citator, BCITE. This time-saving tool lets you know if a case is still good law.

Under each court opinion, simply look to the right rail. There, you will see a thumbnail icon for “BCITE Analysis.” Click on the icon, and you will be provided quick links to direct history (opinions that affect or are affected by the outcome of the case at issue); case analysis (citing cases, with filter and search options), table of authorities, and citing documents.

How should I use technology to improve my legal research?

A significant benefit of digital research platforms and analytics is increased efficiency. Modern legal research technology helps attorneys sift through thousands of cases quickly and comprehensively. These products can also help aggregate or summarize data in a way that is more useful and make associations instantaneously.

For example, before litigation analytics were common, a partner may have asked a junior associate to find all summary judgment motions ruled on by a specific judge to determine how often that judge grants or denies them. The attorney could have done so by manually searching over PACER and/or by searching through court opinions, but that would take a long time. Now, Litigation Analytics can aggregate that data and provide an answer in seconds. Understanding that such products exist can be a game changer. Automating parts of the research process frees up time and effort for other activities that benefit the client and makes legal research and writing more efficient.

[Read our article: Six ways legal technology aids your litigation workflow .]

Tools like  Points of Law ,  dockets  and  Brief Analyzer  can also increase efficiency, especially when narrowing your research to confirm that you found everything on point. In the past, attorneys had to spend many hours (and lots of money) running multiple court opinion searches to ensure they did not miss a case on point. Now, there are tools that can dramatically speed up that process. For example, running a search over Points of Law can immediately direct you to other cases that discuss that same legal principle.

However, it’s important to remember that digital research and analytical tools should be seen as enhancing the legal research experience, not displacing the review, analysis, and judgment of an attorney. An attorney uses his or her knowledge of their client, the facts, the precedent, expert opinions, and his or her own experiences to predict the likely result in a given matter. Digital research products enhance this process by providing more data on a wider array of variables so that an attorney can take even more information into consideration.

[Get all your questions answered, request a Bloomberg Law demo , and more.]

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Legal Methods

• Getting Started
• Introduction to Legal Research
• Secondary Sources
• Case Law Research
• Research with Citators
• Statutory Research
• Federal Legislative History
• Federal Administrative Law Research
• Electronic Legal Research
• Developing a Research Plan
• Tip - Subject Matter Service Research
• Legal Research and Writing Titles on West Academic Digital Library
• Legal Research and Writing Titles on LexisNexis Digital Library
• Legal Research and Writing Titles on Aspen Learning Digital Library

Where to Begin Research Project

There are two preliminary steps to take:

• Define the scope of your project - evaluate the type of work product you are expected to produce and the amount of time you have.
• Generate search terms - construct a random list of words that seem relevant to the issue; the parties involved in the problem and relationships to each other, the places and things involved in the problem, the potential claims and defenses that could be raised, and the relief sought by the complaining party.

Primary Mandatory Authority -- if you have background on your topic -- seek out research notes in Constitutions, Court Opinions, Statutes, and Regulations.

Secondary Authority -- helps generate search terms and what authority you should research -- provide commentary on and analysis of the law.

Primary Persuasive Authority -- rarely used to start research projects.

Types of Authority

Mandatory (binding).

• Constitutional provisions, statutes, and regulations in force within a jurisdiction are mandatory authority for courts within the same jurisdiction.
• Decisions from higher courts within a jurisdiction are mandatory authority for lower courts within the same jurisdiction.

Persuasive (Nonbinding)

• Decisions from courts within one jurisdiction are persuasive authority for courts within another jurisdiction.
• Decisions from lower courts within a jurisdiction are persuasive authority for higher courts within the same jurisdiction.
• Secondary authority is not mandatory authority.
• Secondary authority is persuasive authority.

Legal System - Federal

Legal system - state.

The National Center for State Courts (NCSC) acts as a non-profit provider of many services to the courts including: research studies, consulting, a variety of educational programs, an extensive web database of information on court administration, the largest library of materials on court administration in the world, and continued assistance in the improvement of inter-branch relations through its lobbying and advocacy services.

The State Court Web Sites page of the NCSC provides judicial branch links for each state, focusing on the administrative office of the courts, the court of last resort, any intermediate appellate courts, and each trial court level.

Pennsylvania

The Unified Judicial System of Pennsylvania (AOPC)

The judiciary’s entry-level courts are located in more than 500 magisterial districts and in municipal courts in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. The next level, the state’s trial courts or Courts of Common Pleas, are in judicial districts which mostly follow county boundaries. The statewide intermediate appellate courts — Superior and Commonwealth — hear criminal and civil appeals from the trial courts and some original cases brought against the state and its agencies.

The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania is the highest arbiter of cases in the judicial system, and has administrative authority over the entire court system. The  Pennsylvania court system  is structured like a pyramid with the Supreme Court at the top.

Pennsylvania District Courts

What's the difference between state and federal courts.

Pennsylvania state courts decide cases involving child custody matters, divorce, most criminal cases, real estate issues, juvenile issues, contract disputes, traffic violations, personal injury issues, and inheritance matters, to name a few. These courts can also hear cases that are appeals from state or local agencies. For example, an appeal from a local zoning decision would normally go to the local Common Pleas Court.

But, there are certain categories of legal disputes that are resolved in federal courts. Federal courts may hear cases that involve the U.S. Constitution, federal law, the United States government, or controversies between states or between the U.S. government and foreign governments. In addition, they may hear “diversity of citizenship” cases – cases between citizens of different states (for example, between a citizen of Pennsylvania and a citizen of New York), or between a citizen of a state and a non-U.S. citizen. Note that diversity of citizenship cases must involve claims that exceed $75,000.

The federal courts also hear appeals from federal agencies. For example, an appeal from a denial of social security benefits by the Social Security Administration, would go to the federal courts, once all administrative appeals are finished.

Federal district courts in Pennsylvania are: the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania, and the U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania.

Magisterial District Courts

Together with the Pennsylvania State Data Center, the Pennsylvania Courts have created a new interactive tool to help the public find information related to the Magisterial District Courts. The  Interactive Magisterial District Court Map  clearly lays out the boundaries of all of Pennsylvania's 509 magisterial district courts. To locate your magisterial district court office, run a search for your address. From your search result on the map, left click within the boundaries of the district to see the Judge's name, contact information and office location for your address.

The home button on the top left portion of the map will return you to the default, statewide view.

In addition to information about magisterial district courts, the map also indicates county courthouses, law enforcement agencies and correctional facilities.

Unlike other counties in Pennsylvania with magisterial district courts, Philadelphia has The Municipal Court. For more information about The Municipal Court in Philadelphia, see the  Philadelphia Court's website .

Legal Citation

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• Next: Secondary Sources >>
• Last Updated: Mar 5, 2024 9:52 AM
• URL: https://libguides.law.widener.edu/legalmethodsbasiclegalresearch

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80+ Great Research Titles Examples in Various Academic Fields

Coming up with a research title for an academic paper is one of the most challenging parts of the writing process. Even though there is an unlimited quantity of research titles to write about, knowing which one is best for you can be hard. We have done the research for you and compiled eighty examples of research titles to write on. Additionally, we have divided the research titles examples into sections to make them easier to choose.

Research Study Examples of Current Events

Examples of research topics on ethics, title of research study examples on health, research paper title examples on social concerns, examples of research title on art and culture, example of research interest in religion, samples of research study topics on technology, research examples of environmental studies, good research title examples on history, specific topic examples regarding education, research title examples for students on family, food, and nutrition, research problems examples computer science, samples of research title about business marketing and communications, sample of research study topics in women’s studies, research problem example on politics, what are some examples of research paper topics on law, final words about research titles.

When it comes to choosing a good sample research title, research is one of the best tips you can get. By reading widely, including your school notes and scholarly articles, you will have a problem/line of interest examples in research. Then, you can derive any question from areas that appear to have a knowledge gap and proceed with researching the answer. As promised, below are eighty research title examples categorized into different areas, including social media research topics .

• Discuss the peculiar policies of a named country – for example, discuss the impacts of the one-child policy of China.
• Research on the influence of a named political leader, say a president, on the country they governed and other countries around. For instance, you can talk about how Trump’s presidency has changed international relations.
• Conduct an analysis of a particular aspect of two named countries – for example, the history of the relationship between the U.S. and North Korea.
• Compare the immigration laws in two or more named countries – for example, discuss how the immigration laws in the U.S. compares with other countries.
• Discuss how the Black Lives Matter movement has affected the view and discussions about racism in the United States.
• Enumerate the different ways the government of the United States can reduce deaths arising from the unregulated use of guns.
• Analyze the place of ethics in medicine or of medical practitioners. For instance, you can discuss the prevalence of physician-assisted suicides in a named country. You may also talk about the ethicality of such a practice and whether it should be legal.
• Explain how recent research breakthroughs have affected that particular field – for instance, how stem cell research has impacted the medical field.
• Explain if and why people should be able to donate organs in exchange for money.
• Discuss ethical behaviors in the workplace and (or) the educational sector. For example, talk about whether or not affirmative action is still important or necessary in education or the workplace.
• Weigh the benefits and risks of vaccinating children and decide which one outweighs the other. Here, you might want to consider the different types of vaccinations and the nature and frequency of associated complications.
• Investigate at least one of the health issues that currently pose a threat to humanity and which are under investigation. These issues can include Alzheimer’s, cancer, depression, autism, and HIV/AIDS. Research how these issues affect individuals and society and recommend solutions to alleviate cost and suffering.
• Study some individuals suffering from and under treatment for depression. Then, investigate the common predictors of the disease and how this information can help prevent the issue.

Tip : To make this example of a research title more comprehensive, you can focus on a certain age range – say, teenagers.

• Discuss whether or not free healthcare and medication should be available to people and the likely implications.
• Identify and elucidate different methods or programs that have been most effective in preventing or reducing teen pregnancy.
• Analyze different reasons and circumstances for genetic manipulation and the different perspectives of people on this matter. Then, discuss whether or not parents should be allowed to engineer designer babies.
• Identify the types of immigration benefits, including financial, medical, and education, your country provides for refugees and immigrants. Then, discuss how these benefits have helped them in settling down and whether more or less should be provided.
• Discuss the acceptance rate of the gay community in your country or a specific community. For example, consider whether or not gay marriage is permitted if they can adopt children, and if they are welcome in religious gatherings.
• Explore and discuss if terrorism truly creates a fear culture that can become a society’s unintended terrorist.
• Consider and discuss the different techniques one can use to identify pedophiles on social media.

Tip : Social issues research topics are interesting, but ensure you write formally and professionally.

• Investigate the importance or lack of importance of art in primary or secondary education. You can also recommend whether or not it should be included in the curriculum and why.

Tip : You can write on this possible research title based on your experiences, whether positive or negative.

• Discuss the role of illustration in children’s books and how it facilitates easy understanding in children. You may focus on one particular book or select a few examples and compare and contrast.
• Should the use of art in books for adults be considered, and what are the likely benefits?
• Compare and contrast the differences in art from two named cultural Renaissance – for instance, the Northern Renaissance and the Italian Renaissance.
• Investigate how sexism is portrayed in different types of media, including video games, music, and film. You can also talk about whether or not the amount of sexism portrayed has reduced or increased over the years.
• Explore different perspectives and views on dreams; are they meaningful or simply a game of the sleeping mind? You can also discuss the functions and causes of dreams, like sleeping with anxiety, eating before bed, and prophecies.
• Investigate the main reasons why religious cults are powerful and appealing to the masses, referring to individual cases.
• Investigate the impact of religion on the crime rate in a particular region.

Tip : Narrow down this research title by choosing to focus on a particular age group, say children or teenagers, or family. Alternatively, you can focus on a particular crime in the research to make the paper more extensive.

• Explore reasons why Martin Luther decided to split with the Catholic church.
• Discuss the circumstances in Siddhartha’s life that led to him becoming the Buddha.

Tip : It is important to remove sentiments from your research and base your points instead on clear evidence from a sound study. This ensures your title of research does not lead to unsubstantiated value judgments, which reduces the quality of the paper.

• Discuss how the steel sword, gunpowder, biological warfare, longbow, or atomic bomb has changed the nature of warfare.

Tip : For this example of the research problem, choose only one of these technological developments or compare two or more to have a rich research paper.

• Explore the changes computers, tablets, and smartphones have brought to human behaviors and culture, using published information and personal experience.

Tip : Approach each research study example in a research paper context or buy research paper online , giving a formal but objective view of the subject.

• Are railroads and trains primary forces in the industrialization, exploitation, and settlement of your homeland or continent?
• Discuss how the use of fossil fuels has changed or shaped the world.

Tip : Narrow down this title of the research study to focus on a local or particular area or one effect of fossil fuels, like oil spill pollution.

• Discuss what progress countries have made with artificial intelligence. You can focus on one named country or compare the progress of one country with another.
• Investigate the factual status of global warming – that is, is it a reality or a hoax? If it is a reality, explore the primary causes and how humanity can make a difference.
• Conduct in-depth research on endangered wildlife species in your community and discuss why they have become endangered. You can also enumerate what steps the community can take to prevent these species from going extinct and increase their chances of survival.
• Investigate the environmental soundness of the power sources in your country or community. Then, recommend alternative energy sources that might be best suited for the area and why.
• Consider an area close to wildlife reserves and national parks, and see whether oil and mineral exploration has occurred there. Discuss whether this action should be allowed or not, with fact-backed reasons.
• Investigate how the use and abolishment of DDT have affected the population of birds in your country.

Tip : Each example research title requires that you consult authoritative scientific reports to improve the quality of your paper. Furthermore, specificity and preciseness are required in each example of research title and problem, which only an authority source can provide.

• Discuss the importance of a major historical event and why it was so important in the day. These events can include the assassination of John F. Kennedy or some revolutionary document like the Magna Carta.
• Consider voyagers such as the Vikings, Chinese, as well as native populations and investigate whether Columbus discovered America first.
• Choose a named historical group, family, or individual through their biographies, examining them for reader responses.
• Research people of different cultural orientations and their responses to the acts of others who live around them.
• Investigate natural disasters in a named country and how the government has responded to them. For example, explore how the response of the New Orleans government to natural disasters has changed since Hurricane Katrina.

Tip : Focus this research title sample on one particular country or natural disaster or compare the responses of two countries with each other.

• Explore the educational policy, “no child left behind,” investigating its benefits and drawbacks.
• Investigate the concept of plagiarism in the twenty-first century, its consequences, and its prevalence in modern universities. Take a step further to investigate how and why many students don’t understand the gravity of their errors.
• Do in-depth research on bullying in schools, explaining the seriousness of the problem in your area in particular. Also, recommend actions schools, teachers, and parents can take to improve the situation if anything.
• Explore the place of religion in public schools; if it has a place, explain why, and if it does not, explain why not.
• Does a student’s financial background have any effect on his or her academic performance? In this sample research title, you can compare students from different financial backgrounds, from wealthy to average, and their scores on standardized tests.
• Is spanking one’s child considered child abuse; if so, why? In this research problem example for students, consider whether or not parents should be able to spank their children.
• Investigate the relationship between family health and nutrition, focusing on particular nutrition. This example of the title of the research study, for instance, can focus on the relationship between breastfeeding and baby health.
• Elucidate on, if any, the benefits of having a home-cooked meal and sitting down as a family to eat together.
• Explore the effect of fast-food restaurants on family health and nutrition, and whether or not they should be regulated.
• Research local food producers and farms in your community, pinpointing how much of your diet is acquired from them.

Tip : These are great research titles from which you can coin research topics for STEM students .

• Compare and contrast the two major operating systems: Mac and Windows, and discuss which one is better.

Tip : This title of the research study example can lead to strong uninformed opinions on the matter. However, it is important to investigate and discuss facts about the two operating systems, basing your conclusions on these.

• Explain the effect of spell checkers, autocorrect functions, and grammar checkers on the writing skills of computer users. Have these tools improved users’ writing skills or weakened them?

Tip : For this example of title research, it is better to consider more than one of these tools to write a comprehensive paper.

• Discuss the role(s) artificial intelligence is playing now or will likely play in the future as regards human evolution.
• Identify and investigate the next groundbreaking development in computer science (like the metaverse), explaining why you believe it will be important.
• Discuss a particular trendsetting technological tool, like blockchain technology, and how it has benefited different sectors.

Tip : For this research title example, you may want to focus on the effect of one tool on one particular sector. This way, you can investigate this example of research and thesis statement about social media more thoroughly and give as many details as possible.

• Consider your personal experiences as well as close friends’ and families experiences. Then, determine how marketing has invaded your lives and whether these impersonal communications are more positive than negative or vice versa.
• Investigate the regulations (or lack thereof) that apply to marketing items to children in your region. Do you think these regulations are unfounded, right, or inadequate?
• Investigate the merits and demerits of outsourcing customer services; you can compare the views of businesses with those of their customers.
• How has the communication we do through blog sites, messaging, social media, email, and other online platforms improved interpersonal communications if it has?
• Can understanding culture change the way you do business? Discuss how.

Tip : Ensure you share your reasoning on this title of the research study example and provide evidence-backed information to support your points.

• Learn everything you can about eating disorders like bulimia and anorexia, as well as their causes, and symptoms. Then, investigate and discuss the impact of its significance and recommend actions that might improve the situation.
• Research a major development in women’s history, like the admission of women to higher institutions and the legalization of abortion. Discuss the short-term and (or) long-term implications of the named event or development.
• Discuss gender inequality in the workplace – for instance, the fact that women tend to earn less than men for doing the same job. Provide specific real-life examples as you explain the reasons for this and recommend solutions to the problem.
• How have beauty contests helped women: have they empowered them in society or objectified them?

Tip : You may shift the focus of this topic research example to female strippers or women who act in pornographic movies.

• Investigate exceptional businesswomen in the 21st century; you can focus on one or compare two or more.

Tip : When writing on the title of a research example related to women, avoid using persuasion tactics; instead, be tactful and professional in presenting your points.

• Discuss the unique nature and implications of Donald Trump’s presidency on the United States and the world.
• Investigate the conditions and forces related to the advent and rise of Nazi Germany. Shift the focus of this title research example on major wars like WWI or the American Civil War.
• Is the enormous amount of money spent during election campaigns a legitimate expense?
• Investigate a named major political scandal that recently occurred in your region or country. Discuss how it started, how its news spread, and its impacts on individuals in that area.
• Discuss the impacts British rule had on India.
• Investigate the rate of incarceration in your region and compare it with that of other countries or other regions.
• Is incarcerating criminals an effective solution in promoting the rehabilitation of criminals and controlling crime rates?
• Consider various perspectives on the issue of gun control and coin several argumentative essay topics on the matter.
• Why do drivers continue to text while driving despite legal implications and dire consequences?
• Discuss the legality of people taking their own lives due to suffering from a debilitating terminal disease.

Each example of the research title provided in this article will make for a rich, information-dense research paper. However, you have a part to play in researching thoroughly on the example of the research study. To simplify the entire process for you, hiring our writing services is key as you wouldn’t have to worry about choosing topics. Our team of skilled writers knows the right subject that suits your research and how to readily get materials on them.

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A paralegal’s guide on how to do legal research

• December 21, 2023

Laura Krieg

Legal research serves as the cornerstone of informed legal practice, offering the means to navigate a constantly evolving legal landscape.

The importance of effective legal research cannot be overstated in a world where laws multiply, and court decisions shape the foundation of legal arguments.

This blog post will delve into the essence of legal research, explore the sources of law, understand primary versus secondary sources, decipher mandatory versus persuasive authority, and unveil the practical steps of the legal research process.

Join us in unraveling the complexities of legal research, a skill essential for any legal professional striving for success.

What is legal research?

Legal research means finding law that supports a legal argument or decision. The law is always changing, and new laws and court decisions are added each year.

In 2022, California’s Governor Gavin Newsom signed 997 bills into law, and the federal government passed 249 bills . Add to that all the cases published each year, and the amount of information attorneys and paralegals need to know is staggering.

Given this, legal professionals do not know the answer to every legal question and must rely on effective and thorough legal research to identify and find the laws that apply to the facts of the case. Effective legal research is integral to the practice of law.

What are the sources of law?

Efficient legal research starts first with an understanding of the sources of law in the United States.

• Constitutional law: The federal government and all the states have constitutions whose primary purpose is to establish the government and define its functions and obligations in relation to the people.
• Statutory law: Laws established by legislative action.
• Administrative regulations: Administrative agencies (IRS, FDA, FAA, etc.) have the power to make necessary rules and regulations.
• Ordinances: Laws established by a local government such as a county board of supervisors or city council.
• Case law: Laws are created in the form of decisions, also called opinions, that are published in case reporters. Case law is also known as common law and is based on the legal principle known as stare decisis (let the decision stand). Simply put, courts are required to follow earlier decisions made by higher courts, such as the Supreme Court. This helps make the law predictable.

What is the difference between primary sources v. secondary sources?

Primary sources of law are constitutions, statutes, regulations, ordinances, and case law. Primary sources articulate the law.

Secondary sources are plain-language writings by legal scholars that explain, analyze, and criticize primary law. Secondary sources are a great place to start research on any legal topic as they provide an overview of the relevant law. Secondary sources are not the law, they are the author’s interpretation or explanation of the law and are not binding on the courts. Secondary sources explain the law and will cite the relevant case law, statutes, etc.

Secondary sources include: 

• Practice guides
• Legal treatises
• Law review articles
• Scholarly journals
• Legal dictionaries and encyclopedias
• Jury instructions

Seeing the difference

As an example of the difference , the U.S. Supreme Court decision of Brown v. Board of Education is a primary legal source, establishing that state laws permitting separate schools for whites and blacks are unconstitutional.

The book “Simple Justice” and the Gale Encyclopedia of American Law provide secondary legal sources, offering discussions and analyses of the case and its historical context.

Similarly, the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is primary law, guaranteeing the right to security against unreasonable searches. However, an article from the 2012 William and Mary Law Review analyzing a specific aspect of the Fourth Amendment constitutes a secondary legal source.

What is the difference between mandatory authority v. persuasive authority?

Courts are required to follow the decisions of higher courts in the same jurisdiction. Court cases from a higher court and in the same jurisdiction are considered mandatory authority. All federal and state courts are bound by the decisions of the United States Supreme Court related to the United States Constitution and federal laws. State courts are bound by the decisions of the higher courts in that state, such as the state’s Supreme Court.

If there is little or no mandatory authority in your jurisdiction, you may want to look at cases from other jurisdictions. This is persuasive authority, meaning the court may follow the ruling but is not required to.

What is the legal research process?

The legal research process can seem overwhelming with the volumes of legal resources available. How do you do legal research? The same way you eat an elephant, one bite at a time. Legal research is the elephant, and to successfully complete the research, take it one step (bite) at a time. Knowing the steps to perform legal research makes the process much less daunting.

Step 1: Identify the facts, issues, and jurisdiction

Before you can begin your research, you must first determine the facts, the issues, and the jurisdiction of the legal research project. Eliminate the unimportant facts and focus on the essential facts such as who, what, where, and how. Use the facts to pinpoint the legal issues and to determine the jurisdiction.

Step 2: Find relevant law

It sounds easy enough until you start thinking about the sheer volume of statutes and published case law, and then it can become overwhelming for the researcher.

When I was teaching paralegal students, I always told my students to start with secondary sources.

Even though secondary sources are not the law and are not binding on the courts, secondary sources educate the researcher on the topic and build your knowledge base.

Keep in mind that in order to publish the material, the writer had to go through the legal research process and have identified the primary resources most applicable to the topic.

The secondary source will explain the relevant primary source, such as the governing statutes and case law. Do not rely only on the secondary source. Once you have the applicable statutes, go directly to the primary source.

What are search methods?

To use research databases efficiently, there are several search techniques you can use to improve the precision of your search results.

The more precise your search. The less irrelevant material you will need to review, the more you need to start with a broad search using keywords.

If the search is returning too many results, narrow the search by using connectors.

Search techniques

Some search techniques include (please note this is not a complete list): 

• And: Use “and” between your search terms to indicate that all terms must appear in your search results. For example, the search – banana and slip and fall – will retrieve materials containing each of these terms.
• Or: Use “or” between your search terms to indicate that any one of the listed terms appears in your results. This is very helpful when your issue may include synonyms for the same concept. For example, the search – minor or juvenile or child or children or infant – will retrieve materials that have any one of these terms.
• Not: Use “not” to disqualify words from your search. “Not” is a rarely used connector, but it can be helpful under certain circumstances. For example, if you were searching for a particular anti-corruption statute, you may want to run the search – RICO, not “Puerto Rico.”
• Proximity connectors designate how closely your search terms must appear within a document.

Common proximity connectors include: 

• /p: Terms must appear in the same paragraph.
• /s: Terms must appear in the same sentence.
• /n: (such as /3) – Terms must appear within the specified number of words to each other.
• Phrases: Using quotation marks (“ ”) allows you to search for a particular phrase. To search for a specific phrase put the phrase in quotation marks. For example, if you were interested in searching for mentions of the television show “Orange is the New Black,” simply run the search “Orange is the New Black.”

Where do I go to conduct the research? 

Programs such as Lexis and Westlaw are online subscription legal research programs. The costs for these programs can be prohibitive, especially if you do not conduct legal research on a regular basis.

If you do not have access to these programs, you can still conduct effective legal research using free sources available online.

Use your favorite search engine, such as Google, to locate both secondary (articles written by legal professionals) and primary sources of law.

Reminder: use the secondary source to locate applicable law, and then always go directly to the primary source for your answers.

Step 3: Check to see if you are using good law

Research is not complete until you have checked to make sure the law you found is still valid and relevant. The quickest way to draft a losing document is to rely on a case that has been overruled or a statute deemed unconstitutional. Citators let you verify a case’s authority by listing cases, statutes, and legal sources so you can check that it has not been overruled, questioned, or made irrelevant.

Legal research software such as Lexis and Westlaw makes checking the validity quick and easy. Google Scholar includes ‘How cited,” which is a list of cases that have cited the selected opinion.

Research in practice

Now that we know how to conduct legal research let’s practice. For this scenario, I only used resources that were available for free online.

Sample research scenario

A potential new client (PNC) On November 1, 2023, on a beautiful, crisp fall afternoon, our client Anita Radcliff was walking Fluffy, her beloved shih tzu, on a leash at a public park in California when a large dalmatian ran up to Fluffy and bit her.

Animal control was called, and the Dalmatian’s owner was located. It was determined that the Dalmatian had never bitten another animal or person before this incident.

Anita rushed Fluffy to the vet, and despite all efforts, Fluffy unfortunately died. Fluffy was a registered emotional support animal, and Anita was devastated by her death.

Important facts:

• Fluffy was leashed.
• Dalmatian was unleashed.
• Dalmatian bit Fluffy. This was the Dalmatian’s first bite.
• Fluffy died.
• Fluffy was a registered emotional support animal.
• The owner is devastated.
• Is the owner of the Dalmatian liable for the death of Fluffy?
• What remedies in law (damages) does Anita have?

Jurisdiction: 

Now that the facts, issues, and jurisdiction have been determined, it is time to begin your research.

Issue 1: Is the owner of the Dalmatian liable for the death of Fluffy? 

Finding the answer to this issue was quick (about one minute).

Search terms – owner liability for dog bites in California – Google came up with about 15,600,000 results. Using (“ ”) did not narrow this search.

I found a helpful article (secondary source) that directed me to California Civil Code section 3342, subdivision (a) (primary source). Based on the Civil Code, the brief answer is “yes,” the Dalmatian’s owner is liable for the death of Fluffy.

Answer: Yes. Based on Civil Code section 3342, the Dalmatian’s owner is liable for the death of Fluffy.

Issue 2: What remedies in law (damages) does Anita have? 

Finding the answer to this issue was more involved and took about 20 minutes (this included skimming through the cases), with more research needed.

Search terms – damages for the death of an emotional support animal California law – Google came up with about 15,800,000 results. Using (“ ”) reduced that to about 12,500,000 results.

I didn’t find the first few results very helpful, so I searched a little further down on the first page of my search results and located California Civil Jury Instruction No. 39030 (secondary source). The jury instruction has a section “Directions for Use” and “Sources and Authority.” Both these sections have California case law. They also have a “Secondary Sources” section.

From the jury instruction, I found the cases (primary source) of Martinez v. Robledo (2012) 210 Cal.App.4th 384 and Plotnik v. Meihaus (2012) 208 Cal.App.4th 1590.

Answer: Anita is entitled to recover the value of Fluffy and reasonable vet bills. She may also be entitled to recover punitive damages and damages for emotional distress, but more research would be needed. Note: If I was doing this research for an attorney, I would continue researching for the answers to punitive damages and damages for emotional distress.

Today, we’ve explored the core components of legal research, from sources of law to primary vs. secondary sources, mandatory vs. persuasive authority, and practical research steps.

Although only an attorney can give legal advice and perform  particular functions  with regard to clients, paralegals oftentimes will conduct the initial research attorneys rely on. Effective legal research can make or break a case and is critical to the practice of law.

Legal research can be hard and daunting due to the sheer volume of laws, but by following a few simple steps, you can eat the research elephant one step (bite) at a time.

We’ve looked at some real-word examples to highlight this process, showcasing the importance of secondary sources and precision in search terms.

Bear this guide in mind when conducting case law in future, and stay efficient in your research!

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213 In Depth Law Thesis Topics For Perfect Score

Universities around the world require learners to complete papers on law thesis topics when pursuing advanced legal studies. Completing this task is both stressful and exciting because of the reward of writing a quality paper. However, selecting a title for your project, researching it, and writing is not easy.

For this reason, students should select interesting legal topics to enjoy working on their theses. What’s more, they should settle on issues that provide ample research scope. A thesis or dissertation is a lengthy academic paper. Therefore, learners should select topic ideas they can manage and work with comfortably over time. Here are sample topics for learners with difficulties selecting topics for their dissertations.

Interesting Law Topics for Theses

Perhaps, you’re looking for exciting topics to form the basis of your academic papers. In that case, consider these exciting law dissertation topics for inspiration.

• Examining presumption validity resulting advancement and trusts have acquired defunct status requiring their abolishment
• How Harison vs. Gibson decision changed the intention certainty law
• Investment trustee powers: Examining the financial benefits considerations by the courts
• Examining the courts’ attitude as shown in relevant rulings towards trusts with political purposes
• How the prevailing media entities’ attitude and the first Amendment rights to speech freedom advance the public interest
• Examining legal and moral issues surrounding abortion procedures on a long-term basis
• The ramifications of Roe v Wade amendments to offer adequate protection to the father’s rights
• Examining the conflict between public safety and civil liberties in the anti-terrorism legislation arena
• Analyzing the judicial review process from the weak vs. strong perspective
• Analyzing the law that governs the state authority to intervene in citizens’ private lives when a child’s welfare is in question
• How the law responds to domestic violence effects on male victims
• Examining the central trademark protection’s rationale as a way for businesses to protect brand value versus public interests
• Can the copyright system respond to intellectual property digitalization and the internet challenges?
• Comparing the U.K. and U.S. trademark and copyright law, including damages
• How viable is benefit-sharing as a way to regulate intellectual property rights?
• Examining the conflict between corporate trade secrets and business law
• Analyzing the role of customs and cultural norms in international criminal law’s development
• Examining the relationship between international law and national law
• What are the legal ramifications of authoritative norms breaches in international law?
• Analysis of the legal ramifications of a stem cell study to use human embryos for profits
• Should governments restrict journalists’ expression freedom?
• An investigation of the weak and strong points of the judicial review process?
• How effective are anti-corruption laws in your state?
• Abortion legalization- How the law treats abortion and the moral elements of the problem
• Relocating with a child- Discussing the legal gaps in relocation
• Assets division after divorce- How fair is the divorce law?
• Child protection from abuse and neglect- Gaps in the current law
• Child labor prevention- Legal mechanisms for detecting and preventing child labor
• Mediation role in family law- Should it be mandatory?
• Changes in the cohabitation law- Should cohabitating and married couples enjoy equal treatment?
• Can copyright owners and authors protect their rights under the current copyright law?
• Copyright law and modern art- Which contemporary artworks should enjoy copyright protection?
• Trade secrets protection under business law- How to ease the existing conflict
• National and international law- Which are the prevailing rules?
• Peaceful international conflicts resolution- Discuss the current international dispute settlement mechanisms.
• International law attitudes towards the self-determination concept- How to set a fair balance between the minorities and majorities interests
• Organ retention legislation- How to regulate the existing problems and controversies
• When should the international criminal court come into play?
• How domestic violence accurate picture differs from statistics
• Why does the law give severe punishment for some crimes?

A carefully selected example in this category can spark exciting research that will lead to a brilliant thesis. Nevertheless, pick an exciting idea to come up with a dissertation that will impress your educator.

Commercial or Business Law Thesis Topics

Maybe you’re looking for the best business or commercial law master’s thesis topics. That means you need titles that will allow you to focus on the legal aspects of the rights, conducts, and relations of organizations or individuals that engage in merchandising activities, trade, or commerce. Here are exciting business law topics to write about when working on your thesis.

• Do the current commercial laws in the U.S. need any change?
• How effective are the international business law programs in U.S. universities?
• How effective is business law in supporting commercial transactions?
• Does corporate social responsibility have a mediating role in companies’ performance?
• What are the impacts of international commercial laws on U.S. business laws?
• A review of the international business law use in new projects
• An evaluation of commercial laws for dealing with dishonest business managers
• Commercial partnerships- A closer look at the potential results and dangers
• Regulations for stopping corruption- A UK case study
• Analyzing pre-incorporation contracts- How they work
• Evaluating arbitration under business law- Understanding the U.K. policy practices
• What are the difficulties, significance, and essence of a commercial lease to business owners?
• Regular versus commercial lease- Analyzing its advantages and disadvantages for businesses.
• The role of the legislature in working and interpreting contracts
• Commercial law’s role in business framework establishment in society
• An evaluation of contract laws and their effects on businesses
• Verbal and non-verbal agreements in the business law’s context
• Analyzing business entity’s role concerning commercial law
• Evaluating business laws for fighting corruption in companies
• How effective is commercial law in prompting transactions?
• Copyright infringement- How offline and online law enforcement differ.
• Business partnerships- Understanding legal remedies, results, and threats
• Commercial laws for guiding businesses in energy projects
• How to work within the advertising law’s guidelines and framework when advertising online
• Analyzing the significance, role, and application of wills within the business law
• International vs. national commercial laws
• Analyzing pre-incorporation contracts
• Assessing the effectiveness of international commercial law
• Why investing in a business’ trademark and copyright application matters
• Commercial law arbitration- An in-depth evaluation and analysis of policy practice
• An evaluation of anti-corruption business regulations using a relevant case study
• Corporate social responsibility laws for businesses
• Termination agreements- Significance, role, and application in business transactions
• Contract law- Role and interpretations in business transactions
• Director’s guarantee- Transaction structure and role within business law
• Analyzing business entity’s role in commercial law
• Exploring loopholes in international laws that allow business corruption
• Consumer protection in Wales and England after the Brexit era
• Investigating Wales and England’s insolvency laws for addressing insolvency instances
• A legal assessment of the commercial law role in sustaining public-private partnerships, depending on what happened during the Carillion Collapse

These research topics in law can be the basis of a paper that will earn you the top grade. However, be ready to research your preferred idea and analyze information to write a high-quality essay.

International Law Thesis Topics for Research

Some learners find international law research topics quite interesting because they focus on legal aspects of businesses during global pandemics and wars. You can also focus on the economic trade aspect when writing a thesis on any of these ideas. Here are exciting topics for a law school thesis in this category.

• Precedence importance during international court hearings
• Internet and digital legislation- Future forecasts
• How civil liberties and public safety relate within the context of international laws
• Analyzing the principles of the international law
• Challenges facing different parties during the application of the Vienna Convention on the international sale of good contracts
• Assessing business implications of the future possibilities of the U.K. and U.S. military cooperation in fighting terror
• When international law allows a country to intervene in another nations’ affairs
• A closer look at the human rights gaps from the international law’s perspective
• Analyzing the U.S. involvement in Iraq- Was it a violation of international law or a justified move?
• How to enforce international law in third world countries
• Analysis of international tribunals’ efficiency in addressing war crimes
• International human rights hearings- Why precedence matters
• Challenges facing parties in contracts relating to the international sale of goods and the application of the Vienna Convention
• Why the international law matters for the digital laws and internet legislation
• How effective are international tribunals in taking action for war crimes?
• Analyzing conditions when the international law permits a country to intervene in trade matters
• Assessing the international criminal laws’ principles and why change could be necessary
• Analyzing the human rights law from an international perspective
• Human rights and international law violations- A case study of U.S. involvement in Iraq
• The impact of civil liberties as enshrined in the international law on public safety
• International consumer protection during the post-Brexit era
• International laws for protecting consumers against unlawful communication during the war
• International laws for protecting and rescuing the refugees’ human rights at sea
• Top five offenders facing the international law and their offenses
• How the international law can protect child soldiers during the Israel-Palestine conflict
• NATO ethics in Afghanistan and Iraq
• Human rights violation in Africa- How the international law can address them
• Describe the appeal process for the international criminal court
• Analyzing the international tribunals
• XYZ corporation’s transnational crimes- A detailed analysis

These are exciting thesis topics for law students interested in international law. Nevertheless, learners must invest time and effort in research and data analysis to develop quality papers.

Controversial Law Topics for Academic Research

Some law master thesis topics can trigger debates while encouraging learners to take a stance in support or against an idea. Such titles can include constitutional law paper topics and sensitive matters in different legal study fields. Here are exciting topics in this category.

• Does the world need gun law review?
• Analyzing human rights vis a vis the Islamic criminal law
• Transgender rights- Solving injustice and discrimination arising from inequality.
• Legal implications of blocking international students temporarily during the COVID-19 pandemic
• Deportation protection and the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program
• Immigration reforms and restrictions- Change and improvement scope
• Black lives matter- Analyzing the lack of legal or political repercussions of custody deaths.
• Abortion- Legal angles for pro-life and pro-choice
• Analysis of religious freedom in law and the choice freedom to deny person services depending on their religion
• Addictive opioids prescription as legal painkillers- Justifications and the aftermath
• The legal framework for animal research
• Vaccine administration from the legal implications perspectives, non-compliance and compliance, parental and herd immunity’s duty
• Privacy rights- Conflict between public safety versus individual privacy
• Free market capitalization- Free trade versus government regulations
• Analyzing government regulations, environmental support policies, and economic costs
• Equal minimum wage system- Legal parameters, remedies, and controversies
• Legalizing marijuana for recreational and medicinal usage
• White supremacy- How this political ideology affects the economic and legal framework
• The legal justification of capital punishment
• Marriage equality act- Analyzing responsibilities and rights in a same-sex marriage.
• The ethics of capital punishment
• Law code and mental hospitals
• Analyzing the legal implications of sniffer dog practices
• College violence causes and legal implications
• Legal code in different states in America
• Crime propaganda and modern music culture- Using the law to address the emerging issues.
• Is the law biased against African-Americans?
• The limited rights for police officers
• The importance of eyewitness evidence
• How developing countries can improve business laws’ effectiveness
• Does the world have more female lawyers than males?
• Trade union role in championing for the workers’ rights
• Effects of technology on business laws’ viability
• Impact of coronavirus on business laws
• Why employees deserve a role in business laws’ formulation
• Why business laws are employee-oriented instead of siding with team members
• Business laws and their role in preventing malicious competition
• Can business law undermine women’s empowerment?
• Should every country have unique business laws for foreign investors?
• How sufficient are business laws in covering cyber espionage?

These are controversial ideas to explore in dissertations. However, learners should prepare to research extensively to write winning papers.

Child in Conflict with the Law Thesis Topics

This category comprises titles relating to legal issues concerning kids that contravene the law by committing juvenile offenses. Nevertheless, they are exciting law enforcement topics to explore when pursuing masters or Ph.D. studies.

• Analysis of children’s rights against economic exploitation and harmful work
• Laws and human rights that support children during illegal migration
• Exploitation and violence leading children into legal conflicts
• Court procedures for children that break the law
• Abuse and exploitation of children that violate the law and how to prevent it
• Rights and legal protection for children during cases
• The legal framework for guiding the people handling children’s cases
• How to deal with children involved in legal matters in metro cities
• How to improve legal protection for children during conflict
• Analysis of the measures for reintegrating children into the society after conflicting with the law
• Laws for facilitating children’s rehabilitation after conflicting with the law

Criminal Law Thesis Topics

Criminal law entails the study of rules governing individuals’ prosecution after committing crimes. Here are titles to consider in this category.

• Crimes and religious laws in developing countries
• Analyzing the war against terror and potential crimes
• Examining racial prejudice during incarceration
• Police interrogations- Legal framework, human rights, and principles
• Balancing legal rights for the defendant and the victim during a lawsuit
• Anatomy justification with the defendant and victim in mind
• Challenges in the crime’s nature identification and distribution- A case study analysis
• Criminal theory- A review for exploring crime and morality connection
• Death penalty justification, research, and history
• Male and female rape legislations- Evaluating the critical differences
• Lie detectors use in criminal law courts- Assessing their efficacy
• How to protect victims in case of manslaughter cases
• Analyzing crime-related factors best left out of the court

Family Law Thesis Topics

Family law has several ideas to explore in a dissertation. Here are examples of such notions.

• Grandparents’ role in the family law provisions and social fabrics
• Non-consensual adoption- What are the legal implications?
• Family laws that govern divorce and marriage for transgender individuals
• Children rights to family life within non-marital families
• Impacts of Islamic traditions on family laws for UK-based Muslims
• Custody rights for children with learning disabilities
• Divorce laws- Are they perception or gender-based?

Medical Law and Ethics Thesis Topics

This field focuses on the responsibilities and rights of medical professionals and patients. Here are brilliant ideas to consider in this category.

• Laws governing medical research- Animals protection against cruelty
• Can medical practitioners treat mental disorders without bias?
• Ethical and legal challenges relating to bio-banks
• Effects of lawsuits on medical practitioners dedication and commitment
• Medical, ethics, and legal perspectives of assisted suicide
• Medical laws and ethics in practice

Sports Law Topics

If interested in sports law, consider these topics for your papers.

• Coaches employment laws and contracts
• Policies facilitating rights protection and promotion for transgender athletes
• Rules for fighting sexual harassment in the sporting field
• Constitutional rights for student-athletes
• Practices and policies of sports law in the U.S.
• The legal stance for national sports governing bodies
• Lifestyle sports- What sports laws say about them
• Analyzing the negligence of cheerleading teams with a case study
• The role of legal aspects of sporting events at the international level
• Transnational sports’ management perspective
• Laws relating to club sports management
• Match-fixing and the related laws
• Legal issues relating to sportsperson marketing
• The legal implications of sports promotion aids

Hot Thesis Topics in Employment Law

Do you want to write a thesis on employment law? If yes, consider any of these ideas for your paper.

• How to improve zero-hour contracts
• Wrongful vs. unfair- What provides better protection within the employment laws
• Studying the right to fair employment practices
• 2010 Equality Act and the disabled people’s rights
• Employment laws for the disabled
• Effectiveness of sexual harassment laws at the workplace
• Gender variations in employment regulations and laws
• How working parents benefit from Flexible Working Regulations 2002
• The convergence of employment laws with religion
• The impact of trade unions on businesses
• Unfair dismissal- What the law says
• Legal aspects of social work employment

If you pick any of these topics and then have difficulties down the road, seek help with research paper from the best-rated online experts. Using affordable thesis help, you can complete your project on any of these titles. Nevertheless, work with a professional company to get cheap and quality assistance.

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Basics of Format & Content

Research papers are not as strictly structured as legal memos, briefs, and other documents that you've learned about in legal writing and drafting courses. For example, there is no prescribed content/format similar to to the Questions Presented, Brief Answers, etc. that you learned for a legal memo.

A general approach to thinking about the content of a research paper is:

• Introduction in which you give some background and a clear statement of your thesis
• Status quo -- what is the existing law and why is it a problem
• Proposals for change

See this blog post by Jonathan Burns , an IU McKinney alum, for more on basic content.

If you're writing for a law review or seminar, you should get formatting instructions regarding things like margins, font size, line spacing. If you don't, or if you're doing an independent study, here are some basic guidelines to follow:

• Times New Roman or similar, 12 pt font.
• Double spaced lines.
• One inch margins all around.
• Footnotes in academic Bluebook style (use the rules on the main white pages instead of the light blue pages at the front of the Bluebook).
• Footnotes in same font as text, 10 pt font.
• Use Roman numerals and/or letters on headings and subheadings or style the fonts so that the difference between headings and subheadings is clear.   
• Page numbers in the footer, preferably centered, especially on first page. You could do bottom center on first page and then upper right in the header thereafter. Use the header and footer functions for this. If you don't know how to use headers and footers in Word, here is help:  https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word2016/headers-and-footers/1/ . 

Headings and subheadings

Research papers should have headings and subheadings. These help your reader follow your logic--and a logical structure is very important. Headings and subheadings can also help you keep your thoughts organized. Just don't overuse them--you don't want every paragaph to have a subheading. 

Road map paragraph

Often, research papers will also include a paragraph at the end of the introduction that narrates the road map the paper will follow.   Here is an example of this kind of paragraph:

"The section that follows [this introduction] sets the stage by recounting two scenarios from the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law, with discussion of the knowledge and implementation of accessibility features in online instructional materials. The next section provides an overview of various impairments and their effects on a user's experience of the online environment. Next is a review of the laws relevant to accessibility with attention to their potential application to online instruction, along with standards used to guide accessibility compliance. The article then explores the concept of universal design and its guiding principles, followed by a discussion of how to use the universal design principles to organize and better understand accessibility standards and practices. The final section briefly summarizes the discussion and encourages law librarians and professors to become knowledgeable and skilled in universal design for online materials to benefit all their students."

Table of Contents

A table of contents can also be helpful, though it's not necessary. If you add a table of contents to your papers, put it right at the beginning, before the introduction. Here's part of the table of contents for the same paper the paragraph above was taken from--it really just lays out the heading and subheadings with page numbers: 

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Law Dissertation Topics

Published by Owen Ingram at January 9th, 2023 , Revised On October 5, 2023

Introduction

Law dissertations can be demanding because of the need to find relevant regulations, cases, and data to address the research problem successfully. It is of utmost importance to critically examine facts before framing the  research questions .

Selection of the most appropriate legal terms and legal authorities, whether online or in print, can be challenging especially if you have not tackled a law dissertation project before.

To help you select an intriguing law  dissertation  topic,  our expert writers have suggested some issues in various areas of law, including trust law, EU law, family law, employment and equality law, public law, tort law, intellectual property rights, commercial law, evidence, and criminal law, and human rights and immigration law.

These topics have been developed by PhD-qualified writers of our team , so you can trust to use these topics for drafting your dissertation.

Review step by step guide on how to write your own dissertation  here.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting  a brief research proposal  from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an  introduction  to the topic,  research question , aim and objectives ,  literature review  along with the proposed  methodology  of research to be conducted.  Let us know  if you need any help in getting started.

Check our  dissertation examples to get an idea of  how to structure your dissertation .

Review the full list of dissertation topics for 2022 here.

2022 Law Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: the role of international criminal laws in reducing global genocide.

Research Aim: This study aims to find the role of international criminal laws in reducing global genocide. It will be an exploratory study identifying the explicit and implicit effects of international criminal laws on the worldwide genocide. It will analyse different incidents of international genocide and find out how international criminal laws played a positive role to reduce these incidents. Lastly, it will recommend possible changes in the international criminal laws to effectively mitigate global genocide. And it will be done by comparing criminal laws of world-leading powers to reduce genocide.

Topic 2: Impact of Anti-Racism Employment Laws on Organisational Culture- A Comparative Study on the Anti-Racism Employment Laws in the US and Canada

Research Aim: This research aims to find the impact of anti-racism employment laws on the organisational culture in the US and Canada in a comparative analysis. It will identify the change in employees’ behaviour after implementing anti-racism laws. Moreover, it will find whether employees gleefully welcomed these laws or showed resistance. And how do these laws affect the organisations’ performance that strictly implemented them?

Topic 3: Globalization, international business transactions, and commercial law- A perspective from literature.

Research Aim: Students and practitioners can find the law of international business transactions as a subfield within a broader field of international commercial law to be somewhat amorphous.

This study will explain the impact of globalization on international business transactions and commercial law by establishing some necessary links between the study of transnational business law and related fields of international studies. This study also aims to address theories about foreign business regulation, such as the idea that it is free of power politics. For the collection of data existing literature will be studied. And the methodology of this research will rely on existing previous literature.

Topic 4: Investigating the impact of competition law on the businesses in the UK- Post Brexit

Research Aim: This study aims to investigate the impact of competition laws on businesses in the Post-Brexit UK. The proposed study will not only analyze the performance of the businesses with the current competition laws. But also analyze the impact of possible changes in competition laws on the businesses in the post-Brexit UK. And it will also incorporate the possible difference of changes in competition laws in deal, no-deal, hard deal, and soft deal scenarios. This way of individually analyzing the difference of competition laws due to the status of the UK’s deal with the EU will give better insights into how businesses will be affected by these laws in the post-Brexit UK.

Topic 5: A comparison between Islamic and contemporary laws against rape. Which law is the most effective in preventing this horrific crime?

Research Aim: Since several years, marital and non-marital relations in Muslim majority countries have been a source of controversy. Under Islamic law, it is strictly forbidden for a Muslim, or even non-Muslim to engage in illicit sexual relations with the opposite gender under any situation. The current study will help us understand the concepts presented in Islamic laws about rape cases. In this context, a comparative analysis of Islamic and contemporary law will be explained. It will also identify efficient and effective strategies to prevent this horrific crime.

Law Dissertation Topics 2021

Topic 1: the legal implications of the covid-19 pandemic on canadian immigration and the way forward..

Research Aim: This study will focus on how the Canadian government benefits from resources accrued from immigration, the impact of COVID-19 on Canadian Immigration, the current legislation on immigration, the effects of COVID-19 on the immigration law, the possible amendments that could help cushion the impact and the way forward.

Topic 2: Effect of COVID-19 on the United States Immigration policies; an assessment of International Legal agreements governing pandemic disease control and the way forward.

Research Aim: This research will focus on the pandemic’s effect on immigration policies in the United States. It also suggests the required steps based on the laws that regulate government acts during an outbreak of a pandemic.

Topic 3: Creating legal policies in preparedness for the global pandemic; lessons from COVID-19 on Canadian immigration policies.

Research Aim: This research will focus on how the COVID-19 pandemic hit the world and how most countries seemed unprepared. Historical background of the flu pandemic can also be made to assess how the world overcame the pandemic. And the need for the Canadian government or any other country you wish to choose can prepare for a global pandemic by creating legal policies that could help prepare ahead for such a period, such as policies on scientific research and funding.

Topic 4: The need for uniformity of competition law and policy in Gulf Cooperation Council Countries; An approach to the European Union standard.

Research Aim: This research will focus on the Gulf Cooperation Countries and their current legislation on competition law and its implications. Countries under the European Union’s competition law, the legal implications, and the need to consider such a part.

Topic 5: The need for competition law and policy enforcement; An analysis of the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries.

Research Aim: This research focuses on the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries’ competition laws and their enforceability. It analyses the benefits of enforcing the competition law and looks at the European Union uniformed laws and its benefits. It looks into the various countries, how the competition law currently works, and how it can affect each country’s economy in a better way or adequately enforced.

Topic 6: Provisions of the law on rape, the need to expand its coverage on the misuse of its provisions, and false accusations.

Research Aim: This research will focus on the law’s present provisions on rape and rape victims and the recent false accusations.

Topic 7: Summary dismissal of workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, the legal implications under the labour law, and the way forward. The case study of Nigeria

Research Aim: This research will focus on the statistics of people who were summarily dismissed during the COVID-19 pandemic based on natural occurrences, provisions of the law against summary dismissal, and its enforcement, and how this can be cushioned against future events. The need to expand the labour law to cover similar situations for the protection of workers.

Topic 8: A legal assessment of the settlement of international disputes through the peaceful process and its effectiveness

Research Aim: This research focuses on the mode of dispute settlement in the international community, assessment of international laws and treaties on peaceful settlement of conflicts among countries of member states, the methods of dispute settlements, its strengths and weaknesses, and the need to improve the current mechanisms of peaceful settlement in the international community.

Topic 9: The protection of minority shareholders and the majority shareholders' power in Companies, a critical analysis of the Nigerian Companies and Allied Matters Act provisions.

Research Aim: This research will focus on the law’s provisions on protecting minority shareholders in companies and the majority shareholders’ power. How effective are these provisions in protecting the minorities against the management of the majority shareholders and the way forward

COVID-19 Law Research Topics

Topic 1: law during the time of the coronavirus crisis.

Research Aim:  This study will analyse the role of law and order during COVID-19.

Topic 2: Legal policies and issues during COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will focus on the legal policies issued during the COVID-19 across the world. Challenges faced by the public and government during the lockdown will also be addressed.

Topic 3: The role of cops during COVID-19

Research Question: This study will highlight the role of cops in combatting COVID-19 and ensuring public health safety. It’ll also focus on the risk and challenges they come across and how to overcome those challenges.

Topic 4: Justice during COVID-19

Research Aim: The entire world has been paused during the lockdown situation. This study will investigate the mode of trials, court sessions, and justice during the coronavirus pandemic.

Topic 5: Health guidelines and social distancing

Research Aim: This study will reveal the WHO’s health and safety guidelines.

Topic 6: Guidelines for transport, educational institutions, business sectors, and hospitals during the Coronavirus pandemic

Research Aim: This study will focus on reviewing the guidelines issued by the government for various public gathering places such as transport, educational institutions, business sectors, and hospitals during the Coronavirus pandemics.

Topic 1: World Bank developmental projects and greater accountability

Research Aim: Examine communities impacted by development operations under the World Bank Development project schemes using the project law model to understand the lack of participation and successful influence of these communities to improve accountability and good governance.

Topic 2: The right to bear arms: Rethinking the second amendment

Research Aim: Gun control and the right to bear arms has been an ever-evolving web discourse in the United States. The research aims at analysing how gun control laws have changed in the USA since specifically focusing on the 2nd Amendment and its original framework.

Topic 3: Rethinking the international legal framework protecting journalists in war and conflict zones.

Research Question: Is the current legal framework still appropriate for protecting journalists in today’s conflict zones? Research Aim: The primary body of law that is set out to protect journalists includes the Geneva Conventions and their additional Protocols. However, since the time they have been drafted and decades after, there have been conspicuous changes to the way warfare is conducted. It is imperative to examine this body of law in order to improve it as journalists have now become prime targets in war zones and conflict areas because of their profession.

Topic 4: A critical analysis of employment law of disabled individuals in the UK and what new policies can be integrated to increase its efficiency.

Research Aim: Employment or labour law has always been under the limelight. Many critiques and researchers have proposed different amendments to the existing law pertaining to labour and employee. The main aim of the research is to critically analyse the employment law of disabled individuals in the UK along with effective recommendations that need to be made in order to make the existing law more efficient and effective.

Topic 5: A critical evaluation of racial discrimination laws in developed countries and how it impacts the workplace environment

Research Aim: Racial discrimination has always been a controversial issue in almost every part of the World. However, many developed countries (companies) face severe racial discrimination issues that directly impact their name and brand value. Therefore, this research provides a critical evaluation of the racial discrimination laws, particularly in developed countries. Moreover, the research will be focusing on how racial discrimination laws are impacting the workplace environment.

Topic 6: A comparative analysis of legislation, policy, and guidelines of domestic abuse between UK and USA.

Research Aim: Domestic laws basically deal with and provide criminal rules for punishing individuals who have physically or emotionally harmed their own family members. It has been found out that many domestic cases of abuse are not reported to the concerned authority. Due to this reason, the main focus of the research is to conduct a comparative analysis of legislation, policy, and guidelines of domestic abuse between the UK and the USA and how effective both the countries have been to minimise domestic abuse.

Topic 7: Analyzing the negative impact of technology in protecting the intellectual property rights of corporations.

Research Aim: Intellectual property has gained significant importance after the emergence of counterfeit products coming from different parts of the world. It has been found out that many factors have motivated the sale of counterfeit products. Therefore, this research aims at analysing the negative impact of technology in protecting the intellectual property rights of products and corporations.

Topic 8: A critical assessment of the terrorism act of 2010 and its impact on Muslims living around the globe.

Research Aim: Since the incident of 9/11, the entire world has been under the pressure of terrorism activities, especially Muslims living around the world. Therefore, this research intends to critically assess the terrorism act of 2010 and its impact on Muslims living around the globe.

Trust Law Dissertation Topics

The trust law requires the settler to meet the three certainties, including the object, intention, and subject matter. As posted to a moral obligation or mere gift, confidence of choice can be best described as clarity of purpose. Some interesting dissertation topics in the field of trust law  are listed below:

• To investigate the attitude of the courts to trusts supporting political agendas.
• To identify and discuss principles on which half-secret and full secret trusts are enforced? Does a literature review highlight circumstances where it is essential to consider whether such beliefs are constructive and express?
• The role and impact of trust law as asset portioning and fiduciary governance
• From law to faith: Letting go of secret trusts
• Critical analysis of the statement “Traditionally, equity and the law of trusts have been concerned with providing justice to balance out the rigour of the common law” regarding modern equity development/operation.
• Should the assumption of resulting trusts and progression be abolished in this modern age? A critical review of the literature
• A critical examination of the courts’ concern of financial reward in the context of “trustee powers of investment”
• Does the doctrine of cypress do justice to the intentions of the testator?
• The impact of the decision of Harrison v Gibson on the law of the clarity of intention?
• The approval of trustees in the Zimbabwean law of trusts

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European Law Dissertation Topics

European law has recently attracted wide attention from the academic world, thanks to the growing influence of European Law on administrative law in EU members. It should be noted that every aspect of life in European states is significantly affected by European law, and therefore this area of research has gained tremendous popularity. Some exciting and specific research areas are given below:

• A critical review of the European anti-discrimination Law
• To investigate the economics and history of European Law.
• An investigation of the European human rights law
• Investigating the impact of “Freedom of Speech” on the German economy
• Investigating the impact of immigration laws on the German economy
• How the French parliamentary sovereignty has been affected by the European Union
• Uniform interpretation of European patent law with a unique view on the creation of a standard patent court
• The impact of European consensus in the jurisprudence of the European court of human rights
• The impact of the European convention on human rights on the international human rights law
• A critical analysis of the tensions between European trade and social policy
• To investigate the European Union’s enforcement actions and policies against member countries.
• European Laws amidst the Brexit process

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Family Law Dissertation Topics

A wide range of topics are covered under the field of family law and the law of children. Essentially, this area of law takes into consideration the registration of marriages, statutory rights concerning marriage, the effects of a decree, void and voidable marriages, the impact of the Human Rights Act, the legal stature of unmarried and married individuals, and the case for reform of UK family law . Other research areas include enforcing financial responsibilities in the Magistrates court, enforcing the arrears of maintenance payments, the award of maintenance, enforcing financial obligations to children or a child, financial orders for children, and the Child Support Act. An extremely intriguing area of law that has gained tremendous popularity in the modern era, some specific  dissertation topics  in this area of law studies are listed below:

• Investigating therapeutic and theoretical approaches to deal with spouse abuse in light of the UK government’s latest research on domestic violence
• Unmarried fathers’ access to parental responsibility – Does the current law enforce rights and responsibilities towards children?
• To study the criminal justice process involving a child witness.
• The children’s right to participation – Rhetoric or Reality? – A critical review of literature from the past two decades
• To study the position of unmarried fathers in the UK.
• Does the UK Family law need a major reform?
• A critical review of the rights of married women in real estate
• Child welfare and the role of local authorities
• To study the legal and social foundations of parenting, civil partnership, and marriage.
• To examine whether the Child Support Act has positively influenced child maintenance?

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Employment Law Dissertation Topics

Employment and equality law governs the relationship between the government, trade unions, employers, and employees.  Employment and equality law in the UK is a body of law that prevents bias and negative attitudes towards someone based on their ethnicity or race rather than work skills and experience. Some interesting dissertation topics  in this area of law are below:

• A critical investigation of the right to fair labor practices in the United Kingdom
• To determine the job’s inherent requirements as a defence to unfair discrimination or a claim – A comparison between the United Kingdom and Canada.
• The role of the South African Labour Relations Act in providing unhappy staff sufficient protection against unfair dismissals and discrimination at the workplace
• To investigate the impact of HIV/AIDS on employees’ lives with a focus on unfair dismissal and discrimination.
• To assess ethnic discrimination in the European Union: Derogations from the ban on discrimination – Sexual harassment – Equal pay for equal value work.
• To study the international employment contract – Regulation, perception, and reality.
• To identify and discuss challenges associated with equality at work.
• A study of the legal aspects of the relationship between employer and employee
• How influential is the role of trade unions in English employment law?
• A critical review of discrimination policies in the UK

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Commercial Law Dissertation Topics

Commercial law, also known as business law, is the whole body of substantive jurisprudence applicable to the conduct, relations, and rights of sales, trade, merchandising, and businesses and persons associated with commerce. Important issues of law covered by commercial law include real estate, secured transactions, credit transactions, bankruptcy, banking, and contracts. An intriguing area of law within the UK, specific topics for your law dissertation are listed below:

• The impact of legislation for the regulation of investments services with EU economic area on the EU financial services market
• Handling regulatory involvement incorporates organisational structure and strategy.
• A study of convergence and complementarities concerning international corporate governance
• How drafting and diffusion of uniform norms can help to harmonise the law of international commercial arbitration?
• Convergence and adaption in corporate governance to transnational standards in India
• A critical review of the international commercial arbitration system
• Analysing the international commercial law on risk transfer
• The role of the tripartite financial system in the UK on economic development
• A comparative analysis of European contract law, international commercial contracts law, and English commercial contracts law
• Is the European contracts law meeting the needs of the commercial community?
• A critical review of anti-corruption legislation in the UK
• The problems of director accountability in the UK and the impact of soft and hard law on corporate governance

Criminal and Evidence Law Dissertation Topics

Criminal law  can be defined as a system of law dealing with the punishment of criminals. Criminal evidence, on the other hand, concerns evidence/testimony presented in relation to criminal charges. Evidence can be presented in various forms in order to prove and establish crimes. A wide array of topics can be covered in this subject area. To help you narrow down your research focus, some  interesting topics  are suggested below:

• The politics of criminal law reform with a focus on lower-court decision making
• To understand and establish the historical relationship between human rights and Islamic criminal law
• Investigating the rights of victims in internal criminal courts
• The efficacy of the law of rape in order to prevent misuse by bogus victims and to protect rightful victims
• To assess the criminal law’s approach to Omissions
• To investigate the issues associated with the identification of the distribution, extent, and nature of the crime
• A critical review of the Bad Samaritan laws and the law of omissions liability
• How international criminal law has been significant influenced by the “war on terrors”?
• The efficacy of modern approaches to the definition of intention in International criminal law
• The efficacy of the law of corporate manslaughter

Company Law Dissertation Topics

Company law, also known as the  law of business associations , is the body of law that deals with business organisations and their formation, registration, incorporation, governance, dissolution, and administration. Some suggestions for company law dissertation topics are listed below:

• Developing equity markets in growing economies and the importance of corporate law
• A critical review of English company law and its effects on member workers and creditors
• To investigate the essential aspects of corporate law.
• To study business responsibilities for human rights.
• Identifying disparities in corporate governance – Theories and Realities
• The external relations of company groups in Zambian Corporate law
• To study corporate governance practices concerning the minority stakeholders.
• Establishing and evaluating arguments for and against “stakeholder theory.”
• The importance of non-executive directors in the British corporate legal system
• Investigating the regulation of the UK public company

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Intellectual Property and Tort Law Dissertation topics

All forms of legal injury are dealt with under the subject area of tort law. Essentially, tort law helps to establish the circumstances whereby a person may be held responsible for another person’s injury caused by either accident on intentional acts. On the other hand, intellectual property covers areas of law such as copyright, patents, and trademark. Trademark dissertation topics trademarks directive, trademarks act, infringement of trademarks such as revocation, invalidity, and the use of similar marks. Some interesting dissertation ideas and topics  of tort law and intellectual property are suggested below to help your law studies.

• The efficacy of intellectual property rights in the UK under influence of European Law
• The efficacy of UK copyright law concerning the needs of rights users and holders
• The impact of intellectual property right on economic development
• To investigate the right of confidence in the UK
• Does the trademark law ensure sufficient protection in England?
• The impact of European Law on intellectual property rights in the UK
• The end of the road for loss of a chance?
• To assess the success ratio of psychiatric injury claims in the UK
• Should a no-fault system be implemented into UK law or should the law of negligence apply to personal injury claims?
• A critical review of economic loss in 21 st century tort law

Human Rights and Immigration Law

The primary objective of human rights and immigration law is to ensure and protect human rights at domestic, regional, and international levels. With the world becoming a global village, human rights and immigration laws have attracted significant attention from academicians and policymakers. Some interesting law dissertation topics in this subject area are suggested below:

• To assess the efficacy of the common European Asylum system in terms of immigration detention.
• A historical analysis of Britain’s immigration and asylum policies
• A critical analysis of immigration policy in Britain since 1990
• A critical analysis of the right of the police and the public right to protest under PACE 1984
• The right of prisoners to vote under the European law of human rights
• Arguments for and against the death penalty in English Law with a focus on human rights treatise
• A critical analysis of the right to private life and family for failed asylum seekers
• The impact of UK immigration policies on the current education industry
• How beneficial the points system has really been in regards to create a cap in the British immigration system
• To study the impact of privatisation on immigration detention and related functions in the UK.

More Human Rights Law Dissertation Topics

Pandemic Law Dissertation Topics

Coronavirus, also known as the Covid-19, has become the most trending topic in the world since the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic that started in China. Here are some interesting Corona Virus or Covid 19 Pandemic Law topics that you can consider for your law dissertation.

• Co-parenting in the coronavirus pandemic: A family law scholar’s advice
• How San Diego law enforcement operated amid Coronavirus pandemic
• Pandemic preparedness in the workplace and the British with disabilities act
• Why In a pandemic, rumors of martial Law fly despite reassurances
• Investigating About the ADA, the Rehabilitation Act, and COVID-19
• Resources to support workers in the UK during the Coronavirus pandemic
• Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic:
• A legal perspective
• Navigating the Coronavirus Pandemic
• Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19) and employment laws in the UK going forward
• Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19) and employment laws in the US going forward
• Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19) and employment laws in Australia going forward

More Law Dissertation Topics

• A critical analysis of the employment law of disabled individuals in the UK and what new policies can be integrated to increase its efficiency
• A critical evaluation of racial discrimination laws in developed countries and how it impacts the workplace environment
• A comparative analysis of domestic abuse with the legislation, policy, and domestic abuse guidelines between the UK and USA.
• Analysing the negative impact of technology in protecting the intellectual property rights of corporations.
• A critical assessment of the terrorism act of 2010 and its impact on Muslims living around the Globe.

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As a law dissertation student looking to get good grades, it is essential to develop new ideas and experiment with existing law dissertation theories – i.e., to add value and interest in the topic of your research.

The field of law dissertation is vast and interrelated to many other academic disciplines like civil engineering ,  construction ,  project management , engineering management , healthcare , mental health , artificial intelligence , tourism , physiotherapy , sociology , management , project management , and nursing . That is why it is imperative to create a project management dissertation topic that is articular, sound, and actually solves a practical problem that may be rampant in the field.

We can’t stress how important it is to develop a logical research topic based on your fundamental research. There are several significant downfalls to getting your case wrong; your supervisor may not be interested in working on it, the topic has no academic creditability, the research may not make logical sense, and there is a possibility that the study is not viable.

This impacts your time and efforts in writing your dissertation as you may end up in the cycle of rejection at the initial stage of the dissertation. That is why we recommend reviewing existing research to develop a topic, taking advice from your supervisor, and even asking for help in this particular stage of your dissertation.

While developing a research topic, keeping our advice in mind will allow you to pick one of the best law dissertation topics that fulfill your requirement of writing a research paper and add to the body of knowledge.

Therefore, it is recommended that when finalising your dissertation topic, you read recently published literature to identify gaps in the research that you may help fill.

Remember- dissertation topics need to be unique, solve an identified problem, be logical, and be practically implemented. Please look at some of our sample law dissertation topics to get an idea for your dissertation.

How to Structure your Law Dissertation

A well-structured dissertation can help students to achieve a high overall academic grade.

• A Title Page
• Acknowledgements
• Declaration
• Abstract: A summary of the research completed
• Table of Contents
• Introduction : This chapter includes project rationale, research background, key research aims and objectives, and the research problems. An outline of the structure of a dissertation can also be added to this chapter.
• Literature Review : This chapter presents relevant theories and frameworks by analysing published and unpublished literature available on the chosen research topic to address research questions . The purpose is to highlight and discuss the selected research area’s relative weaknesses and strengths while identifying any research gaps. Break down the topic, and binding terms can positively impact your dissertation and your tutor.
• Methodology : The data collection and analysis methods and techniques employed by the researcher are presented in the Methodology chapter which usually includes research design , research philosophy, research limitations, code of conduct, ethical consideration, data collection methods and data analysis strategy .
• Findings and Analysis : Findings of the research are analysed in detail under the Findings and Analysis chapter. All key findings/results are outlined in this chapter without interpreting the data or drawing any conclusions. It can be useful to include graphs, charts and tables in this chapter to identify meaningful trends and relationships.
• Discussion and Conclusion : The researcher presents his interpretation of the results in this chapter, and states whether the research hypothesis has been verified or not. An essential aspect of this section is establishing the link between the products and evidence from the literature. Recommendations with regards to implications of the findings and directions for future may also be provided. Finally, a summary of the overall research, along with final judgments, opinions, and comments, must be included in the form of suggestions for improvement.
• References : Make sure to complete this by your University’s requirements
• Bibliography
• Appendices : Any additional information, diagrams, and graphs used to complete the dissertation but not part of the dissertation should be included in the Appendices chapter. Essentially, the purpose is to expand the information/data.

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How to Do Legal Research: The Ultimate Overview

By The MyCase Team

Sep 25, 2023

Whether you’re brand new to practicing law or a seasoned pro, effective legal research is one of the cornerstones of being a successful lawyer. Throughout your career, legal research skills can help you stay abreast of evolving precedent. 

However, it’s not just the law itself that’s changing but many of the methods for conducting legal research have transformed in the digital age. These days, crafting a perfect legal argument takes a winning combination of experience, intuition, and the ability to leverage technology.

To make sure you’re getting the most from your legal research, we’ve put together a guide that covers the basic steps of effective legal research and the latest tools and best practices at your disposal.

What is Legal Research?

Legal research is the process of finding relevant laws, case summaries, and other information to back up your legal arguments and decision making. In addition to preparing for a filing or trial, an attorney may do legal research to accurately answer a client’s questions and provide guidance.

Specific laws and decisions also are subject to change over time. So while doing research, legal experts must also make sure they’re using “good” law–in other words, that the decision or specific case they’re citing is still relevant.

Why is Effective Legal Research Important?

Without a solid foundation of quality legal research, it can be difficult to know if a given argument or precedent is valid or will work. Beyond that, using well-researched arguments backed by the most up-to-date citations will help you:

• Get a complete and accurate picture of the case at hand
• Achieve better outcomes for clients
• Develop smarter and more sophisticated case strategies
• Help you stay up to date on the law and legal trends in your practice area

Additionally, using legal analytics and other digital tools to supplement your research can also help you predict success rates, understand the costs and time of a given case, and work more efficiently overall. 

How to Conduct Legal Research in 5 Steps

For many years, a lawyer’s best research tools were largely limited to libraries, books, and physical documents. Now, there is a plethora of available online tools and resources to help. However, even the most sophisticated tools aren’t worth much unless you already have a solid understanding of how to conduct legal research..

Regardless of what you use to research, there are several basic steps that go into effective legal research:

1. Gather the Facts 

Before building an argument, you need to understand the exact nature of the issue you’re faced with. The initial fact-finding process helps you determine:

• What is the jurisdiction?
• Is it a federal or state issue?
• A reasonable goal/desired outcome to expect
• The facts of the case: who, what, where, when, how

By answering these initial questions, you can then narrow your search to be more specific. Many legal experts use case management software to assist with tracking client and case information right from the intake stage. Software will also make it easier when locating or attaching relevant documents in the future as well.

2. Create a Research Plan

Using the facts you’ve already gathered, you’ll then determine what primary sources and case law will be most relevant to your case. Instead of diving straight into the research, it can be extremely helpful to develop a research plan first. 

At this stage, it’s less important to know exactly what sources you’re looking for and more about creating a list of relevant legal terms and what filters you should apply (more on that later). You do this by analyzing the facts of the case, assessing what you still need to learn, and creating a list of potential search terms. 

3. Gather Sources

Armed with a list of relevant terms and facts about your case, it’s time to get into law research. You’ll generally find two types of sources valuable. 

Primary Sources: Primary legal sources are formal documents issued by a state or federal government that establish law such as:

• Court decisions
• Regulations
• Constitutions

Secondary Sources : Secondary sources provide summaries of legal matters and court decisions. Some examples of secondary sources include:

• Legal articles
• Practice guides
• Legal dictionaries

Ultimately, the most important citations you can provide will be primary legal sources—but often the fastest route to finding them is by mining secondary sources that point you in the right direction. It also lets you see what other legal experts have said about similar issues, giving you further insights into what direction your strategy and research should take.

While physically going to the library and cracking the books still has its place, technology has made the initial research stages much easier. There are a number of free and paid online resources , like Google Scholar , available for lawyers — which you use depends on your budget, how big your firm is, and what kind of advanced features you’re looking for.

Search tools that incorporate artificial intelligence (AI) let you use natural language or informal search terms to find relevant documents, significantly accelerating the research process. AI can also be used to provide succinct summaries of lengthy documents like cases, laws, deposition transcripts, and more. 

4. Ensure That You’re Using “Good” Law

As we touched on briefly before, it’s vital to make sure you’re using “good” law. What is “good” law? Basically, it’s making sure a legal decision, case, or other source you’re using is in good standing with the courts and still relevant. A perfect example from a ruling might seem great at first until you find out the decision was overturned at a later date, appealed, or made obsolete by a new law. 

A good rule of thumb is to try and find recent cases as they are more likely to still be relevant. Of course, that doesn’t mean old cases should be avoided outright. 

Using a citator—a legal tool that cross references your document with other citations—is vital to ensuring the document you’re using doesn’t have any negative history. Many newer citators will also provide a summary of the findings and point you towards similar cases. 

In addition to looking only for negative history (like decisions that were overturned), it’s also important to note differentiators or unique factors that contributed to one outcome or another. This is another area where legal analytics and AI can shine, helping you understand meaningful patterns in case law.

5. Check Your Work

The legal research process can get intense, and sometimes it’s easy to get lost in the details. Before finalizing, it’s a good idea to summarize your findings to show how your full body of research supports your desired conclusion. This is also called a legal memorandum, and while it might seem redundant, a legal memo can be useful for:

• Fostering internal collaboration within your law firm
• Communicating strategy with your clients
• Documenting your legal processes and findings

Tips to Improve Your Legal Research Skills

With a solid foundation of basic legal research skills you can take advantage of the latest best practices and tools to make your law research process even more efficient. When determining how to improve your legal research skills, here are some important starting points.

Use Legal Technology

Effectively representing your clients and drafting winning arguments comes from utilizing every tool at your disposal. Specialized legal software comes with a number of built-in capabilities that streamline legal research and ensure it’s more effective. Supplementing this with the capabilities of leading case management software can help further with things like:

• Custom Workflows : Workflows can be set up based on the type of case to automate tasks, create deadlines, pull specific documents, and more.
• Case Analytics : Analytics tools provide a 360-degree view of every case that leads to actionable insights. Analytics tools not only help during the research process, but can also be used to better understand your own case history and workflows in order to find areas for improvement or gaps.
• Time Tracking and Scheduling : Case management can make it easier to track the time you spend on research and other tasks. Not only does this make tracking billable hours easier, it allows you to stay on top of important deadlines which is vital when handling multiple cases at once.
• Document Management : Keep all relevant case files in one place with comprehensive document management tools. Software like MyCase ensures all of your documents are organized, accessible, and secure—bolstering collaboration and helping to establish a single source of truth.

Leverage AI to Check Your Work

The topic of AI has exploded within the last year and generated a lot of excitement. When you look at its capabilities within the legal field, it’s easy to understand why. There are already several tools out there that help speed up research without losing quality or accuracy. 

AI tools can help check your work by summarizing your sources, pointing you towards others, and checking for anything you’ve missed. While many traditional online searches get stuck when you fail to use the exact right wording, AI helps get around this by generating tailored search results based on plain language. 

Boost Your Legal Research Efficiency With Best-In-Class Technology

Learning how to conduct legal research effectively is crucial for the long term success of any lawyer. Having a solid research process not only helps lawyers achieve better outcomes for their clients, but allows them to use their time more efficiently.

Leading law firms across the country rely on MyCase to help centralize their documentation, client communication, calendaring, and more. Features like full text search , which allows you to instantly search for terms within your digital files, are also crucial for finding relevant documents quickly.

By leveraging a best-in-class case management platform to support their research processes and workflows, law firms can boost efficiency and collaboration like never before.

Sign up for a 10-day free trial or schedule a MyCase demo today to learn more.

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Legal research and writing

• Problem analysis

Research plan

• Legal encyclopedias and digests
• Legal dictionaries
• Annotated statutes
• Articles and papers
• Law reform commissions
• Blogs and website secondary sources
• British Columbia
• Finding case law
• Judicial treatment
• Legal writing
• Research guides
• Citation help
• Indigenous legal research methodology
• Research management

This page will help you analyze the legal problem you are going to research and help you identify the points your research will need to address.

Below  is a sample research plan template:

• Research Plan Format Sample (Nayyer) 2018

Planning your legal research

Once you have a handle on what your legal problem is you can plan your research accordingly.

The depth and focus of your plan will likely vary depending on the issues and your familiarity with the subject area.

Start with secondary materials

Start with secondary sources – discussions of the law – to get a grounding on the developed law and an idea of relevant legislation and leading cases on your topic. You'll find detail on secondary sources , including help in finding them, in the next section of this guide.

Legal dictionaries, legal encyclopedias, textbooks, annotated statutes, law reform commission reports, websites and blogs are all examples of secondary materials. Include these steps in your plan:

• Record the titles and dates of the material you look at
• Note down any legislation and cases that look relevant
• Make note of any potential keywords of search terms you come across

Identify relevant primary materials

Legislation is often the first primary source to consider as many legal research problems centre on the interpretation of legislation. Statutes, regulations and by-laws are all examples of legislation. Your research plan should include these steps:

• Write down the names of any potentially relevant legislation you are already aware of
• Add other legislation to this list as you conduct your research
• Update your legislation for currency
• Research your legislation for judicial interpretation

The other key primary source is case law . Be sure to pay attention to court level and jurisdiction. Your research plan should include these steps:

• Consider any leading cases you already know about for this issue
• Add other important cases to this list as you research secondary sources
• Add any cases you uncover as you note up legislation for judicial treatment
• Update or research the history of your cases for currency
• Note up your key cases for judicial treatment
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• Last Updated: Mar 11, 2024 4:16 PM
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Understanding Legal Job Titles: A Comprehensive Guide to Navigating Legal Careers Across Multiple Industries

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By  Harrison Barnes

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Understanding the Significance of Legal Titles in the Legal Industry

Navigating through the intricate maze of the legal industry becomes notably clearer once you grasp the diversification enshrined in legal titles. Not only do these titles elucidate the hierarchy and specializations within the sphere but also depict a clear demarcation of roles, responsibilities, and requisite qualifications, thus serving as a guidepost for both consumers and aspiring legal professionals.

I. Legal Titles in Law Firms

In the varied and dynamic sphere of law firms, titles do more than just designate seniority—they carve out the niche responsibilities, expected expertise, and denote a path of career progression for individuals immersing themselves in the legal domain. Let’s dissect several pivotal legal titles found within law firms:

• What Do Law Firm Titles Mean: Of Counsel, Non-Equity Partner, Equity Partner Explained
• Demystifying the Titles: Contract Attorneys and their Varied Designations in Law Firms
• The “Senior Attorney Trap”

A. Law Clerk

What they do: Law Clerks are vital cogs in the legal machinery, often performing meticulous research and preparatory work, thereby providing essential support to both attorneys and judges, which ensures that legal processes progress with smooth efficacy.

Qualifications:

Education: Most Law Clerks are either currently enrolled in or have completed a law degree.

Skills: A keen aptitude for detailed research, coupled with stellar writing skills, forms the bedrock of the qualifications for a Law Clerk.

Experience: While not always mandatory, some positions might require prior experience in legal research or relevant internships.

Responsibilities:

Legal Research: A primary responsibility involves intensive research on pertinent legal matters, exploring case laws, statutes, legal articles, and existing legal precedents that may influence the outcome of cases.

• Drafting Documents: This involves preparing initial drafts of legal documents, briefs, and memos, which form the foundational documents for legal proceedings.  
• ​Administrative Support: Ensuring accurate documentation and coordination of timelines, maintaining meticulous records, and organizing data to support attorneys or judges in whom they assist.

Case Preparation: Actively involved in case preparation by synthesizing research data, aiding in strategy formulation, and assisting in gathering evidence and pertinent information.  

Salary: The median annual salary for Law Clerks hovers around $54,920, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, though the figure may experience fluctuations depending on factors such as geographical location and the individual's level of experience.

• See Also :  Becoming a Legal File Clerk Can Be a Great Entry into the Field of Law

B. Summer Associate

What they do: Summer Associates, essentially law students, typically in the hiatus between their second and third years, immerse themselves in practical legal work at a law firm during their summer break, obtaining a real-world perspective of legal proceedings and attorney responsibilities.  

Education: Enrollment in a law degree program and satisfactory progress therein is essential.

Selection Criteria: Predominantly, selection is based on excellent academic performance and demonstrable interest in the firm’s area of practice, often determined through on-campus interviewing.  

Legal Research: Similar to Law Clerks, they conduct research on various legal topics to aid ongoing cases within the firm.

Drafting Documents: Preparing preliminary drafts of legal documents and briefs under supervision.

Attendance: Participating in trials, client meetings, and other legal proceedings to gain hands-on experience.

Collaboration: Working alongside seasoned attorneys, absorbing practical knowledge, and contributing to case developments.  

Salary: Financial compensation tends to be around $3,000 weekly, but this can sway based on the firm’s stature and geographical variance.

• See Also:  Getting a BigLaw Summer Associate Job: All You Need to Know

C. Legal Intern

What they do: Legal Interns, generally law students, immerse themselves in a pragmatic legal environment, functioning under supervision to gain tangible experience and comprehend the real-world applications of their theoretical studies.  

Education: Enrolment in a law degree program is paramount.

Skills: Demonstrable ability in performing practical legal work, often evidenced through academic performance or previous internships.  

Supportive Role: Assisting legal teams by providing administrative and research support.

Research: Conducting preliminary legal research on topics relevant to ongoing cases or projects.

Document Drafting: Engaging in drafting basic legal documents and correspondence under supervision.

Learning: Absorbing practical knowledge from seasoned professionals while actively participating in real-world legal activities.  

Salary: The compensation mechanism for Legal Interns is often variable. Some might work for a stipend, others for academic credit, and some might engage on a voluntary basis, choosing to gain experience and forego monetary compensation.  

• See Also:   Do Law School Internships Pay? A Complete Guide to Making Money as an Intern in 2023

D. Contract Attorney

What they do: Contract Attorneys are engaged on a contractual basis, offering their expertise for a specified project or a predefined duration, without becoming a permanent fixture within the firm or organization.  

Education: Holding a law degree and having successfully passed the bar exam are prerequisites.

Relevant Experience: Possessing experience relevant to the contractual role or project ensures apt execution of responsibilities.  

Project-Specific Work: Engaging in legal work specifically tied to the project or contract they are hired for.

Document Review: Scouring through legal documents pertinent to the case, ensuring accuracy and relevance.

Legal Drafting: Preparing legal documents, contracts, and agreements related to the case or project.

Research: Engaging in legal research to support the case or project.  

Salary: Contract Attorneys might expect an average salary of around $72,000 annually, according to PayScale, though this figure can significantly vary based on contract duration and the complexity of the project.  

• See Also:  How to Become a Contract Attorney

E. Legal Assistant

What they do: Legal Assistants, crucial for the seamless operation of legal processes within a firm, might also be recognized as paralegals in some jurisdictions. They facilitate attorneys by handling various research and administrative tasks.  

Education: Often, possessing an associate degree in paralegal studies or a related field is required.

Skills: Proficiency in legal research and administrative tasks is essential.  

Legal Research: Conducting legal research to assist attorneys in case preparation.

File Management: Maintaining and organizing legal files, ensuring documents are accessible and updated.

Administrative Support: Handling various administrative tasks, like scheduling, correspondence, and client communication.

Document Preparation: Assisting in drafting legal documents, under attorney supervision.  

Salary: The annual median wage for Legal Assistants tends to be around $51,740, although it can fluctuate based on factors such as specialization and experience.

F. Paralegal

What they do: Paralegals are skilled professionals who, while not attorneys, perform a spectrum of critical tasks in legal work , such as conducting research, maintaining files, and preparing documents to support lawyers in their endeavors.  

Educational Requirements: Commonly holding an associate degree in paralegal studies, or a bachelor’s degree in another field plus a certificate in paralegal studies.

Skills: Strong research, organizational, and documentation skills are indispensable.  

Legal Research: Diligent investigation of legal matters to assist attorneys.

Document Drafting: Generating legal documents, such as pleadings and contracts.

File Management: Upholding an organized, precise legal document database.

Client Interaction: Frequently interacting with clients, witnesses, and opposing counsel for coordination.  

Salary: The median annual salary for paralegals was approximately $52,920 as of May 2021, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, albeit variations are expected based on factors like specialization and geographic location.

G. Staff Attorney

What they do: Staff Attorneys are lawyers employed on a permanent, typically full-time basis, who manage routine legal matters and provide ongoing legal counsel for an organization or law firm.  

Legal Accreditation: Must hold a law degree and an active attorney license.

Experience: Though it may vary, some positions require a certain degree of specialized legal experience.  

Legal Counsel: Furnishing legal advice and strategies to the organization or firm.

Document Preparation: Drafting and reviewing legal documents.

Legal Representation: Handling routine legal cases and possibly representing the organization in certain matters.

Compliance Management: Ensuring the organization adheres to all legal standards and policies.  

Salary: According to Glassdoor, Staff Attorneys in the United States might anticipate an average salary of around $92,000 annually, although disparities are natural due to factors like experience and organization size.

• See Also:   Top Ten Reasons Many Attorneys Choose to Become Staff Attorneys Instead of Associates

H. Summer Law Clerk

What they do: A Summer Law Clerk, distinct from a general Law Clerk, is typically a law student employed by a firm during their summer break to assist with various legal tasks .  

Academic Status: Enrolled in a law school and successfully completed preliminary courses with an exemplary academic record.

Skills: Noteworthy research and writing capabilities.  

Research Assistance: Contributing to legal research pertaining to ongoing cases.

Document Drafting: Assisting in the drafting of various legal documents.

Trial Attendance: Accompanying attorneys to trials, hearings, and possibly client meetings.  

Salary: The salary can vary broadly, but often larger, metropolitan firms may offer compensation similar to that of Summer Associates.

• See Also:   Should You Take on a Summer Clerkship as a Law Student?

I. Certified Legal Intern

What they do: Certified Legal Interns (CLIs) are law students authorized by their jurisdiction to offer legal services under the supervision of a licensed attorney.  

Educational: Advanced-stage law students having completed specific coursework.

Certification: Must meet jurisdictional certification requirements.  

Client Interaction: Engaging in client counseling and possibly negotiation under supervision.

Court Appearance: May make appearances in court, under the overseeing eye of a licensed attorney.

Legal Assistance: Providing comprehensive legal support within the bounds of their certification.  

Salary: Compensation may widely fluctuate and is often dependent on the firm, duration, and nature of the internship.  

• See Also:  What Can a Law Student Learn by Interning at a Big Law Firm?

J. Judicial Law Clerk

What they do: Judicial Law Clerks provide crucial support to judges by conducting research, preparing documents, and gaining a nuanced, behind-the-scenes perspective on the judicial process.  

Educational: Usually recent law school graduates, often among the top of their class.

Skills: Particularly strong skills in legal writing and research.  

Legal Research: Engage in thorough legal research to assist judges.

Document Drafting: Prepare legal memoranda, draft opinions, and other critical documents.

Trial Assistance: Aid in trial and courtroom proceedings, ensuring smooth functionality.  

Salary: According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Judicial Law Clerks can expect a broad annual salary range from $51,330 to $122,310, depending on factors like experience, location, and court level.

• See Also:  Judicial Clerkships: Not All Are Equal But Not All Need to Be

Each role in a law firm plays a specific, vital part in ensuring the smooth progression of legal work, from preliminary research to case conclusion. Despite their diverging responsibilities, contribute significantly to forming a cohesive and operational unit, collectively ensuring that legal processes and client interactions are conducted with utmost efficacy and professionalism. These positions, while varied in their requirements and tasks, fundamentally underline the diverse yet interconnected functioning of a typical law firm.

• How to Get an Attorney Position During and After Your Judicial Clerkship
• How Attorneys Can Get a Job During and After a Federal Clerkship
• 60 Nontraditional Jobs You Can Do with a Law Degree (and Should Strongly Consider Doing)

II. Legal Titles in Education

The domain of education, especially in the legal field, introduces various academic titles, each signifying different roles, responsibilities, and qualifications. For both attorneys and law students aspiring to step into the world of teaching law, let’s explore some notable titles and understand what they entail:

A. Adjunct Professor

What they do: Adjunct Professors often juggle their academic responsibilities with external professional commitments. They bring real-world expertise into the classroom, enriching theoretical teachings with practical insights and case studies from their own professional experiences.  

Educational: A Master’s degree is standard, with a preference for PhD holders in many institutions.

Skills: Effective teaching abilities, proficiency in bridging theoretical knowledge with practical applications, and adept communication skills.

Experience: Often possess substantial experience in a professional field related to their teaching subject.  

Course Management: Develop and implement course syllabi, manage classroom activities, and ensure a conducive learning environment.

Student Development: Provide mentorship and academic advice to students, guiding their career paths and academic pursuits.

Institutional Contribution: Occasionally contribute to departmental meetings, committees, and other institutional activities.  

Salary: While the average annual salary hovers around $30,000, variations occur based on the adjunct’s teaching load, institutional policies, geographical location, and additional professional engagements.  

B. Teaching Assistant (TA)

What they do: TAs, often being graduate students themselves, facilitate smoother course management for professors while gaining firsthand experience in teaching and managing academic courses.  

Educational: Enrolment in a relevant graduate program is essential.

Skills: Strong organizational, communication, and academic skills, particularly in the subject matter of the course they assist.  

Academic Support: Aid professors by managing administrative tasks like grading and organizing materials.

Student Assistance: Conduct tutorial and discussion sessions, providing additional learning support to students.

Content Delivery: Occasionally deliver lectures and lead classes in the absence of the professor.  

Salary: TAs usually earn around $22,000 annually, though this might fluctuate based on the university, location, and specific departmental budgets.

C. Instructor

What they do: Instructors focus primarily on delivering course content to students, often in specialized subject areas, without the research obligations that often come with tenure-track positions.  

Educational: A Master’s degree in a relevant field is commonly required.

Skills: Proficiency in instructional design, strong communication skills, and a deep understanding of the subject matter.

Experience: Past teaching or professional experience in the relevant field can be advantageous.  

Teaching: Lead classes, ensuring content is delivered effectively and concepts are comprehensively understood by students.

Assessment Management: Develop, administer, and grade assessments to evaluate student performance.

Curriculum Development: Assist in updating and refining curriculum to ensure its relevance and effectiveness.  

Salary: The median salary of $80,560 can be influenced by factors like institution type, geographical location, and the instructor’s level of experience and expertise.

D. Professor

What they do:  Professors serve as the backbone of academic institutions, seamlessly intertwining instruction with research, publication, and occasionally, administrative activities, ensuring that educational content is continuously refreshed with the latest knowledge and insights from the field.  

Educational: A PhD, or the equivalent highest degree in their field, is typically a prerequisite.

Skills: Robust research and publication history, excellent teaching and mentoring skills, and often, administrative capabilities.

Experience: Substantial experience in research, publication, and often, prior teaching experience is viewed favorably.  

Research and Publication: Engage in research activities, produce publications, and potentially secure research funding.

Teaching: Deliver lectures, guide research projects, and ensure the academic success of students.

Administrative Duties: Potentially partake in departmental administration, policymaking, and institutional development.

Mentorship: Guide students and junior faculty members in their academic and professional pursuits.  

Salary: With a median salary of $80,560, variations can stem from factors such as tenure status, institutional prestige, geographical location, and specific field of expertise.  

E. English Teacher

What they do:  English Teachers, particularly in the context of legal studies, not only impart knowledge of the English language and literature but also hone the critical communication skills of students, ensuring they can effectively convey legal concepts and arguments in their future careers.  

Educational: A Bachelor’s degree in English, Education, or related fields is fundamental, with further licensure and certification for public school teaching often required.

Skills: Exceptional proficiency in English, adept instructional capabilities, and a knack for nurturing communicative competence in students.

Experience: Prior teaching experience and additional qualifications in teaching English can be beneficial.  

Language Instruction: Teach aspects of language, literature, and communication, ensuring students acquire necessary linguistic competencies.

Assessment and Grading: Develop and grade assessments to monitor student progress and provide constructive feedback.

Student Support: Offer additional assistance and support to students struggling with the course content, ensuring equitable learning opportunities.  

Salary: The median annual wage was $62,870 as of May 2021, with adjustments occurring based on factors like educational level taught, geographical location, and institutional type.

Ensuring a detailed understanding of each academic position enables prospective legal educators to navigate their career path with greater clarity and intention. Whether an attorney or law student plans to delve into full-time academic research as a Professor or seeks to enrich educational offerings with practical insights as an Adjunct Professor, understanding the nuances of each role ensures they can align their efforts with their career aspirations effectively.

III. Legal Titles in Non-Profit Organizations

Navigating through the sector of non-profit organizations, where legal expertise plays a pivotal role in shaping and steering organizational policies and initiatives, understanding distinct titles can be imperative. Let’s delve into these key roles within the non-profit arena, where legal insights intertwines with altruistic endeavors:

A. Volunteer

What they do: Volunteers provide essential support in various capacities without expecting financial returns , enhancing the organization's ability to achieve its objectives.  

Educational: No formal education typically required.

Skills: Adaptability, commitment, and depending on the role, specific professional or technical skills.  

Support Services: Offer support in administrative, operational, or professional capacities.

Event Participation: Assist in organizing and managing events.

Skill Application: Apply specialized skills, such as legal advice or marketing, when applicable.  

Salary: Typically, there's no salary, but some organizations might offer stipends or reimburse for out-of-pocket expenses.  

B. President

What they do: The President oversees the organization's holistic functioning, ensuring optimal performance, compliance, and strategic alignment with its mission.  

Educational: Often, a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, preferably in a relevant field.

Skills: Leadership, strategic planning, stakeholder management, and sector-specific knowledge.  

Strategic Leadership: Formulate and implement organizational strategies.

Operational Oversight: Ensure efficient and effective operations throughout the organization.

Compliance Assurance: Verify adherence to legal, ethical, and sector-specific guidelines.  

Salary: PayScale suggests an average annual salary of about $65,000, subject to variance based on various factors.

C. Board Member

What they do: Board Members provide governance and strategic direction, ensuring the organization remains true to its mission and adheres to legal and ethical norms.  

Educational: Varies, but often at least a bachelor’s degree and significant experience in a relevant field.

Skills: Strategic planning, governance, and often, fundraising abilities.

Strategic Guidance: Direct organizational strategy and validate mission alignment.

Governance: Ensure adherence to legal standards and ethical practices.

Financial Oversight: Monitor and approve budgets and financial reports.  

Salary: May be voluntary, but some organizations offer stipends or per-meeting payments.

D. Executive Director

What they do: The Executive Director assumes daily management responsibilities, ensuring smooth operations, and effective implementation of strategies.  

Educational: Typically requires a bachelor’s degree, with many having master’s degrees in relevant fields.

Skills: Leadership, management, strategic planning, and interpersonal communication.

Management: Oversee daily operations and manage staff.

Strategic Implementation: Ensure strategies approved by the board are executed effectively.

Board Liaison: Act as a conduit between the board and the organization’s operational side.

Salary: A median annual wage of approximately $107,680 was reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as of May 2021.

E. Board of Directors

What they do: The Board of Directors governs the non-profit at a high level, ensuring mission alignment and legal compliance.

Educational: Varied, but often includes degrees and significant experience in relevant sectors.

Skills: Diverse, aligning with the varying expertise areas represented on the board.

Governance: Uphold the nonprofit's mission through governance and policy-making.

Oversight: Oversee executive management, finances, and strategic planning.

Legal Compliance: Ensure the organization operates within all legal frameworks.

Salary: Board service is often voluntary, though some larger organizations may offer compensation.

What they do: Mentors guide and support individuals within the organization, facilitating their personal and professional growth.

Educational: Often, mentors bring a wealth of experience rather than specific educational qualifications.

Skills: Expertise in a relevant field, alongside strong interpersonal and advisory skills.

Guidance: Offer advice, support, and direction to mentees.

Development Support: Facilitate skill development and progression.

Network Assistance: Provide network opportunities where possible.

Salary: Often unpaid, but certain mentorship programs might provide stipends or honorariums.

For legal professionals and students engaged with non-profits, whether in formal or voluntary roles, merging legal expertise with charitable activities ensures organizational goals align with regulatory frameworks. The array of roles within non-profits each brings distinct expectations and impacts, weaving a sector that is as varied in its roles as it is impactful on society.

IV. Legal Titles in Government and Public Service

Navigating through the sectors of government and public service, legal professionals often find a pathway where their knowledge of the law intertwines with roles in public policy, legislation, and governance. Here's a simplified guide to understanding the various roles, what they entail, and the qualifications typically needed, which might prove valuable for attorneys and law students alike.

A. Legislative Intern

What they do: Legislative Interns immerse themselves in the world of law and policy-making, offering their services to legislators or entire legislative bodies, and simultaneously gaining valuable, first hand experience in policy formation and the legislative process.  

Educational: Often students or fresh graduates from law, public policy, or similar disciplines.

Skills: Good research abilities, communication skills, and basic understanding of legislative processes.  

Legal and Policy Research: Engage in detailed research pertinent to proposed policies or existing legislation.

Document Preparation: Draft, edit, and format documents and reports required by the legislative body.

Constituent Relations: Act as a point of contact and manage communications with constituents.

Administrative Support: Assist in organizing, scheduling, and ensuring smooth operational flow in daily activities.

Salary: Internships may either be unpaid or come with a nominal stipend, the extent of which can vary significantly depending on the legislator or governmental entity involved.

B. Deputy District Attorney

What they do: Deputy District Attorneys serve as pivotal figures in the judicial system, representing the government in prosecuting criminal cases.  

Educational: A Juris Doctor degree, accompanied by successful bar exam passage.

Experience: Typically require some practical legal experience, often in criminal law.  

Prosecution of Crimes: Lead the charge in prosecuting criminal offenses, from misdemeanors to felonies.

Case Preparation and Presentation: Engage in case-building, from collecting evidence to presenting the case in court.

Collaboration: Work in conjunction with law enforcement and other relevant agencies to ensure thorough case development.  

Salary: The annual average salary hovers around $92,000, with variations based on experience, location, and the complexity of cases handled (PayScale).

• See Also:   Considering a Career as a District Attorney?

C. Legislative Aide

What they do: Legislative Aides serve as invaluable support to legislators, facilitating communication, research, and administrative tasks to streamline legislative activities.  

Educational: A bachelor’s degree, commonly in political science, public administration, or similar fields.

Skills: Strong research and communication skills alongside an understanding of legislative operations.  

Research Support: Provide comprehensive research assistance on various legislative matters.

Communication Management: Handle communications between the legislator and constituents or other parties.

Constituent Services: Ensure that the needs and concerns of constituents are addressed.

Administrative Duties: Ensure the smooth running of the office by managing schedules, documents, and other administrative tasks.  

Salary: The annual average salary sits approximately at $37,000, albeit with variations depending on experience, location, and the legislator served (Glassdoor).

D. Congressman/Congresswoman

What they do: Serving in the U.S. House of Representatives, Congressmen/women participate in shaping national policies, enacting laws, and representing the interests and concerns of their constituents at the national level.  

Constitutional Requirements: They must adhere to constitutional stipulations regarding age, citizenship, and residency.  

Legislation: Crafting, reviewing, and voting on legislation that can impact the nation or specific constituencies.

Constituent Representation: Ensuring the voices, needs, and concerns of constituents are addressed in legislative sessions.

Committee Work: Potentially serving on committees to oversee specific areas like budget, education, or defense.  

Salary: A base salary of $174,000 annually as of 2022, with potential adjustments based on committee positions and seniority.

E. Campaign Manager

What they do: Campaign Managers spearhead the operational and strategic aspects of a political campaign, ensuring everything from messaging to logistics is effectively executed to garner candidate support.  

Experience: Typically require experience in political campaigns, public relations, or related areas.

Skills: Robust knowledge in strategic planning, operations management, and political communications.  

Strategy Development: Formulate and implement political and operational strategies to drive campaign success.

Team Coordination: Ensure harmonious and effective collaboration among various campaign teams like marketing, fundraising, and outreach.

Operational Oversight: Manage campaign logistics, budgets, and daily operations to ensure seamless execution.  

Salary: Estimated around $58,000 annually, but can widely vary depending on the campaign’s scale, location, and available funding (PayScale).

F. Representative

What they do:  Representatives serve in a legislative capacity at various governmental levels, acting as a conduit between the constituents they represent and the legislative processes they engage in.  

Jurisdictional Requirements: Usually involving specific age, citizenship, and residency criteria, which can vary widely.  

Legislation Participation: Engaging in creating, deliberating, and voting on legislation.

Constituent Representation: Ensuring constituents' voices and concerns are presented and considered in legislative activities.

Community Engagement: Participate in or host community events to understand constituents' perspectives and issues.  

Salary: Varies significantly across different levels of government and specific jurisdictions, with factors like location, experience, and specific roles influencing earning potential.

What they do: Senators contribute to legislative processes at potentially federal, state, or local levels, bringing their constituency's views and needs to the table when developing, debating, and voting on legislation.  

Jurisdictional Requirements: Defined by either constitutional or local jurisdictional criteria, particularly age, citizenship, and residency.  

Legislation Development: Actively participate in the crafting, scrutinizing, and voting of legislative bills.

Constituency Representation: Accurately represent and advocate for the needs and concerns of their constituents in legislative matters.

Committee Involvement: Frequently partake in committee work to oversee, guide, or investigate specific governmental areas.  

Salary: For U.S. Senators, the salary is $174,000 annually as of 2022. State and local senators might experience considerable variations in pay depending on their jurisdiction and responsibilities.

Each legal role within government and public service not only symbolizes a position but also a distinct intersection where law and public service converge. The myriad roles available within this domain enable legal professionals to weave through a landscape where their expertise becomes pivotal in shaping societal structures and norms, enriching governance, policy, and public administration. This guide seeks to illuminate these pathways, providing a foundation for those pursuing a career at the intersection of law and public service.

• Legal Career-Options In The Government Sectors
• Can I Move to a Government Job then Come Back to a Law Firm?

V. Legal Titles in Corporate Settings

Corporations, being large and multifaceted entities, require a spectrum of roles that each play a crucial part in guiding the business, ensuring it adheres to laws, conducts fruitful transactions, and follows a strategic path towards its objectives. Here's a glimpse into a few legal titles in a corporate setting:

A. CEO (Chief Executive Officer)

What they do: CEOs hold the helm of the company, directing its course by making high-stakes decisions and managing all overarching operations and resources.

Educational: Often, they hold an MBA or another advanced degree in a business-related field.

Skills: Expertise in leadership, strategic planning, and corporate management.

Strategic Planning: Develop and implement strategic plans and policies to steer the company toward its objectives.

Decision Making: Make pivotal corporate decisions, often in collaboration with other board members.

Communication Management: Oversee internal and external communications, ensuring coherence with the company’s vision and strategy.

Salary: The Bureau of Labor Statistics noted a median annual wage of $107,680 for CEOs in May 2021, but exact figures can vary dramatically based on company size and success.

B. Corporate Paralegal

What they do: Corporate Paralegals act as the backbone to legal teams in a corporate setting, handling essential tasks that support attorneys and ensure legal compliance in business practices.

Educational: A paralegal certificate or an associate degree in paralegal studies is standard.

Skills: Strong capabilities in legal research, document management, and attention to detail.

Legal Support: Facilitate attorneys in preparing for meetings, trials, and corporate dealings.

Document Management: Handle filing, organization, and management of important corporate documents.

Compliance Assistance: Ensure that corporate activities adhere to applicable laws and regulations.

Salary: PayScale highlighted an average salary of about $60,000 for this role in 2022, but this can fluctuate based on the company and location.

C. Financial Analyst

What they do: Financial Analysts dissect financial data, thereby guiding companies in making legally sound and strategically optimal financial decisions.

Educational: Typically holding a bachelor’s degree in finance, economics, or a related field.

Skills: Strong analytical, data interpretation, and financial modeling skills.

Financial Analysis: Evaluate financial data to discern trends, challenges, and opportunities.

Report Preparation: Craft comprehensive financial reports to inform strategic decision-making.

Advisory Role: Provide financial advice to guide business strategies and financial activities.

Salary: The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported a median annual wage of $89,330 for financial analysts as of May 2021, with variation based on industry and location.

D. Business Analyst

What they do: Business Analysts dive into the company’s structures and processes, aiming to bridge the gap between business needs and technological solutions.

Educational: Commonly hold a bachelor's degree in business or a related field.

Skills: Adept in data analysis, problem-solving, and understanding IT systems.

Business Evaluation: Assess current business models and processes, identifying areas for improvement.

Process Improvement: Suggest and implement enhancements in organizational processes, systems, and structures.

Strategy Development: Develop strategies that enhance the alignment between business objectives and technological solutions.

Salary: With an average annual salary of approximately $76,000, as per Glassdoor, business analysts can expect some variance depending on industry and experience.

E. Chief Operating Officer (COO)

What they do: COOs ensure the smooth running of daily operations within the company, executing the strategies defined by the CEO and addressing the practicalities of business functionality.

Educational: An advanced degree in business, such as an MBA, is commonly found.

Skills: Expertise in strategic planning, leadership, and operational management.

Operational Oversight: Supervise the day-to-day operations, ensuring alignment with strategic goals.

Process Management: Enhance operational processes and structures for optimal business functionality.

Team Leadership: Lead and inspire teams, fostering a productive and collaborative environment.

Salary: The Bureau of Labor Statistics notes a median annual wage of $107,680 for chief executives, including COOs, as of May 2021, though this figure can greatly vary depending on the company.

F. Sales Representative

What they do: Sales Representatives act as a bridge between the company’s products/services and potential clients or customers, seeking to match offerings with customer needs.

Educational: A bachelor's degree in business, marketing, economics, or similar fields is typical.

Skills: Proficiency in communication, negotiation, and customer relationship management.

Sales Activities: Engage in the selling of products/services, ensuring alignment with customer needs.

Client Relations: Manage and nurture client relationships, ensuring satisfaction and loyalty.

Achieve Targets: Meet or exceed sales targets, contributing to the company’s revenue goals.

Salary: The median annual wage was $64,440 as of May 2021, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, with variations depending on industry and commission structures.

G. In-House Counsel

What they do: In-House Counsels serve as internal legal guides within a corporation, handling a plethora of legal matters including compliance, contracts, and employment law.

Educational: A Juris Doctor (JD) degree and a state bar admission are requisite.

Skills: Strong legal knowledge in corporate law, with keen negotiation and communication skills.

Legal Guidance: Provide legal advice to the company on various internal and external matters.

Contract Management: Draft, review, and manage contracts to safeguard the company’s interests.

Legal Compliance: Ensure all company activities adhere to applicable laws and regulations.

Salary: According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, lawyers, including in-house counsel, had a median annual wage of $126,930 as of May 2021, but exact figures can differ widely based on company size and industry.

Corporations embody a myriad of roles, each blending elements of legal, strategic, financial, and operational domains. From the gravitas of executive decision-making to the specificity of analyst roles, these positions demonstrate the many arenas where legal knowledge intersects with corporate strategies and actions, enabling informed, compliant decision-making pathways. This exploration into varied roles seeks to assist attorneys and law students in navigating through the nuanced landscape of corporate occupations, empowering them with a holistic perspective.

VI. Legal Titles in Research and Academia

Legal expertise isn't confined only to courtrooms and law firms. It can weave into the multifaceted tapestry of research and academia, bridging the gap between scholarly inquiry and legal structure. Here’s an enhanced guide to various legal titles within research and academia, aimed at helping attorneys, law students, and even those with a general interest in the field, navigate through them with clarity and understanding:

A. Research Assistant

What they do: Research Assistants serve as fundamental pillars in research projects, ensuring smooth progression and providing pivotal support in various phases.

Educational: A minimum of a Bachelor’s degree in a related field, while often being engaged in further academic pursuits.

Skills: Aptitude for thorough research, proficient organizational skills, and often, an understanding of data analysis tools.

Data Handling: Involves collecting, managing, and ensuring the integrity of data throughout the research process.

Literature Reviews: Scour through existing research materials to garner insights and understand the current scope of the topic at hand.

Administrative Support: Assist in managing the administrative facets of research projects, ensuring tasks like scheduling, budgeting, and resource allocation are handled efficiently.

Salary: Typically, Research Assistants can expect an average annual salary around $30,000, though variations exist based on factors like location, institution, and experience.

B. Research Associate

What they do: Research Associates navigate through research endeavors, offering significant contributions to the conceptualization, execution, and documentation of research projects.

Educational: Generally boast a Ph.D. or Master’s degree in a related field, with demonstrable research experience.

Skills: Robust analytical skills, advanced research capabilities, and proficient communication skills, especially in conveying complex information effectively.

Experiment Design: Formulate and plan research experiments, ensuring they align with project objectives.

Data Analysis: Engage in thorough data scrutiny, interpreting findings, and offering actionable insights.

Publication Contribution: Assist in drafting, editing, and submitting research findings for publication in relevant journals.

Salary: Research Associates tend to earn an average salary of around $52,000 annually, per PayScale, but variations exist based on numerous factors.

C. Researcher

What they do: Researchers dive into specialized areas, methodically exploring and decoding complexities to extend knowledge and understanding in the particular area.

Educational: Qualifications can be broad, ranging from a Bachelor’s degree to a Ph.D., usually coupled with relevant research experience.

Skills: A penchant for investigative work, adept problem-solving abilities, and competent analytical skills.

Hypothesis Development: Craft and refine hypotheses to guide research direction.

Conductive Research: Execute research endeavors, ensuring alignment with defined hypotheses and ethical guidelines.

Results Dissemination: Share findings through publications, presentations, and potentially, educational sessions.

Salary: Given the generalized nature of the role, salary for Researchers can fluctuate extensively based on several factors.

D. Postdoctoral Fellow

What they do: Postdoctoral Fellows, immersed in an environment of scholarly pursuit, engage in research post-Ph.D. to augment their expertise in a specialized area.

Educational: A Ph.D. in a relevant field.

Skills: Advanced research skills, proficient data analysis capabilities, and a solid foundation in academic writing and publication.

Research Conduct: Oversee and engage in research, possibly within a specialized niche.

Findings Publication: Disseminate research findings through reputable journals and platforms.

Mentorship/Teaching: Often, involved in teaching or mentoring roles within the academic institution.

Salary: On average, Postdoctoral Fellows in the U.S. garner around $50,000 annually, per Glassdoor, though this may vary.

E. Research Scientist

What they do: Research Scientists spearhead research projects, designing, conducting, and concluding experiments that significantly push the boundaries of knowledge in their domain.

Educational: Typically holding a Ph.D. and substantial experience in conducting research.

Skills: Exceptional analytical and problem-solving skills, leadership capabilities, and extensive knowledge in their field of research.

Project Leadership: Lead research projects from conceptualization through to completion.

Experiment Design and Analysis: Craft experiments and analyze data to derive meaningful insights.

Research Dissemination: Contribute to the advancement of knowledge by publishing research findings.

Salary: Research Scientists earn an average salary of approximately $79,000, according to Glassdoor, with notable variations depending on various factors.

Legal knowledge finds its application in research and academia by ensuring that scholarly endeavors align with ethical, compliant, and just research practices. It also extends to studying legal frameworks, policies, and systems with a scholarly perspective. These roles, each with their unique focus and journey, forge a rich arena where the realms of law and scholarly investigation meet, fostering the creation of new knowledge and insights.

VII. Legal Titles in Support Roles

Strong support roles are essential in enhancing the functioning of any legal or business organization. These roles, although not directly involved in legal activities, offer crucial support by ensuring smooth operations and effective resource management within legal contexts. Let's explore some of the key titles in support roles:

A. Administrative Assistant

What they do: Administrative Assistants are the backbone of office operations, ensuring tasks and schedules proceed seamlessly.

Educational: High school diploma or equivalent.

Skills: Mastery of office software, organization, and effective communication skills.

Office Coordination: Managing schedules, meetings, and appointments.

Document Management: Handling files, organizing documents, and ensuring accessibility.

Executive Support: Assisting executives and team members with various administrative tasks.

Salary: As per the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual wage was $40,990 as of May 2021, with variances for specific industries and locations.

B. Office Assistant

What they do: Office Assistants facilitate a smooth-running office by performing clerical tasks and supporting other staff.

Educational​: A high school diploma is usually needed.

Skills: Competence in office tools, basic administrative tasks, and communication.

Supplies Management: Ensuring office supplies are well-stocked and organized.

Communication Handling: Managing emails, phone calls, and physical mails.

Administrative Assistance: Assisting with miscellaneous office tasks to support daily operations.

Salary: Office Assistants can expect an average annual salary of about $32,000, according to PayScale, though this might fluctuate based on location and organization size.

C. Office Manager

What they do: Office Managers ensure that the office operations are streamlined and effectively contribute to achieving organizational goals.

Educational: A bachelor’s degree is often required.

Skills: Leadership, organizational, and financial management capabilities.

Staff Management: Supervising administrative staff and ensuring efficient operations.

Budget Handling: Managing office budgets, expenses, and financial records.

Policy Implementation: Ensuring office policies are implemented and adhered to.

Salary: Glassdoor suggests an average salary of around $50,000, though this varies according to industry and location.

D. Project Coordinator

What they do: Project Coordinators make sure projects stay on track through organizing, managing tasks, and coordinating team efforts.

Educational : Often, a bachelor’s degree and project management certification.

Skills: Strong organizational, communication, and multitasking abilities.

Task Management: Coordinating tasks and ensuring they align with project timelines.

Team Coordination: Aligning team members and resources with project objectives.

Monitoring Progress: Keeping track of project milestones and ensuring timelines are adhered to.

Salary: PayScale cites an average salary of approximately $50,000, but variations occur based on project type and industry.

E. Financial Advisor

What they do: Financial Advisors guide clients in making informed decisions to achieve their financial goals.

Educational: A bachelor’s degree in finance or a relevant field.

Skills: Analytical, communication, and financial planning skills.

Financial Planning: Assisting clients in creating viable financial plans.

Investment Management: Overseeing and advising on client investments.

Financial Analysis: Analyzing financial data to provide informed advice.

Salary: The Bureau of Labor Statistics cites a median annual wage of $89,330 as of May 2021, with variations depending on clientele and specializations.

F. Marketing Intern

What they do: Marketing Interns assist in executing marketing activities, learning the ropes and gaining practical experience in the field.

Educational : Usually pursuing a degree in marketing or a related field.

Skills: Basic understanding of marketing principles, creativity, and adaptability.

Campaign Assistance: Helping in the execution of marketing campaigns and strategies.

Market Research: Conducting research to identify market trends and consumer needs.

Content Creation: Assisting in creating marketing materials, such as social media posts or newsletters.

Salary: According to Glassdoor, Marketing Interns can expect to earn around $33,000 annually, though this can significantly vary depending on the industry and location.

G. Account Executive

What they do: Account Executives focus on managing and growing client accounts, ensuring sustained business and client satisfaction.

Educational: A bachelor’s degree in business, marketing, or related field.

Skills: Strong communication, customer service, and problem-solving abilities.

Client Management: Overseeing client accounts and ensuring satisfaction.

Business Development: Identifying and capitalizing on business opportunities for account growth.

Relationship Management: Nurturing client relationships and ensuring their needs are met.

Salary: Glassdoor reports that Account Executives can expect to earn around $60,000 annually, with variations based on industry, location, and commission structures.

H. Accountant

What they do: Accountants manage and analyze financial transactions, ensuring organizations’ financial compliance and health.

Educational: A bachelor’s degree in accounting or a related field. CPA certification is often preferred.

Skills: Solid analytical, mathematical, and regulatory compliance knowledge.

Financial Reporting: Preparing accurate and compliant financial reports and statements.

Auditing: Conducting audits to ensure financial accuracy and regulatory adherence.

Tax Filing: Ensuring accurate and timely tax filing and compliance.

Salary: The Bureau of Labor Statistics indicated a median annual wage of $73,560 as of May 2021. This can fluctuate based on industry, level of experience, and additional certifications.

Support roles are embedded into the complex fabric of legal operations, providing vital functionality. They ensure that administrative, financial, and strategic facets are efficiently executed, thereby strengthening the overall operational framework in which legal activities take place. This ensures that the legal team can focus on their specialized tasks, knowing that the operational aspects are being managed effectively.

• Exploring Alternative Legal Careers: Reviews, Professionals, and Tips
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• How to Find Alternative Uses for a Law Degree

VIII. Legal Titles in Technology and Engineering

A. software engineer.

What they do:  Software Engineers are the architects behind software systems, developing, and ensuring their proper function across various platforms and usage scenarios. They are integral in weaving the digital fabric of our technologically-driven world, from creating user-friendly applications to robust data management systems.

Educational: A Bachelor’s or Master's degree in Computer Science or a closely aligned field is typically the baseline educational requirement. This provides a foundation in coding, system design, and analytical problem-solving.

Skill Set: Mastery in various programming languages (like Java, Python, etc.), an analytical mindset, and problem-solving capabilities are crucial. Additionally, software engineers often need strong teamwork and communication skills to collaborate effectively on projects.

Software Crafting: Innovate, design, and implement software to meet user needs and technological advancements.

Quality Assurance: Meticulously test systems and software to ensure they operate without hiccups and maintain user-friendly interfaces.

Technical Problem Solving: Diagnose and resolve issues related to software performance and functionality, ensuring users have a seamless experience.

Salary: Software Engineers may anticipate an average annual salary of approximately $103,000 as per Glassdoor. However, this can fluctuate based on factors like geographical location, years of experience, and specific industry demands.

B. Engineer

What they do: Engineers, irrespective of their specialization, apply scientific and mathematical principles to innovate, design, and enhance structures, machines, and systems across various industries. Their creations and modifications can range from miniature electronic devices to large-scale infrastructure projects.

Educational Prerequisite: A Bachelor’s degree in an engineering specialty is generally required, fostering a deep understanding of scientific principles and practical applications in the chosen field.

Skill Set: Engineers should possess strong analytical, mathematical, and problem-solving skills, along with the ability to communicate complex ideas effectively to non-specialist stakeholders.

Innovation and Design: Brainstorm and conceptualize new designs for structures, systems, or machines that solve identified problems or fulfill specific needs.

Prototyping and Development: Transform ideas into real-world solutions through creating prototypes, finalizing designs, and overseeing the development process.

Safety and Efficiency Assurance: Ensure all engineering projects meet safety standards and work efficiently through rigorous testing and refinement.

Salary: The median annual wage for engineers, as reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2021, was $95,060. However, salaries can diverge widely depending on the engineering specialty, industry, and level of experience and expertise.  

• See Also:  What Does a Computer Engineering Attorney Do?

IX. Legal Titles in Media and Publishing

What they do: Editors play a pivotal role in shaping content, ensuring that it is polished, precise, and aligns with a publication's standards before reaching the audience.

Educational: Holding a Bachelor’s degree, especially in Journalism, English, or a related field, is commonly preferred.

Skills: Adeptness in language, attention to detail, and strong collaborative abilities are vital.

Content Refinement: Scrutinize and enhance the written content, focusing on coherence, accuracy, and adherence to stylistic guidelines.

Collaboration: Work closely with writers, providing feedback and guiding revisions to uplift the content quality.

Compliance Assurance: Ensure that all content aligns with the publication’s standards and adheres to relevant legal and ethical guidelines.

Salary: As per the Bureau of Labor Statistics, editors earned a median annual wage of $63,400 in May 2021, though salary levels can vary widely based on several factors including experience, geographical location, and the nature of the publication.

B. Reporter

What they do: Reporters delve into events, issues, and stories, researching and presenting them to the public through articulate and engaging news articles, broadcasts, and other media formats.

Educational: A Bachelor’s degree in Journalism or a related field is typically sought.

Skills: Strong research capabilities, ethical judgment, and impactful writing or broadcasting skills are key.

Investigative Work: Seek and explore stories, ensuring to probe and validate facts meticulously.

Interview Conducting: Engage with individuals, gathering direct insights and quotes to enhance the authenticity of stories.

Story Crafting: Construct and communicate stories in a manner that is compelling and accessible to the audience.

• See Also:  What It's Like To Be a Court Reporter

Salary: Reporters might anticipate a median annual salary of $49,300 according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, though it's important to recognize that the pay scale may adjust depending on experience, expertise, and media platform stature.

What they do: Authors harness their creative and analytical abilities to weave words into books, articles, and varied written content, often aiming to inform, entertain, or provoke thought among readers.

Educational: Formal qualifications can significantly vary, but a profound grasp over language and expression is essential.

Skills: Creative thinking, resilience, and adept writing abilities are fundamental.

Content Creation: Develop and refine written works, ensuring they are compelling and communicatively effective.

Revision Work: Engage in multiple rounds of revisions, potentially working alongside editors, to hone the final product.

Publication Management: Navigate through the publication process, which may involve liaising with publishers, agents, or exploring self-publishing avenues .

Salary: The Bureau of Labor Statistics marked a median annual wage of $67,120 for writers and authors in 2021. However, an author's income can be widely variable, influenced by factors like publication method, popularity, and genre.

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X. Legal Titles in Healthcare and Medicine

A. medical legal consultant.

What they do: Medical Legal Consultants navigate the complexities between the medical and legal realms, ensuring that intricate medical details are clearly understood, interpreted, and applied within legal settings. They help lawyers and legal teams grasp medical facts and issues in legal matters, thereby streamlining the litigation process where medical expertise is pivotal.

Educational Credentials: Generally necessitates a degree in medicine or a closely related field, ensuring a foundational expertise in medical concepts and terminologies.

Legal Knowledge: Though not always a strict requirement, having some legal training or relevant experience in the legal sector provides an essential bridge between medical facts and legal applications.

Providing Expert Testimony: Consultants often testify in court, offering nuanced, expert opinions and explanations about complex medical topics, to aid the decision-making process.

Medical Records Interpretation: They dissect, interpret, and explain medical data, ensuring all relevant parties in a case comprehend the subtleties and implications of the medical information.

Case-Specific Medical Consulting: Consultants provide customized advice, helping legal practitioners comprehend the medical intricacies and their implications in their cases.

Salary: While the average annual salary is roughly $77,000 according to Payscale, several factors including geographical location, specific expertise, and the consultant's experience level can cause fluctuations in earnings.

B. Staff Nurse

What they do: Staff Nurses embody the core of patient care in numerous healthcare environments, ensuring not only the physical well-being of patients through direct care but also addressing their psychological needs. They administer healthcare services, provide comfort and support , and collaborate closely with other healthcare professionals to ensure comprehensive care.

Educational Background: To practice, a nurse typically needs at least an associate or bachelor’s degree in nursing.

Legal Certification: Maintaining a valid nursing license, obtained after passing relevant exams, is obligatory.

Patient Care Administration: From distributing medication to performing necessary procedures, a Staff Nurse is hands-on in delivering various aspects of patient care.

Condition Monitoring: Vigilantly observing and responding to changes in a patient’s condition, and ensuring the relevant parties are informed.

Coordination with Healthcare Teams: Working seamlessly with doctors, specialists, and other healthcare workers to assure consistent and comprehensive patient care.

Salary: While the median annual wage is noted to be $75,330 by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as of May 2021, variables such as experience, specialization, and regional living costs can influence actual earnings.  

• The Top 15 Alternative Legal Careers for Attorneys According to Former Lawyers
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• The 12 Top Non-Legal Careers for Lawyers Who Do Not Want to Be Lawyers
• Becoming a Legal Nurse Analyst

Recap of Key Points

Navigating through the world of legal professions, we observe a vast array of roles that extend well beyond the familiar settings of a courtroom. In law firms, titles such as 'Summer Associate' and 'Paralegal' are pivotal, providing essential support to legal processes. In the educational sector, positions like 'Professor' or 'Instructor' hold esteemed statuses, imparting knowledge and shaping future legal minds. Furthermore, the legal profession reaches into corporate realms where roles like 'CEO' or 'Corporate Paralegal' play crucial roles in steering operational frameworks. Similarly, in media and publishing sectors, 'Editors' and 'Reporters' work diligently to ensure information is disseminated in compliance with legal norms. Fields like technology, healthcare, academia, and non-profit organizations also embrace specialized titles that blend professional and legal duties seamlessly.

The Diverse Landscape of Legal Titles

The exploration into legal titles reveals a spectrum that is as vast and varied as the sectors they are found in, highlighting the depth and impact of legal expertise across diverse professional settings. Every title represents not only a distinct set of duties and specialized knowledge but also symbolizes the profound influence of legal activities across numerous sectors. These roles, whether they are directing business strategies, molding academic discourse, or shaping media content, illuminate the indispensable nature of legal expertise.

The Importance of Choosing the Right Title

Holding a title is more than just adopting a label; it reflects one’s duties, responsibilities, and specific area of expertise. In the realm of law, a title can significantly influence perceptions, roles, and potentially, career paths. For organizations and individuals alike, picking the right title transcends mere considerations of status or hierarchy . It's about ensuring that the role and expertise of an individual are in harmony with the wider mission and objectives of the entity they represent. As legal expertise continues to weave through various professional fields, understanding and choosing a fitting title morphs beyond a simple labeling choice; it evolves into a strategic decision capable of molding outcomes, forging relationships, and sculpting professional stories.

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Harrison Barnes is the legal profession's mentor and may be the only person in your legal career who will tell you why you are not reaching your full potential and what you really need to do to grow as an attorney--regardless of how much it hurts. If you prefer truth to stagnation, growth to comfort, and actionable ideas instead of fluffy concepts, you and Harrison will get along just fine. If, however, you want to stay where you are, talk about your past successes, and feel comfortable, Harrison is not for you.

Truly great mentors are like parents, doctors, therapists, spiritual figures, and others because in order to help you they need to expose you to pain and expose your weaknesses. But suppose you act on the advice and pain created by a mentor. In that case, you will become better: a better attorney, better employees, a better boss, know where you are going, and appreciate where you have been--you will hopefully also become a happier and better person. As you learn from Harrison, he hopes he will become your mentor.

To read more career and life advice articles visit Harrison's personal blog.

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Practising Law

How to write legal research memos.

As a junior lawyer, I probably spent 500+ hours writing research memos. If you’re starting out, here’s an example research memo and some tips I’ve learned to structure and write these monsters:

1. Introduction (section 1)

This is where we state the exact question that this research memo is answering.

The introduction should provide enough context so that somebody who may not be involved in this matter can understand what’s going on. Often, memos and advices will be circulated beyond your immediate instructing supervisor (e.g. to another partner, to the client’s legal team, to a director in the client organisation for approval etc). A well-written introduction allows anyone to pick up the document and understand what its purpose is (e.g. considering prospects for potential litigation, responding to a claim, updating company contracts).

For complex legal questions, I would write this introduction out in its entirety and confirm with my supervisor before diving into the legal research.

2. Executive Summary (section 2)

This sets out the answer to the question. It should be written so that a reader can get the answer and the recommended next step(s) by reading just the Introduction and Executive Summary. It’s not uncommon for clients to expect to read only these sections to get the answer to their question(s) – so it’s worth writing this as if it’s a standalone document.

Some lawyers make use of visual aids (diagrams, flowcharts etc.) in this section to concisely set out the answer.

The remainder of the memo is there to explain the reasoning behind the answer if the reader wants to know more. It’s also helpful to list out what is explored in the rest of the memo (i.e. mini table of contents).

3. Body (sections 3 to 7)

This is where we set out the relevant factual background (if known), key assumptions (if any), and detailed legal analysis.

It’s hard to give tips on getting to the right answer (it really just depends on experience, time and brainpower), but a general rule is to make this a standalone document with maximum readability by:

4. “Moving Forward” / Next Steps (section 8)

Here we can restate the answer and, more importantly, our recommended actions following this memo. Even if we’re not strictly correct with these next steps, it shows we’re thinking beyond the immediate task and it’s a good way to stay involved in the matter beyond the discrete task when checking back with our supervisor.

5. Footnotes

Here’s where we make use of those hard-earned legal citation skills from law school. The key is to be specific (i.e. section numbers and paragraph references) so that the reader can immediately pinpoint the relevant parts of the case / statute you’re referring to.

In presenting the memo, it’s also handy to attach the key cases / statutes that our research memo is based on. If you / your supervisors are used to working with digital versions of documents, then it’s also good to hyperlink the relevant cases / statutes / websites that you’ve referred to.

Final thoughts

As we start out, it’s common to write legal research memos for your colleagues to review and ultimately turn into client-facing advices etc. The next step in our development is to prepare these memos so that they’re suitable for the final audience. A good first step is to ask your instructing supervisor how they’re intending to use this research memo, how they’d like it presented so that it’s easier to turn into the final product, and (subject to their review) whether you can do the first draft of that conversion exercise.

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What to know about SB 4, the Texas immigration law in the courts now

Becky Sullivan

Texas National Guard soldiers are seen guarding the U.S.-Mexico border in Eagle Pass, Texas. John Moore/Getty Images hide caption

Texas National Guard soldiers are seen guarding the U.S.-Mexico border in Eagle Pass, Texas.

A whirlwind of court orders on Tuesday briefly allowed, then blocked again, a controversial new immigration law in Texas that would allow state and local law enforcement to arrest and deport people who are in the state illegally.

The Biden administration has objected to the law, known as Senate Bill 4, saying that the Constitution and legal precedent establish that the federal government has the exclusive power to enforce immigration law.

Texas' illegal entry law will test states' powers on immigration, border enforcement

While a federal court considers the merits of the law, a legal back-and-forth over whether the bill should take effect in the meantime created chaos Tuesday.

For several hours, the U.S. Supreme Court allowed the law to be enforced. But then, close to midnight, a lower court put the law back on hold and scheduled a last-minute hearing on Wednesday morning.

At the hearing, a three-judge panel questioned the Texas solicitor general about details of the law and heard arguments from the U.S. Department of Justice and the ACLU about why it should be struck down.

The law remains on hold while the appeals court deliberates.

Here's what to know:

What is SB 4?

Senate Bill 4 is a Texas law passed late last year that empowers state and local law enforcement agencies to enforce immigration law. Texas Republicans who championed the legislation say it's a response to the Biden administration's border policies, which they have criticized as being too permissive.

"It's important because it helps address what even the president has called a border crisis," said Texas solicitor general Aaron Nielson at Wednesday's hearing.

Texas has spent over $148 million busing migrants to other parts of the country

The bill would allow state and local police officers to arrest people suspected of being in the country illegally, and it would allow judges to order the deportation of migrants to ports of entry along Texas's border with Mexico, regardless of which country the migrant is from.

The bill was originally set to go into effect on March 5. But the U.S. government and the ACLU both filed lawsuits against it, and a district judge issued a preliminary injunction to block the law from enforcement while the case was being heard.

Texas appealed the injunction to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. The appeals court turned to the Supreme Court, which ultimately allowed the law to go into effect on Tuesday before the appeals court blocked it. (The Supreme Court did not issue an opinion clarifying whether the majority had supported the merits of the law or if it simply viewed its decision as a procedural one.)

Now, the Wednesday hearing at the Fifth Circuit considered the question of whether to allow the district judge's preliminary injunction to take effect — thereby continuing to block SB 4 from enforcement.

What is the legal challenge to the bill?

The Biden administration has argued that Texas overstepped its constitutional limits in passing SB 4, and they maintain that immigration policy and law enforcement are exclusive functions of the federal government.

Critics of SB 4 have cast the law as Texas' attempt to take over those law enforcement capabilities, a notion that Nielson disputed at Wednesday's hearing. "That's really not true," he told the panel. "What Texas wants to do is to be able to coordinate with the federal government."

Federal attorneys, meanwhile, have repeatedly pointed to a 2012 Supreme Court decision known as Arizona vs. United States , a case about a state law in Arizona that sought to create state-level crimes for immigration offenses and empower local law enforcement to check citizenship status and arrest people suspected of being in the country illegally. In a 5-3 decision, the court sided with the federal government and struck down most of Arizona's law.

Because the Texas law goes further than Arizona, Department of Justice attorney Daniel Tenny argued Wednesday, SB 4's provisions should too be blocked. "This is more at the heart at the area that the court has consistently recognized is reserved for the national government," he said.

What do opponents of the law say?

Groups that advocate for civil rights and immigrants' rights have criticized the law over concerns that it could lead to racial profiling. SB 4 would allow law enforcement officers to question someone's immigration status for any reason.

"We know that this law is going to increase racial profiling. We know that this law is going to strip people of their constitutional rights. We know that this law is also going to lead to the mass criminalization of our communities," said Alan Lizarraga, a spokesperson for the Border Network for Human Rights, speaking to the Texas Newsroom .

Opponents also worry that migrants with legitimate claims to asylum could have their federal cases asylum complicated by the Texas law if they come to face state criminal charges.

Mexico also opposes the law. Its foreign affairs ministry said in a statement Tuesday that the country will not accept migrants who have been deported under the Texas law. And it expressed concern for Mexican nationals living in Texas, who it said could now be subject to "expressions of hate, discrimination and racial profiling."

With the case back at the Fifth Circuit, Mexico said it plans to file a legal brief in opposition to SB 4 that lays out how the law could affect the relationship between the two countries, the statement said.

What do law enforcement officers in Texas say about the law?

Local law enforcement officers say they are prepared to enforce the law. But others have said they have not received clear guidance about how to implement it, or whether they'll have resources needed to carry out arrests in large numbers.

"I think we're going to be very selective about the cases we pick up," said Culberson County Sheriff Oscar Carillo, whose jurisdiction is located along the west Texas border. "Our jail is at capacity as we speak today, and to start incarcerating undocumented people and charging them a misdemeanor crime is a discussion I'll have to have with my county attorney," he told the Texas Newsroom on Tuesday.

Wednesday's appeals court hearing revealed the extent to which details of the law's enforcement have yet to be hammered out. Nielson, the Texas solicitor general, struggled to answer a series of questions from Chief Judge Priscilla Richman about how various scenarios would play out.

For instance, when Richman asked how the law would be applied to a person who entered the U.S. illegally through another border state before moving to Texas, Nielson replied, "I confess, your honor, I don't know."

Additional reporting by NPR's Jasmine Garsd and Julian Aguilar of the Texas Newsroom.

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Details of $1.2 Trillion Spending Bill Emerge as Partial Shutdown Looms

Tucked inside a massive measure to fund the government through the fall are several initiatives sought by members of both parties. Aides are still writing the legislative language.

By Catie Edmondson

Reporting from Capitol Hill

Congressional aides raced on Tuesday to draw up the text of a bipartisan $1.2 trillion spending deal to fund the government through September.

While President Biden, Republicans and Democrats have all endorsed the agreement, they had yet to release its details and it was not clear whether Congress would be able to complete action on it in time to avert a brief partial government shutdown over the weekend.

Still, lawmakers in both parties were already touting what they would get out of the legislation, which wraps six spending measures into one huge package.

“The final product is something that we were able to achieve a lot of key provisions and wins and a move in the direction that we want, even with our tiny, historically small majority,” Speaker Mike Johnson said on Wednesday.

In a closed-door meeting with Republicans on Tuesday morning, Mr. Johnson cited the inclusion of provisions his party wanted, including funding for additional detention beds run by Immigration and Customs Enforcement and cutting off aid to the main United Nations agency that provides aid to Palestinians.

Democrats secured a long-sought deal to create 12,000 new special visas for Afghans who had worked for the United States in Afghanistan; a one-year reauthorization of PEPFAR, the U.S. government’s effort to address H.I.V. globally; and funding boosts for federal child care and education programs.

Here’s a look at what we know so far about the legislation, which would fund the Pentagon, the Department of Homeland Security, the State Department and health agencies.

It boosts funding for immigration detention beds.

The legislation funds roughly 8,000 more beds than last year’s bill, a win House Republicans have touted. Congress funded 34,000 beds through the fall of 2023, but under the stopgap measure currently funding the department, the number of beds rose to about 42,000. Negotiators agreed to keep funding flowing to support that higher number.

The bill would bar funding for the main aid agency for Palestinians.

The legislation would bar funding from going to UNRWA , the main U.N. agency that provides aid to Palestinians in Gaza, through March 2025, creating a shortfall of hundreds of millions of dollars for the agency.

It extends a pause in funding that the White House and lawmakers from both major U.S. parties supported after Israel accused at least 12 UNRWA employees in January of participating in the Oct. 7 attack on southern Israel led by Hamas.

It would boost funding for child care and health research.

In a closed-door meeting, Representative Rosa DeLauro of Connecticut, the top Democrat on the Appropriations Committee, told lawmakers that Democrats had won spending increases for federal child care and education programs, including Head Start. She also touted increases to funding for cancer and Alzheimer’s research, and for the federal suicide hotline, according to a person familiar with her presentation.

It includes a one-year reauthorization of PEPFAR, which helps bankroll global efforts to fight the spread of AIDS. Congress had been gridlocked on reauthorizing the program, parts of which expired in the fall, amid concerns among Republicans that some of the health organizations that fight AIDS also provide abortion services.

Democrats also staved off the inclusion of Republican efforts to slash funding for Title I, a program run by the Education Department to support low-income students and schools.

It includes a series of conservative G.O.P. policy mandates.

House Republicans also won the inclusion of several provisions aimed at addressing conservative cultural grievances. For instance, the bill would bar U.S. diplomatic facilities from flying any flag other than the American one overhead — an attempt to prevent embassies and other official buildings from flying gay or transgender pride flags. It also contains a prohibition on a federal ban on gas stoves, an idea the Biden administration has said it is not pursuing but which prompted outrage among Republicans when a commissioner of the Consumer Product Safety Commission suggested could be ripe for future regulatory action.

The Hyde Amendment, a measure banning federal funding for abortion that was first included in spending legislation in 1976 and has been renewed virtually every year since, also is in the bill. But Democrats blocked Republicans from imposing any other anti-abortion measures.

The legislation cuts foreign aid.

The funding levels adhere to the debt limit and spending deal negotiated last year by President Biden and the speaker at the time, Kevin McCarthy, keeping spending on domestic programs essentially flat — even as funding for veterans’ programs continues to grow and military spending increases slightly.

That translated to cuts in other areas, including to foreign aid.

In the closed-door meeting, Mr. Johnson said that Republicans had secured a 6 percent cut to foreign aid programs. It was not immediately clear which programs would bear the brunt.

Catie Edmondson covers Congress for The Times. More about Catie Edmondson

A Divided Congress: Latest News and Analysis

Ukraine Aid: Speaker Mike Johnson has expressed a personal desire to send aid to Ukraine despite voting against it repeatedly. Now, he appears to be in search of the least politically damaging way to do it .

Spending Bill: A  bipartisan spending package  approved by Congress ended the prospect of a government shutdown. But the legislation also represented a major defeat for ultraconservatives in the House, who immediately turned on Johnson .

A Dwindling Majority: Representative Mike Gallagher, Republican of Wisconsin, announced that he would resign from Congress months earlier than expected on April 19, bringing the already minuscule G.O.P. majority down to a lonely one vote .

An Invite for Netanyahu: Johnson said that he planned to invite Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel to address Congress, moving to welcome a leader who has become a flashpoint for partisan disagreement  over the war in Gaza.

TikTok Ban: After a bill that would force TikTok’s Chinese parent company to sell the app or face a nationwide ban sailed through the House  at breakneck speed, its progress has slowed in the Senate .