pollution research essay

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• v.6(30); 2021 Aug 3

Plastic Pollution: A Perspective on Matters Arising: Challenges and Opportunities

Austine ofondu chinomso iroegbu.

† Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein 2028, Johannesburg, South Africa

‡ Centre for Nanostructures and Advanced Materials, DSI-CSIR Nanotechnology Innovation Centre, Council for Scientific & Industrial Research, CSIR, Pretoria 0001, South Africa

Suprakas Sinha Ray

Vuyelwa mbarane.

§ State Information Technology Agency (SITA), 459 Tsitsa Street, Erasmuskloof 0048, Pretoria, South Africa

João Carlos Bordado

∥ Centro de Recursos Naturais e Ambiente (CERENA), Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal

José Paulo Sardinha

Plastic pollution is a persistent challenge worldwide with the first reports evidencing its impact on the living and nonliving components of the environment dating back more than half a century. The rising concerns regarding the immediate and long-term consequences of plastic matter entrainment into foods and water cannot be overemphasized in light of our pursuit of sustainability (in terms of food, water, environment, and our health). Hence, some schools of thought recommend the revisitation and continuous assessment of the plastic economy, while some call for the outright ban of plastic materials, demonstrating that plastic pollution requires, more than ever, renewed, innovative, and effective approaches for a holistic solution. In this paper, dozens of reports on various aspects of plastic pollution assessment are collated and reviewed, and the impact of plastic pollution on both the living and nonliving components of the environment is discussed. Current challenges and factors hindering efforts to mitigate plastic pollution are identified to inform the presented recommendations while underscoring, for policymakers, stakeholders, and the scientific community, the exigency of finding sustainable solutions to plastic pollution that not only encompass existing challenges but also future threats presented by plastic pollution.

1. Pollution—An Overview

Pollution is a global phenomenon, a persistent challenge that is transnational (i.e., borderless) in nature, transinstitutional in purview, and transdisciplinary in solution scope. 1 − 3 As indicated in Figure ​ Figure1 1 , pollution can arise naturally, for example, by saltwater intrusion into freshwater resources and volcanic eruptions that release dangerous gases, or it can be manmade, a result of anthropogenic activities such as the exploitation of the environment and its resources and the introduction of matter or energy into the environment that are not natural to it. 4 − 6 Substances or energies (e.g., material entropy) that are introduced into the environment through anthropogenic activities can upset and compromise the natural balance of the earth’s intricate and inter-related systems, causing a “domino effect”. 7 − 9 Pollution can also be considered as (an) unnatural disturbance(s) arising from the intrusion of energy or matter into the environment, which may result in the interruption (i.e., modification) or degradation of the natural state of a system or environment, thereby increasing the risk of the system or environment deviating from its initial state (i.e., original conditions and functions). For example, the water present in commercial petroleum products (e.g., gasoline) can be considered a pollutant because it affects the original conditions and functions of these products in motor engines. Hence, it can be inferred that chemical reactions usually occur as a result of unnatural disturbances (i.e., the agitation or excitation of the state of matter or a system), causing the transformation or transmutation of substances (i.e., matter) from one form to another (which may be reversible or irreversible); accordingly, pollution has the potential to change the dynamics of matter and environments, which consequentially impacts the natural characteristics of living and nonliving components. 8 , 10 Notwithstanding, we hold that matter or energy entering an environment cannot be considered pollution (or a pollutant) if the effect of such intrusion or disturbance on the environment or system is not negative, i.e., is (i) neutral or (ii) positive. Hence, we posit that meeting these conditions should be the basis for considering such matter or energy as “green” or “eco-friendly”. For example, sunlight is considered friendly to green vegetation but unfriendly to plastic materials; in the former, it is vital for photosynthesis, and in the latter, it is known to promote photodegradation.

Common sources of pollution.

Pollution has detrimental consequences, which cannot be overstated in light of current environmental challenges. For example, it has been reported that a slight deterioration in air quality, owing to pollution, significantly impairs the natural behavior of bees, interrupting their critical roles in the ecosystem and thereby threatening food security. 11 Elsewhere, it has been found that a strong correlation exists between congenital anomalies and community exposure to chemicals associated with environmental contaminants. 12 A recent study has shown that the deterioration in the quality of milk in breastfeeding mothers can be traced to environmental pollution; it further contends that pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), entering the human body have the potential to disrupt and alter the natural balance of a mother’s milk with health consequences for breastfeeding infants that can range from allergies and endocrine disorders to impaired neurodevelopment. 13 To place the existential threat of pollution in context, a global health assessment has established that more than 20% of global deaths can be traced to pollution-related health complications. 14 Pollution impacts almost every aspect of our existence and the living and nonliving components of the environment. For example, satellite data spanning three decades evidence the devastating impact of global warming (a result of environmental pollution), which has shrunk Greenland’s ice sheets to almost nothing, thus contributing to rising global sea levels. 15

Plastic pollution is a pressing global challenge owing to the pervasive, near-unmanageable threat it poses to living and nonliving systems and the environmental stress it causes. 16 , 17 Herein, we define plastic pollution (encompassing macro-, micro-, and nanoplastic debris) as the intrusion or invasion by plastic materials (i.e., polymeric systems), either through direct introduction or degradation processes, of environments (to which they are not native) to negatively or undesirably impact such environments. Similar to greenhouse gases, persistent pollutants, and other environmental contaminants, plastic pollution cannot be restricted by territorial boundaries or legislation because it is able to migrate between water bodies, disperse through air, and be transported to remote locations through human intervention. 18 − 20

The following criteria are considered conditions for qualifying a pollutant as hazardous to the environment: 8 (i) its biological impact even at minute concentrations is significant (noticeable and observable); (ii) it easily diffuses into the atmosphere, is soluble in water, and has an affinity for accumulating in environments; (iii) it tends to persist in a given environment; (iv) it can impact a wide range of targets (living and nonliving), especially those directly linked to human health or important for environmental stability and functions; (v) its degradation byproducts or their combination with other environmental chemical compounds exhibit toxicity, persist, and accumulate in a target or exceed the original levels of the material; (vi) it is suitable for large-scale production and its benefits are considered to outweigh the concomitant cost of pollution. This perspective shows that plastic pollution satisfies all of these criteria and, thus, is hazardous to both living and nonliving systems in the environment.

A Google Scholar search using the search criteria “Plastic Pollution” at 10-year intervals in the last seven decades reveals that the number of publications on plastic pollution has increased, as shown in Figure ​ Figure2 2 . Across the world, the issue of plastic pollution has brought about a paradigm shift in discourses on climate change and ocean and environmental sustainability. 21 , 22 In almost every country in the world, multiple individuals and groups have become environmental activists against plastic pollution. 23 In addition, governments, world leaders, and various stakeholders participate in discussions, conventions, and resolutions in concerted efforts to find a holistic solution to plastic pollution. 24 , 25

Number of publications between 1952 and 2021 on plastic pollution. The search engine was Google Scholar, while the keyword for the search was Plastic Pollution.

However, despite being a half-century-old problem, it is evident that the threat posed by plastic pollution is not abating and remediation will require, more than ever, renewed effort and a holistic approach with concrete commitments from all stakeholders. Borrelle et al. 17 estimated that more than 10% of the global plastic waste generated in 2016 found its way into aquatic environments. Moreover, they forecast that, without immediate intervention, by 2030, the world’s aquatic environments could contain more than 80 metric ton (Mt) of plastic debris. 17 Such a volume of plastic added to the world’s aquatic environments would displace an equal volume of water, shrinking aquatic habitats, increasing the likelihood of floods, and exacerbating global warming; 2 these phenomena, in turn, have countless negative consequences, such as endangering individuals and communities, destroying properties, and straining healthcare facilities and resources, government budgets, and the insurance industry, demonstrating the wider impact of plastic pollution. 26 − 28

Concerns regarding the mounting challenges of pervasive environmental and biological stressors, chiefly arising from the short- and long-term impacts of plastic pollution, have prompted the consolidation of the efforts (and associated financial, scientific, economic, and political resources) of stakeholders, worldwide, in the form of a sustainable development goal (SDG) initiative that prioritizes sustainable and healthy earth for all. 29 Therefore, discourses on environmental pollution such as plastic pollution should evaluate challenges, possible amelioration/mitigation, or control, with reference to the SDGs and current environmental issues.

This perspective differs from existing publications on plastic pollution ( Table 1 ) as it underscores key challenges and factors hindering global efforts to mitigate the menace of plastic pollution while highlighting various views on plastic pollution. It also discusses important developments and initiatives, aimed at mitigating the environmental impacts of plastic pollution, and presents recommendations that are based on a multidisciplinary approach. Policymakers, stakeholders (i.e., the plastic economy value chain), and the scientific community are alerted to the exigency of synergistically reshaping the current plastic economy to demonstrate a commitment toward the pursuit of green(er) plastics and support of blue sea initiatives, focusing on sustainable solutions that address the existing and future challenges presented by plastic pollution.

Plastics are polymeric systems (i.e., macromolecules), for example, polyethylene, polyacrylamides, polyesters, and polypropylene. Although plastics are generally polymers, not all polymers are plastics, such as natural cellulose, carbohydrates, proteins (e.g., leather), lignin, and natural rubber ( Hevea brasiliensis ). In this perspective, we consider plastic pollutants to be polymer-based materials in the environment, which may be plastics or not, that are potentially harmful.

2. A World of Polymers

We have always lived in the polymer age. Humans are essentially polymeric, from the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that encodes our human traits to the protein that covers our body (skin) and our keratin-laden hair. Moreover, our living, walking polymeric forms are sustained by the polymers we consume in the forms of carbohydrates and proteins and protected by the polymer-based clothes we wear. Advances in polymer science and engineering over the years have led to the discovery and commercialization of various polymer-based systems or materials such as polycarbonates, nylons, polyimides, polyurethanes, and liquid crystals, which have found various domestic and industrial applications that shape our world and advance our quality of life. Polymers feature prominently in almost every sector of the economy, from industries that manufacture pharmaceuticals, composites, and tires to laboratories that perform DNA profiling for criminal investigations by law enforcement agencies, demonstrating that polymers and polymer science have contributed and continue to contribute to civilization; additional examples are presented in Figure ​ Figure3 3 . 35 − 38 Owing to great minds such as Hermann Staudinger (1881–1965), Wallace Hume Carothers (1896–1937), Paul J. Flory (1910–1985), and Stephanie L. Kwolek (1923–2014) advancing the field of polymer science and engineering, plastics are considered one of man’s greatest feats in the field of science and technology. 39 , 40 In 1962, Fred Wallace Billmeyer Jr. (1919–2004) predicted that, with advances in polymer science and engineering, plastics will become the dominant materials of the future, surpassing steel, aluminum, and copper. 41 More than half a century later, this prediction seems accurate as, in recent times, plastics have outperformed competing materials, including wood, metal, and glass, as the material of choice in diverse domestic and industrial applications; the production of plastics exceeded 8 billion Mt between 1950 and 2015. 2 , 42

Immense contributions of polymers to human advancement and civilization cannot be overstated; polymers feature heavily in almost every sector of the economy.

Owing to their flexibility and adaptability for various applications, lightweight, moisture resistance, corrosion resistance, and low-cost plastics are sought-after materials for various applications. Commodity plastics such as polypropylene, which is a very cost-effective polymeric material that can be blow-molded, extruded, thermoformed, or injection-molded, are popular for the fabrication of products such as packaging films, plastic crates used for good transportation, storage containers (e.g., ice cream containers and yogurt containers), plastic caps, jerry cans, and hair combs. Other well-known commodity plastics include poly(vinyl chloride) (generally known as PVC and employed in piping and insulation systems), polyethylene (generally employed in packaging films), and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET; generally employed in beverage packaging). 36 , 43 Since our reliance on polymers increases in step with advances in science and technology (e.g., robotics, artificial intelligence, synthetic organs, insulation for energy conservation, and smart materials), a future that is not enriched and heavily dependent on plastics seems unlikely. 43 − 45

3. Health and Environmental Issues

There is no gainsaying that plastics have contributed immensely to the rise of human civilization; however, the distribution of plastic debris (macro-, micro-, and nanoplastics) in the environment and its entrainment into biological systems have become a serious issue. 46 Various health conditions such as thyroid dysfunction, obesity, diabetes, and reproductive impairment have been attributed to plastic pollution. 47 For example, it has been shown that nanoplastics impact negatively the composition and diversity of microbial communities in the human gut, which, considering emerging research evidencing the strong relationship between the gut and neural networks in the brain, could negatively impact the endocrine, immune, and nervous systems. 20 As already highlighted, pollution changes the dynamics of systems and environments with consequential impacts on the natural characteristics of their living and nonliving components; thus, it is reasonable to infer that the entrainment of nanoplastics into the human gut holds physiological consequences. The genotoxicity of micro- and nanoplastics to DNA has been established. It has been demonstrated that if the plastic matter is small enough to cross the nuclear membrane surrounding the DNA, damage can occur, impairing the DNA structure or forming lesions, which, unrepaired or misrepaired, can cause mutagenic processes that are considered to play a role in the carcinogenesis of cells. Additionally, it was found that the type and level of damage of DNA depend on the shape, functional groups, and chemical composition of the plastic debris. 48 The human airway is a key pathway for plastic fiber entrainment into the lungs, and biopersistence of the fibers depends on their length, structure, and chemical composition. Moreover, at certain exposure limits, all plastic fibers are likely to produce inflammation, which can lead to lung challenges such as the formation of reactive oxygen species with the potential to initiate cancerous growth through secondary genotoxicity. 49 Although there are few studies on the extent of the damage that prolonged exposure to plastic particles can cause to the human body (suggesting the need to increase research in this area), it is accepted that industry workers at textile facilities are at a high risk of contracting occupational diseases arising from high exposure to textile fibers. 50 It has long been established that constituents of plastic packaging chemically interact with or migrate into fat-containing foods; typical interactions include the migration of antioxidants from the plastic packaging into the food, sometimes bonding to the food surface. 51 Such transfer of packaging additives from the packaging material to its food content is a potential health risk. Furthermore, PET, a common plastic employed in the food and beverage industry, is a source of endocrine disruptors; 52 these endocrine disruptors leach from the plastic packaging into the consumables that it contains. Even at standard room temperature, phthalates (potential endocrine disruptors) are known to leach from PET packaging into various food contents in the presence of water. 52

The low thermal conductivities of plastic materials, although considered advantageous in certain applications (e.g., heat insulation), 43 contribute to global warming when these plastics are distributed in aquatic environments; they displace equal volumes of water and restrict heat flow from the sun to the aquatic environment, leading to a rise in sea levels and the dissipation of energy into the immediate environment. 2 The degradation pathways of plastics in the environment can also contribute to environmental stress. For example, Gewert et al. 53 posited that PVC, a very unstable polymer in the presence of UV radiation (+ h v), undergoes dechlorination in the environment, forming polyene moieties and hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the presence of water, as shown in Scheme 1 .

Reproduced with permission from Gewert, B.; Plassmann, M. M.; MacLeod, M. Pathways for degradation of plastic polymers floating in the marine environment. Environ. Sci.: Process. Impacts 2015 , 17, 1513–1521. 53 Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry, UK.

This dechlorination process and subsequent release of HCl have the potential to contribute to the acidification of aquatic environments by decreasing the pH level, in addition to the acidification caused by atmospheric CO 2 . It has been highlighted that increasing ocean acidity will aggravate global warming, 54 , 55 detrimentally affecting and possibly mutating habitats and the characteristics of various environments 56 , 57 to seriously undermine our goal of sustainable earth for future generations. However, a major concern must be raised at this point: the risk posed by PVC debris on living systems. Can PVC debris find its way into living systems? If it can, does it follow the above-mentioned degradation pathway? If it does, what health challenges do direct dechlorination and the subsequent release of HCl present living systems such as humans?

The load-bearing capacity of an environment is considered finite and it is believed that exceeding this capacity of an environment (and its living and nonliving components) to tolerate stressors such as synthetic waste (e.g., plastic debris) can result in unpredictable, possibly catastrophic, situations owing to a butterfly effect. 9

4. Challenges Associated with Plastic Pollution Mitigation

Factors militating against efforts to manage and limit the negative environmental impacts of plastic pollution are numerous and multifaceted; they include economic and political factors, a lack of commitment by governments and global plastic economy stakeholders, dissenting opinions of scientists, and under-reported or overlooked polluters. 2 , 58 − 61 Here, we highlight a few important challenges. For example, in October 2020, it was reported that the United States generated an estimated 42 Mt of plastic waste in 2016, of which between 0.14 and 0.41 Mt was allegedly dumped illegally into the environment (land and water) and another 0.15–0.99 Mt was exported to other countries such as South Africa, Indonesia, and Mexico, where it was inadequately recycled (either burnt or discarded in open landfill sites). It was further stated that between 2010 and 2016, the United States was the most significant contributor to plastic pollution in the environment, overtaking China. 62 This indicting report of a technologically and economically advanced country such as the United States and others 63 demonstrates one of the key challenges facing global efforts to mitigate plastic pollution, i.e., the tendency of global powers to pass the responsibility for their generated waste on to poorer nations, who are less equipped to recycle or manage the waste. Hence, we contend that the issue of plastic pollution and its mitigation strategies transcend the generally narrow public focus on single-use carrier bags (although they contribute to the problem) and concern powerful stakeholders such as multinational corporations and top brands that have the capacity (financially, politically, etc.) to undermine or circumvent concerted global efforts to address plastic pollution. For example, based on an audit undertaken in more than a dozen countries, it was found that well-known global brands, such as Coca-Cola, Nestlé, PepsiCo, and Unilever, are among the top sources of plastic pollution (for the third consecutive year); 64 yet, there are scant reports of these brands taking ownership of the environmental threat posed by plastic packaging used in their products, especially in countries in sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Nigeria). 65

Multiple studies have demonstrated that automobile tires are significant contributors to microplastic pollution in the environment. For example, Kole et al. 66 demonstrated that the wear and tear of tires contribute significantly to the entrainment and distribution of plastic particles in the environment. They estimate the annual per capita emission of tire particles to range between 0.23 and 4.7 kg, with a global average of 0.81 kg. Furthermore, they contend that 5–10% of the plastic pollution in aquatic environments is derived from automobile tires, while 3–7% of the plastic particles in the air that we breathe is derived from automobile tires, which is a significant contribution to the global air burden. 66 However, they did not collate data on the amount of plastic matter, derived from tires, that enters the food chain (through water and air), or how much is consumed by ruminants owing to plastic matter trapped/settled on their food sources, e.g., grasses. Furthermore, they did not include comprehensive data from the wear and tear of bicycle tires or tires employed in the aviation industry since reports that quantify the contributions of these categories of plastic polluters are limited. A related study quantified the relative abundance of plastic matter (i.e., microplastic debris) generated by the wear and tear of automobile tires at roadside drains and in the natural environment near major road intersections, finding that it ranged from 0.6 ± 0.33 to 65 ± 7.36 in 5 mL of sampled material. The report also noted that plastic debris tends to act as a vector for other hazardous systems and thus persists in the environment with serious negative consequences. 67 Owing to increasing concerns that automobile users contribute substantially to microplastic distribution in the environment, the Swedish Government commissioned the Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) to conduct a comprehensive study of this matter between 2018 and 2020. The key findings of their study are summarized. 68

• At least half of Sweden’s microplastic pollution derives from tires.
• Particles as large as 20 μm are deposited on or near roads and are carried off by winds to remote places. In addition, rain or snow clean-up processes transport these particles to other locations.
• Stormwater transports tire-based microplastics into open waters, reservoirs, and containment areas.
• It is necessary to further investigate the transportation and fate of these generated microplastics in sewerage and natural organisms.

Notwithstanding the mounting evidence of tire-based microplastic pollution, the multibillion-dollar tire industry is resisting scrutiny of its contribution to plastic pollution and the imposition of sanctions and regulations through the intense lobbying of European Union (EU) lawmakers. The report further highlighted how the tire industry commissioned and published no less than ten studies to counter reports revealing the significant risk that tire particles pose to humans and the environment; 69 again demonstrating how polluters undermine efforts to mitigate the plastic pollution caused by their products. In addition, several studies have argued that because tire particles contain toxic substances, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (phenanthrene, butylated hydroxyanisole, 2-methylnaphthalene, etc.) that are considered to pose serious health risks to living systems, 70 , 71 their distribution in the environment should not be trivialized.

Another factor limiting efforts to mitigate plastic pollution is the dissenting opinions and counteropinions held by scientists on various aspects of plastic pollution, e.g., sources, risk assessment, and toxicology. For example, Stafford and Jones 72 opine that addressing plastic pollution, such as ocean plastic pollution, is less pressing than addressing other environmental challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. They insist that emerging reports highlight the exigency of directing global efforts toward mitigating carbon emissions rather than expending energy on lesser threats, such as marine plastics. They further suggest that although ocean plastic pollution is a problem that needs attention, it does not pose an immediate ecological or toxicological threat at a planetary boundary level (i.e., the threat posed by plastic pollution is contextually less pressing than the threats posed by climate change and biodiversity loss that have long exceeded core planetary boundaries). 72 However, Avery-Gomm et al. 73 have challenged the position of Stafford and Jones, 72 arguing that global threats must continually be kept in perspective because undermining one threat by substituting it with another so-called “heftier” threat would be counterproductive in the global pursuit of sustainability. In their concluding remarks, they posit that the continuous discourse on plastic pollution has informed the improvement of the monitoring and risk evaluation of plastic pollution, as well as the development of frameworks for mitigation and remediation. 73 Elsewhere, an environmental toxicologist and risk assessor has argued that microplastics in marine and freshwater ecosystems do not pose any threat to the aquatic habitat as long as these pollutants are in low concentrations, despite the contradictory views of fellow scientists, referring to the threat posed by microplastics to aquatic habitats as a superficial risk. 74 However, this trivialization of the threat posed by plastic pollution on not only aquatic habitats but also terrestrial and arboreal environments is strongly rejected by Hale, 75 who insists that there is no basis to downplay the threat posed by plastic pollution to aquatic habitats. Hale contends that, in addition to plastic particle size, assessments of the toxicological impacts and consequences of plastic pollution in any given environment must consider the chemical compositions of the polymeric materials employed in the manufacture and production of the plastic materials; the shapes, surface areas, density, and persistence of the plastic particles; as well as the effects of additives (e.g., modifiers) and even sorbed pollutants (e.g., carriers and/or transfer agents). 75 Hale’s position is supported by Kramm et al., 76 who add that plastic pollution is a prototypically global and complex anthropogenic issue. They hold that a reductionist approach to addressing a serious environmental issue such as that presented by plastic pollution is detrimental to mitigation efforts. Moreover, they consider it high time that the scientific community takes responsibility for the environmental problems resulting from the work and inventions of scientists rather than trivializing or shirking responsibility. 76 Although some scientists may want to trivialize the threat of plastic pollution, it is generally accepted that any substance or energy can become toxic and environmentally disruptive at sufficient concentrations. 8 The fundamentally different opinions of scientists are a key challenge to forging cooperation; after all, a house divided against itself cannot stand. Such differences also convey disunity and present avenues or opportunities for plastic polluters to exploit, to avoid responsibility, to the detriment of the environment and, by extension, humanity.

Studies have evidenced that textiles and fibers are major contributors to the plastic materials that entrain into human lungs, food, and the environment ( Table 2 ). 49 , 77 However, because clothing is a primary human need, the textile industry directly and indirectly employs more than 100 million people globally and is a significant contributor to the gross domestic product (GDP) and economic growth of various nations. 78 , 79 In this context, addressing the plastic pollution resulting from the use of textiles and fibers is a challenge since any approach will have consequences (whether that approach involves banning the use of textiles and fibers or mitigating their contribution to plastic pollution as much as possible). Figure ​ Figure4 4 shows how much textile lint accumulates in the lint trap of a commercial dryer in a laundry house. This commercial dryer features a trap that prevents lint from escaping; however, washing machines and dryers that do not feature appropriate filtration systems release significant volumes of textile fibers into the environment.

Lint accumulation from a winter blanket in a commercial dryer. (A) Winter blanket loaded inside a commercial dryer. (B) Accumulation of lint inside the lint trap during the drying of the blanket. (C) Unweighed lint accumulated in the lint trap from the winter blanket after a single dry cycle. Photo Credit: First author (AOCI).

Moreover, considering that most polymers employed in the manufacturing of synthetic fibers and textiles are derived from petroleum and fossil-based resources, plastic pollution mitigation becomes a challenge (especially for oil-dependent economies) when balancing economics and politics. 80 , 81

Products and polymer-based articles, such as toothbrushes, shoes (materials or soles may be made from plastics), insulated electrical cables and equipment, light switches, writing pens (i.e., plastic cases), writing and printing inks (employ polymeric systems such as drag-reducing agents and stabilizers), mattresses, wigs and artificial hair (usually derived from high-performance polymers), artificial nails (e.g., acrylics), kitchen wipes (composed of microfibers), automobile paints, phone casings, computer casings, plastic wristwatches, and marine paints, are usually overlooked or underestimated as significant contributors to plastic pollution. Collectively, the “insignificant” contributions of these products or articles to plastic pollution, owing to poor disposal or through the process of wear and tear/degradation, is less insignificant. Notwithstanding, several reports focus on single-use plastic carrier bags as the primary plastic pollutant menacing our environment. 84 , 85 While we do not fault the positions held by these scientists, we argue that almost everyone releases plastic matter into the environment on a daily basis, e.g., through the shedding of textile fibers from our clothing. Hence, a more holistic approach to the management and control of plastic pollution is necessary to realize a sustainable environment. A small leak will sink a great ship; hence, we must beware of the plastic fibers that billions shed from their clothes daily or that is derived from insignificant contributors. It is our opinion that most people have little or no idea that their footwear (made from polymeric materials) also contributes to plastic pollution in the environment through wear and tear. As people tread on road surfaces, these surfaces abrade their footwear and accumulate plastic particles, which are subsequently washed away by rain into open waters. Furthermore, reports on the contributions of automobile and marine paints/coatings to plastic pollution through wear and degradation are limited. We submit that the contributions of automobile and marine paints/coatings to plastic pollution must be analyzed and quantified, as they represent potential secondary or primary sources of micro- and nanoplastic stressors in the environment. Moreover, the advanced paints and coatings (e.g., anticorrosive paints and coating) 86 , 87 that scientists and technologists are developing may pose additional environmental challenges when such materials leach, degrade, or form sediments in particular environments. It is worth noting that during the environmental degradation of paints and coatings, sorbed pollutants or additives may combine with biogenic systems and unpredictably alter living and nonliving systems in the environment. These plastic pollutant sources are usually overlooked or understudied, resulting in a knowledge gap that must be addressed to formulate a holistic approach to the management and control of plastic pollution in various environments.

5. Opportunities

Evidently, plastic pollution is a global challenge, and, as has been demonstrated, it meets all of the criteria of an environmental hazard for both the living and nonliving components of the environment. It is also apparent that a plastic-free future is unlikely despite the threat plastic pollution poses to the environment. 25 In addition, emerging data indicate an increase in global plastic pollution owing to the demand for personal protective equipment, 88 , 89 such as facemasks, to limit the spread of COVID-19. Besides, even if we were to ban the production and use of plastics, we would still need to address the plastic pollution currently present in our water, atmosphere, soil, consumables (e.g., table salts), and even vegetation (e.g., wheat and lettuce). 90 − 92 Hence, concerted global efforts are required to mitigate, manage, and control the current and possible future threats plastic debris distribution in the environment poses to its living and nonliving systems. Fortunately, various courses of action can be taken to realize this goal.

5.1. Plastic Education in National Curricula

Because prevention is better than cure, environmental responsibility and sustainability must be taught (formally and informally) from childhood, be it at home or in religious or formal education settings, to instill an appreciation of life and the environment. Such an educational approach is comparable to comprehensive sex education (CSE) that forms part of school curricula and teaches students life skills that enable them to make appropriate and healthy choices concerning their sexual lives. 93 We hold that incorporating plastic education into the national curricula is critical to mitigating, managing, and controlling plastic pollution and fostering sustainability. 94 We have enumerated elsewhere 2 the opportunities a plastic education curriculum presents. Hence, we support the call by the comity of nations for a global curriculum on plastic pollution, taught from kindergarten to the tertiary level, that addresses existing and emerging environmental and sustainability goals and objectives. For example, it has been established that handwashing clothes limits the amount of plastic fibers that ends up in the environment and prolongs the life span of fabrics. Although most people would consider using washing machines to do their laundry, a greater understanding of the limitations of these conveniences in mitigating plastic pollution may change behavior. It is believed that one of the reasons plastic pollution persists is the disconnect between scientific knowledge and the formative knowledge of the population. The population should be equipped with sufficient knowledge concerning the dangers and detrimental impact of plastic pollution (i.e., heightened risk awareness); instilling this risk awareness through formative education from childhood will promote the acceptance and support of policies and initiatives formulated to mitigate plastic pollution.

Religious and cultural institutions must actively participate in educating society on the value of sustainable earth and environment. It has been observed that culture, tradition, and religion all overwhelmingly influence the psyche, politics, emotional intelligence, and approach to life of individuals; 95 , 96 hence, addressing a global issue such as plastic pollution requires a rethink of our educational systems and the roles they play in promoting a sustainable environment. Human behaviors are ranked as some of the main challenges to addressing environmental issues; however, educational, religious, cultural, and traditional organizations can influence the attitudes and behaviors of their members in terms of environmental issues and are best placed to convince the population of the dire need to manage and control plastic pollution through behavioral change and ethical best practice. 2 , 97

Furthermore, global education systems should place greater emphasis on “responsible science”, where every scientific pursuit considers the environment to avoid engineering our own destruction. Scientists must understand that sustainability is their core mandate and must take ownership of the environmental challenges in which they are complicit. We believe that the formal and informal education sectors are critical to achieving the SDGs 29 and posit that plastic pollution mitigation, management, and control can only be achieved through the cooperation of all stakeholders, i.e., every human on the earth, for divided we fall. In closing, we emphasize that incorporating plastic education in national curricula to increase risk awareness is an opportunity that should not be squandered.

5.2. Green(er) Alternatives

We have previously mentioned that for a material to be considered green or eco-friendly, the effect of its intrusion or degradation in any given environment should either be neutral (have no net effect) or positive (energy-efficient, easily recyclable or reusable, etc.). In our view, the concept of “green plastics” should, in addition to biodegradability, encompass biocompatibility as well as a net neutral or positive impact on the environment. Hence, a “green plastic” should be an alternative polymeric material with properties or characteristics that are comparable or superior to those of conventional polymeric materials but that demonstrates less environmental impact. Such plastics can be biobased or fossil-based materials. 98 There has been an increasing and persistent call for rethinking the plastic economy in terms of the future of the environment; the sustainability of civilization; and the pursuit of green(er) chemistry, sustainable chemicals, and a circular economy. 99 − 102 Consequently, research that explores green(er) alternatives to conventional plastic materials has increased. For example, on June 5, 2014, Avantium ( https://www.avantium.com/ ) Technologies, headquartered in Amsterdam (The Netherlands), reportedly reached an agreement with international brands, such as Coca-Cola, Danone, Swire, and others, to produce packages exclusively from 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA), a carbohydrate-based material, industrially known as poly(ethylene furanoate) (PEF), which affords many advantages over fossil-based PET, the dominant plastic material employed industry-wide in beverage packaging. 103 The advantages of PEF over PET include a higher gas barrier and better water, thermal, and tensile properties. 101

In recent years, a myriad of green(er) plastics with the potential to replace conventional plastics in various domestic and industrial applications has emerged. For example, nanocellulose has recently gained prominence as a versatile, benign, ubiquitous, and sustainable material that can be modified, spun, drawn, molded, and even cast, finding applications in almost every economic sector and replacing plastics and other conventional materials such as steel. 104 In addition to its abundance, nanocellulose has been demonstrated to represent a green(er) alternative to plastics used in, among others, the packaging industry, membrane fabrication, and composites with properties and characteristics comparable to and even exceeding those of conventional plastics in terms of resilience, lightweight, and strength. 105 As nanocellulose research and development advances, it is hoped that nanocellulose will replace conventional plastic materials in many domestic and industrial applications to promote our SDGs. The increasing number of green(er) alternatives to conventional plastics, such as DNA biodegradable materials, 106 lignin biodegradable and biocompatible composite films, 107 chitin biocompatible and biodegradable plastics and fibers, 108 , 109 biocompatible and nontoxic plastics derived from lactic acid, 110 is a testament to the promising technologies available to mitigate plastic pollution. In a yet-to-be-published work, we demonstrate that bamboo straws are not only green(er) than plastic straws but also sustainable and do not negatively impact the environment. We also posit that other green(er) articles, such as tires, shoes, and clothing, may become possible in the near future with concerted effort and political will.

5.3. Revision of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)

As previously noted, in too many cases, the cost of pollution is considered tolerable in terms of a narrow cost–benefit analysis; thus, the negative impact of plastic pollution on, among others, our ecosystem and health, with a cost of more than USD 2 trillion per annum is usually under-reported. 47 , 111 Moreover, because most of the plastic debris generated inland generally finds its way into aquatic ecosystems, the oceans are one of the environments worst hit by plastic pollution, with an estimated impact of over USD 1 trillion per annum in terms of the loss in ocean productivity. 112 As pointed out by Forrest et al., 47 the current extended producer responsibility (EPR) and other plastic-related laws must be reviewed to reflect the exigency of the threat posed by plastic pollution; moreover, “voluntary” financial contributions from entities throughout the value chain of the plastic economy would generate considerable funds for innovative waste management schemes and environmental remediation. The goal of a circular plastic economy will remain elusive unless processes and technologies exist that ensure that the recycling of waste plastic is economically viable; 47 to promote the realization of a circular plastic economy, such technologies and processes must not only be cost-competitive but also enable the production of high-purity monomers (that are comparable to virgin resins) from waste plastic recovered from the environment. 113 , 114 As long as plastic recycling is disincentivized by its high cost, realizing and sustaining a circular plastic economy will be expensive, which is one of the major reasons that stakeholders in the plastic economy value chain have not fully embraced the concept of a circular plastic economy despite the recognized benefits. 115 Furthermore, we suggest that tariffs and levies on reclaimed or recycled plastic goods and materials should be reviewed throughout the value chain to promote their economic viability and enable them to compete with products produced from virgin resins, thus encouraging businesses to engage in environmental remediation. In addition, policies should be formulated to encourage consumers to use reusable and recycled products, thus incentivizing the reclamation of plastic wastes.

Elsewhere, we have argued 2 that despite the potential benefits of a circular economy, such as job creation, infrastructure development, and a low-carbon economy, we do not foresee the realization of a sustainable circular plastic economy without the cooperation of policymakers, governments, and the population. Hence, the synergistic cooperation of all stakeholders is imperative to plastic pollution mitigation.

6. Conclusions

Pollution is a global phenomenon and no nation or continent is immune to its negative environmental impact. Plastic pollution, in particular, is hazardous to the living and nonliving components of the environment. The negative impact of macro-, micro-, and nanoplastics on the environment and living organisms results from a combination of inherent characteristics and toxicity, the leaching of additives or constituent compounds, and the release of persistent sorbed pollutants. Although studies concerning the impact of plastic matter on various ecosystems, such as soil and air, are limited, the available literature demonstrates the exigency of revisiting the entire plastic economy value chain to ensure a sustainable environment.

To meaningfully address this global challenge, the scientific community must take ownership of the environmental challenges in which it is complicit as well as a remedial action. The political will of governments, cooperation of stakeholders, and determination of the population are imperative to the success of plastic pollution mitigation. Although plastics have contributed immensely to the progress and advancement of our civilization, we must ensure that posterity inherits sustainable earth. The time for action is now.

7. Future Prospects

Plastic pollution is a global phenomenon that exacerbates global warming and flooding and must be mitigated to achieve environmental sustainability. While plastic pollution presents a serious environmental threat, numerous opportunities exist that can be harnessed to mitigate, manage, and control this global problem. However, our understanding of plastic pollution is incomplete and further investigation is required to fully elucidate this problem. For example, studies on the accumulation of plastic debris as sediment in water beds (e.g., ocean floors), as a result of the phenomenon of convergence caused by the persistent directional flow of surface water, need to be investigated. We argue that (with the exception of polyethylene, polypropylene, and expanded polystyrene) a significant portion of plastic debris, such as polyesters, rubber particles, polyurethanes, PET, poly(vinyl chloride), linear low-density polyethylene, and high-density polyethylene, with specific gravities exceeding 1 g/cm 3 , sink to the bottom of the oceans. It is necessary to investigate whether these plastic particles undergo biodegradation and are biocompatible with the life forms inhabiting the ocean floors. The degradation pathways or processes of these plastic materials in the absence of light and oxygen, which are the conditions that exist at ocean floors, must be determined. Do these plastic materials resist anaerobic degradation processes on the ocean floor? What is the impact of free volume or molecular impermeability on the chemical and biological resistance of these plastics? The composition of ocean beds is not easy to study; however, modified nuclear microscopy and micro-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) mapping may facilitate such investigations. In addition, understanding the degradation pathways of nanoplastics may reveal ways to break plastic materials down into their constituent chemical compounds that can be captured and reused. 116 It is, furthermore, necessary to elucidate the biochemical kinetics and interactions of polymeric systems (e.g., plastic and rubber), their degradation pathways in living systems, the possible risk they pose to living organisms, and their potential to cause living cell mutations and physiological changes. Finally, facile and inexpensive sensors must be developed to monitor our consumables, such as food and water, for plastic debris. A real-time monitoring system of water distribution networks would enable governments to protect water resources and the health of their populations by preventing people from ingesting harmful amounts of plastic materials. However, what amount of plastic constitutes a harmful amount of plastic for an average human is unclear. Perhaps medical science can determine this amount.

Acknowledgments

The authors (SSR and AOCI) thank the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (HGER74p) and the Department of Science and Innovation (HGERA8x) for financial support.

Author Contributions

⊥ A.O.C.I. and S.S.R. contributed equally to this work.

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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Land pollution research: progress, challenges, and prospects

Ling Gao 1 , Tianzhen Hu 2 , Li Li 5,2 , Maoyuan Zhou 1 and Baoqing Zhu 4,3

Published 4 November 2022 • © 2022 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd Environmental Research Communications , Volume 4 , Number 11 Citation Ling Gao et al 2022 Environ. Res. Commun. 4 112001 DOI 10.1088/2515-7620/ac9e49

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1 School of Economics, Xiamen University, People's Republic of China

2 School of Marxism, Fudan University, People's Republic of China

3 School of Public Affairs, Zhejiang University, People's Republic of China

Author notes

4 The contributions of all authors in this paper are equal, so alphabetically by authors' last name.

5 Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.

Li Li https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6011-2843

Baoqing Zhu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7163-3740

• Received 26 April 2022
• Revised 12 October 2022
• Accepted 27 October 2022
• Published 4 November 2022

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Method : Single-anonymous Revisions: 2 Screened for originality? No

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This paper comprehensively searched all the literature on the subject of 'land pollution' through the core collection of the Web of Science database, and systematically processed the research literature from 1944 to 2021 using CiteSpace software, and carried out bibliometric analysis and visual presentation, which uncovers the LP research dynamics in detail, and draw the following conclusions: First, through the indicator of betweenness centrality, the basic authors and journals of the subject are obtained; from the perspective of publishing institutions and affiliated countries, the United States is an important research center for LP. Second, keywords such as 'land use', 'air pollution', 'impact', 'soil pollution' and 'management' are all high-frequency words. The results of keyword clustering and co-citation information in the literature indicate the natural-social dimensions of LP research, such as the use and quality of air, land, and water, as well as urbanization and environmental policies. However, challenges remain and current LP studies are still characterized by a certain degree of fragmentation, which should be enriched by combining land use changes and should require combining experimental results with socioeconomic analysis to propose joint LP remediation approaches. Finally, local and regional forces may strongly influence the LP process, and the drivers of globalization should be emphasized.

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1. Introduction

Land is the space carrier of human activities, the most basic production factor for human social and economic development, and the most basic survival resource for urban and rural residents. Since the 1960s, the problem of land pollution (LP) has gradually attracted widespread attention. On the one hand, scholars have paid attention to the causes of LP from the aspects of waste treatment, mining, urbanization, agrochemicals, and soil erosion (Heidi et al 2008 , Guo et al 2020 , Lee et al 2021 ). On the other hand, scholars have also explored the impact of LP from the aspects of socio-economic development, ecological environment, and human health, and explored ways to control LP from the aspects of pollution reduction and land restoration (Mone et al 2004 , Jin et al 2018 ). Therefore, the challenge of LP is how to solve the relationship between meeting human needs and maintaining the long-term ability of the biosphere to provide goods and services (Foley et al 2005 , Swette and Lambin 2021 ).

There are two approaches to defining LP in academia: soil pollution in a narrow sense and LP in a broad sense. In a narrow sense, soil pollution and LP are not a term (soil pollution focuses on factory chemicals or sewage and other wastewater). In this article, we will define it more broadly, including garbage and industrial waste, agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, the impact of mining and other industrial firms, the undesirable consequences of urbanization, and the systemic destruction of soil by over-intensive agriculture. As an important factor affecting human health, LP control poses a great challenge to the function of the ecosystem, which has a significant impact on human development (Ma et al 2020 ). How to take effective measures to deal with the deteriorating LP, guarantee and improve the quality of land resources, and further understand the dynamic relationship between the natural environment and human life has become one of the urgent problems in contemporary academia.

Based on the above background, this research conducted a comprehensive search of all the documents on the subject of 'land pollution' through the core collection of the Web of Science database, and used CiteSpace software to systematically process the research documents from 1944 to 2021 and conduct a bibliometric analysis. LP research dynamics revealed in detail based on visual statistics, This article attempts to address the following issues:

• (1)   What are the general trends of LP research?
• (2)   Which common issues in the natural-social dimension of LP research have received attention?
• (3)   What are the research challenges and future directions?

2. Data and methods

2.1. data source and data selection.

The sample data selected in this paper comes from the core collection of the Web of Science database ( https://clarivate.com/webofsciencegroup/solutions/web-of-science-core-collection/ , accessed on September 10, 2021). 5 By setting the search subject in the core collection of the Web of Science database as 'land pollution', the document type as 'Article', the language as 'English', and the complete time interval from 1944 to 2021, we found the total volume of published papers issued is 3022, and the final sample is subject to the effective processing of the software. The browsing/processing time is September 11, 2021. The overall trend is shown in figure 1 . It should be noted that the first article appeared in 1944. After 1970, the volume of published papers gradually maintained a continuity in time, but the volume of published papers every year was small. Therefore, in order to facilitate the presentation, we aggregate the data from 1944 to 1999 (202 articles in total), and retain the original data for the volume of published papers published from 2000 to 2021. It can be found that the general trend of the volume of research papers on LP from 1944 to 2020 is on the rise.

Figure 1.  Overall publishing trend of LP.

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2.2. Bibliometric methods

We mainly use CiteSpace software to conduct bibliometric research. 6 CiteSpace is a data mining and visualization analysis software jointly developed by Professor Chen Chaomei from the School of Information Science and Technology of Drexel University and WISE Laboratory of Dalian University of Technology. The version we use is CiteSpace 5.7. R2. Compared with the previous version of CiteSpace software, a major advantage of this software version is that there is no need to format the documents in the core collection of the Web of Science database.

The specific operation steps of our paper are as follows: select all the 3022 documents filtered in the core collection of the Web of Science database and export them as TXT format files, save them in the Data file and create a new Project file. After running the CiteSpace software, you can get visual maps such as research author, research institution, keyword clustering, keyword emergence, keyword time zone map, document co-citation, journal co-citation, author co-citation, etc., and finally, the research trends of LP perform quantitative analysis and visualization, from which the research context, research hotspots and frontier topics of the subject can be derived.

3. Results and visualization of literatures concerning LP research

Running the CiteSpace software to process the keyword 'land pollution', the time slice is set to 1 year, and the effective processing results are 2987. We get the following results.

3.1. Analysis of general information

3.1.1. analysis of authors.

Using the Author analysis function of CiteSpace, the author's co-occurrence network map is obtained, as shown in figure 2 . Among them, the size of the font indicates the volume of articles published by the author or the importance of the author (the same below), and the line between the authors indicates the cooperative relationship between each other. The results show that the top three authors by the volume of published papers are: Mark Nieuwenhuijsen, with 16 articles in total, and the first article was published in 2014 (such as Nieuwenhuijsen et al 2014a , 2014b ); Jordi Sunyer (tied for the first with Nieuwenhuijsen), both of which were 16 articles, and the first article was published in 2016 (such as Iñiguez et al 2016a , Porta et al 2016b ); Bert Brunekreef, 15 articles in total, first published in 2014 (such as Wang et al 2014 ); Michael Jerrett, 12 articles in total, first published in 2009 (such as Jerrett et al 2009 , Su et al 2009 ); Marianne Hatzopoulou (tied for third with Brunekreef), both of 12 articles, first published in 2016 (such as Shekarrizfard et al 2016 , Weichenthal et al 2016 ).

Figure 2.  Author's Co-occurrence Map.

By analyzing the co-citation and betweenness centrality of key nodes, the author's co-citation analysis is based on the author as a unit to study the situation where the documents published by multiple authors are cited by other authors at the same time. This can identify authoritative authors with high influence in the field. According to the betweenness centrality indicator, the author's co-citation map is shown in figure 3 . It turns out that among the scholars of environmental pollution research, the top four betweenness centrality indicator of authors are Braden JB (0.14), Cervero R (0.08), Brunekreef B (0.08, tied for second), and Hoek G (0.07).

Figure 3.  Author's Co-citation Map.

3.1.2. Analysis of research institutions

Using the Institutional analysis function of CiteSpace, we get the figure of the institutional co-occurrence network, as shown in figure 4 .

Figure 4.  Co-occurrence Map of Research Institutions.

According to the volume of published papers and centrality indicators, the statistical information of the institution is shown in table 1 . It turns out that the top five publications are: Chinese Academy of Sciences (154 articles), University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (72 articles), Beijing Normal University (43 articles), Utrecht University (41 articles), and University of California, Berkeley (34 articles). The centrality index reflects the cooperative relationship between institutions. The presentation of the centrality index in the paper is automatically arranged and generated by the software, so there is a situation where the same centrality involves multiple institutions. According to table 2 , Utrecht University in the Netherlands and University of Melbourne in Australia are ranked first in terms of centrality, both of which are 0.06. It should be noted that 'Years' in the table refers to the time when the author's or institution's first article appeared.

Table 1.  Volume of published papers by institutions and centrality (Top10).

Table 2.  Centrality of institutions (Top10).

3.1.3. Analysis of author's nations

Using the Nations analysis function of CiteSpace, we get the country co-occurrence network map, as shown in figure 5 .

Figure 5.  State Co-occurrence Map.

Similarly, according to the volume of published papers and centrality indicators, the relevant statistical information is organized as shown in tables 3 and 4 . It can be seen that the US (943 papers), China (790 papers), and the UK (297 papers) ranked the top three in terms of publication volume. The top three countries in terms of centrality are the US (0.32), Netherlands (0.21), and the UK (0.2). It can be found that the US is far ahead not only in the volume of published papers but also in centrality indicators, so it is the most important nation in the study of LP. The total amount of Chinese publications is also very high, but the centrality is not high, which shows that China needs to further strengthen its international cooperation in the publication of documents in the future, and better integrate with the research on worldwide frontier issues.

Table 3.  Volume of published papers by nations (Top10).

Table 4.  Centrality of nations (Top10).

3.1.4. Analysis of journals

By searching the LP in the database, we can get the journals that focus on this topic. As shown in figure 6 , we can find that the top five journals are Sustainability (242 papers), International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Abbreviation: IJERPH, 193 papers), Land Use Policy (108 papers), Science of the Total Environment (98 papers) and Journal of Cleaner Production (79 papers).

Figure 6.  Volume of papers on LP topics published in the journals.

Selecting the Cited Journal option in the CiteSpace node type to perform a 'journal co-citation' analysis. From this we have obtained high-impact journals among foreign journals. The results are shown in figure 7 . According to the centrality index, relevant statistical information is shown in table 5 . And, the information of co-citation frequency is reflected in table 6 . It can be found that AMBIO (0.13) ranks first in centrality, 7 so it is an authoritative journal for the study of LP.

Figure 7.  The journals Co-citation map.

Table 5.  Co-citation centrality of journals (Top 10).

Table 6.  Co-citation Frequency Of Journals (Top 10).

(Note: The full name of ATMOS ENVIRON is Atmospheric Environment , the full name of ENVIRON PLANN A is Environment and Planning A-Economy and Space , the full name of AM J AGR ECON is American Journal of Agricultural Economics , the full name of ANN NY ACAD SCI is Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , the full name of ENVIRON PLANN B is Environment and Planning B-Planning and Design, the full name of URBAN STUD is Urban Studies , the full name of QJ ECON is Quarterly Journal of Economics , the full name of ARCH ENVIRON HEALTH is Archives of Environmental Health , the full name of Sci Total Environ is Science of the Total Environment , the full name of Environ Sci Technol is Environmental Science & Technology , the full name of J Environ Manage is Journal of Environmental Management , the full name of Ecol Econ is Ecological Economics , the full name of Environ Pollut is Environmental Pollution , the full name of Environ Health Persp is Environmental Health Perspectives .)

3.2. Analysis of topical information

3.2.1. keyword co-occurrence.

Keyword co-occurrence analysis is the most common and effective analysis method for document content. The keywords are the refinement of the core content of the papers. Through the high-frequency co-occurrence of keywords, we can intuitively identify and determine the research context and frontier hot issues of the selected subject area (such as 'Land Pollution' in this article). Select the 'Keyword' option in the CiteSpace node type to get the keyword co-occurrence graph, and the result is shown in figure 8 . Among them, 'land use' (552 times), 'pollution' (540 times), 'air pollution' (469 times), 'impact' (410 times), and 'management' (259 times) are all high-frequency words. Furthermore, by focusing on centrality information, we found that the top three are 'pollution' (0.16), 'agriculture' (0.09), 'air pollution' (0.08) and 'climate change' (0.08, tied for third).

Figure 8.  Keyword Co-occurrence map.

3.2.2. Keyword burstiness

CiteSpace can do burstiness analysis of keywords, which can well grasp the research hotspots of specific selected topics in a certain year. From the perspective of the time evolution of keywords, if the frequency of occurrence of a keyword in a certain year increase, it means that the topic represented by the keyword is a hot spot in that year. This type of keyword is called a burst term. Furthermore, in order to further obtain information such as the burst strength, beginning year, and duration of keywords, and to discover research hotspots and their evolutionary trajectories in different periods of time, through the Control Panel selects the keyword burstiness option to calculate, filters the top ten keywords according to the burst strength. The relevant statistical information is shown in table 7 . We can find that the top three burst strengths of LP studies are agriculture (13.32), pollution (11.92), and conservation (8.48).

Table 7.  Keyword burstiness information (Top10).

3.2.3. Keyword clustering

Although the direction of the selected topic is determined, the keywords in different journal articles are trivial and independent, so it is necessary to perform cluster analysis on these keywords. Cluster analysis can not only systematically integrate and classify decentralized keywords, but also help researchers to understand the detailed research directions involved in this subject area conveniently and intuitively. Keyword clustering analysis is one of the characteristic functions of CiteSpace. It provides three algorithms: LSI, LLR, and MI. The results of the three algorithms are not the same. The LLR algorithm is more commonly used. The clustering results of LP studies are summarized as shown in table 8 .

Table 8.  Clustering results based on LLR algorithm.

Table 8 clearly reflects the clustering results of the LP study. Among them, there are 12 first-level clustering results. Due to limitations of paper, the author selected 10 related keywords for the second-level clustering results. Correspondingly, the index value for evaluating the clustering result is reflected in the Q Value and the S Value. According to the corresponding interval of the value, it can be found that the overall clustering structure of this paper is significant (Q = 0.4524 > 0.3), and the clustering result is reliable (S = 0.7551 > 0.7). 8

From the clustering results in table 8 , it can be found that the current research covers different aspects of the natural environment and ecological pollution research more comprehensively, and partly involves the dimensions of human social development. It should be pointed out that the results of LP research involved in the natural ecological environment are more abundant, such as 'air pollution' (Mayer 1999 , Brunekreef and Holgate 2002 , Chen et al 2017 ), 'water quality' (Olmstead 2010 , Tyagi et al 2013 , Boyd 2019 ) , 'soil conservation' (McConnell 1983 , Blanco and Lal 2008 , Hellin 2019 ), 'air quality' (Jones 1999 , Jacob and Winner 2009 , Wolkoff 2018 ), 'land cover' (Lambin et al 2001 , Lambin et al 2003 , Wulder et al 2018 ) and other topics. These issues are essentially closely related to the production and living activities of human society. Therefore, the natural issues in the world today are, to a great extent, natural-social issues.

On the one hand, human social activities will bring land pollution problems, on the other hand, these can also carry out reasonable and scientific control and protection of the natural environment. The promulgation of a series of policies related to environmental pollution prevention and control and ecological protection, and the development of innovation-driven green technologies reflect the agency of mankind in the face of natural problems. For example, Jahiel ( 1998 ) pointed out that China's Ninth National People's Congress not only made reforms in the field of government management system, but also clearly stated that environmental issues are serious issues that the central government needs to pay more attention to in the future. Khanna ( 2001 ) argues that the approach to environmental protection has evolved from a regulatory-driven adversarial 'government-led' approach to a more proactive approach, including voluntary and 'enterprise-led' and 'social-led' initiatives to self-regulate the environmental performance of society and the market. At the same time, the government has provided more and more environmental information on enterprises and products to attract market forces and communities, and by showing their preference for environmentally friendly companies to create demand for corporate environmental self-regulation. Jaffe et al ( 2002 ) pointed out that in the past ten years, the relationship between technological change and environmental policy has attracted more and more attention from scholars and policy makers, not only because the environmental impact of social activities is significantly affected by technological changes, but also environmental policy intervention will produce new constraints and incentives that affect the technological development process. Annicchiarico & Di ( 2015 ) studied the dynamic behavior of the economy under different environmental policy systems based on the new Keynesian model, and found that the emission cap policy may suppress macroeconomic fluctuations; staggered price adjustments have significantly changed the environmental policy systems that have been implemented performance; the response of the best environmental policy is strongly influenced by the degree of price adjustment and the response of monetary policy. Yoeli et al ( 2017 ) believes that in order to increase consumer protection of energy and other resources, government agencies, public utilities, and energy-related companies can supplement regulatory and market-based policy. Carlsson et al ( 2021 ) discussed the use of green nudge (behavioral intervention aimed at reducing negative externalities) as an environmental policy tool. Therefore, they proposed a new framework. Empirical research shows that whether it is pure or ethical, green nudge will have a significant impact on behavior and the environment, but its impact is highly dependent on the environment. To sum up, we can clearly see from the clustering results that the research topics and directions related to LP basically cover all issues related to the natural environment and ecology, and also show a close relationship with human social activities.

According to the clustering results, we can further obtain the time-line graph of keyword, as shown in figure 9 .

Figure 9.  Keyword evolution time-line graph.

3.2.4. Literature co-citation

Literature co-citation is essentially the same as the principle of author co-citation and journal co-citation. It reflects the citation phenomenon between two specific articles. This relationship is caused by citing them at the same time by a specific other article. At the same time, the relationship between the two cited articles is dynamic. By analyzing the betweenness centrality of key nodes, the basic authoritative literature in the field of LP studies can be identified. The result is shown in figure 10 .

Figure 10.  Literature Co-citation map.

Still exporting it according to the indicator of betweenness centrality, the detailed information we get is shown in table 9 .

Table 9.  Literatures listed by betweenness centrality indicators (Top 10).

Table 9 shows the basic and representative literature on LP research, involving several fields: (1) climate change air pollution and air quality issues, such as Lubowski et al ( 2006 ) discussed the impact of land use change on carbon emissions and climate change. They believe that if the US chooses to implement the greenhouse gas emission reduction plan, it is necessary to decide whether to include carbon sequestration policies as part of the domestic portfolio of compliance activities. Han et al ( 2014 ) discussed the relationship between urbanization level and air pollution. They pointed out that there is a causal relationship between land pollution and air pollution. (2) land use and soil pollution issues, such as Beelen et al ( 2013 ) used land use regression (LUR) to explain and predict the spatial comparison of air pollution concentration, and explained the environmental pollution caused by land use. Brook et al ( 2010 ) discussed the relationship between land use change and air pollution and its impact on cardiovascular disease. (3) agricultural issues and the decline of biodiversity, such as Polasky et al ( 2008 ) developed a landscape-level model to analyze the biological and economic consequences of alternative land use patterns. They found that land pollution caused by land use reduced biodiversity. Fezzi et al ( 2010 ) described a statistical method to derive the impact of policy options aimed at reducing nitrate diffusion pollution on the farm economy. Butchart et al ( 2010 ) and Kalcic et al ( 2012 ) discussed the relationship between global biodiversity reduction and land pollution. (4) global water supply and cost accounting, such as Hoekstra ( 2011 ) discussed the challenge of land pollution to global water supply. He believes that land pollution will greatly increase the treatment cost of water supply. (5) worldwide disease problems, such as Lim et al ( 2012 ) found that land pollution leads to the re-pollution of livestock, vegetables, and fruits, forming a serious dietary risk of exceeding the content of harmful substances.

4. Discussion: challenges and prospects

The above analysis shows that LP research still has some shortcomings and needs to be further improved. From the perspective of research objects, the current research on LP mainly presents two types of characteristics: one part of the literature takes LP as an independent variable to explore the impact of LP on social and economic development and ecosystem services, and the other part of the literature takes LP as the dependent variable to explore the impact of spatial environmental factors on LP. We found that most of this literature suffers from quantitative bias and relies mainly on new methods, especially cluster analysis. Many studies have used GIS to quantify the impact of LP on social and economic development and ecosystem services, or geospatial methods to determine the impact of environmental factors on LP in a region. However, our study shows that integrated studies emphasizing the natural and human dimensions of land contamination are clearly lacking. A complex systems approach can help scholars to study the causal relationships between LP and the corresponding policy design, socioeconomics, and environment. Therefore, it is necessary to bring land use change as a factor into this process and its consequences. Secondly, among the studies related to land pollution and environmental remediation, different remediation methods correspond to the factors leading to land pollution and the scale of land pollution, but these methods are often single remediation strategies and do not do cost-benefit or socio-economic perspectives, we believe that the research needs to combine experimental results with socio-economic analysis to propose joint pollution remediation methods. Finally, local, or regional forces undoubtedly have a great influence on the LP process, and the driving forces from globalization cannot be ignored. Cross-border (transnational) LP has become an important reality of current LP problems, and land pollution from large flows of runoff, ocean currents, air currents, goods, people and capital play an important role in the open land system, especially global climate change has become an important topic in land pollution research. Research needs to link local LP and global-scale factors, but LP is currently under-researched at the broadest scales.

4.1. Bringing land use change as a factor into LP studies

Although many current studies have brought land use as a factor into LP studies, current LP studies are to some extent fragmented. On the one hand, current studies focus more on land use types related to human use such as agricultural land, industrial land, urbanization, etc.; on the other hand, current studies seldom take the time of land use change as a variable and do not examine the land use transition. On the other hand, the current studies seldom consider land use change over time as a variable and do not examine the mechanisms and effects of land use transition on land pollution. The process of land use change is coupled between humans and nature and needs to be studied from an integrated perspective (Aspinall and Staiano 2017 , Verburg et al 2013 ). Therefore, presenting trend changes in land use patterns in a land systems science approach (including land scale, land spatial pattern, pollution, and degradation patterns, etc.) is beneficial to improve the explanatory power of existing studies on land pollution formation (Robinson 2006 , Verburg et al 2013 ). Our study shows that integrated studies emphasizing the natural and human dimensions of land pollution are clearly inadequate. In particular, after bringing land use change as a factor into LP studies, the study of causal relationships between LP and corresponding policy design, socioeconomics and environment (integrated study of natural and human dimensions) will also be more widely emphasized.

4.2. Socio-economic analysis of LP remediation methods

Environmental remediation is an important research topic among LP studies, and these studies mainly focus on technical strategies for environmental remediation, such as physical remediation, solidification/stabilization techniques, leaching methods, application of chelating agents, microbial remediation, phytoremediation, vermicomposting, etc. (Elżbieta and Krystyna 2015 , Dhaliwal et al 2020 ). Among the current studies related to land contamination and environmental remediation, different remediation methods correspond to different scales of land contamination according to the factors that lead to land contamination and the scale of land contamination, but these methods are often single remediation strategies, and the treatment efficiency of a single remediation technique may be reduced due to the complexity of certain contaminants. And without cost-benefit or socio-economic perspectives, we believe that the research needs to combine LP experimental results with socio-economic analysis to propose joint pollution remediation methods. In addition, land remediation projects also show obvious regional characteristics, for example, for land contaminated by industrial pollution sources, combined physical-chemical remediation techniques are mostly used, such as the application of combined soil replacement-solidification/stabilization remediation techniques, combined solidification/stabilization-leaching remediation techniques, and combined chelating agent-leaching remediation techniques. Land contaminated by agricultural pollution sources generally uses physical-chemical or chemical-biological remediation techniques. By taking advantage of rapid physical or chemical remediation, the characteristics of nondestructive bioremediation techniques can be combined. For land contaminated by domestic pollution sources, combined phytoremediation-microbial remediation and combined microbial-Earthworm remediation-phytoremediation remediation techniques are generally used (Wu et al 2022 ). Therefore, appropriate remediation techniques should be selected based on socioeconomic factors, pollutant types, pollutant sources, and predictions of remediation costs/effectiveness.

4.3. Linking regional LP to globalization

The betweenness centrality indicator (table 9 ) indicates that the impact of globalization on LP has become the focus of current research. However, in the literature review, we still see that LP studies have a tradition of region-based studies, focusing on the causes of land pollution and its impacts in a particular region. With globalization, there are indications that LP has a large impact on global environmental change, global health, and global biodiversity; while global warming, global natural factors (runoff, ocean currents, air currents, etc.) and global movement of people/capital have a negative impact on land pollution. However, the distant drivers of LP have received little attention. In order to understand the impact of global forces on regional land pollution, it is necessary to capture visible or invisible information related to LP using information geography and statistical methods or approaches, which include information geography methods such as remote sensing, GIS, and also methods such as qualitative comparative analysis (QCA). These methods help to discover that LP-related causality is not limited to local factors, but also includes the effects of globalization, such as market economies, technology diffusion, international political forces, and ethnic conflicts/wars (Tang 2015 ).

5. Conclusion

The paper locates 'land pollution' in the core collection of the Web of Science database, uses CiteSpace software to process all relevant research articles, and presents the research dynamics on LP completely and clearly. We draw the following conclusions:

First, through the indicator of betweenness centrality, basic and authoritative authors in this field include Braden Brennan, Cervero Robert, Brunekreef Bert, Hoek Gerard, etc.; basic and authoritative journals include AMBIO , Science , Atmospheric Environment , etc. From the perspective of institutions and affiliated nations that publish papers, the United States is an important place for research on LP.

Second, keywords such as 'land use', 'soil pollution', 'air pollution', 'impact', and 'management' are all high-frequency words. The result of keyword clustering and the co-citation information of documents indicate the historical dynamics of LP research, which mainly include natural dimensions such as air, land, and water, as well as social dimensions such as urbanization and environmental policies. In addition, through careful inspection, it can be found that these two dimensions are intertwined. The change or deterioration of the natural environment poses challenges to human survival, social production, social life, and related governance, and we can exert our agency and take corresponding scientific measures to deal with these major challenges.

Third, in academic research, there is more cooperation among countries, which can be clearly seen from the connection between countries in figure 5 . The question is, how to convert academic achievements into practical performance, that is, to generate actual returns for the control of LP, which requires more practical consultation and concerted actions among various countries, and truly regard the problem of LP as a global problem. Therefore, we believe that social organizations may become a third force alongside the market and government to deal with LP. And this may be a focus for future academic research and action.

Finally, current LP research remains challenges and prospects: (1) future research needs to incorporate land use change as a factor in the LP formation process and its consequences; (2) research needs to combine experimental results with socioeconomic analysis to propose joint pollution remediation methods; (3) local, or regional forces may have a strong influence on the LP process, and the driving forces from globalization cannot be ignored.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available at the following URL/DOI: https://doi.org/Web of Science database (https://clarivate.com/webofsciencegroup/solutions/web-of-science-core-collection/) .

Author contributions

Conceptualization, L L and L G, methodology, B Z and M Z, software, T H, validation, L L, L G and B Z, formal analysis, T H All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by the Ministry of Education China, grant number 21YJC790033.

Institutional review board statement

Not applicable.

Informed consent statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Curated by a team of in-house Web of Science™ Editors, the Web of Science Core Collection™ contains over 21,100 peer-reviewed, high-quality scholarly journals published worldwide (including Open Access journals) in over 250 sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities disciplines.

CiteSpace software can be used to observe the research trend or dynamics of a certain research field, and it is a bibliometric tool that presents authors, research institutions, keywords, and other aspects in a visual map so that relevant researchers can easily and efficiently grasp the specific or basic situation of the research field.

AMBIO is an international environmental and ecological science journal founded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1972. AMBIO's main topics include environmental impact assessment, biodiversity and its protection, environment and sustainable development, animal and plant ecosystems and global changes, and several major environmental and ecological issues.

Q Value: Modularity, which means the value of clustering module. It is generally believed that Q > 0.3 means that the cluster structure is significant; S Value: Silhouette, which means the average contour value of the cluster. It is generally believed that a cluster of S > 0.5 is reasonable, and S > 0.7 It means that the clustering is reliable.

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• Published: 29 October 2020

Urban and air pollution: a multi-city study of long-term effects of urban landscape patterns on air quality trends

• Lu Liang 1 &
• Peng Gong 2 , 3 , 4  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  18618 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental sciences

Most air pollution research has focused on assessing the urban landscape effects of pollutants in megacities, little is known about their associations in small- to mid-sized cities. Considering that the biggest urban growth is projected to occur in these smaller-scale cities, this empirical study identifies the key urban form determinants of decadal-long fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) trends in all 626 Chinese cities at the county level and above. As the first study of its kind, this study comprehensively examines the urban form effects on air quality in cities of different population sizes, at different development levels, and in different spatial-autocorrelation positions. Results demonstrate that the urban form evolution has long-term effects on PM 2.5 level, but the dominant factors shift over the urbanization stages: area metrics play a role in PM 2.5 trends of small-sized cities at the early urban development stage, whereas aggregation metrics determine such trends mostly in mid-sized cities. For large cities exhibiting a higher degree of urbanization, the spatial connectedness of urban patches is positively associated with long-term PM 2.5 level increases. We suggest that, depending on the city’s developmental stage, different aspects of the urban form should be emphasized to achieve long-term clean air goals.

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Introduction

Air pollution represents a prominent threat to global society by causing cascading effects on individuals 1 , medical systems 2 , ecosystem health 3 , and economies 4 in both developing and developed countries 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 . About 90% of global citizens lived in areas that exceed the safe level in the World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines 9 . Among all types of ecosystems, urban produce roughly 78% of carbon emissions and substantial airborne pollutants that adversely affect over 50% of the world’s population living in them 5 , 10 . While air pollution affects all regions, there exhibits substantial regional variation in air pollution levels 11 . For instance, the annual mean concentration of fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5  \(\upmu\mathrm{m}\) (PM 2.5 ) in the most polluted cities is nearly 20 times higher than the cleanest city according to a survey of 499 global cities 12 . Many factors can influence the regional air quality, including emissions, meteorology, and physicochemical transformations. Another non-negligible driver is urbanization—a process that alters the size, structure, and growth of cities in response to the population explosion and further leads to lasting air quality challenges 13 , 14 , 15 .

With the global trend of urbanization 16 , the spatial composition, configuration, and density of urban land uses (refer to as urban form) will continue to evolve 13 . The investigation of urban form impacts on air quality has been emerging in both empirical 17 and theoretical 18 research. While the area and density of artificial surface areas have well documented positive relationship with air pollution 19 , 20 , 21 , the effects of urban fragmentation on air quality have been controversial. In theory, compact cities promote high residential density with mixed land uses and thus reduce auto dependence and increase the usage of public transit and walking 21 , 22 . The compact urban development has been proved effective in mitigating air pollution in some cities 23 , 24 . A survey of 83 global urban areas also found that those with highly contiguous built-up areas emitted less NO 2 22 . In contrast, dispersed urban form can decentralize industrial polluters, improve fuel efficiency with less traffic congestion, and alleviate street canyon effects 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 . Polycentric and dispersed cities support the decentralization of jobs that lead to less pollution emission than compact and monocentric cities 29 . The more open spaces in a dispersed city support air dilution 30 . In contrast, compact cities are typically associated with stronger urban heat island effects 31 , which influence the availability and the advection of primary and secondary pollutants 32 .

The mixed evidence demonstrates the complex interplay between urban form and air pollution, which further implies that the inconsistent relationship may exist in cities at different urbanization levels and over different periods 33 . Few studies have attempted to investigate the urban form–air pollution relationship with cross-sectional and time series data 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 . Most studies were conducted in one city or metropolitan region 38 , 39 or even at the country level 40 . Furthermore, large cities or metropolitan areas draw the most attention in relevant studies 5 , 41 , 42 , and the small- and mid-sized cities, especially those in developing countries, are heavily underemphasized. However, virtually all world population growth 43 , 44 and most global economic growth 45 , 46 are expected to occur in those cities over the next several decades. Thus, an overlooked yet essential task is to account for various levels of cities, ranging from large metropolitan areas to less extensive urban area, in the analysis.

This study aims to improve the understanding of how the urban form evolution explains the decadal-long changes of the annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations in 626 cities at the county-level and above in China. China has undergone unprecedented urbanization over the past few decades and manifested a high degree of heterogeneity in urban development 47 . Thus, Chinese cities serve as a good model for addressing the following questions: (1) whether the changes in urban landscape patterns affect trends in PM 2.5 levels? And (2) if so, do the determinants vary by cities?

City boundaries

Our study period spans from the year 2000 to 2014 to keep the data completeness among all data sources. After excluding cities with invalid or missing PM 2.5 or sociodemographic value, a total of 626 cities, with 278 prefecture-level cities and 348 county-level cities, were selected. City boundaries are primarily based on the Global Rural–Urban Mapping Project (GRUMP) urban extent polygons that were defined by the extent of the nighttime lights 48 , 49 . Few adjustments were made. First, in the GRUMP dataset, large agglomerations that include several cities were often described in one big polygon. We manually split those polygons into individual cities based on the China Administrative Regions GIS Data at 1:1 million scales 50 . Second, since the 1978 economic reforms, China has significantly restructured its urban administrative/spatial system. Noticeable changes are the abolishment of several prefectures and the promotion of many former county-level cities to prefecture-level cities 51 . Thus, all city names were cross-checked between the year 2000 and 2014, and the mismatched records were replaced with the latest names.

PM 2.5 concentration data

The annual mean PM 2.5 surface concentration (micrograms per cubic meter) for each city over the study period was calculated from the Global Annual PM 2.5 Grids at 0.01° resolution 52 . This data set combines Aerosol Optical Depth retrievals from multiple satellite instruments including the NASA Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR), and the Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS). The global 3-D chemical transport model GEOS-Chem is further applied to relate this total column measure of aerosol to near-surface PM 2.5 concentration, and geographically weighted regression is finally used with global ground-based measurements to predict and adjust for the residual PM 2.5 bias per grid cell in the initial satellite-derived values.

Human settlement layer

The urban forms were quantified with the 40-year (1978–2017) record of annual impervious surface maps for both rural and urban areas in China 47 , 53 . This state-of-art product provides substantial spatial–temporal details on China’s human settlement changes. The annual impervious surface maps covering our study period were generated from 30-m resolution Landsat images acquired onboard Landsat 5, 7, and 8 using an automatic “Exclusion/Inclusion” mapping framework 54 , 55 . The output used here was the binary impervious surface mask, with the value of one indicating the presence of human settlement and the value of zero identifying non-residential areas. The product assessment concluded good performance. The cross-comparison against 2356 city or town locations in GeoNames proved an overall high agreement (88%) and approximately 80% agreement was achieved when compared against visually interpreted 650 urban extent areas in the year 1990, 2000, and 2010.

Control variables

To provide a holistic assessment of the urban form effects, we included control variables that are regarded as important in influencing air quality to account for the confounding effects.

Four variables, separately population size, population density, and two economic measures, were acquired from the China City Statistical Yearbook 56 (National Bureau of Statistics 2000–2014). Population size is used to control for the absolute level of pollution emissions 41 . Larger populations are associated with increased vehicle usage and vehicle-kilometers travels, and consequently boost tailpipes emissions 5 . Population density is a useful reflector of transportation demand and the fraction of emissions inhaled by people 57 . We also included gross regional product (GRP) and the proportion of GRP generated from the secondary sector (GRP2). The impact of economic development on air quality is significant but in a dynamic way 58 . The rising per capita income due to the concentration of manufacturing industrial activities can deteriorate air quality and vice versa if the stronger economy is the outcome of the concentration of less polluting high-tech industries. Meteorological conditions also have short- and long-term effects on the occurrence, transport, and dispersion of air pollutants 59 , 60 , 61 . Temperature affects chemical reactions and atmospheric turbulence that determine the formation and diffusion of particles 62 . Low air humidity can lead to the accumulation of air pollutants due to it is conducive to the adhesion of atmospheric particulate matter on water vapor 63 . Whereas high humidity can lead to wet deposition processes that can remove air pollutants by rainfall. Wind speed is a crucial indicator of atmospheric activity by greatly affect air pollutant transport and dispersion. All meteorological variables were calculated based on China 1 km raster layers of monthly relative humidity, temperature, and wind speed that are interpolated from over 800 ground monitoring stations 64 . Based on the monthly layer, we calculated the annual mean of each variable for each year. Finally, all pixels falling inside of the city boundary were averaged to represent the overall meteorological condition of each city.

Considering the dynamic urban form-air pollution relationship evidenced from the literature review, our hypothesis is: the determinants of PM 2.5 level trends are not the same for cities undergoing different levels of development or in different geographic regions. To test this hypothesis, we first categorized city groups following (1) social-economic development level, (2) spatial autocorrelation relationship, and (3) population size. We then assessed the relationship between urban form and PM 2.5 level trends by city groups. Finally, we applied the panel data models to different city groups for hypothesis testing and key determinant identification (Fig.  1 ).

Methodology workflow.

Calculation of urban form metrics

Based on the previous knowledge 65 , 66 , 67 , fifteen landscape metrics falling into three categories, separately area, shape, and aggregation, were selected. Those metrics quantify the compositional and configurational characteristics of the urban landscape, as represented by urban expansion, urban shape complexity, and compactness (Table 1 ).

Area metrics gives an overview of the urban extent and the size of urban patches that are correlated with PM 2.5 20 . As an indicator of the urbanization degree, total area (TA) typically increases constantly or remains stable, because the urbanization process is irreversible. Number of patches (NP) refers to the number of discrete parcels of urban settlement within a given urban extent and Mean Patch Size (AREA_MN) measures the average patch size. Patch density (PD) indicates the urbanization stages. It usually increases with urban diffusion until coalescence starts, after which decreases in number 66 . Largest Patch Index (LPI) measures the percentage of the landscape encompassed by the largest urban patch.

The shape complexity of urban patches was represented by Mean Patch Shape Index (SHAPE_MN), Mean Patch Fractal Dimension (FRAC_MN), and Mean Contiguity Index (CONTIG_MN). The greater irregularity the landscape shape, the larger the value of SHAPE_MN and FRAC_MN. CONTIG_MN is another method of assessing patch shape based on the spatial connectedness or contiguity of cells within a patch. Larger contiguous patches will result in larger CONTIG_MN.

Aggregation metrics measure the spatial compactness of urban land, which affects pollutant diffusion and dilution. Mean Euclidean nearest-neighbor distance (ENN_MN) quantifies the average distance between two patches within a landscape. It decreases as patches grow together and increases as the urban areas expand. Landscape Shape Index (LSI) indicates the divergence of the shape of a landscape patch that increases as the landscape becomes increasingly disaggregated 68 . Patch Cohesion Index (COHESION) is suggestive of the connectedness degree of patches 69 . Splitting Index (SPLIT) and Landscape Division Index (DIVISION) increase as the separation of urban patches rises, whereas, Mesh Size (MESH) decreases as the landscape becomes more fragmented. Aggregation Index (AI) measures the degree of aggregation or clumping of urban patches. Higher values of continuity indicate higher building densities, which may have a stronger effect on pollution diffusion.

The detailed descriptions of these indices are given by the FRAGSTATS user’s guide 70 . The calculation input is a layer of binary grids of urban/nonurban. The resulting output is a table containing one row for each city and multiple columns representing the individual metrics.

Division of cities

Division based on the socioeconomic development level.

The socioeconomic development level in China is uneven. The unequal development of the transportation system, descending in topography from the west to the east, combined with variations in the availability of natural and human resources and industrial infrastructure, has produced significantly wide gaps in the regional economies of China. By taking both the economic development level and natural geography into account, China can be loosely classified into Eastern, Central, and Western regions. Eastern China is generally wealthier than the interior, resulting from closeness to coastlines and the Open-Door Policy favoring coastal regions. Western China is historically behind in economic development because of its high elevation and rugged topography, which creates barriers in the transportation infrastructure construction and scarcity of arable lands. Central China, echoing its name, is in the process of economic development. This region neither benefited from geographic convenience to the coast nor benefited from any preferential policies, such as the Western Development Campaign.

Division based on spatial autocorrelation relationship

The second type of division follows the fact that adjacent cities are likely to form air pollution clusters due to the mixing and diluting nature of air pollutants 71 , i.e., cities share similar pollution levels as its neighbors. The underlying processes driving the formation of pollution hot spots and cold spots may differ. Thus, we further divided the city into groups based on the spatial clusters of PM 2.5 level changes.

Local indicators of spatial autocorrelation (LISA) was used to determine the local patterns of PM 2.5 distribution by clustering cities with a significant association. In the presence of global spatial autocorrelation, LISA indicates whether a variable exhibits significant spatial dependence and heterogeneity at a given scale 72 . Practically, LISA relates each observation to its neighbors and assigns a value of significance level and degree of spatial autocorrelation, which is calculated by the similarity in variable \(z\) between observation \(i\) and observation \(j\) in the neighborhood of \(i\) defined by a matrix of weights \({w}_{ij}\) 7 , 73 :

where \({I}_{i}\) is the Moran’s I value for location \(i\) ; \({\sigma }^{2}\) is the variance of variable \(z\) ; \(\bar{z}\) is the average value of \(z\) with the sample number of \(n\) . The weight matrix \({w}_{ij}\) is defined by the k-nearest neighbors distance measure, i.e., each object’s neighborhood consists of four closest cites.

The computation of Moran’s I enables the identification of hot spots and cold spots. The hot spots are high-high clusters where the increase in the PM 2.5 level is higher than the surrounding areas, whereas cold spots are low-low clusters with the presence of low values in a low-value neighborhood. A Moran scatterplot, with x-axis as the original variable and y-axis as the spatially lagged variable, reflects the spatial association pattern. The slope of the linear fit to the scatter plot is an estimation of the global Moran's I 72 (Fig.  2 ). The plot consists of four quadrants, each defining the relationship between an observation 74 . The upper right quadrant indicates hot spots and the lower left quadrant displays cold spots 75 .

Moran’s I scatterplot. Figure was produced by R 3.4.3 76 .

Division based on population size

The last division was based on population size, which is a proven factor in changing per capita emissions in a wide selection of global cities, even outperformed land urbanization rate 77 , 78 , 79 . We used the 2014 urban population to classify the cities into four groups based on United Nations definitions 80 : (1) large agglomerations with a total population larger than 1 million; (2) mid-sized cities, 500,000–1 million; (3) small cities, 250,000–500,000, and (4) very small cities, 100,000–250,000.

Panel data analysis

The panel data analysis is an analytical method that deals with observations from multiple entities over multiple periods. Its capacity in analyzing the characteristics and changes from both the time-series and cross-section dimensions of data surpasses conventional models that purely focus on one dimension 81 , 82 . The estimation equation for the panel data model in this study is given as:

where the subscript \(i\) and \(t\) refer to city and year respectively. \(\upbeta _{{0}}\) is the intercept parameter and \(\upbeta _{{1}} - { }\upbeta _{{{18}}}\) are the estimates of slope coefficients. \(\varepsilon \) is the random error. All variables are transformed into natural logarithms.

Two methods can be used to obtain model estimates, separately fixed effects estimator and random effects estimator. The fixed effects estimator assumes that each subject has its specific characteristics due to inherent individual characteristic effects in the error term, thereby allowing differences to be intercepted between subjects. The random effects estimator assumes that the individual characteristic effect changes stochastically, and the differences in subjects are not fixed in time and are independent between subjects. To choose the right estimator, we run both models for each group of cities based on the Hausman specification test 83 . The null hypothesis is that random effects model yields consistent and efficient estimates 84 : \({H}_{0}{:}\,E\left({\varepsilon }_{i}|{X}_{it}\right)=0\) . If the null hypothesis is rejected, the fixed effects model will be selected for further inferences. Once the better estimator was determined for each model, one optimal panel data model was fit to each city group of one division type. In total, six, four, and eight runs were conducted for socioeconomic, spatial autocorrelation, and population division separately and three, two, and four panel data models were finally selected.

Spatial patterns of PM 2.5 level changes

During the period from 2000 to 2014, the annual mean PM 2.5 concentration of all cities increases from 27.78 to 42.34 µg/m 3 , both of which exceed the World Health Organization recommended annual mean standard (10 µg/m 3 ). It is worth noting that the PM 2.5 level in the year 2014 also exceeds China’s air quality Class 2 standard (35 µg/m 3 ) that applies to non-national park places, including urban and industrial areas. The standard deviation of annual mean PM 2.5 values for all cities increases from 12.34 to 16.71 µg/m 3 , which shows a higher variability of inter-urban PM 2.5 pollution after a decadal period. The least and most heavily polluted cities in China are Delingha, Qinghai (3.01 µg/m 3 ) and Jizhou, Hubei (64.15 µg/m 3 ) in 2000 and Hami, Xinjiang (6.86 µg/m 3 ) and Baoding, Hubei (86.72 µg/m 3 ) in 2014.

Spatially, the changes in PM 2.5 levels exhibit heterogeneous patterns across cities (Fig.  3 b). According to the socioeconomic level division (Fig.  3 a), the Eastern, Central, and Western region experienced a 38.6, 35.3, and 25.5 µg/m 3 increase in annual PM 2.5 mean , separately, and the difference among regions is significant according to the analysis of variance (ANOVA) results (Fig.  4 a). When stratified by spatial autocorrelation relationship (Fig.  3 c), the differences in PM 2.5 changes among the spatial clusters are even more dramatic. The average PM 2.5 increase in cities belonging to the high-high cluster is approximately 25 µg/m 3 , as compared to 5 µg/m 3 in the low-low clusters (Fig.  4 b). Finally, cities at four different population levels have significant differences in the changes of PM 2.5 concentration (Fig.  3 d), except for the mid-sized cities and large city agglomeration (Fig.  4 c).

( a ) Division of cities in China by socioeconomic development level and the locations of provincial capitals; ( b ) Changes in annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations between the year 2000 and 2014; ( c ) LISA cluster maps for PM 2.5 changes at the city level; High-high indicates a statistically significant cluster of high PM 2.5 level changes over the study period. Low-low indicates a cluster of low PM 2.5 inter-annual variation; No high-low cluster is reported; Low–high represents cities with high PM 2.5 inter-annual variation surrounded by cities with low variation; ( d ) Population level by cities in the year 2014. Maps were produced by ArcGIS 10.7.1 85 .

Boxplots of PM 2.5 concentration changes between 2000 and 2014 for city groups that are formed according to ( a ) socioeconomic development level division, ( b ) LISA clusters, and ( c ) population level. Asterisk marks represent the p value of ANOVA significant test between the corresponding pair of groups. Note ns not significant; * p value < 0.05; ** p value < 0.01; *** p value < 0.001; H–H high-high cluster, L–H low–high cluster, L–L denotes low–low cluster.

The effects of urban forms on PM 2.5 changes

The Hausman specification test for fixed versus random effects yields a p value less than 0.05, suggesting that the fixed effects model has better performance. We fit one panel data model to each city group and built nine models in total. All models are statistically significant at the p  < 0.05 level and have moderate to high predictive power with the R 2 values ranging from 0.63 to 0.95, which implies that 63–95% of the variation in the PM 2.5 concentration changes can be explained by the explanatory variables (Table 2 ).

The urban form—PM 2.5 relationships differ distinctly in Eastern, Central, and Western China. All models reach high R 2 values. Model for Eastern China (refer to hereafter as Eastern model) achieves the highest R 2 (0.90), and the model for the Western China (refer to hereafter as Western model) reaches the lowest R 2 (0.83). The shape metrics FRAC and CONTIG are correlated with PM 2.5 changes in the Eastern model, whereas the area metrics AREA demonstrates a positive effect in the Western model. In contrast to the significant associations between shape, area metrics and PM 2.5 level changes in both Eastern and Western models, no such association was detected in the Central model. Nonetheless, two aggregation metrics, LSI and AI, play positive roles in determining the PM 2.5 trends in the Central model.

For models built upon the LISA clusters, the H–H model (R 2  = 0.95) reaches a higher fitting degree than the L–L model (R 2  = 0.63). The estimated coefficients vary substantially. In the H–H model, the coefficient of CONTIG is positive, which indicates that an increase in CONTIG would increase PM 2.5 pollution. In contrast, no shape metrics but one area metrics AREA is significant in the L–L model.

The results of the regression models built for cities at different population levels exhibit a distinct pattern. No urban form metrics was identified to have a significant relationship with the PM 2.5 level changes in groups of very small and mid-sized cities. For small size cities, the aggregation metrics COHESION was positively associated whereas AI was negatively related. For mid-sized cities and large agglomerations, CONTIG is the only significant variable that is positively related to PM 2.5 level changes.

Urban form is an effective measure of long-term PM 2.5 trends

All panel data models are statistically significant regardless of the data group they are built on, suggesting that the associations between urban form and ambient PM 2.5 level changes are discernible at all city levels. Importantly, these relationships are found to hold when controlling for population size and gross domestic product, implying that the urban landscape patterns have effects on long-term PM 2.5 trends that are independent of regional economic performance. These findings echo with the local, regional, and global evidence of urban form effect on various air pollution types 5 , 14 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 39 , 78 .

Although all models demonstrate moderate to high predictive power, the way how different urban form metrics respond to the dependent variable varies. Of all the metrics tested, shape metrics, especially CONTIG has the strongest effect on PM 2.5 trends in cities belonging to the high-high cluster, Eastern, and large urban agglomerations. All those regions have a strong economy and higher population density 86 . In the group of cities that are moderately developed, such as the Central region, as well as small- and mid-sized cities, aggregation metrics play a dominant negative role in PM 2.5 level changes. In contrast, in the least developed cities belonging to the low-low cluster regions and Western China, the metrics describing size and number of urban patches are the strongest predictors. AREA and NP are positively related whereas TA is negatively associated.

The impacts of urban form metrics on air quality vary by urbanization degree

Based on the above observations, how urban form affects within-city PM 2.5 level changes may differ over the urbanization stages. We conceptually summarized the pattern in Fig.  5 : area metrics have the most substantial influence on air pollution changes at the early urban development stage, and aggregation metrics emerge at the transition stage, whereas shape metrics affect the air quality trends at the terminal stage. The relationship between urban form and air pollution has rarely been explored with such a wide range of city selections. Most prior studies were focused on large urban agglomeration areas, and thus their conclusions are not representative towards small cities at the early or transition stage of urbanization.

The most influential metric of urban form in affecting PM 2.5 level changes at different urbanization stages.

Not surprisingly, the area metrics, which describe spatial grain of the landscape, exert a significant effect on PM 2.5 level changes in small-sized cities. This could be explained by the unusual urbanization speed of small-sized cities in the Chinese context. Their thriving mostly benefited from the urbanization policy in the 1980s, which emphasized industrialization of rural, small- and mid-sized cities 87 . With the large rural-to-urban migration and growing public interest in investing real estate market, a side effect is that the massive housing construction that sometimes exceeds market demand. Residential activities decline in newly built areas of smaller cities in China, leading to what are known as ghost cities 88 . Although ghost cities do not exist for all cities, high rate of unoccupied dwellings is commonly seen in cities under the prefectural level. This partly explained the negative impacts of TA on PM 2.5 level changes, as an expanded while unoccupied or non-industrialized urban zones may lower the average PM 2.5 concentration within the city boundary, but it doesn’t necessarily mean that the air quality got improved in the city cores.

Aggregation metrics at the landscape scale is often referred to as landscape texture that quantifies the tendency of patch types to be spatially aggregated; i.e., broadly speaking, aggregated or “contagious” distributions. This group of metrics is most effective in capturing the PM 2.5 trends in mid-sized cities (population range 25–50 k) and Central China, where the urbanization process is still undergoing. The three significant variables that reflect the spatial property of dispersion, separately landscape shape index, patch cohesion index, and aggregation index, consistently indicate that more aggregated landscape results in a higher degree of PM 2.5 level changes. Theoretically, the more compact urban form typically leads to less auto dependence and heavier reliance on the usage of public transit and walking, which contributes to air pollution mitigation 89 . This phenomenon has also been observed in China, as the vehicle-use intensity (kilometers traveled per vehicle per year, VKT) has been declining over recent years 90 . However, VKT only represents the travel intensity of one car and does not reflect the total distance traveled that cumulatively contribute to the local pollution. It should be noted that the private light-duty vehicle ownership in China has increased exponentially and is forecast to reach 23–42 million by 2050, with the share of new-growth purchases representing 16–28% 90 . In this case, considering the increased total distance traveled, the less dispersed urban form can exert negative effects on air quality by concentrating vehicle pollution emissions in a limited space.

Finally, urban contiguity, observed as the most effective shape metric in indicating PM 2.5 level changes, provides an assessment of spatial connectedness across all urban patches. Urban contiguity is found to have a positive effect on the long-term PM 2.5 pollution changes in large cities. Urban contiguity reflects to which degree the urban landscape is fragmented. Large contiguous patches result in large CONTIG_MN values. Among the 626 cities, only 11% of cities experience negative changes in urban contiguity. For example, Qingyang, Gansu is one of the cities-featuring leapfrogs and scattered development separated by vacant land that may later be filled in as the development continues (Fig.  6 ). Most Chinese cities experienced increased urban contiguity, with less fragmented and compacted landscape. A typical example is Shenzhou, Hebei, where CONTIG_MN rose from 0.27 to 0.45 within the 14 years. Although the 13 counties in Shenzhou are very far scattered from each other, each county is growing intensively internally rather than sprawling further outside. And its urban layout is thus more compact (Fig.  6 ). The positive association revealed in this study contradicts a global study indicating that cities with highly contiguous built-up areas have lower NO 2 pollution 22 . We noticed that the principal emission sources of NO 2 differ from that of PM 2.5. NO 2 is primarily emitted with the combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., industrial processes and power generation) 6 , whereas road traffic attributes more to PM 2.5 emissions. Highly connected urban form is likely to cause traffic congestion and trap pollution inside the street canyon, which accumulates higher PM 2.5 concentration. Computer simulation results also indicate that more compact cities improve urban air quality but are under the premise that mixed land use should be presented 18 . With more connected impervious surfaces, it is merely impossible to expect increasing urban green spaces. If compact urban development does not contribute to a rising proportion of green areas, then such a development does not help mitigating air pollution 41 .

Six cities illustrating negative to positive changes in CONTIG_MN and AREA_MN. Pixels in black show the urban areas in the year 2000 and pixels in red are the expanded urban areas from the year 2000 to 2014. Figure was produced by ArcGIS 10.7.1 85 .

Conclusions

This study explores the regional land-use patterns and air quality in a country with an extraordinarily heterogeneous urbanization pattern. Our study is the first of its kind in investigating such a wide range selection of cities ranging from small-sized ones to large metropolitan areas spanning a long time frame, to gain a comprehensive insight into the varying effects of urban form on air quality trends. And the primary insight yielded from this study is the validation of the hypothesis that the determinants of PM 2.5 level trends are not the same for cities at various developmental levels or in different geographic regions. Certain measures of urban form are robust predictors of air quality trends for a certain group of cities. Therefore, any planning strategy aimed at reducing air pollution should consider its current development status and based upon which, design its future plan. To this end, it is also important to emphasize the main shortcoming of this analysis, which is generally centered around the selection of control variables. This is largely constrained by the available information from the City Statistical Yearbook. It will be beneficial to further polish this study by including other important controlling factors, such as vehicle possession.

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Acknowledgements

Lu Liang received intramural research funding support from the UNT Office of Research and Innovation. Peng Gong is partially supported by the National Research Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China (2016YFA0600104), and donations from Delos Living LLC and the Cyrus Tang Foundation to Tsinghua University.

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Liang, L., Gong, P. Urban and air pollution: a multi-city study of long-term effects of urban landscape patterns on air quality trends. Sci Rep 10 , 18618 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74524-9

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Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment. These harmful materials are called pollutants.

Biology, Ecology, Health, Earth Science, Geography

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Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment . These harmful materials are called pollutants . Pollutants can be natural, such as volcanic ash . They can also be created by human activity, such as trash or runoff produced by factories. Pollutants damage the quality of air, water, and land. Many things that are useful to people produce pollution. Cars spew pollutants from their exhaust pipes. Burning coal to create electricity pollutes the air. Industries and homes generate garbage and sewage that can pollute the land and water. Pesticides —chemical poisons used to kill weeds and insects— seep into waterways and harm wildlife . All living things—from one-celled microbes to blue whales—depend on Earth ’s supply of air and water. When these resources are polluted, all forms of life are threatened. Pollution is a global problem. Although urban areas are usually more polluted than the countryside, pollution can spread to remote places where no people live. For example, pesticides and other chemicals have been found in the Antarctic ice sheet . In the middle of the northern Pacific Ocean, a huge collection of microscopic plastic particles forms what is known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch . Air and water currents carry pollution. Ocean currents and migrating fish carry marine pollutants far and wide. Winds can pick up radioactive material accidentally released from a nuclear reactor and scatter it around the world. Smoke from a factory in one country drifts into another country. In the past, visitors to Big Bend National Park in the U.S. state of Texas could see 290 kilometers (180 miles) across the vast landscape . Now, coal-burning power plants in Texas and the neighboring state of Chihuahua, Mexico have spewed so much pollution into the air that visitors to Big Bend can sometimes see only 50 kilometers (30 miles). The three major types of pollution are air pollution , water pollution , and land pollution . Air Pollution Sometimes, air pollution is visible . A person can see dark smoke pour from the exhaust pipes of large trucks or factories, for example. More often, however, air pollution is invisible . Polluted air can be dangerous, even if the pollutants are invisible. It can make people’s eyes burn and make them have difficulty breathing. It can also increase the risk of lung cancer . Sometimes, air pollution kills quickly. In 1984, an accident at a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, released a deadly gas into the air. At least 8,000 people died within days. Hundreds of thou sands more were permanently injured. Natural disasters can also cause air pollution to increase quickly. When volcanoes erupt , they eject volcanic ash and gases into the atmosphere . Volcanic ash can discolor the sky for months. After the eruption of the Indonesian volcano of Krakatoa in 1883, ash darkened the sky around the world. The dimmer sky caused fewer crops to be harvested as far away as Europe and North America. For years, meteorologists tracked what was known as the “equatorial smoke stream .” In fact, this smoke stream was a jet stream , a wind high in Earth’s atmosphere that Krakatoa’s air pollution made visible. Volcanic gases , such as sulfur dioxide , can kill nearby residents and make the soil infertile for years. Mount Vesuvius, a volcano in Italy, famously erupted in 79, killing hundreds of residents of the nearby towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Most victims of Vesuvius were not killed by lava or landslides caused by the eruption. They were choked, or asphyxiated , by deadly volcanic gases. In 1986, a toxic cloud developed over Lake Nyos, Cameroon. Lake Nyos sits in the crater of a volcano. Though the volcano did not erupt, it did eject volcanic gases into the lake. The heated gases passed through the water of the lake and collected as a cloud that descended the slopes of the volcano and into nearby valleys . As the toxic cloud moved across the landscape, it killed birds and other organisms in their natural habitat . This air pollution also killed thousands of cattle and as many as 1,700 people. Most air pollution is not natural, however. It comes from burning fossil fuels —coal, oil , and natural gas . When gasoline is burned to power cars and trucks, it produces carbon monoxide , a colorless, odorless gas. The gas is harmful in high concentrations , or amounts. City traffic produces highly concentrated carbon monoxide. Cars and factories produce other common pollutants, including nitrogen oxide , sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons . These chemicals react with sunlight to produce smog , a thick fog or haze of air pollution. The smog is so thick in Linfen, China, that people can seldom see the sun. Smog can be brown or grayish blue, depending on which pollutants are in it. Smog makes breathing difficult, especially for children and older adults. Some cities that suffer from extreme smog issue air pollution warnings. The government of Hong Kong, for example, will warn people not to go outside or engage in strenuous physical activity (such as running or swimming) when smog is very thick.

When air pollutants such as nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide mix with moisture, they change into acids . They then fall back to earth as acid rain . Wind often carries acid rain far from the pollution source. Pollutants produced by factories and power plants in Spain can fall as acid rain in Norway. Acid rain can kill all the trees in a forest . It can also devastate lakes, streams, and other waterways. When lakes become acidic, fish can’t survive . In Sweden, acid rain created thousands of “ dead lakes ,” where fish no longer live. Acid rain also wears away marble and other kinds of stone . It has erased the words on gravestones and damaged many historic buildings and monuments . The Taj Mahal , in Agra, India, was once gleaming white. Years of exposure to acid rain has left it pale. Governments have tried to prevent acid rain by limiting the amount of pollutants released into the air. In Europe and North America, they have had some success, but acid rain remains a major problem in the developing world , especially Asia. Greenhouse gases are another source of air pollution. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane occur naturally in the atmosphere. In fact, they are necessary for life on Earth. They absorb sunlight reflected from Earth, preventing it from escaping into space. By trapping heat in the atmosphere, they keep Earth warm enough for people to live. This is called the greenhouse effect . But human activities such as burning fossil fuels and destroying forests have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This has increased the greenhouse effect, and average temperatures across the globe are rising. The decade that began in the year 2000 was the warmest on record. This increase in worldwide average temperatures, caused in part by human activity, is called global warming . Global warming is causing ice sheets and glaciers to melt. The melting ice is causing sea levels to rise at a rate of two millimeters (0.09 inches) per year. The rising seas will eventually flood low-lying coastal regions . Entire nations, such as the islands of Maldives, are threatened by this climate change . Global warming also contributes to the phenomenon of ocean acidification . Ocean acidification is the process of ocean waters absorbing more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Fewer organisms can survive in warmer, less salty waters. The ocean food web is threatened as plants and animals such as coral fail to adapt to more acidic oceans. Scientists have predicted that global warming will cause an increase in severe storms . It will also cause more droughts in some regions and more flooding in others. The change in average temperatures is already shrinking some habitats, the regions where plants and animals naturally live. Polar bears hunt seals from sea ice in the Arctic. The melting ice is forcing polar bears to travel farther to find food , and their numbers are shrinking. People and governments can respond quickly and effectively to reduce air pollution. Chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a dangerous form of air pollution that governments worked to reduce in the 1980s and 1990s. CFCs are found in gases that cool refrigerators, in foam products, and in aerosol cans . CFCs damage the ozone layer , a region in Earth’s upper atmosphere. The ozone layer protects Earth by absorbing much of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation . When people are exposed to more ultraviolet radiation, they are more likely to develop skin cancer, eye diseases, and other illnesses. In the 1980s, scientists noticed that the ozone layer over Antarctica was thinning. This is often called the “ ozone hole .” No one lives permanently in Antarctica. But Australia, the home of more than 22 million people, lies at the edge of the hole. In the 1990s, the Australian government began an effort to warn people of the dangers of too much sun. Many countries, including the United States, now severely limit the production of CFCs. Water Pollution Some polluted water looks muddy, smells bad, and has garbage floating in it. Some polluted water looks clean, but is filled with harmful chemicals you can’t see or smell. Polluted water is unsafe for drinking and swimming. Some people who drink polluted water are exposed to hazardous chemicals that may make them sick years later. Others consume bacteria and other tiny aquatic organisms that cause disease. The United Nations estimates that 4,000 children die every day from drinking dirty water. Sometimes, polluted water harms people indirectly. They get sick because the fish that live in polluted water are unsafe to eat. They have too many pollutants in their flesh. There are some natural sources of water pollution. Oil and natural gas, for example, can leak into oceans and lakes from natural underground sources. These sites are called petroleum seeps . The world’s largest petroleum seep is the Coal Oil Point Seep, off the coast of the U.S. state of California. The Coal Oil Point Seep releases so much oil that tar balls wash up on nearby beaches . Tar balls are small, sticky pieces of pollution that eventually decompose in the ocean.

Human activity also contributes to water pollution. Chemicals and oils from factories are sometimes dumped or seep into waterways. These chemicals are called runoff. Chemicals in runoff can create a toxic environment for aquatic life. Runoff can also help create a fertile environment for cyanobacteria , also called blue-green algae . Cyanobacteria reproduce rapidly, creating a harmful algal bloom (HAB) . Harmful algal blooms prevent organisms such as plants and fish from living in the ocean. They are associated with “ dead zones ” in the world’s lakes and rivers, places where little life exists below surface water. Mining and drilling can also contribute to water pollution. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a major contributor to pollution of rivers and streams near coal mines . Acid helps miners remove coal from the surrounding rocks . The acid is washed into streams and rivers, where it reacts with rocks and sand. It releases chemical sulfur from the rocks and sand, creating a river rich in sulfuric acid . Sulfuric acid is toxic to plants, fish, and other aquatic organisms. Sulfuric acid is also toxic to people, making rivers polluted by AMD dangerous sources of water for drinking and hygiene . Oil spills are another source of water pollution. In April 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico, causing oil to gush from the ocean floor. In the following months, hundreds of millions of gallons of oil spewed into the gulf waters. The spill produced large plumes of oil under the sea and an oil slick on the surface as large as 24,000 square kilometers (9,100 square miles). The oil slick coated wetlands in the U.S. states of Louisiana and Mississippi, killing marsh plants and aquatic organisms such as crabs and fish. Birds, such as pelicans , became coated in oil and were unable to fly or access food. More than two million animals died as a result of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Buried chemical waste can also pollute water supplies. For many years, people disposed of chemical wastes carelessly, not realizing its dangers. In the 1970s, people living in the Love Canal area in Niagara Falls, New York, suffered from extremely high rates of cancer and birth defects . It was discovered that a chemical waste dump had poisoned the area’s water. In 1978, 800 families living in Love Canal had to a bandon their homes. If not disposed of properly, radioactive waste from nuclear power plants can escape into the environment. Radioactive waste can harm living things and pollute the water. Sewage that has not been properly treated is a common source of water pollution. Many cities around the world have poor sewage systems and sewage treatment plants. Delhi, the capital of India, is home to more than 21 million people. More than half the sewage and other waste produced in the city are dumped into the Yamuna River. This pollution makes the river dangerous to use as a source of water for drinking or hygiene. It also reduces the river’s fishery , resulting in less food for the local community. A major source of water pollution is fertilizer used in agriculture . Fertilizer is material added to soil to make plants grow larger and faster. Fertilizers usually contain large amounts of the elements nitrogen and phosphorus , which help plants grow. Rainwater washes fertilizer into streams and lakes. There, the nitrogen and phosphorus cause cyanobacteria to form harmful algal blooms. Rain washes other pollutants into streams and lakes. It picks up animal waste from cattle ranches. Cars drip oil onto the street, and rain carries it into storm drains , which lead to waterways such as rivers and seas. Rain sometimes washes chemical pesticides off of plants and into streams. Pesticides can also seep into groundwater , the water beneath the surface of the Earth. Heat can pollute water. Power plants, for example, produce a huge amount of heat. Power plants are often located on rivers so they can use the water as a coolant . Cool water circulates through the plant, absorbing heat. The heated water is then returned to the river. Aquatic creatures are sensitive to changes in temperature. Some fish, for example, can only live in cold water. Warmer river temperatures prevent fish eggs from hatching. Warmer river water also contributes to harmful algal blooms. Another type of water pollution is simple garbage. The Citarum River in Indonesia, for example, has so much garbage floating in it that you cannot see the water. Floating trash makes the river difficult to fish in. Aquatic animals such as fish and turtles mistake trash, such as plastic bags, for food. Plastic bags and twine can kill many ocean creatures. Chemical pollutants in trash can also pollute the water, making it toxic for fish and people who use the river as a source of drinking water. The fish that are caught in a polluted river often have high levels of chemical toxins in their flesh. People absorb these toxins as they eat the fish. Garbage also fouls the ocean. Many plastic bottles and other pieces of trash are thrown overboard from boats. The wind blows trash out to sea. Ocean currents carry plastics and other floating trash to certain places on the globe, where it cannot escape. The largest of these areas, called the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, is in a remote part of the Pacific Ocean. According to some estimates, this garbage patch is the size of Texas. The trash is a threat to fish and seabirds, which mistake the plastic for food. Many of the plastics are covered with chemical pollutants. Land Pollution Many of the same pollutants that foul the water also harm the land. Mining sometimes leaves the soil contaminated with dangerous chemicals. Pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural fields are blown by the wind. They can harm plants, animals, and sometimes people. Some fruits and vegetables absorb the pesticides that help them grow. When people consume the fruits and vegetables, the pesticides enter their bodies. Some pesticides can cause cancer and other diseases. A pesticide called DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was once commonly used to kill insects, especially mosquitoes. In many parts of the world, mosquitoes carry a disease called malaria , which kills a million people every year. Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize for his understanding of how DDT can control insects and other pests. DDT is responsible for reducing malaria in places such as Taiwan and Sri Lanka. In 1962, American biologist Rachel Carson wrote a book called Silent Spring , which discussed the dangers of DDT. She argued that it could contribute to cancer in humans. She also explained how it was destroying bird eggs, which caused the number of bald eagles, brown pelicans, and ospreys to drop. In 1972, the United States banned the use of DDT. Many other countries also banned it. But DDT didn’t disappear entirely. Today, many governments support the use of DDT because it remains the most effective way to combat malaria. Trash is another form of land pollution. Around the world, paper, cans, glass jars, plastic products, and junked cars and appliances mar the landscape. Litter makes it difficult for plants and other producers in the food web to create nutrients . Animals can die if they mistakenly eat plastic. Garbage often contains dangerous pollutants such as oils, chemicals, and ink. These pollutants can leech into the soil and harm plants, animals, and people. Inefficient garbage collection systems contribute to land pollution. Often, the garbage is picked up and brought to a dump, or landfill . Garbage is buried in landfills. Sometimes, communities produce so much garbage that their landfills are filling up. They are running out of places to dump their trash. A massive landfill near Quezon City, Philippines, was the site of a land pollution tragedy in 2000. Hundreds of people lived on the slopes of the Quezon City landfill. These people made their living from recycling and selling items found in the landfill. However, the landfill was not secure. Heavy rains caused a trash landslide, killing 218 people. Sometimes, landfills are not completely sealed off from the land around them. Pollutants from the landfill leak into the earth in which they are buried. Plants that grow in the earth may be contaminated, and the herbivores that eat the plants also become contaminated. So do the predators that consume the herbivores. This process, where a chemical builds up in each level of the food web, is called bioaccumulation . Pollutants leaked from landfills also leak into local groundwater supplies. There, the aquatic food web (from microscopic algae to fish to predators such as sharks or eagles) can suffer from bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals. Some communities do not have adequate garbage collection systems, and trash lines the side of roads. In other places, garbage washes up on beaches. Kamilo Beach, in the U.S. state of Hawai'i, is littered with plastic bags and bottles carried in by the tide . The trash is dangerous to ocean life and reduces economic activity in the area. Tourism is Hawai'i’s largest industry . Polluted beaches discourage tourists from investing in the area’s hotels, restaurants, and recreational activities. Some cities incinerate , or burn, their garbage. Incinerating trash gets rid of it, but it can release dangerous heavy metals and chemicals into the air. So while trash incinerators can help with the problem of land pollution, they sometimes add to the problem of air pollution. Reducing Pollution Around the world, people and governments are making efforts to combat pollution. Recycling, for instance, is becoming more common. In recycling, trash is processed so its useful materials can be used again. Glass, aluminum cans, and many types of plastic can be melted and reused . Paper can be broken down and turned into new paper. Recycling reduces the amount of garbage that ends up in landfills, incinerators, and waterways. Austria and Switzerland have the highest recycling rates. These nations recycle between 50 and 60 percent of their garbage. The United States recycles about 30 percent of its garbage. Governments can combat pollution by passing laws that limit the amount and types of chemicals factories and agribusinesses are allowed to use. The smoke from coal-burning power plants can be filtered. People and businesses that illegally dump pollutants into the land, water, and air can be fined for millions of dollars. Some government programs, such as the Superfund program in the United States, can force polluters to clean up the sites they polluted. International agreements can also reduce pollution. The Kyoto Protocol , a United Nations agreement to limit the emission of greenhouse gases, has been signed by 191 countries. The United States, the world’s second-largest producer of greenhouse gases, did not sign the agreement. Other countries, such as China, the world’s largest producer of greenhouse gases, have not met their goals. Still, many gains have been made. In 1969, the Cuyahoga River, in the U.S. state of Ohio, was so clogged with oil and trash that it caught on fire. The fire helped spur the Clean Water Act of 1972. This law limited what pollutants could be released into water and set standards for how clean water should be. Today, the Cuyahoga River is much cleaner. Fish have returned to regions of the river where they once could not survive. But even as some rivers are becoming cleaner, others are becoming more polluted. As countries around the world become wealthier, some forms of pollution increase. Countries with growing economies usually need more power plants, which produce more pollutants. Reducing pollution requires environmental, political, and economic leadership. Developed nations must work to reduce and recycle their materials, while developing nations must work to strengthen their economies without destroying the environment. Developed and developing countries must work together toward the common goal of protecting the environment for future use.

How Long Does It Last? Different materials decompose at different rates. How long does it take for these common types of trash to break down?

• Paper: 2-4 weeks
• Orange peel: 6 months
• Milk carton: 5 years
• Plastic bag: 15 years
• Tin can: 100 years
• Plastic bottle: 450 years
• Glass bottle: 500 years
• Styrofoam: Never

Indoor Air Pollution The air inside your house can be polluted. Air and carpet cleaners, insect sprays, and cigarettes are all sources of indoor air pollution.

Light Pollution Light pollution is the excess amount of light in the night sky. Light pollution, also called photopollution, is almost always found in urban areas. Light pollution can disrupt ecosystems by confusing the distinction between night and day. Nocturnal animals, those that are active at night, may venture out during the day, while diurnal animals, which are active during daylight hours, may remain active well into the night. Feeding and sleep patterns may be confused. Light pollution also indicates an excess use of energy. The dark-sky movement is a campaign by people to reduce light pollution. This would reduce energy use, allow ecosystems to function more normally, and allow scientists and stargazers to observe the atmosphere.

Noise Pollution Noise pollution is the constant presence of loud, disruptive noises in an area. Usually, noise pollution is caused by construction or nearby transportation facilities, such as airports. Noise pollution is unpleasant, and can be dangerous. Some songbirds, such as robins, are unable to communicate or find food in the presence of heavy noise pollution. The sound waves produced by some noise pollutants can disrupt the sonar used by marine animals to communicate or locate food.

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REVIEW article

Environmental and health impacts of air pollution: a review.

• 1 Delphis S.A., Kifisia, Greece
• 2 Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
• 3 Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Service de Médicine Interne, Lausanne, Switzerland
• 4 School of Social and Political Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom

One of our era's greatest scourges is air pollution, on account not only of its impact on climate change but also its impact on public and individual health due to increasing morbidity and mortality. There are many pollutants that are major factors in disease in humans. Among them, Particulate Matter (PM), particles of variable but very small diameter, penetrate the respiratory system via inhalation, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. Despite the fact that ozone in the stratosphere plays a protective role against ultraviolet irradiation, it is harmful when in high concentration at ground level, also affecting the respiratory and cardiovascular system. Furthermore, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), dioxins, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are all considered air pollutants that are harmful to humans. Carbon monoxide can even provoke direct poisoning when breathed in at high levels. Heavy metals such as lead, when absorbed into the human body, can lead to direct poisoning or chronic intoxication, depending on exposure. Diseases occurring from the aforementioned substances include principally respiratory problems such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiolitis, and also lung cancer, cardiovascular events, central nervous system dysfunctions, and cutaneous diseases. Last but not least, climate change resulting from environmental pollution affects the geographical distribution of many infectious diseases, as do natural disasters. The only way to tackle this problem is through public awareness coupled with a multidisciplinary approach by scientific experts; national and international organizations must address the emergence of this threat and propose sustainable solutions.

Approach to the Problem

The interactions between humans and their physical surroundings have been extensively studied, as multiple human activities influence the environment. The environment is a coupling of the biotic (living organisms and microorganisms) and the abiotic (hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere).

Pollution is defined as the introduction into the environment of substances harmful to humans and other living organisms. Pollutants are harmful solids, liquids, or gases produced in higher than usual concentrations that reduce the quality of our environment.

Human activities have an adverse effect on the environment by polluting the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the soil in which plants grow. Although the industrial revolution was a great success in terms of technology, society, and the provision of multiple services, it also introduced the production of huge quantities of pollutants emitted into the air that are harmful to human health. Without any doubt, the global environmental pollution is considered an international public health issue with multiple facets. Social, economic, and legislative concerns and lifestyle habits are related to this major problem. Clearly, urbanization and industrialization are reaching unprecedented and upsetting proportions worldwide in our era. Anthropogenic air pollution is one of the biggest public health hazards worldwide, given that it accounts for about 9 million deaths per year ( 1 ).

Without a doubt, all of the aforementioned are closely associated with climate change, and in the event of danger, the consequences can be severe for mankind ( 2 ). Climate changes and the effects of global planetary warming seriously affect multiple ecosystems, causing problems such as food safety issues, ice and iceberg melting, animal extinction, and damage to plants ( 3 , 4 ).

Air pollution has various health effects. The health of susceptible and sensitive individuals can be impacted even on low air pollution days. Short-term exposure to air pollutants is closely related to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high rates of hospitalization (a measurement of morbidity).

The long-term effects associated with air pollution are chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality. According to a Swedish cohort study, diabetes seems to be induced after long-term air pollution exposure ( 5 ). Moreover, air pollution seems to have various malign health effects in early human life, such as respiratory, cardiovascular, mental, and perinatal disorders ( 3 ), leading to infant mortality or chronic disease in adult age ( 6 ).

National reports have mentioned the increased risk of morbidity and mortality ( 1 ). These studies were conducted in many places around the world and show a correlation between daily ranges of particulate matter (PM) concentration and daily mortality. Climate shifts and global planetary warming ( 3 ) could aggravate the situation. Besides, increased hospitalization (an index of morbidity) has been registered among the elderly and susceptible individuals for specific reasons. Fine and ultrafine particulate matter seems to be associated with more serious illnesses ( 6 ), as it can invade the deepest parts of the airways and more easily reach the bloodstream.

Air pollution mainly affects those living in large urban areas, where road emissions contribute the most to the degradation of air quality. There is also a danger of industrial accidents, where the spread of a toxic fog can be fatal to the populations of the surrounding areas. The dispersion of pollutants is determined by many parameters, most notably atmospheric stability and wind ( 6 ).

In developing countries ( 7 ), the problem is more serious due to overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization along with the development of industrialization. This leads to poor air quality, especially in countries with social disparities and a lack of information on sustainable management of the environment. The use of fuels such as wood fuel or solid fuel for domestic needs due to low incomes exposes people to bad-quality, polluted air at home. It is of note that three billion people around the world are using the above sources of energy for their daily heating and cooking needs ( 8 ). In developing countries, the women of the household seem to carry the highest risk for disease development due to their longer duration exposure to the indoor air pollution ( 8 , 9 ). Due to its fast industrial development and overpopulation, China is one of the Asian countries confronting serious air pollution problems ( 10 , 11 ). The lung cancer mortality observed in China is associated with fine particles ( 12 ). As stated already, long-term exposure is associated with deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system ( 3 , 5 ). However, it is interesting to note that cardiovascular diseases have mostly been observed in developed and high-income countries rather than in the developing low-income countries exposed highly to air pollution ( 13 ). Extreme air pollution is recorded in India, where the air quality reaches hazardous levels. New Delhi is one of the more polluted cities in India. Flights in and out of New Delhi International Airport are often canceled due to the reduced visibility associated with air pollution. Pollution is occurring both in urban and rural areas in India due to the fast industrialization, urbanization, and rise in use of motorcycle transportation. Nevertheless, biomass combustion associated with heating and cooking needs and practices is a major source of household air pollution in India and in Nepal ( 14 , 15 ). There is spatial heterogeneity in India, as areas with diverse climatological conditions and population and education levels generate different indoor air qualities, with higher PM 2.5 observed in North Indian states (557–601 μg/m 3 ) compared to the Southern States (183–214 μg/m 3 ) ( 16 , 17 ). The cold climate of the North Indian areas may be the main reason for this, as longer periods at home and more heating are necessary compared to in the tropical climate of Southern India. Household air pollution in India is associated with major health effects, especially in women and young children, who stay indoors for longer periods. Chronic obstructive respiratory disease (CORD) and lung cancer are mostly observed in women, while acute lower respiratory disease is seen in young children under 5 years of age ( 18 ).

Accumulation of air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide and smoke, reaching 1,500 mg/m3, resulted in an increase in the number of deaths (4,000 deaths) in December 1952 in London and in 1963 in New York City (400 deaths) ( 19 ). An association of pollution with mortality was reported on the basis of monitoring of outdoor pollution in six US metropolitan cities ( 20 ). In every case, it seems that mortality was closely related to the levels of fine, inhalable, and sulfate particles more than with the levels of total particulate pollution, aerosol acidity, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide ( 20 ).

Furthermore, extremely high levels of pollution are reported in Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, followed by Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow ( 19 ).

Based on the magnitude of the public health impact, it is certain that different kinds of interventions should be taken into account. Success and effectiveness in controlling air pollution, specifically at the local level, have been reported. Adequate technological means are applied considering the source and the nature of the emission as well as its impact on health and the environment. The importance of point sources and non-point sources of air pollution control is reported by Schwela and Köth-Jahr ( 21 ). Without a doubt, a detailed emission inventory must record all sources in a given area. Beyond considering the above sources and their nature, topography and meteorology should also be considered, as stated previously. Assessment of the control policies and methods is often extrapolated from the local to the regional and then to the global scale. Air pollution may be dispersed and transported from one region to another area located far away. Air pollution management means the reduction to acceptable levels or possible elimination of air pollutants whose presence in the air affects our health or the environmental ecosystem. Private and governmental entities and authorities implement actions to ensure the air quality ( 22 ). Air quality standards and guidelines were adopted for the different pollutants by the WHO and EPA as a tool for the management of air quality ( 1 , 23 ). These standards have to be compared to the emissions inventory standards by causal analysis and dispersion modeling in order to reveal the problematic areas ( 24 ). Inventories are generally based on a combination of direct measurements and emissions modeling ( 24 ).

As an example, we state here the control measures at the source through the use of catalytic converters in cars. These are devices that turn the pollutants and toxic gases produced from combustion engines into less-toxic pollutants by catalysis through redox reactions ( 25 ). In Greece, the use of private cars was restricted by tracking their license plates in order to reduce traffic congestion during rush hour ( 25 ).

Concerning industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can keep the air pollution to the minimal standards imposed by legislation ( 26 ).

Current strategies to improve air quality require an estimation of the economic value of the benefits gained from proposed programs. These proposed programs by public authorities, and directives are issued with guidelines to be respected.

In Europe, air quality limit values AQLVs (Air Quality Limit Values) are issued for setting off planning claims ( 27 ). In the USA, the NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) establish the national air quality limit values ( 27 ). While both standards and directives are based on different mechanisms, significant success has been achieved in the reduction of overall emissions and associated health and environmental effects ( 27 ). The European Directive identifies geographical areas of risk exposure as monitoring/assessment zones to record the emission sources and levels of air pollution ( 27 ), whereas the USA establishes global geographical air quality criteria according to the severity of their air quality problem and records all sources of the pollutants and their precursors ( 27 ).

In this vein, funds have been financing, directly or indirectly, projects related to air quality along with the technical infrastructure to maintain good air quality. These plans focus on an inventory of databases from air quality environmental planning awareness campaigns. Moreover, pollution measures of air emissions may be taken for vehicles, machines, and industries in urban areas.

Technological innovation can only be successful if it is able to meet the needs of society. In this sense, technology must reflect the decision-making practices and procedures of those involved in risk assessment and evaluation and act as a facilitator in providing information and assessments to enable decision makers to make the best decisions possible. Summarizing the aforementioned in order to design an effective air quality control strategy, several aspects must be considered: environmental factors and ambient air quality conditions, engineering factors and air pollutant characteristics, and finally, economic operating costs for technological improvement and administrative and legal costs. Considering the economic factor, competitiveness through neoliberal concepts is offering a solution to environmental problems ( 22 ).

The development of environmental governance, along with technological progress, has initiated the deployment of a dialogue. Environmental politics has created objections and points of opposition between different political parties, scientists, media, and governmental and non-governmental organizations ( 22 ). Radical environmental activism actions and movements have been created ( 22 ). The rise of the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) are many times examined as to whether and in which way they have influenced means of communication and social movements such as activism ( 28 ). Since the 1990s, the term “digital activism” has been used increasingly and in many different disciplines ( 29 ). Nowadays, multiple digital technologies can be used to produce a digital activism outcome on environmental issues. More specifically, devices with online capabilities such as computers or mobile phones are being used as a way to pursue change in political and social affairs ( 30 ).

In the present paper, we focus on the sources of environmental pollution in relation to public health and propose some solutions and interventions that may be of interest to environmental legislators and decision makers.

Sources of Exposure

It is known that the majority of environmental pollutants are emitted through large-scale human activities such as the use of industrial machinery, power-producing stations, combustion engines, and cars. Because these activities are performed at such a large scale, they are by far the major contributors to air pollution, with cars estimated to be responsible for approximately 80% of today's pollution ( 31 ). Some other human activities are also influencing our environment to a lesser extent, such as field cultivation techniques, gas stations, fuel tanks heaters, and cleaning procedures ( 32 ), as well as several natural sources, such as volcanic and soil eruptions and forest fires.

The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. Therefore, it is worth mentioning the four main sources, following the classification system: Major sources, Area sources, Mobile sources, and Natural sources.

Major sources include the emission of pollutants from power stations, refineries, and petrochemicals, the chemical and fertilizer industries, metallurgical and other industrial plants, and, finally, municipal incineration.

Indoor area sources include domestic cleaning activities, dry cleaners, printing shops, and petrol stations.

Mobile sources include automobiles, cars, railways, airways, and other types of vehicles.

Finally, natural sources include, as stated previously, physical disasters ( 33 ) such as forest fire, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning.

However, many classification systems have been proposed. Another type of classification is a grouping according to the recipient of the pollution, as follows:

Air pollution is determined as the presence of pollutants in the air in large quantities for long periods. Air pollutants are dispersed particles, hydrocarbons, CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 3 , etc.

Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge and biological charge ( 10 ) at high levels that affect the water quality ( 34 , 35 ).

Soil pollution occurs through the release of chemicals or the disposal of wastes, such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

Air pollution can influence the quality of soil and water bodies by polluting precipitation, falling into water and soil environments ( 34 , 36 ). Notably, the chemistry of the soil can be amended due to acid precipitation by affecting plants, cultures, and water quality ( 37 ). Moreover, movement of heavy metals is favored by soil acidity, and metals are so then moving into the watery environment. It is known that heavy metals such as aluminum are noxious to wildlife and fishes. Soil quality seems to be of importance, as soils with low calcium carbonate levels are at increased jeopardy from acid rain. Over and above rain, snow and particulate matter drip into watery ' bodies ( 36 , 38 ).

Lastly, pollution is classified following type of origin:

Radioactive and nuclear pollution , releasing radioactive and nuclear pollutants into water, air, and soil during nuclear explosions and accidents, from nuclear weapons, and through handling or disposal of radioactive sewage.

Radioactive materials can contaminate surface water bodies and, being noxious to the environment, plants, animals, and humans. It is known that several radioactive substances such as radium and uranium concentrate in the bones and can cause cancers ( 38 , 39 ).

Noise pollution is produced by machines, vehicles, traffic noises, and musical installations that are harmful to our hearing.

The World Health Organization introduced the term DALYs. The DALYs for a disease or health condition is defined as the sum of the Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature mortality in the population and the Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) for people living with the health condition or its consequences ( 39 ). In Europe, air pollution is the main cause of disability-adjusted life years lost (DALYs), followed by noise pollution. The potential relationships of noise and air pollution with health have been studied ( 40 ). The study found that DALYs related to noise were more important than those related to air pollution, as the effects of environmental noise on cardiovascular disease were independent of air pollution ( 40 ). Environmental noise should be counted as an independent public health risk ( 40 ).

Environmental pollution occurs when changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment (air masses, temperature, climate, etc.) are produced.

Pollutants harm our environment either by increasing levels above normal or by introducing harmful toxic substances. Primary pollutants are directly produced from the above sources, and secondary pollutants are emitted as by-products of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable and of natural origin or anthropogenic, as stated previously. Moreover, their origin can be a unique source (point-source) or dispersed sources.

Pollutants have differences in physical and chemical properties, explaining the discrepancy in their capacity for producing toxic effects. As an example, we state here that aerosol compounds ( 41 – 43 ) have a greater toxicity than gaseous compounds due to their tiny size (solid or liquid) in the atmosphere; they have a greater penetration capacity. Gaseous compounds are eliminated more easily by our respiratory system ( 41 ). These particles are able to damage lungs and can even enter the bloodstream ( 41 ), leading to the premature deaths of millions of people yearly. Moreover, the aerosol acidity ([H+]) seems to considerably enhance the production of secondary organic aerosols (SOA), but this last aspect is not supported by other scientific teams ( 38 ).

Climate and Pollution

Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth ( 44 ). Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight. As a result, the temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice, icebergs, and glaciers.

In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported infections in Europe. Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in the globe ( 45 ). Mosquito-transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive, as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector. Similarly, water-warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example, cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria ( 46 ).

The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays ( 47 ). Malnutrition and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the emerging infections affecting public health ( 48 ).

The Chikungunya virus “took the airplane” from the Indian Ocean to Europe, as outbreaks of the disease were registered in Italy ( 49 ) as well as autochthonous cases in France ( 50 ).

An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding ( 36 , 51 ).

As stated previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect the climate. They are able to dissipate sunlight (the albedo phenomenon) by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years ( 52 ).

Air Pollutants

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Air pollution can have a disastrous effect on all components of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air. Additionally, it poses a serious threat to living organisms. In this vein, our interest is mainly to focus on these pollutants, as they are related to more extensive and severe problems in human health and environmental impact. Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate changes have an important ecological impact on air pollution ( 53 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter (PM) and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) PM exposure.

Particulate matter (PM) is usually formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between the different pollutants. The penetration of particles is closely dependent on their size ( 53 ). Particulate Matter (PM) was defined as a term for particles by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( 54 ). Particulate matter (PM) pollution includes particles with diameters of 10 micrometers (μm) or smaller, called PM 10 , and extremely fine particles with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers (μm) and smaller.

Particulate matter contains tiny liquid or solid droplets that can be inhaled and cause serious health effects ( 55 ). Particles <10 μm in diameter (PM 10 ) after inhalation can invade the lungs and even reach the bloodstream. Fine particles, PM 2.5 , pose a greater risk to health ( 6 , 56 ) ( Table 1 ).

Table 1 . Penetrability according to particle size.

Multiple epidemiological studies have been performed on the health effects of PM. A positive relation was shown between both short-term and long-term exposures of PM 2.5 and acute nasopharyngitis ( 56 ). In addition, long-term exposure to PM for years was found to be related to cardiovascular diseases and infant mortality.

Those studies depend on PM 2.5 monitors and are restricted in terms of study area or city area due to a lack of spatially resolved daily PM 2.5 concentration data and, in this way, are not representative of the entire population. Following a recent epidemiological study by the Department of Environmental Health at Harvard School of Public Health (Boston, MA) ( 57 ), it was reported that, as PM 2.5 concentrations vary spatially, an exposure error (Berkson error) seems to be produced, and the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects are not yet completely elucidated. The team developed a PM 2.5 exposure model based on remote sensing data for assessing short- and long-term human exposures ( 57 ). This model permits spatial resolution in short-term effects plus the assessment of long-term effects in the whole population.

Moreover, respiratory diseases and affection of the immune system are registered as long-term chronic effects ( 58 ). It is worth noting that people with asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are especially susceptible and vulnerable to the effects of PM. PM 2.5 , followed by PM 10 , are strongly associated with diverse respiratory system diseases ( 59 ), as their size permits them to pierce interior spaces ( 60 ). The particles produce toxic effects according to their chemical and physical properties. The components of PM 10 and PM 2.5 can be organic (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene, 1-3 butadiene) or inorganic (carbon, chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, metals) in nature ( 55 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) is divided into four main categories according to type and size ( 61 ) ( Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Types and sizes of particulate Matter (PM).

Gas contaminants include PM in aerial masses.

Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust.

Biological Contaminants are microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores), cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen.

Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust.

Finally, another fact is that the half-lives of PM 10 and PM 2.5 particles in the atmosphere is extended due to their tiny dimensions; this permits their long-lasting suspension in the atmosphere and even their transfer and spread to distant destinations where people and the environment may be exposed to the same magnitude of pollution ( 53 ). They are able to change the nutrient balance in watery ecosystems, damage forests and crops, and acidify water bodies.

As stated, PM 2.5 , due to their tiny size, are causing more serious health effects. These aforementioned fine particles are the main cause of the “haze” formation in different metropolitan areas ( 12 , 13 , 61 ).

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Ozone (O 3 ) is a gas formed from oxygen under high voltage electric discharge ( 62 ). It is a strong oxidant, 52% stronger than chlorine. It arises in the stratosphere, but it could also arise following chain reactions of photochemical smog in the troposphere ( 63 ).

Ozone can travel to distant areas from its initial source, moving with air masses ( 64 ). It is surprising that ozone levels over cities are low in contrast to the increased amounts occuring in urban areas, which could become harmful for cultures, forests, and vegetation ( 65 ) as it is reducing carbon assimilation ( 66 ). Ozone reduces growth and yield ( 47 , 48 ) and affects the plant microflora due to its antimicrobial capacity ( 67 , 68 ). In this regard, ozone acts upon other natural ecosystems, with microflora ( 69 , 70 ) and animal species changing their species composition ( 71 ). Ozone increases DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes and leads to impaired cellular function ( 72 ).

Ground-level ozone (GLO) is generated through a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen and VOCs emitted from natural sources and/or following anthropogenic activities.

Ozone uptake usually occurs by inhalation. Ozone affects the upper layers of the skin and the tear ducts ( 73 ). A study of short-term exposure of mice to high levels of ozone showed malondialdehyde formation in the upper skin (epidermis) but also depletion in vitamins C and E. It is likely that ozone levels are not interfering with the skin barrier function and integrity to predispose to skin disease ( 74 ).

Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs ( 75 ).

Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders ( 76 ).

The European project (APHEA2) focuses on the acute effects of ambient ozone concentrations on mortality ( 77 ). Daily ozone concentrations compared to the daily number of deaths were reported from different European cities for a 3-year period. During the warm period of the year, an observed increase in ozone concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of deaths (0.33%), in the number of respiratory deaths (1.13%), and in the number of cardiovascular deaths (0.45%). No effect was observed during wintertime.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is produced by fossil fuel when combustion is incomplete. The symptoms of poisoning due to inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness.

The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen. In this vein, serious poisoning may occur in people exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide for a long period of time. Due to the loss of oxygen as a result of the competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular disease are observed.

Carbon monoxide affects the greenhouses gases that are tightly connected to global warming and climate. This should lead to an increase in soil and water temperatures, and extreme weather conditions or storms may occur ( 68 ).

However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth ( 78 ).

Nitrogen Oxide (NO 2 )

Nitrogen oxide is a traffic-related pollutant, as it is emitted from automobile motor engines ( 79 , 80 ). It is an irritant of the respiratory system as it penetrates deep in the lung, inducing respiratory diseases, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema when inhaled at high levels. It seems that concentrations over 0.2 ppm produce these adverse effects in humans, while concentrations higher than 2.0 ppm affect T-lymphocytes, particularly the CD8+ cells and NK cells that produce our immune response ( 81 ).It is reported that long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can be responsible for chronic lung disease. Long-term exposure to NO 2 can impair the sense of smell ( 81 ).

However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered ( 81 ).

High levels of nitrogen dioxide are deleterious to crops and vegetation, as they have been observed to reduce crop yield and plant growth efficiency. Moreover, NO 2 can reduce visibility and discolor fabrics ( 81 ).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )

Sulfur dioxide is a harmful gas that is emitted mainly from fossil fuel consumption or industrial activities. The annual standard for SO 2 is 0.03 ppm ( 82 ). It affects human, animal, and plant life. Susceptible people as those with lung disease, old people, and children, who present a higher risk of damage. The major health problems associated with sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas are respiratory irritation, bronchitis, mucus production, and bronchospasm, as it is a sensory irritant and penetrates deep into the lung converted into bisulfite and interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction. Moreover, skin redness, damage to the eyes (lacrimation and corneal opacity) and mucous membranes, and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been observed ( 81 ).

Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions ( 83 ).

Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters ( 84 ).

Moreover, major sources of lead pollution in the air are metals, ore, and piston-engine aircraft. Lead poisoning is a threat to public health due to its deleterious effects upon humans, animals, and the environment, especially in the developing countries.

Exposure to lead can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Trans- placental transport of lead was also reported, as lead passes through the placenta unencumbered ( 85 ). The younger the fetus is, the more harmful the toxic effects. Lead toxicity affects the fetal nervous system; edema or swelling of the brain is observed ( 86 ). Lead, when inhaled, accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung, bones, and cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems. Moreover, loss of concentration and memory, as well as muscle and joint pain, were observed in adults ( 85 , 86 ).

Children and newborns ( 87 ) are extremely susceptible even to minimal doses of lead, as it is a neurotoxicant and causes learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation.

Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth. Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels ( 88 ).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)

The distribution of PAHs is ubiquitous in the environment, as the atmosphere is the most important means of their dispersal. They are found in coal and in tar sediments. Moreover, they are generated through incomplete combustion of organic matter as in the cases of forest fires, incineration, and engines ( 89 ). PAH compounds, such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are recognized as toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic substances. They are an important risk factor for lung cancer ( 89 ).

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene ( 90 ), have been found to be associated with cancer in humans ( 91 ). The use of new products and materials has actually resulted in increased concentrations of VOCs. VOCs pollute indoor air ( 90 ) and may have adverse effects on human health ( 91 ). Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions ( 92 ). Predictable assessment of the toxic effects of complex VOC mixtures is difficult to estimate, as these pollutants can have synergic, antagonistic, or indifferent effects ( 91 , 93 ).

Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals ( 94 ).

Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin ( 94 ). Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer ( 94 ).

Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination. This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter ( 95 ).

Effect of Air Pollution on Health

The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter (PM). Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:

Outdoor pollution is the ambient air pollution.

Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.

People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health.

Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma.

As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified ( 57 ) due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors. New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully ( 57 ). Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.

Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems. Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness.

These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths.

The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term ( 96 ).

As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of air pollutants. These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area, season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors.

Particulate Matter (PMs), dust, benzene, and O 3 cause serious damage to the respiratory system ( 97 ). Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing respiratory disease such as asthma ( 98 ). Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state. When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may be induced following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality ( 99 ). Long-term effects from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for COPD risk ( 99 ).

Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants ( 100 ). Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac functionality. Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to traffic emissions ( 101 ), while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide (NO 2 ) ( 102 , 103 ).

Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.

Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution ( 83 ). The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) is not yet known, although it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor. Specifically, pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet. The mechanisms in the development of neurodegenerative disease include oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons ( 104 ) ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Impact of air pollutants on the brain.

Brain inflammation was observed in dogs living in a highly polluted area in Mexico for a long period ( 105 ). In human adults, markers of systemic inflammation (IL-6 and fibrinogen) were found to be increased as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, possibly leading to the production of acute-phase proteins ( 106 ). The progression of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress seem to be the mechanisms involved in the neurological disturbances caused by long-term air pollution. Inflammation comes secondary to the oxidative stress and seems to be involved in the impairment of developmental maturation, affecting multiple organs ( 105 , 107 ). Similarly, other factors seem to be involved in the developmental maturation, which define the vulnerability to long-term air pollution. These include birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background and socioeconomic environment, as well as education level.

However, diet, starting from breast-feeding, is another determinant factor. Diet is the main source of antioxidants, which play a key role in our protection against air pollutants ( 108 ). Antioxidants are free radical scavengers and limit the interaction of free radicals in the brain ( 108 ). Similarly, genetic background may result in a differential susceptibility toward the oxidative stress pathway ( 60 ). For example, antioxidant supplementation with vitamins C and E appears to modulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele ( 61 ). Inflammatory cytokines released in the periphery (e.g., respiratory epithelia) upregulate the innate immune Toll-like receptor 2. Such activation and the subsequent events leading to neurodegeneration have recently been observed in lung lavage in mice exposed to ambient Los Angeles (CA, USA) particulate matter ( 61 ). In children, neurodevelopmental morbidities were observed after lead exposure. These children developed aggressive and delinquent behavior, reduced intelligence, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity ( 109 ). No level of lead exposure seems to be “safe,” and the scientific community has asked the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to reduce the current screening guideline of 10 μg/dl ( 109 ).

It is important to state that impact on the immune system, causing dysfunction and neuroinflammation ( 104 ), is related to poor air quality. Yet, increases in serum levels of immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM) and the complement component C3 are observed ( 106 ). Another issue is that antigen presentation is affected by air pollutants, as there is an upregulation of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages ( 110 ).

As is known, skin is our shield against ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and other pollutants, as it is the most exterior layer of our body. Traffic-related pollutants, such as PAHs, VOCs, oxides, and PM, may cause pigmented spots on our skin ( 111 ). On the one hand, as already stated, when pollutants penetrate through the skin or are inhaled, damage to the organs is observed, as some of these pollutants are mutagenic and carcinogenic, and, specifically, they affect the liver and lung. On the other hand, air pollutants (and those in the troposphere) reduce the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation UVR in polluted urban areas ( 111 ). Air pollutants absorbed by the human skin may contribute to skin aging, psoriasis, acne, urticaria, eczema, and atopic dermatitis ( 111 ), usually caused by exposure to oxides and photochemical smoke ( 111 ). Exposure to PM and cigarette smoking act as skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles. Lastly, pollutants have been associated with skin cancer ( 111 ).

Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers. Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported ( 112 ).

Another exterior organ that may be affected is the eye. Contamination usually comes from suspended pollutants and may result in asymptomatic eye outcomes, irritation ( 112 ), retinopathy, or dry eye syndrome ( 113 , 114 ).

Environmental Impact of Air Pollution

Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment ( 115 ) in which we live. The most important environmental effects are as follows.

Acid rain is wet (rain, fog, snow) or dry (particulates and gas) precipitation containing toxic amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. They are able to acidify the water and soil environments, damage trees and plantations, and even damage buildings and outdoor sculptures, constructions, and statues.

Haze is produced when fine particles are dispersed in the air and reduce the transparency of the atmosphere. It is caused by gas emissions in the air coming from industrial facilities, power plants, automobiles, and trucks.

Ozone , as discussed previously, occurs both at ground level and in the upper level (stratosphere) of the Earth's atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone is protecting us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. In contrast, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and is a pollutant. Unfortunately, stratospheric ozone is gradually damaged by ozone-depleting substances (i.e., chemicals, pesticides, and aerosols). If this protecting stratospheric ozone layer is thinned, then UV radiation can reach our Earth, with harmful effects for human life (skin cancer) ( 116 ) and crops ( 117 ). In plants, ozone penetrates through the stomata, inducing them to close, which blocks CO 2 transfer and induces a reduction in photosynthesis ( 118 ).

Global climate change is an important issue that concerns mankind. As is known, the “greenhouse effect” keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unhappily, anthropogenic activities have destroyed this protecting temperature effect by producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, and global warming is mounting, with harmful effects on human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the water environment. A report states that global warming is adding to the health risks of poor people ( 119 ).

People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount ( 119 ).

Wildlife is burdened by toxic pollutants coming from the air, soil, or the water ecosystem and, in this way, animals can develop health problems when exposed to high levels of pollutants. Reproductive failure and birth effects have been reported.

Eutrophication is occurring when elevated concentrations of nutrients (especially nitrogen) stimulate the blooming of aquatic algae, which can cause a disequilibration in the diversity of fish and their deaths.

Without a doubt, there is a critical concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can tolerate without being destroyed, which is associated with the ecosystem's capacity to neutralize acidity. The Canada Acid Rain Program established this load at 20 kg/ha/yr ( 120 ).

Hence, air pollution has deleterious effects on both soil and water ( 121 ). Concerning PM as an air pollutant, its impact on crop yield and food productivity has been reported. Its impact on watery bodies is associated with the survival of living organisms and fishes and their productivity potential ( 121 ).

An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone ( 121 ).

Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.

Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems (air, water, and soil) and living creatures ( 121 ).

In 2018, during the first WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health, the WHO's General Director, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, called air pollution a “silent public health emergency” and “the new tobacco” ( 122 ).

Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development. Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects.

Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school.

Despite the difficulty of eradicating the problem of anthropogenic environmental pollution, a successful solution could be envisaged as a tight collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to regularize the situation. Governments should spread sufficient information and educate people and should involve professionals in these issues so as to control the emergence of the problem successfully.

Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source must be established and should be used in all industries and power plants. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 set as a major target the reduction of GHG emissions to below 5% by 2012 ( 123 ). This was followed by the Copenhagen summit, 2009 ( 124 ), and then the Durban summit of 2011 ( 125 ), where it was decided to keep to the same line of action. The Kyoto protocol and the subsequent ones were ratified by many countries. Among the pioneers who adopted this important protocol for the world's environmental and climate “health” was China ( 3 ). As is known, China is a fast-developing economy and its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is expected to be very high by 2050, which is defined as the year of dissolution of the protocol for the decrease in gas emissions.

A more recent international agreement of crucial importance for climate change is the Paris Agreement of 2015, issued by the UNFCCC (United Nations Climate Change Committee). This latest agreement was ratified by a plethora of UN (United Nations) countries as well as the countries of the European Union ( 126 ). In this vein, parties should promote actions and measures to enhance numerous aspects around the subject. Boosting education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the relevant actions for maximizing the opportunities to achieve the targets and goals on the crucial matter of climate change and environmental pollution ( 126 ). Without any doubt, technological improvements makes our world easier and it seems difficult to reduce the harmful impact caused by gas emissions, we could limit its use by seeking reliable approaches.

Synopsizing, a global prevention policy should be designed in order to combat anthropogenic air pollution as a complement to the correct handling of the adverse health effects associated with air pollution. Sustainable development practices should be applied, together with information coming from research in order to handle the problem effectively.

At this point, international cooperation in terms of research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is vital for effective pollution control. Legislation concerning air pollution must be aligned and updated, and policy makers should propose the design of a powerful tool of environmental and health protection. As a result, the main proposal of this essay is that we should focus on fostering local structures to promote experience and practice and extrapolate these to the international level through developing effective policies for sustainable management of ecosystems.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

IM is employed by the company Delphis S.A.

The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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116. Madronich S, de Gruijl F. Skin cancer and UV radiation. Nature . (1993) 366:23–9. doi: 10.1038/366023a0

117. Teramura A. Effects of UV-B radiation on the growth and yield of crop plants. Physiol Plant . (2006) 58:415–27. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1983.tb04203.x

118. Singh E, Tiwari S, Agrawal M. Effects of elevated ozone on photosynthesis and stomatal conductance of two soybean varieties: a case study to assess impacts of one component of predicted global climate change. Plant Biol Stuttg Ger . (2009) 11(Suppl. 1):101–8. doi: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2009.00263.x

119. Manderson L. How global Warming is Adding to the Health Risks of Poor People . The Conversation. University of the Witwatersrand. Available online at: http://theconversation.com/how-global-warming-is-adding-to-the-health-risks-of-poor-people-109520 (accessed October 5, 2019).

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121. Zuhara S, Isaifan R. The impact of criteria air pollutants on soil and water: a review. (2018) 278–84. doi: 10.30799/jespr.133.18040205

122. WHO. First WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health. (2018). Available online at: https://www.who.int/airpollution/events/conference/en/ (accessed October 6, 2019).

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Keywords: air pollution, environment, health, public health, gas emission, policy

Citation: Manisalidis I, Stavropoulou E, Stavropoulos A and Bezirtzoglou E (2020) Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front. Public Health 8:14. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014

Received: 17 October 2019; Accepted: 17 January 2020; Published: 20 February 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Manisalidis, Stavropoulou, Stavropoulos and Bezirtzoglou. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Ioannis Manisalidis, giannismanisal@gmail.com ; Elisavet Stavropoulou, elisabeth.stavropoulou@gmail.com

† These authors have contributed equally to this work

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Air Pollution Research Paper Topics

This comprehensive guide to air pollution research paper topics is designed to assist students studying environmental science in selecting a suitable topic for their research paper. The guide provides a broad range of topics divided into ten categories, each containing ten unique research topics. Additionally, the guide offers expert advice on how to choose a topic from the multitude of air pollution research paper topics and how to write a compelling research paper on air pollution. The guide also introduces iResearchNet’s writing services, which offer students the opportunity to order a custom air pollution research paper on any topic. The services include a range of features designed to ensure the delivery of high-quality, custom-written papers.

100 Air Pollution Research Paper Topics

Air pollution is a critical environmental issue that affects every living being on the planet. It is a topic that requires in-depth understanding and research. To aid students in their quest for knowledge and to help them in their academic pursuits, we have compiled a comprehensive list of air pollution research paper topics. These topics are categorized into ten different sections, each containing ten unique topics.

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Causes of Air Pollution

• The role of industrialization in air pollution.
• The impact of transportation on air pollution.
• The effect of agriculture on air pollution.
• The influence of waste disposal on air pollution.
• The role of deforestation in air pollution.
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution.
• The effect of household activities on air pollution.
• The influence of natural disasters on air pollution.
• The role of power generation in air pollution.
• The impact of mining activities on air pollution.

Effects of Air Pollution

• The impact of air pollution on human health.
• The effect of air pollution on the environment.
• The influence of air pollution on climate change.
• The role of air pollution in biodiversity loss.
• The impact of air pollution on agriculture.
• The effect of air pollution on water bodies.
• The influence of air pollution on the ozone layer.
• The role of air pollution in acid rain.
• The impact of air pollution on urban heat islands.
• The effect of air pollution on mental health.

Air Pollution and Climate Change

• The role of air pollution in global warming.
• The impact of air pollution on weather patterns.
• The influence of air pollution on greenhouse gas emissions.
• The role of air pollution in climate change mitigation.
• The impact of air pollution on climate change adaptation.
• The effect of air pollution on carbon sequestration.
• The influence of air pollution on climate change policies.
• The role of air pollution in climate change communication.
• The impact of air pollution on climate change denial.
• The effect of air pollution on climate change education.

Air Pollution Policies

• The effectiveness of the Clean Air Act in addressing air pollution.
• The impact of the Paris Agreement on air pollution.
• The role of national policies in mitigating air pollution.
• The influence of international cooperation on air pollution.
• The effectiveness of emission standards in addressing air pollution.
• The role of renewable energy policies in mitigating air pollution.
• The impact of transportation policies on air pollution.
• The influence of waste management policies on air pollution.
• The effectiveness of urban planning policies in addressing air pollution.
• The role of education policies in mitigating air pollution.

Air Pollution Solutions

• The role of renewable energy in mitigating air pollution.
• The impact of energy efficiency on air pollution.
• The influence of green building on air pollution.
• The effectiveness of public transportation in addressing air pollution.
• The role of waste management in mitigating air pollution.
• The impact of urban green spaces on air pollution.
• The influence of sustainable agriculture on air pollution.
• The effectiveness of carbon capture and storage in addressing air pollution.
• The role of education in mitigating air pollution.
• The impact of individual actions on air pollution.

Air Pollution and Society

• The social impacts of air pollution.
• The role of media in shaping perceptions of air pollution.
• The influence of air pollution on social inequality.
• The impact of air pollution on social movements.
• The role of community engagement in addressing air pollution.
• The influence of air pollution on public health policies.
• The impact of air pollution on economic development.
• The role of air pollution in urban planning.
• The influence of air pollution on migration patterns.
• The impact of air pollution on cultural practices.

Air Pollution and Health

• The impact of air pollution on respiratory diseases.
• The role of air pollution in cardiovascular diseases.
• The influence of air pollution on allergies.
• The impact of air pollution on mental health.
• The role of air pollution in premature deaths.
• The influence of air pollution on children’s health.
• The impact of air pollution on elderly health.
• The role of air pollution in health inequalities.
• The influence of air pollution on public health interventions.
• The impact of air pollution on health care costs.

Air Pollution and Technology

• The role of technology in monitoring air pollution.
• The impact of technology on reducing air pollution.
• The influence of technology on air pollution modeling.
• The role of technology in air pollution forecasting.
• The impact of technology on air pollution communication.
• The influence of technology on air pollution policies.
• The role of technology in air pollution education.
• The impact of technology on air pollution mitigation.
• The influence of technology on air pollution adaptation.
• The role of technology in air pollution research.

Air Pollution and Economy

• The economic impacts of air pollution.
• The role of air pollution in economic inequality.
• The influence of air pollution on economic development.
• The impact of air pollution on economic policies.
• The role of air pollution in economic planning.
• The influence of air pollution on economic growth.
• The impact of air pollution on economic sustainability.
• The role of air pollution in economic transitions.
• The influence of air pollution on economic resilience.
• The impact of air pollution on economic sectors.

Air Pollution and Ethics

• The ethical implications of air pollution.
• The role of ethics in air pollution policies.
• The influence of ethics on air pollution communication.
• The impact of ethics on air pollution mitigation.
• The role of ethics in air pollution adaptation.
• The influence of ethics on air pollution research.
• The impact of ethics on air pollution education.
• The role of ethics in air pollution decision-making.
• The influence of ethics on air pollution justice.
• The impact of ethics on air pollution futures.

This comprehensive list of topics is designed to inspire and guide students in their quest for knowledge about air pollution. Each topic is a doorway to a vast field of research and understanding. As you embark on your academic journey, remember that the goal is not just to write a research paper but to contribute to the global understanding of air pollution and its impacts. Your research could be the key to solving one of the most pressing environmental issues of our time.

Air Pollution Research Guide

Air pollution is a pressing global issue that poses significant threats to human health and the environment. As students studying environmental science, it is essential to delve into the complexities of air pollution and understand its causes, impacts, and potential solutions. Writing research papers on air pollution topics not only enhances our knowledge but also contributes to the collective effort in combating this environmental challenge. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore a wide range of air pollution research paper topics to inspire and assist you in your academic journey.

The field of environmental science has increasingly focused on air pollution due to its detrimental effects on air quality, climate change, and public health. As the world grapples with the consequences of human activities and industrialization, it becomes crucial to investigate the different dimensions of air pollution and develop innovative approaches to mitigate its impact. Research papers serve as a valuable tool for investigating and disseminating knowledge about air pollution, making them an integral part of environmental science education.

The primary aim of this page is to provide students like you with an extensive array of air pollution research paper topics. By exploring diverse and engaging topics, you can gain a deeper understanding of the various aspects related to air pollution, ranging from its sources and consequences to policy interventions and sustainable solutions. Whether you are just starting your research journey or seeking inspiration for a specific area of interest, this comprehensive list will serve as a valuable resource to guide your exploration and empower you to contribute meaningfully to the field.

Moreover, this page offers expert advice on how to choose the most suitable air pollution research paper topics. With the abundance of available topics, it is important to select a research question that aligns with your interests, academic goals, and the current needs of the field. Our expert tips will help you navigate through the vast landscape of air pollution research and enable you to select a topic that is both relevant and impactful.

In addition to topic selection, we will also provide guidance on how to write an effective air pollution research paper. Writing a research paper requires a systematic approach, from conducting a literature review and collecting data to analyzing findings and presenting a coherent argument. By following our step-by-step instructions and incorporating our writing tips, you can enhance the quality and rigor of your research paper, ensuring that your work makes a valuable contribution to the field of environmental science.

Furthermore, to support your academic journey, we introduce our writing services, offering you the opportunity to order a custom air pollution research paper tailored to your specific requirements. Our team of expert degree-holding writers specializes in environmental science and is equipped with the knowledge and skills to deliver top-quality research papers. With a commitment to in-depth research, customized solutions, and timely delivery, our writing services provide a convenient and reliable option for students seeking assistance in their academic endeavors.

Choosing an Air Topic for Research

Choosing the right air pollution research paper topic is a crucial step in the research process. It sets the foundation for your study and determines the direction of your research. With the vast scope of air pollution issues, it can be challenging to narrow down your focus and select a topic that is both relevant and compelling. In this section, we provide expert advice and 10 valuable tips to help you navigate the process of choosing air pollution research paper topics effectively.

• Identify your research interests : Start by reflecting on your personal interests within the field of air pollution. What aspects of air pollution intrigue you the most? Are you interested in studying the health effects, the impact on ecosystems, policy interventions, or technological solutions? Identifying your research interests will guide you towards topics that resonate with your passion and motivation.
• Consider current issues and debates : Stay informed about the latest developments and ongoing debates in the field of air pollution. Read scientific journals, news articles, and policy reports to understand the pressing issues and emerging trends. By choosing a topic that addresses current concerns, you contribute to the existing knowledge and engage in the relevant conversations.
• Conduct preliminary research : Before finalizing a topic, conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with the existing literature and identify research gaps. This will help you refine your research question and ensure that your topic contributes to the existing knowledge base. Look for recent studies, key theories, and seminal works that can provide a solid foundation for your research.
• Define the scope of your study : Determine the scope and boundaries of your research. Are you focusing on a specific geographic region, a particular pollutant, or a certain population group? Clarifying the scope of your study will help you narrow down your topic and ensure that it is manageable within the given time and resources.
• Consider interdisciplinary approaches : Air pollution is a complex issue that requires interdisciplinary perspectives. Consider integrating concepts and methods from various fields such as environmental science, public health, engineering, sociology, and policy studies. This interdisciplinary approach can lead to innovative research and contribute to a holistic understanding of air pollution.
• Engage with stakeholders : Air pollution affects various stakeholders, including communities, policymakers, industry professionals, and advocacy groups. Engaging with these stakeholders can provide valuable insights and enhance the relevance of your research. Consider topics that address the concerns and needs of different stakeholders, ensuring that your research has practical implications and can make a meaningful impact.
• Seek guidance from your professors and mentors : Consult with your professors and mentors who have expertise in the field of air pollution. They can provide valuable guidance, suggest potential research topics, and help you refine your research question. Utilize their knowledge and experience to ensure that your topic aligns with current research trends and academic standards.
• Consider the availability of data : Before finalizing your research topic, consider the availability of data and resources. Ensure that you have access to reliable and relevant data sources that will support your research objectives. Assess the feasibility of data collection and analysis, considering factors such as time constraints, cost, and ethical considerations.
• Aim for a balance between novelty and significance : While it is important to choose a topic that is unique and novel, also consider its significance within the broader field of air pollution research. Balance your desire to explore new avenues with the need for topics that contribute to the existing body of knowledge and have real-world implications.
• Think critically and creatively : Finally, approach the topic selection process with a critical and creative mindset. Think beyond the conventional boundaries and explore unconventional ideas. Consider innovative research methodologies, alternative perspectives, and emerging trends in air pollution research. By thinking critically and creatively, you can identify research topics that are both intellectually stimulating and have the potential for significant contributions.

By following these expert tips, you can navigate the process of choosing air pollution research paper topics with confidence and clarity. Remember that the topic you choose will shape the entire research process, so take the time to select a topic that aligns with your interests, expertise, and aspirations. Now, let’s move on to the next section, where we will provide you with valuable insights on how to write an impactful air pollution research paper.

How to Write an Air Pollution Research Paper

Writing an air pollution research paper requires careful planning, systematic research, and effective organization. In this section, we will guide you through the essential steps and provide you with 10 tips to help you write a well-structured and compelling research paper on air pollution.

• Understand the research question : Start by clearly understanding the research question or objective of your study. Define the specific aspect of air pollution that you intend to investigate and the key research aims. This will provide you with a focused direction and ensure that your paper addresses the core issues related to air pollution.
• Conduct a comprehensive literature review : Before diving into your research, conduct a thorough literature review to familiarize yourself with the existing body of knowledge on air pollution. Identify key theories, concepts, and empirical studies relevant to your topic. The literature review will help you identify research gaps and build a strong theoretical foundation for your study.
• Develop a clear research methodology : Determine the research methodology and data collection techniques that align with your research objectives. Will you conduct experiments, surveys, interviews, or analyze existing datasets? Clearly define your research design, sampling strategy, and data analysis methods to ensure the rigor and validity of your findings.
• Collect and analyze data : If your research involves primary data collection, carefully collect and organize your data using appropriate methods. If you are analyzing secondary data, ensure that the datasets are reliable and relevant to your research objectives. Apply appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques to derive meaningful insights from your data.
• Structure your paper effectively : Organize your research paper using a clear and logical structure. Typically, a research paper includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure smooth transitions between sections and maintain a coherent flow of ideas throughout your paper.
• Write a compelling introduction : Begin your paper with an engaging introduction that provides context and background information on air pollution. Clearly state the research question, explain the significance of your study, and highlight the objectives and expected outcomes. Grab the reader’s attention and set the tone for the rest of the paper.
• Present your findings accurately : In the results section, present your findings in a clear and concise manner. Use appropriate tables, graphs, and figures to present data effectively. Provide relevant statistical measures and interpret the results objectively. Ensure that your findings directly address the research question and support your hypotheses or research objectives.
• Analyze and discuss your results : In the discussion section, analyze and interpret your findings in light of the existing literature. Compare your results with previous studies, identify similarities and differences, and explain any discrepancies. Discuss the implications of your findings and their significance for understanding air pollution and its effects.
• Address limitations and future research : Acknowledge the limitations of your study, such as sample size constraints, data limitations, or potential biases. Suggest avenues for future research to address these limitations and further advance knowledge in the field of air pollution. This demonstrates your critical thinking and opens up opportunities for future research contributions.
• Craft a strong conclusion : Conclude your research paper by summarizing the key findings, emphasizing their significance, and restating the research question and objectives. Discuss the implications of your study for theory, practice, and policy-making in the context of air pollution. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion and leave the reader with a lasting impression of your research.

By following these tips, you can effectively structure and write an air pollution research paper that contributes to the existing knowledge, addresses key research questions, and provides valuable insights into this critical environmental issue. In the next section, we will introduce you to the writing services offered by iResearchNet, where you can order a custom research paper on any air pollution topic.

Custom Research Paper Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges faced by students in conducting research and writing a high-quality research paper on air pollution. That’s why we offer custom writing services tailored to meet your specific needs. Our team of expert writers, who hold advanced degrees in environmental science, are dedicated to delivering top-notch research papers that showcase your knowledge and understanding of air pollution. When you choose our writing services, you can expect the following:

• Expert degree-holding writers : Our team consists of skilled writers with expertise in environmental science and air pollution research. They have the knowledge and experience to tackle complex topics and deliver well-researched and insightful papers.
• Custom written works : We understand the importance of originality and uniqueness in academic writing. Our writers craft each research paper from scratch, ensuring that it is tailored to your specific requirements and adheres to the highest standards of quality.
• In-depth research : Our writers conduct thorough research using credible sources to gather the most relevant and up-to-date information on air pollution. They critically analyze the literature and integrate it seamlessly into your research paper to support your arguments and strengthen your findings.
• Custom formatting : We are well-versed in various formatting styles, including APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Our writers will format your research paper according to the specified guidelines, ensuring consistency and professionalism throughout.
• Top quality : Quality is our utmost priority. We strive to deliver research papers that meet the highest academic standards. Our writers pay attention to detail, ensure accurate referencing, and use clear and concise language to convey your ideas effectively.
• Customized solutions : We understand that every research paper is unique. Our writers take a personalized approach, tailoring their writing to your specific research objectives, methodology, and findings. They adapt their writing style and tone to match your requirements and ensure a seamless integration of your ideas.
• Flexible pricing : We offer competitive and flexible pricing options to accommodate your budget. Our pricing is transparent, and there are no hidden fees or additional charges. You can select the pricing plan that suits your needs, whether it’s for a comprehensive research paper or a specific section.
• Short deadlines : We understand that time is of the essence when it comes to academic assignments. Our writers are capable of working under tight deadlines and can deliver your custom research paper within short timeframes, even as little as 3 hours.
• Timely delivery : We are committed to delivering your research paper on time. We understand the importance of meeting deadlines, and our writers work diligently to ensure that your paper is delivered within the agreed-upon timeframe.
• 24/7 support : Our dedicated support team is available 24/7 to assist you with any questions or concerns you may have. Whether you need updates on your order or have inquiries about our services, our friendly support staff is here to provide prompt and helpful assistance.
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• Easy order tracking : Our user-friendly platform allows you to easily track the progress of your order. You can stay updated on the status of your research paper, communicate with your writer, and receive notifications throughout the writing process.
• Money back guarantee : We are confident in the quality of our services and the expertise of our writers. If, for any reason, you are not satisfied with the final product, we offer a money-back guarantee. Your satisfaction is our priority, and we strive to ensure that you are fully content with the research paper you receive.

When you choose iResearchNet, you can be confident in receiving a well-written and thoroughly researched custom air pollution research paper that meets your academic requirements. We value your privacy and guarantee absolute confidentiality throughout the entire process. Our easy order tracking system allows you to stay updated on the progress of your paper, ensuring a seamless experience from start to finish. If, for any reason, you are not satisfied with the final product, we offer a money-back guarantee.

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Human Impact — Air Pollution

Essays on Air Pollution

As you embark on writing an air pollution essay, it's essential to structure your content effectively. Begin with the introductory paragraph, where you provide basic facts, statistics, and definitions to establish context. Depending on the scope of your essay, you may choose to focus on indoor or outdoor pollution. Tailor your introduction to set the tone and direction of your essay.

Delve into the heart of your essay by discussing the problem of air pollution and its sources. Explain why these sources exist and highlight the pollutants involved. Consider various air pollution essay topics, including respiratory issues, child health concerns, ozone layer depletion, and impacts on wildlife and cardiovascular health. From municipal waste management to green energy initiatives, explore potential solutions and effective strategies for mitigating pollution.

In crafting your essay, ensure you present a methodical approach and propose at least one viable solution to address the problem. Draw inspiration from examples of proposal essays, where statistical data and compelling facts enhance the narrative. Your main thesis statement should encapsulate the causes and effects of air pollution.

To add depth to your essay, consider discussing environmental issues in your local area and drawing comparisons to broader ecological challenges. Providing concrete examples and leveraging factual evidence will enrich your argument and make your essay more compelling.

Consider exploring examples of proposal essays on air pollution to gain valuable insights into structuring and presenting your ideas effectively. By incorporating relevant examples, factual information, and a persuasive argument, your essay will resonate with readers and contribute to greater awareness and action on this critical issue.

Hook Examples for Air Pollution Essays

Statistical hook.

Did you know that each year, air pollution causes over 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide? These startling statistics underscore the urgent need to address this global crisis.

Anecdotal Hook

Picture this: A bustling cityscape obscured by a thick haze of smog, where children play wearing masks. This is the stark reality faced by many urban areas grappling with air pollution.

Question Hook

How can we breathe easy when the air we inhale is increasingly toxic? Explore the consequences of air pollution and discover potential solutions to this pressing environmental issue.

Rhetorical Question Hook

Can we afford to ignore the invisible threat that hangs in the air we breathe? Delve into the hidden dangers of air pollution and its far-reaching impact on public health.

Quotation Hook

"The earth does not belong to us: we belong to the earth." — Marlee Matlin. Reflect on this thought-provoking quote as we delve into the environmental implications of air pollution.

Historical Hook

Travel back to the mid-20th century when air quality in major cities like London and Los Angeles was notoriously poor. Explore the historical context of air pollution regulation and its impact.

Definition Hook

What exactly is air pollution, and how does it differ from other environmental issues? Gain a clear understanding of this concept and its multifaceted nature.

Contrast Hook

Contrast the serene beauty of pristine landscapes with images of smog-choked cities. This stark juxtaposition highlights the importance of combating air pollution.

Narrative Hook

Step into the shoes of individuals living in heavily polluted areas and experience their daily struggles. Their stories shed light on the human side of the air pollution crisis.

Shocking Statement Hook

Prepare to be shocked by the surprising sources of indoor air pollution lurking within our homes. The danger may be closer than you think.

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The Move to Reduce Air Pollution to Preserve The Human Population

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Human Impacts on The Environment

Cases of air pollution in malaysia, the urgent problem of pollution in modern world, negative impacts of air pollution and steps that the usa is taking to curb this problem, environmental pollution in the transport sector and the benefits of electric cars to our environment, ways you can reduce air pollution from your business , environmental factors and climate influences in california, environmental probelms in pakistan: issues in the big cities, evaluation of the health impact of air pollution in america and china, assessment of the ecological problem arising from air pollutants, analysis of the bronx air pollutants problem and the responsibility of the government, trees against world pollution, informative pollutions, their types, causes, impacts, and solutions, understanding the problem of air pollutants and its impact on temperature, the difficulties in mitigating the effects of climate change in the current world, analysis of the approach to better air quality and reduction of air pollution in the us, review of the documentary "under the dome" and the risks associated with air pollution in china, air filter in thailand, a study on the correlation between changes in air pollution and water sources, the serious problem of air pollution in saudi arabia and the solutions to the environmental issue.

Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.

Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are common sources of air pollution. Pollutants of major public health concern include particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide.

Respiratory and heart problems, child health problems, mortality, global warming, acid rain, eutrophication, depletion of the ozone layer, negative effect on wildlife.

Policies and investments that support sustainable land use, cleaner household energy and transport, energy-efficient housing, power generation, industry, and better municipal waste management can effectively reduce key sources of ambient air pollution.

A child born today might not breathe clean air until they are 8. Inhaling air pollution takes away at least 1-2 years of a typical human life. Pollutants that are released into the air, as opposed to land and water pollutants, are the most harmful. Rising levels of air pollution in Beijing has brought a new disease – Beijing cough.

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• Ocean Pollution
• Water Pollution
• Fast Fashion
• Deforestation
• Global Warming
• Climate Change
• Natural Disasters

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Essay on Pollution for Students and Children

500+ words essay on pollution.

Pollution is a term which even kids are aware of these days. It has become so common that almost everyone acknowledges the fact that pollution is rising continuously. The term ‘pollution’ means the manifestation of any unsolicited foreign substance in something. When we talk about pollution on earth, we refer to the contamination that is happening of the natural resources by various pollutants . All this is mainly caused by human activities which harm the environment in ways more than one. Therefore, an urgent need has arisen to tackle this issue straightaway. That is to say, pollution is damaging our earth severely and we need to realize its effects and prevent this damage. In this essay on pollution, we will see what are the effects of pollution and how to reduce it.

Effects of Pollution

Pollution affects the quality of life more than one can imagine. It works in mysterious ways, sometimes which cannot be seen by the naked eye. However, it is very much present in the environment. For instance, you might not be able to see the natural gases present in the air, but they are still there. Similarly, the pollutants which are messing up the air and increasing the levels of carbon dioxide is very dangerous for humans. Increased level of carbon dioxide will lead to global warming .

Further, the water is polluted in the name of industrial development, religious practices and more will cause a shortage of drinking water. Without water, human life is not possible. Moreover, the way waste is dumped on the land eventually ends up in the soil and turns toxic. If land pollution keeps on happening at this rate, we won’t have fertile soil to grow our crops on. Therefore, serious measures must be taken to reduce pollution to the core.

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Types of Pollution

• Air Pollution
• Water Pollution
• Soil Pollution

How to Reduce Pollution?

After learning the harmful effects of pollution, one must get on the task of preventing or reducing pollution as soon as possible. To reduce air pollution, people should take public transport or carpool to reduce vehicular smoke. While it may be hard, avoiding firecrackers at festivals and celebrations can also cut down on air and noise pollution. Above all, we must adopt the habit of recycling. All the used plastic ends up in the oceans and land, which pollutes them.

So, remember to not dispose of them off after use, rather reuse them as long as you can. We must also encourage everyone to plant more trees which will absorb the harmful gases and make the air cleaner. When talking on a bigger level, the government must limit the usage of fertilizers to maintain the soil’s fertility. In addition, industries must be banned from dumping their waste into oceans and rivers, causing water pollution.

To sum it up, all types of pollution is hazardous and comes with grave consequences. Everyone must take a step towards change ranging from individuals to the industries. As tackling this problem calls for a joint effort, so we must join hands now. Moreover, the innocent lives of animals are being lost because of such human activities. So, all of us must take a stand and become a voice for the unheard in order to make this earth pollution-free.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

FAQs on Pollution

Q.1 What are the effects of pollution?

A.1 Pollution essentially affects the quality of human life. It degrades almost everything from the water we drink to the air we breathe. It damages the natural resources needed for a healthy life.

Q.2 How can one reduce pollution?

A.2 We must take individual steps to reduce pollution. People should decompose their waster mindfully, they should plant more trees. Further, one must always recycle what they can and make the earth greener.

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102 Water Pollution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Water pollution essays are an excellent way to demonstrate your awareness of the topic and your position on the solutions to the issue. To help you ease the writing process, we prepared some tips, essay topics, and research questions about water pollution.

🌎 Air and Water pollution: Essay Writing Tips

🏆 best water pollution essay topics & examples, 📌 remarkable air and water pollution research topics, 👍 good research topics about water pollution, ❓ research questions about water pollution.

Water’s ready availability in many locations makes it an easy choice for a variety of purposes, from cleaning to manufacturing to nuclear reactor cooling. However, many companies will then dump water, now mixed with waste, back into rivers or lakes without adequate cleaning, leading to significant environmental pollution.

However, there are other types of harm, such as noise pollution, which are less obvious but also dangerous to sea life. It is critical that you understand what you should and should not do during your writing process.

The stance that big manufacturing industries are the sole culprits of the damage done to the world’s rivers and oceans is a popular one. However, do not neglect the effects of other water pollution essay topics such as microorganisms.

Microbes can spread dangerous illnesses, making them a danger for both water inhabitants and the people who then use that water. Furthermore, they can eat up oxygen if left unchecked, starving fish and other water organisms and eventually making them die out.

Such situations usually result from agricultural practices, which can lead to powerful nutrients entering the water and enabling algae and other microorganisms to grow excessively. An overly lively environment can be as harmful as one where everything is threatened.

With that said, industrial manufacturers deserve much of the attention and blame they receive from various communities. Construction of dedicated waste-cleaning facilities is usually possible, but companies avoid doing so because the process will increase their costs.

You should advocate for green practices, but be mindful of the potential impact of a significant price increase on the global economy. Also, be sure to mention more exotic pollution variations in your types of water pollution essay.

Provide examples of noise pollution or suspended matter pollution to expand on the topic of the complexity of the harm humanity causes to the ecosphere.

You should show your understanding that there are many causes, and we should work on addressing all of them, a notion you should repeat in your water pollution essay conclusions.

However, you should try to avoid being sidetracked too much and focus on the titles of pollution and its immediate causes.

If you stretch far enough, you may connect the matter to topics such as the status of a woman in Islam. However, doing so contributes little to nothing to your point and deviates from the topic of ecology into social and religious studies.

Leave the search for connections to dedicated researchers and concentrate on discussing the major causes that are known nowadays. By doing this, you will be able to create an excellent and powerful work that will demonstrate your understanding of the topic.

Here are some tips for your writing:

• Be sure to discuss the different types of pollution that is caused by the same source separately. Surface and groundwater pollution are different in their effects and deserve separate discussions.
• Focus on the issues and not on solutions, as an essay does not provide enough space to discuss the latter in detail.
• Be sure to discuss the effects of pollution on people and other land inhabitants as well as on water creatures.

Check IvyPanda to get more water pollution essay titles, paper ideas, and other useful samples!

• Air and Water Pollution in the Modern World The high number of vehicles in the city has greatly promoted air pollution in the area. Poor sewerage system, high pollution from industries and automobiles are among the major causes of air and water pollutions […]
• Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions This is why clean water is required in all the places to make sure the people and all the living creatures in the planet live a good and healthy life.
• Water Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Prevention Farmers should be encouraged to embrace this kind of farming which ensures that the manure used is biodegradable and do not end up accumulating in the water bodies once they are washed off by floods.
• Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area In this brief economic analysis of water pollution in Metro Manila, it is proposed to look at the industrial use of waters and the household use to understand the impact that the population growth and […]
• Coca-Cola India and Water Pollution Issues The first difficulty that the representatives of the Coca-Cola Company happened to face due to their campaign in the territory of India was caused by the concerns of the local government.
• Cashion Water Quality: Spatial Distribution of Water Pollution Incidents This essay discusses the quality of water as per the report of 2021 obtained from the municipality, the quality issue and the source of pollution, and how the pollution impacts human health and the environment […]
• Water Pollution: OIL Spills Aspects The effects of the oil spill on a species of ducks called the Harlequin ducks were formulated and the author attempted to trace out the immediate and residual effects of the oil on the birds.
• Importance of Mercury Water Pollution Problem Solutions The severity of the mercury contamination consequences depends on the age of the person exposed to the contamination, the way of contamination, the health condition, and many other factors.
• Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment In particular, water pollution is a widespread crime against the environment, even though it is a severe felony that can result in harm to many people and vast territories.
• Newark Water Crisis: Water Pollution Problem The main problem was rooted in the fact that lead levels in the drinking water were highly elevated, which is dangerous and detrimental to the population’s health.
• Water Pollution in a Community: Mitigation Plan Though for the fact that planet earth is abundant with water and almost two-thirds of the planet is made up of water still it is viewed that in future years, a shortage of water may […]
• Food Distribution and Water Pollution Therefore, food distribution is one of the central reasons for water pollution. According to Greenpeace, one of the ways to improve the ecology of the planet is by creating healthy food markets.
• Water Pollution and Associated Health Risks The results of plenty of studies indicate the existence of the relation between the contamination of water by hazardous chemicals and the development of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, asthma, allergies, as well as reproductive […]
• Lake Erie Water Pollution There are worries among the members of the community that the lake could be facing another episode of high toxicity, and they have called for the authorities to investigate the main causes of the pollution […]
• Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan All players need to be trained in significant areas of business so as they can handle them with care and beware of the potential they have in causing damage.
• Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control Although water pollution can hardly be ceased entirely, the current rates of water pollution can be reduced by resorting to the sustainable principle of water use in both the industrial area and the realm of […]
• Water Pollution and Management in the UAE The groundwater in UAE meets the needs of 51% of users in terms of quantity mainly for irrigation. Surface water is the source of groundwater and plays a major role in groundwater renewal.
• Water Pollution and Its Challenges Water pollution refers to a situation where impurities find way into water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and ground water. This is a form of pollution where impurities enter water bodies through distinct sources such […]
• Water Pollution Sources, Effects and Control Unfortunately, not all the users of water are responsible to ensure that proper disposal or treatment of the used water is done before the water is returned to the water bodies.
• Water in Crisis: Public Health Concerns in Africa In the 21st century, the world faces a crisis of contaminated water, which is the result of industrialization and is a major problem in developing countries.
• Air and Water Pollution Thus, it is classified as a primary pollutant because it is the most common pollutants in the environment. In the environment, the impact of carbon monoxide is felt overtime, since it leads to respiratory problems.
• Causes of Water Pollution and the Present Environmental Solution Prolonged pollution of water has even caused some plants to grow in the water, which pose danger to the living entities that have their inhabitants in the water.
• Water Pollution & Diseases (Undeveloped Nations) Restriction on movement and access to the affected area affects trade and the loss of human life and deteriorated health is a major blow on the economy and on the quality of human life.
• Water and Water Pollution in Point of Economics’ View This research tries to explain the importance of water especially in an economist’s perspective by explaining the uses of water in various fields, pollution of water and the agents of pollution.
• Environmental Justice Issues Affecting African Americans: Water Pollution Water pollution in the 1960s occurred due to poor sewage systems in the urban and rural areas. Unlike in the 1960s, there are reduced cases of water pollution today.
• Water Pollution and Wind Energy Chemical pollution of water is one of the leading causes of death of aquatic life. It is thus evident that chemical pollution of water not only has negative effects on health, but it also substantially […]
• Air and Water Pollution in Los Angeles One of the major problems facing major cities and towns in the world is pollution; wastes from firms and households are the major causes of pollution.
• Water Pollution Causes and Climate Impacts The biggest percentage of sewage waste consists of water, treating the wastes for recycling would help in maintaining a constant supply of water.
• Water Pollution Origins and Ways of Resolving The evidence provided by environmental agencies indicates that industrial agriculture is one of the factors that significantly contribute to the deterioration of water quality.
• Mud Lick Creek Project – Fresh Water Pollution This potential source of pollutants poses significant risks to the quality of water at the creek in terms altering the temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, and the turbidity of the water.
• Water Pollution in the Jamaican Society
• Water Pollution and Abstraction and Economic Instruments
• Water Pollution and Individual Effects of Water Pollution
• Understanding What Causes Water Pollution
• An Analysis of Water Pollution as a Global Plague That Affects the People, Animals and Plants
• Water Pollution Through Urban and Rural Land Use and Freshwater Allocation in New Zealand
• Water Pollution: Globalization, One of the Causes and Part of the Solution
• Voluntary Incentives for Reducing Agricultural Nonpoint Source Water Pollution
• The Impact of Water Pollution on Public Health in Flint, Michigan
• Understanding Water Pollution and Its Causes
• The Promises and Pitfalls of Devolution: Water Pollution Policies in the American States
• We Must Fight Against Water Pollution
• Transaction Costs and Agricultural Nonpoint-Source Water Pollution Control Policies
• Water Pollution and Drinking Water Quality
• Water Pollution: An Insight into the Greatest Environmental Risk
• US Water Pollution Regulation over the Past Half Century: Burning Waters to Crystal Springs
• Environmental Impact and Health Risks of Water Pollution to a Child
• Water Pollution Environment Effects Chemicals
• The Negative Effects of Water Pollution on Fish Numbers in America
• The Problem of Oil Spills and Water Pollution in Alaska
• Water Pollution in the United State: The Causes and Effects
• California Water Pollution Act Clean Laws
• The Need to Immediately Stop Water Pollution in the United States
• Water Pollution, Causes, Effects and Prevention
• The Water Pollution Prevention in Oceanic Areas
• Water Pollution and the Biggest Environmental Issues Today
• Fresh Water Pollution Assignment
• Water pollution in Southeast Asia and China
• Water Pollution Caused by Industrial Equipment
• The Impacts of Water Pollution on Economic Development in Sudan
• The Importance of Recycling to Prevent Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and Its Effects on The Environment
• The Sources, Environmental Impact, and Control of Water Pollution
• Water Quality and Contamination of Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and the World’s Worst Forms of Pollution
• The Problem of Water Pollution and the Solutions
• Comparing Contrast Legislative Approach Controlling Water Pollution Industrial
• An Analysis of the Water Pollution and it’s Effects on the Environment
• Water Pollution and The Natural Environment
• The Importance of Clean Drinking Water Pollution
• Water Pollution and Arsenic Pollution
• The Issue of Water Pollution in the Drinking Water in Brisbane
• What Are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution?
• What Is the Effect of Water Pollution on Humanity?
• How Can Leaders Tackle with Water Pollution in China?
• What Is the Drinking Water Pollution Control Act?
• What Was the Social Water Pollution?
• How Non-Point Is Water Pollution Controlled in Agriculture?
• What Is Canada’s Water Pollution Dilemma?
• Water Pollution: Why Is There Trash in the Ocean?
• What Are the Problems Associated with Water Pollution?
• What Is the Connection Between Air and Water Pollution?
• How Water Pollution Effects Marine Life?
• What Are the Leading Factors of Water Pollution Around the World?
• Why Is Water Pollution an Important Issue Environmental Sciences?
• What Are the Factors That Causes Water Pollution and Its Effects on the World Today?
• What Are There Inorganic Chemicals Cause Water Pollution?
• How Does Drinking Water Pollution Impact the World Environmental Sciences?
• Is There a Connection Between Drinking Water Quality and Water Pollution?
• How to Deal with the Big Problem of Deforestation and Water Pollution in Brazil and the Colombian Amazon?
• Why Is China’s Water Pollution Challenge?
• What Is the Ground Water Pollution Assignment?
• How to Deal the Big Problem of Water Pollution in the World?
• How to Reduce Air and Water Pollution?
• What Is the Harmonizing Model with Transfer Tax on Water Pollution Across Regional Boundaries in China’s Lake Basin?
• Are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution Determined in Lake Huron?
• Can Water Pollution Policy Be Efficient?
• What Are the Kinds of Water Pollution Environmental Sciences?
• What Causes Water Pollution and Its Effects?
• What Effect Does Water Pollution Have on KZN Citizens?
• How Is Water Pollution Managed in Viet Nam’s Craft Villages?
• What Should You Know About Water Pollution?
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Journal Archive

 As a multidisciplinary journal,  Pollution  serves international community with all aspects of environmental sciences. The journal is being published seasonally (4 issues per year). In this route, environmentalist disciplines are welcomed to contribute their knowledge and experience. Journal of pollution publishes research articles (short and full papers) and reviews encompassed within the ever-increasing borders of environmental sciences. These include but are not limited to Terrestrial and Aquatic Biology and Ecology, Geosciences, Atmospheric Chemistry, Environmental Microbiology/Bio-based Energy Sources, Phytoremediation and Ecosystem Restoration, Environmental Analyses and Monitoring, Assessment of Risks and Interactions of Pollutants in the Environment, Conservation Biology and Sustainable Agriculture, Impact of Chemicals/Pollutants on Human and Animal Health and Emerging pollutants. Accordingly, high quality research works falling within mentioned scopes are welcomed. Submitted papers may be theoretical, interpretative or experimental. It should be noted that Pollution is published in association with Iran Solid Waste Association (ISWA). POLLUTION is indexed in Web of Science since the very first issue of the year 2017 (volume 3, Issue 1, 2017). Pollution has been indexed by Scopus too.  It should be pointed out that Intellectual Property and Science is now known as  Clarivate Analytics   and is no longer part of Thomson Reuters.

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10.22059/poll.2023.368051.2135

Amir Nabi Bidhendi; Nasser Mehrdadi; Abdolreza Karbassi

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April 5, 2024

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Ocean floor a 'reservoir' of plastic pollution, study finds

New research from CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, and the University of Toronto in Canada, estimates up to 11 million metric tons of plastic pollution is sitting on the ocean floor. The article, "Plastics in the deep sea—A global estimate of the ocean floor reservoir ," was published in Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers.

Every minute, a garbage truck's worth of plastic enters the ocean. With plastic use expected to double by 2040, understanding how and where it travels is crucial to protecting marine ecosystems and wildlife.

Dr. Denise Hardesty, Senior Research Scientist with CSIRO, said this is the first estimate of how much plastic waste ends up on the ocean floor , where it accumulates before being broken down into smaller pieces and mixed into ocean sediment.

"We know that millions of tons of plastic waste enter our oceans every year but what we didn't know is how much of this pollution ends up on our ocean floor," Dr. Hardesty said.

"We discovered that the ocean floor has become a resting place, or reservoir, for most plastic pollution, with between 3 to 11 million tons of plastic estimated to be sinking to the ocean floor.

"While there has been a previous estimate of microplastics on the seafloor, this research looks at larger items, from nets and cups to plastic bags and everything in between."

Alice Zhu, a Ph.D. Candidate from the University of Toronto who led the study, said the estimate of plastic pollution on the ocean floor could be up to 100 times more than the amount of plastic floating on the ocean's surface based on recent estimates.

"The ocean surface is a temporary resting place of plastic so it is expected that if we can stop plastic entering our oceans, the amount would be reduced," Zhu said.

"However, our research found that plastic will continue to end up in the deep ocean, which becomes a permanent resting place or sink for marine plastic pollution."

Scientific data was used to build two predictive models to estimate the amount and distribution of plastic on the ocean floor—one based on data from remote operated vehicles (ROVs) and the other from bottom trawls.

Using ROV data, 3 to 11 million metric tons of plastic pollution is estimated to reside on the ocean floor.

The ROV results also reveal that plastic mass clusters around continents—approximately half (46%) of the predicted plastic mass on the global ocean floor resides above 200 m depth. The ocean depths, from 200 m to as deep as 11,000 m contains the remainder of predicted plastic mass (54%).

Although inland and coastal seas cover much less surface area than oceans (11% vs. 56% out of the entire Earth's area), these areas are predicted to hold as much plastic mass as does the rest of the ocean floor.

"These findings help to fill a longstanding knowledge gap on the behavior of plastic in the marine environment ," Zhu said.

"Understanding the driving forces behind the transport and accumulation of plastic in the deep ocean will help to inform source reduction and environmental remediation efforts, thereby reducing the risks that plastic pollution may pose to marine life."

This research is part of CSIRO's Ending Plastic Waste Mission , which aims to change the way we make, use, recycle and dispose of plastic.

Provided by CSIRO

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