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Tribal Population in India

Last updated on January 21, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

The tribes are the indigenous or native inhabitants of the area who are thought to have been the Indian Peninsula’s earliest settlers.

They are generally called Adivasis, implying original inhabitants.

A tribe was a self-contained, homogeneous group that existed independently of any hierarchical system.

Table of Contents

What is Article 342?

According to article 342 of the Indian Constitution, the President may with respect to any State or Union territory specify the tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within tribes or tribal communities as Scheduled Tribes in relation to that State or Union territory.

In the case of a State, it is required to consult the governor of the State.

Moreover, Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list any tribe or tribal community or part of or group within any tribe or tribal community of Scheduled Tribes.

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In pursuance of these provisions, the lists of Scheduled Tribes are notified/published for each State or Union territory and are valid only within the jurisdiction of the State or Union territory and not outside.

Growth of Tribal Population

According to the 1991 census, there were 6.7 Cr. Scheduled Tribes in the country (excluding Jammu and Kashmir), make up 8.08 per cent of the overall population. India’s tribal population increased to 10.43 Cr. from 8.43 Cr. in 2001

As per the 2011 census, 10.42 crore Indians are notified as ‘Scheduled Tribes’ (ST), which constitute 8.6% of countries total population.

The growth of the Scheduled Tribes population was due to the following two reasons:

• There has been a rapid natural growth of tribal population, and
• The list of Scheduled Tribes has frequently been expanded.

Why Demographic Study of Tribal Population is Difficult?

The use of arbitrary criteria for “scheduling the tribes” has severely harmed the demographic study of tribal populations.

Due to a lack of precise and scientific standards, the research of indigenous people suffers from major abnormalities.

For instance, in Madhya Pradesh, the Gonds are a Scheduled Tribe, whereas, in Uttar Pradesh, they are a Scheduled Caste.

Distribution of Scheduled Tribes

The distribution pattern is characterised by a striking tendency of clustering and concentrating in pockets, making them suffer from isolation and situated in areas where the environmental setting is, by and large, not suitable for settled agriculture.

As a result, the majority of tribal settlements are found in remote regions of the nation that are covered with hills and forests. The tribal groups have created their own distinct traditional way of life. After Independence, however, there was some interaction between tribal and non-tribal people that altered the situation substantially.

The distribution of Scheduled Tribes is markedly different from that of Scheduled Castes.  Scheduled Castes exhibit a very high concentration in the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Coastal Plains, where they work as agricultural labourers. Scheduled Tribes, on the other hand, tend to concentrate in remote and less hospitable regions.

State Level Patterns

There are wide variations in the state-level distribution of the tribal populations.

While, on one hand, no tribes have been scheduled in Punjab and Haryana, and the union territories of Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry; as much as 94.43 per cent of the total population in Mizoram and 94.79 per cent in Lakshadweep belongs to Scheduled Tribes.

Among the 15 major states, Chhattisgarh has the largest proportion of the Scheduled Tribe population at 30.62 per cent followed by Jharkhand at 26.21 per cent.

Further, 71% of India’s Scheduled Tribes population is also mostly concentrated in six states: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Jharkhand.

Tribal Economy

For the Indian classification of Scheduled Tribes , tribal economy plays a significant role. The following are the tribes’ primary economies:

• Hunting, fishing and food gathering,
• Shifting cultivation and lumbering, and
• Sedentary cultivation and animal husbandry.

A brief account of tribes practising these economies is given as under:

Hunting, Fishing and Gathering

A huge number of tribes rely on hunting, fishing, and food collecting and live in isolation in forests. Some of the tribes only engage exclusively in these activities.

A list of a few main tribes engaged in such activities from different states is given-

• Raji in Uttar Pradesh;
• Kharia, Birhor, Korwa, Pariha and Birgias in Jharkhand;
• Kuki in West Bengal;
• Hill-Maria in Chhattisgarh,
• Juang in Odisha,
• Chenchu and Yanadi in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana,
• Koya, Reddi, Kadar and Paliyan in Tamil Nadu,
• Bhil, Garasia in Maharashtra and Gujarat;
• Bhil, Garasia and Sahariya in Rajasthan
• Kuki, Konyak and Naga in Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.

Shifting Cultivation and Lumbering

Shifting cultivation is said to be as old as the history of agriculture itself.

In this kind of farming, an area of forestland is cleared using the slash-and-burn method so that crops can be produced there.

After two to three years, the soil’s fertility declines, and the farmer moves to another plot of land. It is termed shifting agriculture. Different regions of the country have different names for them. It is referred to as Jhum or jum.

The main tribes practising shifting cultivation and lumbering are-

• Koria, Saharia, Bhutias and Kharwar in Uttar Pradesh,
• Korwa and Asur in Jharkhand;
• Garo, Mal-Paharia in West Bengal;
• Gonda, Baiga, Maria, and Dhora in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh;
• Saora, Khond, Kurumba and Bagola in Andhra Pradesh:
• Saora, Keria and Khond in Odisha;
• Khond, Gond, Kurumba and Muduwan in Tamil Nadu;
• Gharasia and Bhil in Maharashtra and Gujarat;

Sedentary Cultivation and Animal Husbandry

Sedentary farming is a style of agriculture where the farmer grows food primarily for his personal needs, with a little left over to sell on the market.

This is hardly an advanced form of cultivation, and indigenous people typically practise it together with animal husbandry.

The primary tribes that have adopted these occupations include-

• Tharu, Khasa, Bhoksa, Maghi, Kol and Bhotias in Uttar Pradesh;
• Munda, Ho, Korwa, Oraon, Tamaria, and Santhal in Jharkhand;
• Polia, Santhal, and Bhumji in West Bengal;
• Parja, Bhatra, Baija and Gond in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh,
• Badaga, Irula, Parga and Malydi in Tamil Nadu,
• Badaga, Koya, Irula and Kota in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana;
• Bhil, Dubla, Raiwari, Barali, Koli, Dhamalia, etc. in Maharashtra and Gujarat,
• Bhil, Garasiya and Meena in Rajasthan.

Related article:  De-notified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)

Article Written By: Priti Raj

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• J Family Med Prim Care
• v.9(2); 2020 Feb

Tribal population in India: A public health challenge and road to future

M mohan kumar.

1 Department of Community and Family Medicine, Medical College Building, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

Vineet Kumar Pathak

Manisha ruikar.

India with 8.6% of tribal population is finding it difficult to bridge the gap that exists between tribal and non-tribal population in regards to healthcare. Tribal population suffers triple burden of disease; in fact it is quadruple, namely, communicable diseases, non-communicable diseases, malnutrition, mental health, and addictions complicated by poor health seeking behavior. With increasing needs, an Expert committee on Tribal health has given recommendations with the goal to bridge the current gap in the health status of tribal people latest by the year 2027. An entirely parallel health system has been proposed with key focus areas, governance, and financing. To summarize and report the present scenario in terms of disease burden, health-seeking behavior, healthcare delivery system, and a roadmap for the future along the importance of primary healthcare in achieving it. Mere establishment of more health facilities cannot overcome the poor health of tribal population and so the role of trained manpower to deliver quality healthcare, in which case the role of traditional healers, local Tribal boys and girls comes in handy. It is high time and states should act swiftly to assess the needs, priorities of their own tribal population and set goals, targets to achieve the same through proven public health strategies.

Introduction

India, one of the biggest low-middle income country has 8.6% of tribal population.[ 1 , 2 ] Even after seven decades of independence, India is finding it difficult to bridge the gap that exists between tribal and non-tribal population in regards to healthcare. They account for over a quarter of the country's poorest people. Although these groups have seen considerable progress over the years, poverty among tribal groups declined by more than a third between 1983 and 2005 and nearly half the country's Scheduled Tribes population remains in poverty, due to their low starting point. Rajasthan state has the largest population of Scheduled Tribes in India, constituting over 12% of the state's population. Healthcare indicators and ultimately health of a country in no way is going to improve leaving behind this socioeconomically disadvantaged population.

India, though far from achieving all the MDGs, adopted SDGs and is now committed toward Universal Health Care (UHC) and Universal Health Assurance (UHA).[ 3 ] Spurring progress on the lagging indicators is essential, and designing a healthcare delivery system appropriate, accessible, acceptable, and affordable for tribal population is of utmost importance; making it more imperative to have a health system that prioritizes tribal population, equity more than equality.

Though it has long been suspected that tribal people have poor health and huge unmet needs, healthcare for tribal people remained subsumed in rural healthcare settings. It was assumed that tribal people have same health problems, similar needs and hence the uniform national pattern of rural healthcare would be applicable to them as well, albeit with some alteration in population: Provider ratio. The different terrain and environment in which they live, different social systems, different culture and hence different healthcare needs were not addressed. Not surprisingly health and healthcare in tribal areas remained unsolved problems.[ 4 ]

The aim of this article is to summarize and report the present scenario in terms of disease burden, health-seeking behavior, healthcare delivery system, and a roadmap for the future along the importance of primary healthcare in achieving it.

Are They Substantial in Number?

Yes. One third of the world's tribal and indigenous population, that is, over 104 million tribal people live in India (8.6%). Spread across 705 communities, they represent unique cultural diversity. Out of the total Schedule Tribe population, approximately 2.6 million (2.5%) belong to “Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups” (PVTGs) known as the “Primitive Tribes.” This classification is reserved for the most disadvantaged of all the Schedule Tribe communities. There are 75 identified PVTGs spread across 18 States and Union Territories in India. There are 90 districts or 809 blocks with > 50% tribal population and they account for 45% of Schedule Tribe population. Paraphrasing it infers that 55% are outside Scheduled areas.[ 1 , 5 ]

Present Scenario: Disease Burden

Tribal people are not integrated into the national mainstream of socioeconomic activities, invariably leading to their lower educational (41% Illiteracy) and economic attainment (41% Below Poverty Line); a life often marred by lack of material circumstances and lack of access to public utilities and services. Their geographically isolated habitats often compound their problems. Moreover, deleterious social beliefs and cultural practices that often remain entrenched in their practices have telling effects on their health and health-seeking behavior.

The tribal community lags behind the national average on several health indicators, with women and children being the most vulnerable. Total Fertility Rate is 2.5% and only 15% complete their ANC visits. In spite of this, what is more disheartening is the lack of MMR data pertaining to tribal population. The children having full immunization coverage is only 56% which reflects in IMR as 44.4% and the Under-five Mortality Rate as 57.2%.[ 1 , 6 ]

Tribal population suffers triple burden of disease; in fact it is quadruple, namely, communicable diseases, non-communicable diseases, malnutrition, mental health, and addictions. 8.6% tribal population constitutes 30% of all cases of malaria, > 60% P. falciparum and as much as 50% of the mortality associated with malaria. The estimated prevalence of TB (per 100,000) was 703 cases against 256 in non-tribal population. Also, only 11% pulmonary TB gets treated based on smear positive reporting (Remember End TB Strategy 2025 goals in India). The proportion of new leprosy cases was found to be 18.5% (India declared to have reached the WHO target of elimination as a public health problem less than 1/10,000 cases by the end of 2005). The percentage of children underweight is found to be 42% and about 77% under-five children are anemic. It has been reported that malnutrition and child deaths are in spurts, reported mostly during rainy seasons. Almost 50% adolescent ST girls are having BMI less than 18.5 and about 65% tribal women (15–49 years age) suffer from anemia (non-tribal 47%), a vicious cycle. More than 72% tribal men 15–54 years of age use tobacco and more than 50% consume alcohol against 56% and 30% non-tribal men, respectively.[ 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]

Health-seeking behavior

Only availability of healthcare facility does not indicate a good health of the people of that particular area, if the people do not utilize this facility. Many studies have found that utilization of modern healthcare facilities is very poor among tribal population. A study conducted on tribal women at Odisha, India by Mahapatra M, et al .[ 10 ] in 2000 have reported only 6% of participants exclusively use the allopathic type of treatment and 49% of them use traditional measure of treatment mainly provided by local quacks. It was also reported that 21.2% of women considered their illness not so serious and can be cured by home remedy or by traditional therapy. Also 11% of them have a belief that illness is God's wish and nobody can do anything about it. Other studies[ 11 , 12 ] also came up with the similar findings that a disease is always caused by hostile spirits, ghosts, breach of some taboos, and curse of gods. Therefore, they seek remedies through religious and magical practices to propitiate the supernatural powers. They do not come to avail modern system of medicines and on the other hand, herbal medicine or indigenous medicines are their next preference of treatment which is obtained through local people. So, the gap is not only to the availability of modern and quality healthcare but also to develop behavior change model to motivate them to use both quality Indian system of medicine with allopathic treatment.

Status of healthcare delivery system

To add to the burden of disease, the healthcare infrastructure and the number of specialist posted in tribal areas is worse than scarcity. The shortfall of healthcare infrastructure across 18 states and 3 Union Territories is found to be 27% Health Sub-Centres (HSCs), 40% Primary Health Centres (PHCs), and 31% Community Health Centres (CHCs), lacking penetration of primary healthcare services. In India, across 10 states with sizable tribal population, the percentage surplus/deficit of healthcare providers in tribal areas is found to be +64% ANMs at HSCs and PHC, -33% Allopathic doctors at PHC, and -84% specialists at CHC which depict the huge deficiency of specialist doctors and thus quality healthcare, lacking Human Resources for Health (HRH) in the existing primary healthcare system. This is the state of healthcare delivery system in tribal areas despite having more than 50% and 66% of tribal population being dependent on public health system.

Road map for the future

Finally after 11 five year plans, Government of India recognised the need to view tribal people's health with a serious and special concern and constituted an Expert committee on Tribal Health jointly by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and Ministry of Tribal Affairs in 2013.

The objectives were as follows:

• To review the existing situation of health in tribal areas, suggest interventions, formulate strategic guidelines for states, and make recommendations on the requirement of additional resources
• To develop a national framework and roadmap to improve the appropriateness, access, content, quality, and utilization of the health services among the tribal population, particularly those living in scheduled areas.

Having set the goal to bridge the current gap in the health status of tribal people and to bring the health coverage and outcome indicators at par with the state's average latest by the year 2027, the Expert committee has given certain recommendations. These recommendations are essentially based on strengthening the primary healthcare system: To reach the unreached.

Organisation of primary healthcare and human resources for health (HRH)

The committee has given a structure for organisation of primary healthcare in tribal areas [ Figure 1 ] for which the proposed Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) known as the Tribal Health and Wellness Centres (THWCs) will be the centre of gravity.

Organisation of service delivery

Most importantly the committee has recommendations for people living outside scheduled areas. The significant ones are to have ST subsample in national surveys, a new cadre of social facilitators (1 per 2,000 ST families), providing ST health cards to enable them to avail special benefits, formulating health Self Help Groups (SHGs) as Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA) 1996 is not applicable outside scheduled areas and introducing Aadivasi Aarogya Bima Yojana.

Human Resources for health are the building blocks for sustaining the primary healthcare system and adequate efforts have been made to address this. Considerable recommendations are to select, train, and deploy local boys and girls from tribal areas as Arogya Mitras, defining the role of traditional healers, introducing Mid-Level Health Providers (MLHPs) trained through bridge courses at HWCs, introducing 3-year courses in BSc Community Medicine or Rural Health, weightiness of multitasking and task shifting being stressed, making the posts in tribal areas “empanelled” and appointing Prime Minister's Tribal Health Fellows for a period of 5 years. This is in addition to having a flexible recruitment and contracting system, making avenues for professional growth, creating dedicated medical colleges in tribal districts and having reserved seats for tribal people willing to serve in tribal areas.

Focus areas

The committee has identified 10 special problems pertaining to tribal areas and has set goals and targets for the same. The significant ones are to control malaria, use of additive substances, reduce malnutrition, child mortality, ensuring safe motherhood and health of women, timely treatment of animal bites and accidents, providing family planning services along with infertility care, addressing sickle cell disease, health literacy and the health of children in Ashramsalas.

Governance, participation, and financing

An entirely parallel system of governance has been proposed [ Figure 2 ] for tribal health with both Ministry of Tribal affairs (MOTA) and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) at the top of the tree. There is no getting away from the absolute necessity of increasing public health expenditure in tribal areas and for tribal health; need for equity.[ 13 ] The significant recommendations are to:

Proposed governance structure of Tribal health

• Increase public expenditure on health to at least 2.5% of the GDP and to increase the allocations for tribal health to at least 8.6% of health budget.
• Adhere to Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) guidelines.
• Earmark percentage of MOTA's allocation for health.

It is important to note the principle of additionality; regular activities and expenditure in the tribal areas by the MoHFW are not a part of the stipulated 8.6%. These are in addition to providing health insurance for all tribal people, encouraging public private partnerships in health selectively, corporate social responsibility (CSR) funding, having special central assistance to tribal areas and tax exemptions.

Innovation interventions

There were many innovative strategies adopted in different states to increase its acceptance by involving the local people and educate them by the means which they can easily accept. Like, for raising the awareness of health issues in state of Rajasthan, health messages were most commonly disseminated using live performances by drummers, dancers, folk musicians, magicians, puppeteers, etc., to appeal to tribal populations and also incentives were linked for the same to the ASHAs after successful completion of activities. In Tamil Nadu, in addition to posters, hoardings, bus boards, and personalized letters of communication for the literate members of a family, radio jingles and video broadcasts featuring popular film stars were found to be effective means for disseminating health messages to the state's tribal people.

Medical outreach camp, mobile health clinic can also help to bring health services to remote populations. Providing emergency transportation for expectant mothers, employing health workers from tribal communities, and establishment of tribal counsellor who pay weekly visits to tribal hamlets to raise awareness about health issues and promote healthy behaviors can help to increase the tribal people attendance at health facilities.[ 14 ]

Primary healthcare has been proven to be a highly effective and efficient way to address the main causes and risks of poor health and well-being today, as well as handling the emerging challenges that threaten health and well-being tomorrow. There is evidence that quality primary healthcare reduces total healthcare costs and improves efficiency by reducing hospital admissions: A good value investment.[ 15 ] More importantly, mere establishment of PHCs and sub-centres cannot overcome the poor health of tribal population. Scarcity of trained manpower to deliver quality health services is the major problem and an obstacle to the extension of health services to rural and tribal areas. Traditional healers, who are often the first point of care, can be sensitized and trained to deliver simple interventions and to assess when to refer to higher centres. Tribal boys and girls with minimum education can be trained as community health worker and incentivized to work in their own community; primary healthcare system as a whole, infrastructure and HRH, has to be strengthened. More research needs to be done on the traditional herbal medicines used by tribal people and their use encouraged, wherever beneficial. It is high time and states should act swiftly to assess the needs, priorities of their own tribal population and set goals, targets to achieve the same through proven public health strategies.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Cultural India

Rediscovering India

The Diversity of Indian Tribal Communities: An Overview of Culture, Traditions, and Customs

Studying and understanding Indian tribal communities is important for a number of reasons.

First, these communities have a rich cultural heritage that is an important part of India’s history and identity. Understanding the cultural practices, traditions, and customs of these communities allows us to gain a deeper appreciation and understanding of India’s cultural diversity.

Second, Indian tribal communities often face significant challenges and marginalization, including poverty, lack of access to education and healthcare, and displacement due to development projects. Understanding these issues is crucial for developing effective policies and initiatives to address these challenges and promote the well-being of these communities.

Third, Indian tribal communities have a unique relationship with the environment and have been stewards of forest and natural resources for centuries. They have a traditional knowledge which can be useful in preserving the biodiversity and ecological balance. Therefore understanding the traditional ecological knowledge and practices of these communities can be beneficial in conservation efforts.

Studying and understanding Indian tribal communities is vital for promoting cultural understanding, addressing social and economic disparities, and preserving the environment.

Table of Contents

Overview of the diversity of Indian tribal communities

India is home to a diverse array of tribal communities, each with their own unique culture, traditions, and customs.

The diversity of these communities is reflected in their languages, religions, and customs. For example, the Gond tribe of central India practice animism and ancestor worship, while the Khasi tribe of northeastern India are primarily Christian.

The tribes also have different occupation and way of life, some of the tribes are known for their agriculture practices, some are known for their hunting-gathering practices and some of them are known for their art and craft. For example, the Warli tribe is known for their traditional art, while the Bhil tribe is known for their hunting and gathering practices.

In addition to cultural diversity, there is also significant linguistic diversity among Indian tribal communities. Some tribes, such as the Santhal and the Oraon, have their own languages, while others speak dialects of mainstream languages such as Hindi or Bengali.

The diversity of Indian tribal communities is a reflection of the rich cultural heritage of India and is an important aspect of the country’s identity.

History and Origins

Overview of the history and origins of indian tribal communities.

The history and origins of Indian tribal communities can be traced back to ancient times. Many Indian tribes have lived in the region for thousands of years, with their origins dating back to the earliest human settlements. They are considered as original inhabitants of the land.

The tribes have their own unique history, culture and traditions. They have their own creation stories and beliefs. They have their own system of governance, social norms and customs. They have their own economic system, based on hunting-gathering, agriculture and pastoralism.

During the colonial period, the British government’s policy towards the tribes was that of exploitation and subjugation. They imposed their own administrative and economic systems on the tribes, often at the expense of traditional tribal practices and customs. This led to the displacement and marginalization of many tribal communities.

After the independence of India, the government has recognized the rights of the tribes and implemented policies and initiatives to promote the welfare of these communities. These policies include reservation in education and government jobs, land rights and forest rights, and financial assistance for economic development. However, many tribes continue to face significant challenges such as displacement, poverty, and loss of their traditional way of life.

Overall, the history and origins of Indian tribal communities are rooted in ancient traditions and cultures, but their history has also been shaped by the forces of colonization and more recent government policies.

Additionally, during the post-colonial period, many Indian tribal communities have experienced significant changes as a result of modernization and development. This includes the displacement of tribes from their traditional lands due to large-scale development projects such as dams, mines, and industrialization. The tribes have also been affected by the changing political and economic policies of the government, which have often led to the erosion of their traditional ways of life and loss of their cultural heritage.

Moreover, Indian tribal communities have also been subject to various forms of discrimination and marginalization based on their ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other factors. This has often resulted in limited access to education, healthcare, and other basic services, as well as higher rates of poverty and unemployment.

Despite these challenges, many Indian tribal communities have also demonstrated resilience and determination to preserve their cultural heritage, maintain their traditional way of life, and advocate for their rights. Many tribes have formed organizations and movements to preserve their culture, protect their land and resources and to assert their rights.

Overall, Indian tribal communities have a rich history and cultural heritage, but they have also faced significant challenges throughout their history, including displacement, marginalization, and loss of traditional ways of life.

Discussion of traditional way of life, religious beliefs, and social structures

Indian tribal communities have their own unique traditional way of life, religious beliefs, and social structures. These are shaped by the environment, resources, and history of the region in which they live.

In terms of traditional way of life, many Indian tribes have traditionally relied on hunting, gathering, agriculture, and pastoralism for their livelihood. The Gond tribes of central India, for example, have traditionally been farmers, while the Khasi tribes of northeastern India have traditionally been known for their jhum cultivation method of farming. Many tribes are also known for their art and craft, such as Warli tribes for their Warli painting, Gond tribes for their Gond art, and Bhil tribes for their Bhil painting.

Religious beliefs vary among Indian tribal communities. Many tribes have their own traditional animist beliefs, such as the Gond tribes and the Bhil tribes. Other tribes follow Hinduism, Christianity or Buddhism. For example, the Khasi tribes of northeastern India are primarily Christian, while the Santhal tribes of eastern India follow a syncretic religion that combines elements of Hinduism and animism.

Social structures of Indian tribal communities are often based on kinship and extended families. Many tribes have a patriarchal social structure, although there are also matrilineal societies such as Khasi, Garo and Jaintia tribes. The tribes also have their traditional governance system, such as Panchayats in Gond tribes, Daloi in Santhal tribes and Nokma in Garo tribes.

Overall, the traditional way of life, religious beliefs, and social structures of Indian tribal communities are shaped by their unique environment, resources, and history. These cultural elements are an important aspect of the identity of these communities and play a vital role in their daily life.

Additionally, many Indian tribal communities have a deep connection to the land and the natural environment. They have a traditional ecological knowledge, which has been passed down through generations, and which is integral to their way of life. This traditional ecological knowledge includes knowledge of the use of plants and animals for food, medicine, and other purposes, as well as knowledge of conservation practices.

Another aspect of the traditional way of life of Indian tribal communities is their relationship to the spiritual world. Many tribes have a rich tradition of rituals, festivals, and ceremonies that are deeply connected to their religious beliefs. These rituals and ceremonies are often associated with the natural cycles of life, such as the changing of the seasons, and are performed to honor the spirits of the land, the ancestors, and the gods.

Social structures of Indian tribal communities are also characterized by a strong sense of community and cooperation. Many tribes have a tradition of collective decision-making and shared ownership of resources. This is reflected in their traditional governance systems, such as the Panchayat system among the Gond tribes, Daloi among the Santhal tribes and Nokma among the Garo tribes.

Lastly, the traditional way of life of Indian tribal communities is also characterized by a close-knit relationship between generations. The tribes have a tradition of passing down knowledge, skills, and cultural practices from one generation to the next. This helps to preserve their cultural heritage and ensure that their traditional way of life is passed on to future generations.

Overall, the traditional way of life, religious beliefs, and social structures of Indian tribal communities are complex and diverse, shaped by a unique set of historical, cultural, and environmental factors. These elements play an important role in the daily lives of these communities and are an essential aspect of their identity.

Cultural Practices and Traditions

Description of the unique cultural practices and traditions of different indian tribal communities.

Indian tribal communities have a rich variety of unique cultural practices and traditions. These practices and traditions are shaped by the environment, resources, and history of the region in which they live. Some examples of unique cultural practices and traditions of different Indian tribal communities include:

-The Gond tribes of central India have a rich tradition of art and craft, particularly Gond painting, which is characterized by bold geometric patterns and vibrant colors. They also have traditional practices such as the worship of ancestor spirits and nature spirits.

-The Warli tribes of Maharashtra have a tradition of Warli painting, which is a form of tribal art that depict daily life, rituals, and legends of the Warli tribes. They also have traditional practices such as the worship of nature spirits.

-The Bhil tribes of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have a tradition of Bhil painting, which depict daily life, rituals, and legends of the Bhil tribes. They also have traditional practices such as the worship of ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and the performance of rituals for fertility, health, and protection.

-The Khasi tribes of Meghalaya have a matrilineal society where the lineage and property are passed through the women. They also have a rich tradition of music and dance, particularly the Khasi drums, which are played during festivals and ceremonies.

-The Santhal tribes of West Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha have a tradition of the performance of traditional dances such as the Santhal dance, which is performed during festivals and ceremonies. They also have traditional practices such as the worship of ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and the performance of rituals for fertility, health, and protection.

Overall, the unique cultural practices and traditions of Indian tribal communities are an important aspect of their identity and play a vital role in their daily life. These practices and traditions are shaped by the unique environment, resources, and history of the region in which they live, and are an important part of India’s cultural heritage.

Discussion of traditional festivals, rituals, and ceremonies

Indian tribal communities have a rich tradition of festivals, rituals, and ceremonies that are deeply connected to their religious beliefs and cultural practices. These festivals, rituals, and ceremonies are often associated with the natural cycles of life, such as the changing of the seasons, and are performed to honor the spirits of the land, the ancestors, and the gods.

Some examples of traditional festivals, rituals, and ceremonies of Indian tribal communities include:

-The Gond tribes of central India have a traditional festival called “Bathok Bihu” which is celebrated in the honor of their ancestor spirits. During this festival, the Gonds perform rituals and ceremonies to seek blessings from their ancestors.

-The Warli tribes of Maharashtra have a traditional festival called “Waghya Chauth” which is celebrated to honor the spirits of the animals they hunt. During this festival, the Warlis perform rituals and ceremonies to seek blessings from the spirits of the animals.

-The Bhil tribes of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan have a traditional festival called “Hudko” which is celebrated to honor the spirits of nature. During this festival, the Bhils perform rituals and ceremonies to seek blessings from the spirits of the trees, rivers, and mountains.

-The Khasi tribes of Meghalaya have a traditional festival called “Nongkrem” which is celebrated to honor the spirits of nature. During this festival, the Khasis perform rituals and ceremonies to seek blessings from the spirits of the land, the water, and the sky.

-The Santhal tribes of West Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha have a traditional festival called “Sarhul” which is celebrated to honor the spirits of nature. During this festival, the Santhals perform rituals and ceremonies to seek blessings from the spirits of the trees, the rivers, and the mountains.

Overall, traditional festivals, rituals, and ceremonies play an important role in the lives of Indian tribal communities. These festivals, rituals, and ceremonies are deeply connected to their religious beliefs and cultural practices, and help to preserve their cultural heritage and ensure that their traditional way of life is passed on to future generations.

Information on traditional art forms, such as dance, music, and crafts

Indian tribal communities have a rich tradition of art forms such as dance, music, and crafts. These art forms are an important aspect of their cultural heritage and play a vital role in their daily lives.

Some examples of traditional art forms of Indian tribal communities include:

-Dance: Many Indian tribal communities have a rich tradition of dance, which is often performed during festivals and ceremonies. These dances often depict the daily life, rituals, and legends of the tribes. Examples include the Santhal dance, the Gond dance and the Bhil dance.

-Music: Many Indian tribal communities have a rich tradition of music, which is often performed during festivals and ceremonies. These musics often depict the daily life, rituals, and legends of the tribes. Examples include the Warli music, Khasi drums and the Santhal music.

-Crafts: Many Indian tribal communities have a rich tradition of crafts, which are often used in daily life and also are an important source of income. Examples include Warli paintings, Gond art, and Bhil paintings. Some tribes are also known for their bamboo and cane craft, terracotta craft, traditional metal craft, and textiles.

Traditional art forms such as dance, music, and crafts play an important role in the lives of Indian tribal communities. These art forms are an important aspect of their cultural heritage and help to preserve their traditional way of life, customs and beliefs.

Many Indian tribal communities have a long history of traditional handicrafts, which are an integral part of their culture and economy. These crafts include textiles, pottery, metalwork, woodwork, and jewelry. For example, the tribes of Odisha are known for their traditional textile weaving and the tribes of Gujarat for their traditional metal work.

Some tribes are also known for their traditional woodcarving skills, such as the Kondh tribes of Odisha and the Toda tribes of Tamil Nadu. They are known for their intricate and beautiful carvings on wood, which are used for religious and ceremonial purposes as well as for everyday objects.

Furthermore, many tribes have a rich tradition of jewelry making, which is an important aspect of their culture and economy. They use locally sourced materials such as shells, beads, and semi-precious stones to make intricate and beautiful jewelry. For example, the tribes of Meghalaya are known for their traditional jewelry making using beads and shells.

In addition to these, many Indian tribal communities also have a rich tradition of oral storytelling, poetry, and folktales, which are passed down through generations. These art forms are an important aspect of their cultural heritage and play a vital role in preserving their history and traditions.

Overall, traditional art forms such as dance, music, and crafts, as well as traditional handicrafts, jewelry-making, woodcarving, storytelling and oral poetry, are an important part of the cultural heritage of Indian tribal communities, and play a vital role in preserving their traditional way of life, customs and beliefs.

Current Challenges

Discussion of the challenges faced by indian tribal communities, such as preserving their cultural heritage and addressing economic and social disparities.

Indian tribal communities face a variety of challenges, including preserving their cultural heritage, addressing economic and social disparities, and protecting their rights and resources.

One of the major challenges faced by Indian tribal communities is preserving their cultural heritage. Many tribes have seen their traditional ways of life and customs threatened by modernization and development. This includes the displacement of tribes from their traditional lands due to large-scale development projects such as dams, mines, and industrialization. The loss of traditional livelihoods, cultural practices, and languages can erode the cultural heritage of tribal communities.

Another major challenge faced by Indian tribal communities is addressing economic and social disparities. Many tribes continue to face significant poverty, lack of access to education and healthcare, and higher rates of unemployment compared to non-tribal populations. These disparities are often linked to historical discrimination and marginalization, as well as a lack of access to resources and services.

In addition to these, Indian tribal communities also face challenges in protecting their rights and resources. Many tribes have been displaced from their traditional lands, and have seen their resources and livelihoods threatened by development projects, mining, and industrialization. Many tribes also lack formal land rights and have limited access to justice.

Furthermore, Indian tribes also face discrimination, prejudice, and racism from the non-tribal population, which further exacerbates their marginalization and vulnerability.

Indian tribal communities face a range of challenges, including preserving their cultural heritage, addressing economic and social disparities, and protecting their rights and resources. Addressing these challenges is crucial for promoting the well-being of these communities and preserving their unique cultural heritage.

Another major challenge faced by Indian tribal communities is the loss of their traditional knowledge, customs and practices. The traditional knowledge of Indian tribal communities, which includes traditional ecological knowledge, traditional medicine and traditional farming practices, is often not recognized or valued by the dominant society. This leads to the loss of this knowledge and the erosion of their cultural heritage.

Moreover, many Indian tribal communities have been displaced from their traditional lands, often without proper compensation, and have seen their resources and livelihoods threatened by development projects, mining, and industrialization. This has led to the loss of traditional lands and resources, as well as a loss of traditional livelihoods and ways of life, which further exacerbates their vulnerability and marginalization.

Another issue faced by Indian tribal communities is the lack of representation and participation in decision-making processes that affect their lives and communities. Many tribes are not consulted or involved in decisions that affect their lands, resources, and livelihoods, which leads to the implementation of policies and projects that are not in their best interests.

Lastly, Indian tribal communities also face challenges in terms of access to basic services such as education, healthcare and sanitation. These issues are often linked to poverty, discrimination, and marginalization, and have a significant impact on their overall well-being.

Indian tribal communities face a range of challenges, including preserving their cultural heritage, addressing economic and social disparities, protecting their rights and resources and access

Information on government policies and initiatives to protect the rights of these communities

The Indian government has implemented several policies and initiatives to protect the rights of tribal communities and promote their welfare. Some of these include:

-The Constitution of India recognizes the rights of tribal communities and provides for measures to protect and improve their economic and social conditions. Article 244(1) provides for the administration of tribal areas, and Article 46 calls for the state to promote the educational and economic interests of tribal communities.

-The Forest Rights Act of 2006, which recognizes the rights of tribal communities over the forests and other resources they have traditionally used and occupied. The act also provides for the restoration of lands that were illegally taken from tribal communities.

-The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act of 1996, which provides for the establishment of Panchayats (local government bodies) in tribal areas and gives them greater autonomy and control over resources and development.

-The Schedule Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, which recognizes the rights of tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers over the forests and other resources they have traditionally used and occupied.

-The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes is a statutory body established to safeguard the rights and welfare of Scheduled Tribes, which includes the Indian tribal communities.

-The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is the nodal Ministry of the Government of India for the welfare of tribal communities.

In addition to these policies and initiatives, the Indian government has also implemented several schemes and programs to promote the welfare of tribal communities, such as the National Tribal Livelihood Mission (TRIFED), the Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana, and the National Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation.

-The National Tribal Livelihood Mission (TRIFED) aims to improve the livelihoods of tribal communities by promoting their participation in the value chain of non-timber forest products and other agricultural and horticultural products.

-The Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana is a scheme that aims to improve the welfare of tribal communities by providing them with better access to healthcare, education, and other basic services.

-The National Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (NSTFDC) is a government-funded organization that provides financial assistance to tribal communities for various development activities such as agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, and enterprise development.

In addition to these government policies and initiatives, there are also non-government organizations, civil society groups and community-based organizations working towards the welfare and empowerment of tribal communities in India. They provide support and services to these communities and advocate for their rights and interests.

Overall, the Indian government has implemented several policies and initiatives to protect the rights of tribal communities and promote their welfare. These policies and initiatives aim to address the challenges faced by these communities, such as preserving their cultural heritage, addressing economic and social disparities, and protecting their rights and resources. However, there is still a long way to go for the overall well-being of these marginalized communities.

In this article, we discussed the diversity of Indian tribal communities and their culture, traditions and customs. We highlighted the importance of studying and understanding Indian tribal communities, their history and origins, traditional way of life, religious beliefs, social structures and traditional festivals, rituals, and ceremonies. We also discussed unique cultural practices and traditions, traditional art forms such as dance, music, and crafts, and traditional handicrafts, jewelry-making, woodcarving, storytelling, and oral poetry. The article also talked about the challenges faced by Indian tribal communities, such as preserving their cultural heritage, addressing economic and social disparities, protecting their rights and resources and access. Finally, we provided information on government policies and initiatives to protect the rights of these communities.

It is essential to respect and understand Indian tribal cultures in order to promote the well-being of these communities and preserve their unique cultural heritage. Indian tribal communities have a rich and diverse cultural heritage that is shaped by their unique environment, resources, and history. This heritage includes traditional ways of life, customs, and beliefs, as well as traditional art forms such as dance, music, and crafts.

Respecting and understanding Indian tribal cultures also involves recognizing and valuing the traditional knowledge, customs and practices of these communities. This includes traditional ecological knowledge, traditional medicine, and traditional farming practices, which are often not recognized or valued by the dominant society.

Furthermore, respecting and understanding Indian tribal cultures also involves recognizing the rights of these communities over their lands, resources, and livelihoods, and consulting and involving them in decisions that affect their lives and communities. This is crucial for addressing the challenges faced by Indian tribal communities, such as preserving their cultural heritage, addressing economic and social disparities, and protecting their rights and resources.

In summary, respecting and understanding Indian tribal cultures is crucial for promoting the well-being of these communities and preserving their unique cultural heritage. This includes recognizing and valuing their traditional knowledge, customs and practices, recognizing their rights over their lands and resources and consulting and involving them in decision-making processes that affect their lives and communities.

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Geographical distribution of tribal population in india.

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Geographical Distribution of Tribal Population in India!

The tribal population in India is dispersed all over the country, though there are some pockets of their concentration. There are in all 571 tribes included in the Schedule. Of these, 108 tribes are to be found in the Northeastern region, 28 in the Northwestern region, 176 in Central India, 95 in Western India, 143 in the South, and 12 in different islands. The North and Northeastern zone harbours tribes like the Garo, Khasi, Naga, Bhotia, Tharu, Lauholese, Lepcha, Gaddi, Dafla, Abor-Miri, Mikir, and the Gurung.

The Central zone of India has a major concentration of tribal’s covering the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Southern Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra (the Vidarbh area). Some of the important tribes of this zone are the Munda, Ho, Oraon, Maria and Muria Gonds, Kamar, Chaukhuntia- Bhunjia, Santals, Birhor, Bondo, Juang, and the Khond.

The Western zone, comprising Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Maharashtra, has tribals such as the Bhil, Meena, Mahadeo Hill Koli, Garasia, and the Warli. The area south of the Vindhyas (below Latitude 16) – the Southern zone – has a large number of small tribal communities. Here, the concentration is found in the southernmost part of the Western Ghats, stretching from Wynaad to Cape Comorin.

Scholars believe that these people are the most ancient inhab­itants of India who were pushed to these relatively remote habitats by the intruding groups of relatively more advanced cultures. Among these groups are included the Chenchu, Yuruva, Irula, Paniyan, Kurumba, Malapantaram, Toda, Kota, Kadar, and the Badaga. Besides these, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal are home to the Jarawa, Onge, North Sentinelese, and the Nicobarese.

In the undivided India of 1941, the tribal population consti­tuted 7.8 per cent (24,712,000) of the total Indian population. Because of the partition of the country in 1947, the 1951 Census recorded their population at 19,116,498, which was 5.36 per cent of the total.

This shortfall was due both to the factor of partition (which took away some of the tribal’s of the North-West Frontier Province, which went to Pakistan, and some tribal groups of East Bengal, which is now Bangladesh) and the reclassification of some tribal groups as castes.

In the 1991 Census, the population of the tribal’s stood at 67,758,000, an increase of 48 million from the 1951 figure, representing 8.08 per cent of the population. Table 1 gives the breakdown of the tribal population by states and Union territories in 1991.

The table can be interpreted in two ways: in terms of the absolute number of people belonging to the tribal category, and in terms of the proportion of tribal’s in the total population of the state. In absolute numbers, the highest concentration is to be found in Madhya Pradesh, with a total tribal population of more than 15 million, though it constitutes only 23.27 per cent of the state’s total population.

Other states with large tribal populations are Maharashtra and Orissa (seven million each), Bihar and Gujarat (with more than six million), and Rajasthan (5.4 million). Other states that have more than a million tribal’s are Andhra Pradesh (4.1 million), West Bengal (3.8 million), Assam (2.87 million), Karnataka (1.91 million), Meghalaya (1.5 million), and Nagaland (1.06 million). Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Pondicherry, and Punjab have no tribal population.

But the picture in terms of proportion of tribal population in the state is quite different. While larger absolute numbers are related to the size of the state or the Union territory, the proportion is independent of the size.

There are six states and Union territories that have more than 60 per cent tribals; five others have tribal population of between 20 and 35 per cent; another three have 10 to 12 per cent; five are in the category of 5 to 10 per cent; four in the category of 1 to 5 per cent; and two states have less than one per cent. There is none in the range of 35 to 60 per cent. See the distribution in Table 2.

The 2001 Census puts the scheduled tribe population at 84.3 million, constituting 8.2 per cent of the total population of India. However, the region wise distribution in percentage terms remains the same. There is a wide diversity in terms of the literacy rates in these tribal groups. In 1991, the overall literacy rate for the scheduled tribes was 29.6 per cent, as compared to 16.33 per cent in 1981.

But the rate of literacy varies from 82.73 per cent in Mizoram and 80.58 per cent in Lakshadweep to 17.16 per cent in Andhra Pradesh. Those having more than 50 per cent literacy include, in addition to Mizoram and Lakshadweep, Nagaland (60.59), Manipur (53.63), Sikkim (59.01), Kerala (57.22), and Meghalaya (56.62). Literacy among the tribal population in Andaman & Nicobar, Tamil Nadu, and Bihar was around 27 per cent, and in Orissa, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh, around 22 per cent.

Tribes in Rajasthan had 19.44 per cent literacy. What is significant is the point that while the literacy rate has risen in the decade, 1981-91, the actual number of illiterates has increased by 58 per cent. Thus, eradication of illiteracy and universalization of primary education are the major challenges for tribal devel­opment in India.

Related Articles:

• Geographical Distribution of Tribes in India – Essay
• Growth of Tribal Population in India by Constitutional Order 1950

Tribals in India

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3 General and specific characteristics of tribes

Vineet Verma

Table of Contents

Introduction

1.      Definition of Tribe

2.      Tribes in India

3.      Distinctive Characteristics of the Tribes in India

• Definite Common Topography/ Geographical isolation or semi-isolation
• Ethnic distinctiveness from the national society
• Sense of Unity
• Economic base tightly dependent on their, specific environment
• Communitarian basis of land holding
• Poor Literacy and Education among Tribal‟s
• Endogamous Group
• Common Dialect
• Ties of Blood-relationship
• Protection Awareness
• Distinct Political Organization
• Common Culture
• Importance of Kinship
• Egalitarian Values
• Rudimentary type of Religion/ Common religion and Common culture
• Distinct Psychological Bent for Enjoying Life/ Course of Tribal life and personality structure

Learning Objective

• To able to define the concept of tribe that has been made in Anthropology
• To determine the distinct general and specific characteristics of tribes in India
• To be able to define and distinguish between tribal and other civilised population
• To able to define the social structure of tribal population in India
• To able to describe the distinct spot of tribal life style

    Introduction

India is known to be a vast country with scanty population in the prehistoric age. During this period there were small groups of people scattered throughout the country in different spots. The Tribal culture blooms in the isolated highlands and forests of India. The tribal‟s are an integral part of the Indian population, their isolated ecology, economy, society, religious belief and centuries long association with the Indian society. The study of tribal‟s, has been one of the oldest of anthropological concerns. In fact, the genesis of anthropology can be traced to the attempts, made by European colonists, travelers, explorers, and missionaries to understand and describe the ways of life of the native people they found in Africa, Asia, Australia and the rest of the world. These forest and hill dwelling savages were called tribes to differentiate them from other civilized people.

1.     Definition of Tribe

A series of definition have been offered by the earlier Anthropologists like Morgan, Tylor, Perry, Rivers, and Lowie to cover a social group known as tribe . These definitions are, by no means complete and these professional Anthropologists have not been able to develop a set of precise indices to classify groups as „tribal‟ or „ non tribal ‟. The term generally refers to territorial communities living in the relative isolation in foot-hills and forests.

Many attempts have been made in anthropology to define and characterize on „tribe‟, but there is no consensus on defining characteristics. Territorially race, economy animism, political autonomy etc have been variously used. In fact it appears that the dozens of definition and characteristics of „tribe‟ floating around in anthropological literature are as diverse as the field situation encountered by those proposing the definitions.

Let us start with the orthodox definition of tribes revealed in the „Dictionary of Anthropology‟ which states: “Tribe is a social group, usually with a definite are, dialect, cultural homogeneity, and unifying social organization”. It may include several subs – groups, such as sibs or villages. It may and may have common ancestor as well as presiding deities. The families or small communities making up a tribe, are linked through economic, social, religious, or blood ties i.e. kingship bondage.

A tribe is a group of people, usually staying in jungle areas, in a small locality, absolutely illiterate poor, hardly clad in clothes, usually dark and frail, fully living within their own community whose marriage always takes place among themselves, engaged in hunting and searching for roots, shoots and fruits as their veg food and roasted animals as non-veg food, completely oblivious of the country‟s  political and economic condition, resisting all efforts of development and have a strong dislike for strangers and educated modern community.

• Dr Rivers added the criteria of „having single government and acting together for such common purposes as warfare‟
• Prof. Perry thinks that „a common dialect and a common territory „should be treated as the criteria for labelling a group as tribe .
• Prof S.C. Dube has remarked that “Partly because of the isolation and partly because of their limited world view, characterized by lack of historical depth and an overall tradition – orientation, they are integrated themes and special cultural focus give them a separate cultural identity and they often posses latent and manifest value attitude, and motivational system which are remarkably different from those of the other people”.
• The Tata Institute of Social Science has made following comment on this issue. “A tribe could be a collection of families without the existence of community in the scientific sense of the word. A tribe as a social organization is able to decide upon its own function or the need or otherwise of independence between its different components, units or groups. Economic backwardness is very relative.
• Prof. S.C. Sinha has tried to define the category „tribe‟ as essentially pre literate groups living in relative isolation in hills and forests or in the plains skirting the forests who are apparently outside the threshold of „Brabmanic hierarchic civilisation ‟.

     On the basis of certain universal characteristics contained in various definitions, Majumdar (1958) proposed a definition of tribe claiming that some of it would define a tribe anywhere.

“A tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous, with no specialization of function ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect, recognising social distance with other tribes, caste, without any social obloquy attaching to them as it does in the caste structure following tribal traditions, belief and customs illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration.”

In Indian context, too, the term is a British legacy. They classified as tribe such people who were beyond the pale of Hindu Varna system occupied inaccessible hills and forests and were of dark complexion. Neither Hindu nor any other Indian language has a corresponding term with exact connotation as „tribe‟. This in itself is a proof enough that Indian language have never conceptually set these people apart from the rest.

    2.   Tribes in India

India is home to one of the largest number of tribes in the world. Although there are 537 tribal communities in India, only 258 communities have been notified as tribes. STs as a category of India‟s population, constituting 8 percent of her‟ total population (Census, 2001), is “varied in terms of socio-economic and political development (Sharma, 2007). Tribes in India are not a homogeneous group as their culture and values are distinct from each other. The states of Maharashtra and Orissa share the largest number of tribes in India. There is high variation in the spatial distribution of tribes in India. Almost 82 percent of the tribes live in western and central states where only 11 percent of them are located in southern states. Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of tribe has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.

3.     Distinctive Characteristics of the Tribes in India

The chief characteristics of a tribe are the following:

• Definite Common Topography/Geographical isolation or semi-isolation

   Tribal people live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all the members of a particular tribe occupying that region. In the absence of a common but definite living place, the tribal‟s will lose other characteristics of a tribal life, like common language, way of living and community sentiment etc.

The Indian tribal‟s are found to concentrate in a number of blocks, the most importance of which are-

a)    Assam Hills,

b)  Chotanagpur and Orissa hinterland,

c)  Chhattisgarh and the districts of Chhindwara, Mandla, Durg and Raipur

d)  The districts of east and west Khandesh, Nasik, Surat, Broach, and Panchmahal Thana, and Colaba, Mumbai.

Generally speaking, these tribal blocks differ in race, language and culture.

    Taking a lead from Guha Racial classification on Indian tribal

A)   The Negrito group: The characteristics physical features of this group are very short, pigmy stature, dark black skin colour, woolly and frizzly hair, broad nose, dolichocephalic head. The Andamanese, Onge, (of the Andaman‟s), the Kadar, Urails of South India belong to this physical type.

B)    The Proto – Australoid group: This group is characterised by medium stature dark brown skin colour, wavy and curly hair, thick lip, broad nose, and doilcho-mesocephalic head. The Gond of Bastar, the Bhil of Rajasthan, the Oraon, Munda, Santal of Chotanagpur, Chenchu of Andhra Pradesh, Juang of Orissa, Kharia, Bhumij, Ho of Singhbhum district of Bihar possesses the characteristics of the proto – Australoid.

C)   The Mongoloid group: This group is characterised by medium stature, yellowish brown skin colour, flat face, oblique eye – slit with epicanthic fold, scanty beard and moustache.

Their hair has the tendency to be straight. The tribal‟s of north eastern zone belonging to this racial type. The Naga, Khasi, Garo, Lepcha, Bhutia, Dafia, Abor, Mismi, and some other neighbouring tribes are having Mongoloid features.

D)   The Nordic group: The Toda of Nilgiri hills of south India are regarded as the solitary example of this racial type so far India is concerned They are characterised by tall stature, rosy – white skin colour, wavy hair, prominent fine nose, thin lip, and with plenty of facial and body hair.

   Unless and until, a group living in a particular area and using that area as a common residence, does not possess the sense of unity, it cannot be called a tribe. Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The very existence of a tribe depends upon the tribal‟s sense of unity during the times of peace and war. They have strong sense of unity and any stranger is attacked with bows and arrows.

    In many cases, tribes have highly advanced hunting and fishing economics and more adjusted to their physical environment than other developed economics. The evolution of the economy from non –  feudal to feudal and then to commercial conditions can take place during any stage of Tribal evolution. Little value on surplus accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading; largely or entirely independent of the national economic system; the sources of subsistence and livelihood are varied so far the Indian tribal‟s are concerned; starting from the pure and simple parasitic habit of the nomadic hunters and food gatherers who depend mostly on nature for the sources of subsistence to the settled agriculturists.

In general economic life of the tribal‟s is marked by the following features:

a)  Small economy

b)  Reciprocal exchange

c)  No surplus

d)  Division of labour

e)  Tribal markets

f)  Simple technology

g)  Slower innovation

h)  Importance of family and kingship

Tribes are the life line of India but poverty has plagued the lives of Tribal‟s folk. The unequal distribution of rural assets such as land along with failure in crops due to erratic rainfall and floods are causes of poverty in the country side. Lack of skills and education along with distress migration has been other causes of poverty. Poverty has its effects on overall human development. The poor are deprived of basic human necessity of nutrition, sanitation, health. Such situation has negative repercussion in the overall economy of the nation; also a major demography cannot be harness to its optimum potential.

   Each tribal group is often identified with a particular territory; therefore, some scholars also suggest that “a tribe is a territorial group”. Bearing a few exceptions of some nomadic tribes, the entire tribal group are found to have emotional attachment with their land and habitat. Because of their sentimental attachment with their land to the tribal‟s have always resisted any outside interference. Tribal resistance against interference in their habitat and land system is reflected in various tribal revolts in the past, as well as failures of several tribal resettlement schemes in different parts of the country.

• Poor Literacy and Education among Tribal’s

    Although most of the tribal people of India are agriculturists yet their economy basically remains at the subsistence level. As a result the tribal‟s at own, exert little effort to afford proper education. Whatever education the tribal‟s have received so far has been because of the efforts of the missionaries and the central and the respective state government. Among several tribes socio – cultural factors have been mainly responsible for low literacy rate, particularly among the girls. There are other socio-cultural factors as well, such as early marriage which prevents particularly a tribal girl child to receive proper education and stake her claim in the job.

    Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage within the tribe is highly appreciated and much applauded. But the pressing effects of changes following the forces of mobility have also changed the attitude of tribal‟s and now, inter-tribe marriages are becoming more and more common. A tribe is an endogamous group, as distinct from a clan who is exogamous, have common name and is engaged in worshipping strange objects, hunting of small animals, and resists entry of any outsiders inside their territory. All tribe members are related by blood, have their own political organization which has a chief who exercises authority over all the members, even recommending marriage of young boys with girls whom they have found suitable for marriage.

    Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. This element further strengthens their sense of unity.

Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating sense of unity among the tribal‟s.

    Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and infiltration and for this a single political authority is established and all the powers are vested in this authority. The safety of the tribal is left to the skill and mental power of the person enjoying political authority. The tribal chief is aided by a tribal committee, in the events of contingencies. Tribe is divided into a number of small groups and each group is headed by its own leader. The chief of a group works according to the directives received by him from the tribal chief.

   The political life of the tribal‟s of India reflects a paradoxical situation in which democracy and monarchy co-exist. Every head of the community at different levels like clan, village and territory is generally honoured, obeyed and accepted as the head of the group. Every tribe has its own distinct political organisation which looks after the interests of tribal people. The whole political authority lies in the hands of a tribal chief. In some tribes, tribal committees exist to help the tribal chief in discharging his functions in the interests of the tribe. Absence of strong, complex, formal organization possessing leadership but no more national representation, and few, if any political rights.

   Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity, common language, common religion, and common political organisation. Common culture produces a life of homogeneity among the tribal‟s; unacculturated or partially acculturated into national society

Folk-art is part of the culture but not the whole of it. It includes folklore, i.e., myths, legends, tales, proverbs, riddles, ballads, and other songs, folk-dance, folk-music, folk- carvings etc.

  Kinship forms the basis of tribal social organization. Most tribes are divided into exogamous clans and lineages. The marriage among tribes is based on the rule of tribal endogamy. Marriage is viewed as a contract and there are no prohibition on divorce and remarriage; kinship as an instrument of social bonds.

  The tribal social organization is based on the egalitarian principle. Thus there are no institutionalized inequalities like the caste system or sex based inequalities. Thus men and women enjoyed equal status and freedom. However some degrees of social inequality may be found in case of tribal chiefs or tribal kings who enjoy a higher social status, exercise political power and posse‟s wealth. A lack of hierarchy among men and groups found among them.

• Rudimentary type of Religion/Common religion and Common culture

    Belief in the existence of superhuman or supernatural power is almost universal. Experiences of certain day to day sudden happenings, of disease, death and unexplainable, have led to the tribal people in to believing in other then material visible world, i.e. in the invisible spirit – world or the supernatural. They have established a kind of close relationship between themselves and this power. The dependence on the forces of nature like rains, natural calamities and displeasure of gods points the basic nature of religious belief prevalent in Tribal‟s society. The dependence on the natural forces and lack of proper reasoning and scientific outlook give rise to various superstitious beliefs among the people. Education and rational outlook can be a panacea for such ills. The religious beliefs dominate the intellectual and practical life of Tribal‟s people. Religion has permeated onto the cultural norms of the society. Religious beliefs also have influenced the folk songs, paintings, marriage customs and social festivals. Rituals provide sanctity to the religious codes and dominate the life of Tribal people.

Tribes believe in certain myths and a rudimentary type of religion. Further, they believe in totems signifying objects having mystic relationship with members of the tribe. Each tribe is guided by their own religion which is based on totemism, magic and fetishism i.e. believing in god being embedded in a special piece of stone, a special tree or a peculiar strange animal; lack of distinction between form and substance of religion

   The tribal as man is simple, humble and possesses a great amount of feeling for his co-villagers and kings man in particular and community members in general. They grow in the intimacy of the social atmosphere of his community. His close association with nature inspires him to lead a carefree life. They feel pleasure in roaming about hills, forests and fields. Nature makes him intimate with the environment. He often meets friends and visits his own relations on different festive occasions and in periodical new relations and association with people.

    Summary

The tribal have characteristics of their own. They differ from the common Indian population both in character and composition. On an all – India basis Indian non tribal population vary widely from place to place according to natural surroundings, economy, tradition and local history. On the other hand the tribal population of India has, more or less, similar natural environments of hill and forest, poor economy, and specific tradition which are ideal for the tribal to come up. The most obvious way to grasp a tribal village in India is to consider its geographical settings, settlement pattern and size on the one hand and the social settings including ethnic composition, on the other. In many cases, tribes have highly advanced hunting and fishing economics and more adjusted to their physical environment than other developed economics. It remains a great job for the State and Central Government to bring tribes into confidence, educate them, clad them, take health care and arrange for their living by developing skill. The tribal culture of India has undergone changes owing to several factors, such as impact of education introduce by missionaries or Government, development of various communication etc; nevertheless, the greatest impact has been that of industrialization and urbanization. The obvious reason for this has been that the tribal area throughout the country are very rich as for as the mineral and the industrial resources are concerned.

In general, however, the tribes in different parts of India passing through an accelerated phase of transformation and equilibrium in the traditional society has definitely been greatly disturbed; a phase of transformation marketing the meeting of the two worlds, traditional and modern, is in the process, it seems the different tribes or sections of a tribe will continue to respond the change differently, and thus the identity and variety of the tribal culture, of course in changed form, will be maintained.

SUGGESTED READING

• Behera, D.K and Georg pfeffer. Contemporary Society Tribal Studies, Volume I to VII. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
• Georg Pfeffer. Hunters, Tribes and Peasant: Cultural Crisis and Comparison. Bhubaneswar: Niswas.
• Vidarthy, L.P. and Rai. Applied Anthropology in India.
• Vidarrthy.L.P. and B.N. Sahay. Applied Anthropology and Development in India. New Delhi: National Publishing House.

    REFERENCES

• Bardhan ed. Conversations Between Economists and Anthropologists, Delhi, OUP.
• Beteille, A and T.N. Madan (1975) ed. Encounters and Experience: Personal Accounts of Fieldwork, Delhi, Vikas.
• Béteille, André (1992) The Backward Classes in Contemporary India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
• Beteille, Andre, 1974, Six Essays in Comparative Sociology, Delhi, Oxford University Press.
• Bhalla Surjit (2011), “Inclusion and Growth in India: Some Facts, Some Conclusions”, Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.39.
• Bhattacharyya, N.N. (1995) Religious Culture of North-Eastern India (H.K. Barpujari Lectures). Delhi: Manohar. Biardeau, Madeleine (1989) Hinduism, the Anthropology of a Civilization. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Biswas, P.C. (1956) Santals of Santal Pargana. Delhi: Bhartiya Adimjati Sevak Sangh.
• Bliss Christopher and Nicholas Stern (1982), “Palanpur: The Economy of an Indian Village”, Oxford University Press, Delhi.
• Bodding, P.O. (1942) Traditions and Institutions of the Santals. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum (Bulletin 6).
• Chaudhury, Sukant K. (2007) Civilizational approach to the study of Indian society. The Eastern Anthropologist, 60, pp. 501-8.
• Cohn, B.S. (1987) An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
• Cohn, B.S. (1987), An Anthropologist among Historian and other Essays, Delhi.
• Culshaw, W.J. (1949) Tribal Heritage: A Study of the Santals. London: Lutterworth Press.
• Deliege, Robert (1985) Bhils of Western India. Delhi: National Publishing House.
• Desai, A.R. (1969) Tribes in transition. In A.R. Desai (Ed.) Rural Sociology in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, pp. 221-31.
• Dev Nathan, 1997, From Tribe to Caste, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study.
• Dube, S.C. (1955), Indian Village, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Dube, S.C., 1990, Indian Society, New Delhi, National Book Trust.
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• Hasnain, Nadeem, 2004, Indian Society and Culture: Continuity and Change, New Delhi, Jawahar Publishers and Distributors.
• Himanshu, Ishan Bakshi and Camille Dufour (2011), “Poverty, Inequality and Mobility in Palanpur: Some Preliminary Results”, Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.45.
• Kala, C.P. (2011). Indigenous uses and sustainable harvesting of trees by local people in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve of India. J. Med. Arom. Plants, ISSN 2249-4340, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.153-161.
• Louis, P. (2000). “Marginalisation of Tribals.” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.35. No.47: pp. 4087-4091.
• Mahapatra, S. (1997). The Celebration of Life. Tribal Language and Culture of Orissa. K. Mahapatra (Ed.) Bhubaneswar: Academy of Tribal Dialects and Culture, Government of Orissa.
• Malyadri,  P.  (2012)  “Education  for  tribal  children:  An  engine  for  human  development” International Journal of Research Studies in Education, Volume 1 Number 1, pp. 99-106.
• Mathur, K.S. & Agarwal, B.C., 1974, Tribe Caste and Peasantry, Lucknow, Ethnographic & Folkculture Society.
• Pal,  T.  (2011).  “Changing  Tribal  Culture:  A  Photo-Geographical  Explanation”  Current Research Journal of Social Science , Volume: 3, Issue: 6, pp. 483-489.
• Pasayat, C. (2003). Glimpses of Tribal and Folk Culture. New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
• Risley, Herbert (1915) The People of India. [Reprint 1969.] Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint. 32 Indian Institute of Dalit Studies and Religions and Development Research Programme Working Paper Series, Volume I, Number 03.
• S.C. (1955) Indian Village. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Eschmann, A., H. Kulke and G.C. Tripathy (1978) The Cult of Jagannatha and the Regional Tradition of Orissa. New Delhi: Manohar. Fuller, Christopher J. (1992) The Camphor Flame, Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
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• Sharma, S.L. (2009), Emerging Tribal Identity: A Study of Minas of Rajasthan. Jaipur : Rawat  Publications. Singh, K.S. (1994) The Scheduled Tribes. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India and Oxford University Press (reprinted 1997).
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• World Bank (2011), “Perspectives on Poverty in India: Stylized Facts from Survey Data” World Bank, Washington D C .

    INTERESTING FACTS

Almost 82 percent of the tribes live in western and central states where only 11 percent of them are located in southern states. Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of tribe has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.

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Rights of Scheduled Tribe in India: Challenges and Problems

Tribal society gives a spectrum to access an idea about natural life of people who want to survive with natural resources instead of complicated derivatives. But due to growing pace of population and trend of growth from developing to developed country make government non-ethical rather than being welfare state which put tribal people's culture at stake. The concept of right talk about state's role for its people, so when we want to sketch a picture of tribal rights, it is nothing but the impact and role of government for tribal welfare in comparison to rest of the population of nation. Right is discussed under legal and constitutional safeguards provided to a particular society. So when we talk about challenges, numerous areas come out before us to make an inference for conclusion. Marriage, migration, health, education, displacement, effect of industrialization and forest village encroachment. The most important point is increasing number of tribal population and number of tribal groups in every decade in proportion to facility and reservation policy of India. Naxalism is nothing but a demand for Amendment in 5 th & 6 th schedule of Indian constitution for making them empowered in reality. National geography is not same form every tribal community across the country which provide them grounds for anger and protest time to time. Reflexive society is creating more challenges before tribal societies which make them aware about their right and for right to equality which is missing in policies framed by government time to time. Tribal rights should also be considered as challenge and must be discussed in mosaic manner with reference to all above said points. " We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereign socialist secular democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens: justice, social, economic and political; liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation…do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this constitution. "-Preamble of the Indian Constitution

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Alok Chantia

Number of tribes are increasing day by day since the time of Indian independence and their number has touched 706 in 2011 census while only 212 tribal groups were listed in 1947. so pressure of increasing number of tribal groups make pressure on their rights which is given by constitution of India

Serials Publications, New Delhi

B Suresh Lal, PhD

India, along with Africa, has the largest tribal population in the world. The statistics are quite astonishing- the 533 different tribes, made up of more than 80 million tribals, represents almost 10% of India’s population. The lives of the tribes in India are closely tied to nature, and they inhabit some of the most pristine and picturesque environments in the country. Largely unaffected by the modern world, they’re very simple and often curious people, who have retained their rituals and customs. Among them about 80 per cent live in the ‘central belt’, extending from Gujarat and Rajasthan in the West, and across the state of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa, to West Bengal and Tripura in the East. Most of the remaining 20 per cent live in the Northeastern states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim and in the union territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep. A few of them live in the Southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Andhra Pradesh has the largest tribal population among the Southern states of India

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Development of tribal is very complicated issue for the government as it need full attention from place to place and state to state. However, the problem is that, the government only see the development of tribal issue is only affected due to poverty and most of the programmes and policies implemented either to remove poverty or for the economic development. But the complex is that, there are other factors are also, in which tribal seeking government help to protect and preserve their ethnic identity, language, culture, norms and practices or belief etc. Only economic development would be utterly inadequate as they are face several problem to protect their identity from external influences (dikus and government). Since Independence, development of tribal people has always been an major concern in India. For this, the Indian Government has taken up many challenging tasks by implementing related programmes, policies and provisions from the Constitution. These initiatives have been carried out with an aim to start working from the ground level so as to provide equality and social justice to the underprivileged or scheduled tribe people. The most important rationale and object of such initiatives are to ameliorate their socio-economic conditions. That said, even after 70 year of India’s independence, the conditions of the tribal groups, in most cases, have not seen visible improvements and still constitute a weaker section of the Indian society. This could be seen from ecological, economy and educational angles. It is very unfortunate that the adopted policies, programmes and plans have not seeped deep into these underprivileged sections of the society as they are often squandered by the top echelons of the concerned authorities. For instance, in every five year plan, government of India has made so many policies and programmes to eliminate poverty, illiteracy, equality, employment, prostitution, trafficking, child labour, bonded labour, untouchability, violence in domestic help, naxalism, land acquisition etc., but all these have remained as mere words on paper without any substantial outcome. With these aspects in mind, I would to analyze all the major policies, programme and constitutional provisions which have been implemented from time to time for the upkeep of the tribal people in India. Furthermore, in this paper, I would like to highlight and discuss the reasons behind the failure of the aforementioned programmes, policies and strategies. As a result of the improper implementation of the mentioned policies, schemes and programmes, the tribal citizens of India have been practically deprived of many civic facilities and are isolated from the modern and civilized way of living since so many decades. Keywords- Inequalities, Tribal Rights, India, Displacement, health, Illiteracy, Land Alienation

Kaveri Gill

This report is circumscribed in its aims, limiting itself to a subset of all that could be written about the status and situation of Scheduled Tribes in India today. An introduction in chapter 1 sets out demographics of the tribal population and the characteristics of their habitat, predominantly in mainland India. In chapter 2, we set out how the colonial State constructed and codified the ‘tribal’ and the ‘tribal area’, with a narrative of a civilising mission thinly disguising instrumental forays to support the security and economic needs of the Empire. The post-colonial State begins with an isolationist stance, but quickly reverts to the mode of the colonial State. We see in chapter 3, the use of the same categories of the ‘tribal’ and the ‘tribal area’—ostensibly for progressive policies and special dispensation—but increasingly such categories are used to further an integrationist agenda whereby their ‘modernisation’ and ‘development’ is closely shadowed by security imperatives. In chapter 4, we empirically examine how the Scheduled Tribes have been faring on poverty, deprivation and some other development indicators over the past two decades. Soon after India’s liberalisation, the 8th Five-Year Plan onwards, the post-colonial State formulated new institutional reform legislations, such as the Panchayat (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act in 1996 and Forest Rights Act in 2006, which are discussed in chapter 5. We show that while these legislations were envisaged to provide the tribal population complete autonomy to self-govern and to bestow upon them the rights to forests and forest produce, the actual experiences have been largely otherwise. We argue that the loss of these historical opportunities to address a long history of exploitation and misbegotten promises can be understood if one looks closely at the ultimate loci of power for the implementation of these legislations at the local government level; the forces of federalism, in so far as they allow states to compete in a race to the bottom; and the political economy of Indian capitalism. In chapter 6, we look at some other legislative and policy reforms—Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act 2013 and the Draft Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Bill 2011, which were aimed at fostering growth but in reality, affect the tribal population disproportionately and adversely. Looking at this trajectory, the recent ‘internal security’ initiative of the State (the Integrated Action Plan of the Eleventh Plan Period), as a response to violent resistance, seems—unfortunately—to be almost predestined. We conclude the report in chapter 7 with a few reflections on the political economy of capitalism, ‘development’, and resistance, as it plays out between a strongly interventionist State and the adivasis of mainland India.

Dr. Bijender Singh

IOSR Journals

The concept of 'tribe' has generated much debate in colonial and post colonial discourses, yet its contours lack explicit definition, despite its popular use in the discourses of social anthropologists, administrators, lawyers, tribal activists, politicians, and the government and international agencies. There has been more concern with the identification of tribes than with their definition in India. Popular discourse uses terms such as tribes, Scheduled Tribes, indigenous people, vanjati, adivasi and jana interchangeably. Nevertheless, each evokes different connotations and genealogies of use and representation in India. The concept of empowerment in its current usage is very new, as it does not find place in the Encyclopaedia, a number of dictionaries and glossaries of sociology textbooks. According to Biteille (1999:589)

sanjay khaparde

Satbir Singh

THIS paper seeks to understand the dynamics of exclusion and conflict among India’s Ādivāsīs or Scheduled Tribes (STs). At 8.4% of the population, STs are India’s most marginalised socio-economic group (Das 2011; Rath 2006). As double-digit economic growth sweeps India, Ādivāsīs have been largely left behind. Compounding socio-economic marginalisation, STs confront displacement and the undermining of distinctive cultures, identities and ancient livelihood patterns. As 160 of India’s 604 districts fall prey to a vi cious conflict, this paper argues that it is not just deprivation or displacement precipitating violence. Recourse to violence is instead prompted by both privation and the manner in which it is perpetuated: through the denial of citizen voice. To make this case, three hypotheses will be tested: 1. Development and rehabilitation policies fail because they do not respond to the felt-needs of tribal communities. 2. These shortcomings reflect the absence of tribal voices in the policy process. 3. Processes of primitive accumulation additionally involve the wilful denial of rights, emasculating tribals both economically and politically. It is thus posited, a fortiori, that the armed campaign is a tragic response to a more insidious form of violence: a political-economic system in which the costs of rapid industrialisation are borne by marginal groups, who are in turn denied the benefits of this ‘development’ and the means to counter these privations through non-violent forms of resistance.

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Home » Indian Geography » Indian Economic and Human Geography » Population and Growth trends – density, sex ratio, literacy, tribes and racial groups in India

Population and Growth trends – density, sex ratio, literacy, tribes and racial groups in India

Introduction

• A population is a distinct group of individuals, whether that group comprises a nation or a group of people with a common characteristic
• India covers only 2.4% of the land area of the world, but it is home to about 17.5% of the world population
• After 2030 , India is expected to be the most populous country in the world
• The below diagrammatic representation gives an idea of India’s dominant position, among the ten most populous countries of the world:

• A census count offers a spectrum of population at a particular point in time, covering a wide range of demographic, social and economic attributes of population
• The first complete and synchronous census covering the entire country and providing vital demographic data was conducted in 1881
• Since then, census has been conducted regularly after every 10 years
• The 2011 census represents the fifteenth census of India, as reckoned from 1872 and seventh after Independence

Growth of Population: Basic concepts

• This is the net change in population between two points of time, and is expressed in percentage
• The difference between the natural birth-rate and death-rate is called the natural growth of population
• This growth of population is caused by migration of people
• When birth rates are higher than death rates, or when people migrate in, it results in positive growth
• This happens, when birth rates are lower than death rates; and when people migrate out

Population growth in India

• These significant turning points are the census years of 1921, 1951 and 1981
• During most of the 19th century, India witnessed sporadic, irregular and slow growth of population which drifted to 20th century until 1921
• Thus, the population growth during this period can be termed as stagnant , when compared to the growth rates during consequent periods
• The high mortality during this period was the result of large scale deaths due to epidemics of influenza, plague, small pox, cholera, etc.
• In addition, food shortages, loss of Indian lives during first World War, emigration of people to Africa contributed to lesser population growth rate as well
• In fact, the census of 1921 recorded a negative growth rate of -0.31%, which happened only once throughout the demographic history of India
• It is because of this decline in population, that the year 1921 is called the ‘Demographic Divide’ in the demographic history of India
• Thus, this period is called the period of steady growth rate
• The decline of death rates during this time, can be attributed to the distribution system as well, where the improved transportation delivered timely supply of food, to drought and famine stricken areas
• Hence, population growth during this period is called the mortality induced growth
• After 1951. there was a steep fall in the mortality rate, but the fertility remained stubbornly high
• Therefore, this period experienced very high rate of population growth and is often referred to as the Period of Population explosion
• The living conditions of people improved enormously, and death rates declined
• Thus, this was fertility induced growth during this period
• Although the rate of growth was still very high, it started declining after 1981
• This declining trend marks the beginning of the new era in the country’s demographic history
• The declining trend of birth rates during this period, were due to the official efforts of the state in birth control and people’s own inclination for smaller families
• Although India’s population growth rate continues to decline since 1971( the year recorded highest ever growth rate of 2.48%/annum), yet India’s population growth rate is much higher as compared to that of China, USA, Brazil etc.

Indian Population growth in tune with classical theory of Demographic transition

• During most of the 19th century, India witnessed a fluctuating but stagnant growth of population, which drifted into the 20th century until 1921
• Thereafter, the country passed through all phases of demographic transition and is now widely believed to have entered the final phase, which is characterized by declining fertility
• However, the UN Department of Economics and Social Affairs has estimated that India’s population will continue to increase till 2050, after which it will start decreasing by the end of 21st century

Spatio-Temporal Variations in Population growth

• Hence the need to assess the spatio-temporal variations in population growth
• The phenomenon of low growth has spread beyond the boundaries of the southern states during 2001-11, where in addition to Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka in the south, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab in the north, West Bengal and Odisha in the east and Maharashtra in the west have registered growth rate between 11-16% in 2001-11
• Among smaller states and Union territories , Dadar and Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu registered the highest growth rate of 55.5% and 53.54% respectively, between 2001-11
• A glaring down trend in the growth rate has been observed in Nagaland , where there has been a steep fall in growth rate from 64.53% in 1991-2001, to negative growth rate of -0.47% in 2011 census
• This state has reached high level of demographic transition and can be compare to the advanced countries of Europe and America
• Other small states with higher growth rate are Meghalaya (27%) and Arunachal Pradesh(25%)

Growth of Child Population in Inida

• Child population in the age group of 0-6 years has special significance in our demographic scene, because this segment of population determines the future course of trends in population growth when it reaches the reproductive age
• According to the 2011 census figures, the total number of children in the age-group 0-6 years is 158.8 million
• Five states namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have the largest number of children constituting 52% of India’s child population

CENSUS 2021

• The Census of 2021 in India, will be a digital one
• It will be used to collect data by school teachers who will double up as enumerators during the Census exercise
• The ministry also said that a Census portal has been developed
• This is going to be 16th Census as reckoned from 1872 and eighth after Independence
• The individual will fill in the required details with the help of relevant codes for each field. After self-enumeration is done, an identification number will be sent on the registered number provided by the individual
• The same ID number can be shared with the enumerator, which will help the official to sync the data automatically
• However, The field activities related to thecensus 2021 exercise in the country have been postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic

Density of Population

• It is expressed as the number of people per unit area
• According to the census of 2011 ,the population density of India is 382 people/square km
• The main cause of worry is that the Indian population density has been consistently increasing since 1921

State level Patterns in India

For the sake of convenience, the spatial distribution of population density is classified into following categories

• Areas having 100 person/sq.km and less, are included in this category
• The states and UT under this category, along with the factors are as below:
• Areas having population density of 101-250 persons per sq.km are included in this class
• This class includes those areas having 251-500 people/sq.km
• These are areas having population density of 501-1000 people/sq.km
• Areas having more than 1000 persons per sq.km fall under this category
• Other UT in this category are Lakshadweep(2013), Daman & Diu(2169), Puducherry(2548), Chandigarh(9592)

The Map indicating the varying population density in India

• One of the most important aspects of India’s population is its uneven distribution
• While on the other hand, there are virtually demographic deserts in high mountains, arid lands, thickly forested areas and in some remote corners of the country

Major factors influencing the distribution and density of population

• This is a potent factor which influences the concentration and growth of population
• It is because of this reason, that Himalayas which occupy 13% of India’s land area, support only 1-2% of country’s population
• Also, the great plain of North India which cover less than one-fourth of country’s land area, is home to more than half of India’s population
• The twin elements of rainfall and temperature , play an important role in determining the population of an area
• Extremes of climate aren’t favorable, while a moderate climate favors population concentration
• As we move from Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the east, to the Thar desert in the west, the amount of rainfall and density of population decreases
• An exception to this, is the north-western region of India comprising of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, where high population concentration is evident because of the developed irrigation facilities
• Since India is a tropical country , temperature is fairly high and does not play as important role as is done by rainfall except in extreme areas
• This factor plays an important role in an overwhelmingly agricultural country like India
• Similarly, the coastal plains with fertile soils have high population density
• On other hand, deserts, mountains with infertile soil have lesser densities
• Water is a basic necessity for irrigation, industries, transport and domestic use
• And rivers are a greatest source of fresh water
• Hence, most population is concentrated in river valleys
• The higher population densities in the Chhota Nagpur plateau region, and adjoining regions of Odisha are largely due to availability of minerals
• Industrial growth offers massive employment opportunities and acts as a great magnet to attract people, resulting in higher densities
• Major causes of high density in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Maharashtra and Gujarat is the phenomenal growth of Industries in these states
• The northern plains of India has a dense network of transport routes and hence is a densely populated region
• The peninsular plateau has moderate network of transport routes, and is moderately populated area
• The Himalayan region badly lacks transport facilities, and is sparsely populated
• All urban areas are marked by high density of population, as evident in cities of Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai and Delhi

Distribution of Population in India

• These five states account for about half of the country’s population
• According to the 2011 Census
• Sikkim has the smallest population among all the Indian states
• Delhi with 16.75 million has the largest population among all the Union territories
• The complete scenario of population distribution in Indian states is as indicated below:

• The Population Commission of United Nations considers the ability, to both read and write a simple message with understanding in any language, a sufficient basis for classifying a person as Literate
• It was decided at the 1991 Census that all Children in the age group 0-6, would be treated as illiterate by definition and the population aged seven years and above only would be classified as literate or illiterate
• It should be noted clearly that, it is not necessary that to be treated as literate, a person should have received any formal education or acquired any minimum educational standard
• Crude Literacy rate = ((No of literate persons)/Total population)*100
• Effective literacy rate = ((Number of Literate persons aged 7 and above)/Population aged 7 and above)*100
• Here, Effective literacy rate and literacy rate will be used interchangeably

Literacy rate-Trends

• The corresponding figures for male and female are 82.14% and 65.46% respectively
• Overall improvement – 9.21%
• Improvement of literacy rate in male – 6.88%
• Improvement of literacy rate in female – 11.79%
• Literacy rate in urban areas was higher 87.7% than rural areas with 73.5%, according to 2011 Census

Literates and Illiterates by Gender

• One of the interesting feature of Census 2011 is that out of total literates added during the decade, females out number males
• The decadal(from 2001-2011) increase in number of literates among males is 31.98%; while the corresponding increase in case of females is of 49.1%
• The above two changes are a clear indication of the fact that gender gap in literacy is shrinking in the country
• Bihar(73.39%) state has recorded the lowest male literacy rate
• Rajasthan(52.66%) state has recorded the lowest female literacy rate

Regional Variations in Literacy Rates

• Kerala ranks first in the country with a literacy rate of 93.91%, closely followed by Lakshadweep (92.28%) and Mizoram(91.58%)
• Bihar with a literacy rate of 63.82% ranks last in the country, preceded by Arunachal Pradesh (66.95%) and Rajasthan(67.06%)
• The gap in literacy rates of males and females is lowest in Meghalaya (3.1 percentage points) and less than 5 percentage points in the States of Kerala and Mizoram and between 5 to 10 percentage points in A&N Island, Chandigarh, Goa, Lakshadweep Nagaland, Punjab and Tripura
• The gap in literacy rates of males and females is highest in the State of Rajasthan (27.1 percentage points) and much more in the States of Chhattisgarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand and Uttar Pradesh

Measures taken in India towards increasing Literacy rate

• Education of Minorities: Article 30 of the Indian Constitution gives all minorities the right to establish and administer institutions of their own choice
• Free and Compulsory Education: The Constitution of India (u/a 41, 45 and 46 of the Directive Principles of State Policy) instructs the state to ensure that all citizens receive free education
• The program was launched in 2001, and it aims to universalise education and improves its quality by time-bound implementation strategy and context-specific planning. It includes children from all social classes
• This plan was launched in 1995 to provide mid-day meals to children studying in primary class. The main objective of creating this scheme was to eliminate classroom hunger of children and to increase attendance and enrolment of children at schools
• The Right to Education (RTE) Act was enacted in 2009, and this Act made education for every child between 6 and 14 years a fundamental right
• The National Education Policy  2020, aims to achieve 100% youth and adult literacy.

Efforts needed to take India’s Literacy rate to greater heights

• We should focus on revamping curriculum and pedagogy to bring modern and innovative elements within it and making it a lot more rigorous.
• Create a national discourse and imperative around the importance of good quality school leadership. This will help in improving and maintaining school quality , nurturing a learning culture within schools, maintaining teacher motivation, ensuring respect for and involvement of all stakeholders
• Work on expanding the idea of good education. There is need to extend it beyond rote learning of concepts. It should largely focus on cognitive development to a belief that values the uniqueness of a child and the celebration of different definitions of ‘intelligence’.
• Extend the scope. With the Right to Education (RTE) Act now making primary education compulsory, there is need look at extending its scope to include pre-primary education (which is not there in all states).
• Our present day population is a conglomeration of people belonging to different racial groups with different backgrounds
• These people entered India from different parts of the world, at different points in time, adopting various land and water routes
• Almost all the major races of the world are visible in India, as a result of which the country is said to have a varied and diverse ethnic composition

Racial groups, from which the present day population of the country has been derived

• Also, they have expressed their view that Negroid people migrated to India from Africa and established their language on the soil of India
• The tribes like the Angami Nagas in the North-East, and Badgis in Rajmahal Hills in Jharkhand possess their traits
• The race is characterized by short stature, dark chocolate brown skin, woolly hair, bulbous forehead, broad flat nose and slightly protruding jaws
• These are believed to have come to India from the East Mediterranean area(Palestine), soon after the Negritos
• Presently, they constitute the bulk of the population in many isolated parts of central and southern India
• The Bhils, Kols, Badagas, Korwas, Mundas, Bhumjis of the highlands of the Central India and the Chenchus, Kurumbas, Malayans and Yeruvas of South India may all be treated as their representatives as well
• According to some Anthropologists, these people on their arrival pushed, displaced and supplanted the Negritos to shift to more inaccessible, remote and less hospitable areas, where they are found even today
• Their other physical characteristics are bulbous forehead, broad flat nose and slightly protruding jaws
• It is believed that China is the homeland of the Mongoloid race, from where they were pushed southward into the Malaya Peninsula and Indonesia
• They entered India through the passes in the northern and eastern mountains
• Presently, they occupy large areas in Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and other parts of East India
• Their physical characteristics include a round and broad head, face with very high cheek bones and a long flat nose, with little or no hair on the face and the body
• The tribes of Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Lipchas, Chakmas, Naga belong to this race
• Paleo-Mongoloids – They were the first of the Mongoloids who came to India. These people are settled mainly in the border areas of the Himalayas. They are found mostly in Assam and the adjacent states
• Tibeto-Mongoloids – These people came from Tibet and are settled mainly in Bhutan, Sikkim, areas of north-western Himalayas and beyond the Himalayas in which Ladakh and Baltistan are included.
• This racial stock came to India from eastern Mediterranean region or South West Asia
• They are believed to have migrated during the third and second millennium BC
• Their physical characteristics include medium stature, dark skin and long head
• In all probability, they first settled in North-western India and started practicing agriculture there; post which they were pushed into central and southern India by subsequent immigrants
• Presently, they form the bulk of population of south India and a considerable proportion in northern India
• The Mediterranean were the chief architect of the Indus Valley civilization as is evident from the excavations of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa
• These are characterized by Broad heads
• Coorgis and Parsis are their representatives in India
• Alpinoids , who came to India along the route passing through Baluchistan, Sind, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Maharashtra,, Karnataka and Tamilnadu
• Dinarics , who followed the Ganga Valley and its delta as their route to enter India
• Armenoids , who came through Chitral, Gilgit, Kashmir and Nepal to enter India
• They spoke the Aryan language and migrated to India sometime during the second millennium BC
• They are a predominant type in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
• The main characteristics of this race are long head, fair complexion, well developed nose and a well-built strong body

  INTRODUCTION

• It is an important social indicator to measure the extent of prevailing equity between males and females at a given point in time
• It also becomes important for various types of planning and for the analysis of other demographic characteristics such as mortality, migration, marital status, economic characteristics, etc.
• SEX RATIO is defined as ”number of females per 1000 males in the population”
• Thus, a sex ratio of 1000 implies complete parity between the two sexes
• Ratios above 1000 indicate excess of females over males; those below 1000 indicate a deficit of females
• Differences in mortality rates and life expectancy for women and men. Women, on average, live longer than men. This means that all else being equal, we would expect females to account for slightly more than half of the total population.
• In the absence of selective abortion practices, births in a given population are typically male-biased – the chances of having a boy are very slightly higher than having a girl.
• Migration can also affect the sex ratio of the population. If in some countries there is a significant amount of imported male-dominant labour, all else being equal, we would expect males to account for more than half of the total population

SEX-RATIO IN INDIA

• According to figures of 2011 Census, out of 1210.1 million population, 623.7 million are male and 586.4 million are females
• This suggests that the number of females is quite less as compared to males
• In other words, the sex ratio in the country had always remained unfavorable to females
• The sex-ratio was 933 in the previous census 2001.
• This is a worldwide phenomenon and India is no exception to this
• According to the findings of the Census of India, the imbalance in the number of males and females starts in the beginning
• It is now a well-established law of nature, that the males exceed females at the time of birth
• Many demographers believe that left to its own, this is an unalterable constant
• The preference for male child, leads to sex determination tests and the resultant termination of pregnancy in case fetus happens to be a female
• The pre-conception and pre-natal diagnostic Technique(Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, has failed to yield the desired result, because of its inherent loopholes and faulty implementation
• With small family norms , many young couples do not go for a second child, if the first child happens to be a male

State level patterns of Sex Ratio

• During the post-Independence period from 1951 to 2011, sex ratio in rural India has decreased from 965 to 946 and increased from 860 to 929 in urban India
• At all India level, the sex ratio has decreased from 946 in 1951 to 943 in 2011
• Notable increase has been recorded in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, (40.16%), Delhi (13.02%), Assam (10.34%) and West Bengal (9.82%). Contrary to this, 16 States/UTs have recorded significant decrease in Sex ratio.
• Notable decrease in sex ratio have been recorded in Daman & Diu (45.03%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli (18.19%), Goa (13.71%), Lakshadweep (9.25%) and Bihar (8.21%)

• the lowest sex ratio in India is in Haryana , where sex ratio is only 879 whereas the highest sex ratio is in Kerala (1084)
• If we talk about the sex ratio in the union territories; Puducherry has highest sex ratio of 1037 while Daman and Diu has lowest sex ratio (618) among all the union territories of India
• Position of the bottom five is occupied by the five Union Territories of India i.e. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
• Puducherry and Lakshadweep are the only two union territories which have sex ratio of more than 900 females per thousand males
• In 2011, in age groups 0-6, 0-19, 15-45 and 60+, sex ratio has been observed as 918, 908, 944 and 1033 respectively

Child Sex Ratio

• The Child Sex Ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the age group 0–6 years.
• In the census 2001 the child sex ratio of India was 927 which declined to 918 in the census 2011

• Among the Union Territories of India; Andaman and Nicobar Islands has the highest child sex ratio i.e.968 per thousand males
• The current child sex ratio is very critical for any demographic set up because, it is this sex ratio that will determine the overall sex ratio in the coming years
• Son preference and the belief that it is only the son who can perform the last rites, that lineage and inheritance runs through the male line, sons will look after parents in old age, men are the bread winners etc.
• Exorbitant dowry demand is another reason for female foeticide/infanticide
• Small family norm coupled with easy availability of sex determination tests may be a catalyst in the declining child sex ratio, further facilitated by easy availability of Pre-conception sex selection facilities.

Consequences of Low Child Sex Ratio

• This has led to a situation where, apart from the ingrained son preference, people don’t want girls all the more as they feel that it is difficult to keep them safe
• In a study done by the Centre for Social Research in Haryana, fear of violence is a cause for female foeticide
• Having lesser women of marriageable age will mean that a significant proportion of men will have to delay their marriage
• The reduced demographic share of women, in democratic regimes would translate into a weaker political voice in public decision-making, a trend that could be reinforced by women’s lessened involvement in non-domestic activities, such as outside employment and civil life

The steps taken to improve the sex ratio in India

• Complete ban under law on sex determination during pregnancy under the PCPDNT Act
• Declaring 24th January as the National Girl Child Day in 2012
• Sabla scheme launched on the International Women’s day in 2011, aims at enabling self-development and empowerment of adolescent girls, improving their health and nutrition status; and spreading awareness about health, hygiene, nutrition, reproductive health, family and child care
• Prevention of gender biased sex selective elimination
• Ensuring survival & protection of the girl child
• Ensuring education and participation of the girl child
• Rolling out campaigns on sensitisation towards women and children
• Effective implementation of the existing women- and children-related policies
• Improving women’s status in the society, could help change the bias for son preference
• Investing on education and economic prosperity could help empower women and reduce gender gap
• They are generally called Adivasi , implying original inhabitants
• Before the introduction of caste system during the Brahminic age, people were divided into various tribes
• A tribe was a homogenous and self-contained unit without any hierarchical discrimination
• For example, the Gonds are a Scheduled tribe in Madhya Pradesh, and are Scheduled caste in Uttar Pradesh
• Article 366 (25) defines scheduled tribes as “such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution”.
• Article 342 of the Indian Constitution provides for specification of tribes or tribal communities, which are deemed to be for the purposes of the Constitution of Scheduled tribes, in relation to that state or Union Territory

Growth of Tribal Population

• The demographic study of tribal population has suffered seriously, due to the adoption of arbitrary criteria for ‘scheduling’ the tribes
• The modification order of 1956, enumerated more tribal people, and in total they accounted for 23% of total population of the country at that time
• 97% of them live in rural areas and 10.03% in urban areas
• The decadal population growth of the tribals from Census 2001 to 2011 has been 23.66% against the 17.69% of the entire population
• The sex ratio for the overall population is 940 females per 1000 males and that of Scheduled Tribes 990 females per thousand males
• There has been a rapid natural growth of tribal population
• Additions have been made to the list of Scheduled tribes time and again

Distribution of Scheduled Tribes

• Thus, most of tribal communities live in hilly and forested tracts and other remote areas of the country
• However, their interaction with non-tribal people after Independence has changed the scenario to some extent

State level patterns

• While as much as 94.43% of total population in Mizoram and 94.79% in Lakshadweep belong to Scheduled Tribes
• Nagaland (86.48%)
• Meghalaya (86.15%)
• Arunachal Pradesh (68.79%)
• Gujarat, Assam, Rajasthan, Jammu-Kashmir region and Goa are the four major states in which more than 10% of the population belong to Scheduled tribes
• Roughly one-third of the Scheduled tribes population of India lives in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Odisha
• Going by absolute numbers, the Scheduled Tribes population was the highest in Madhya Pradesh, followed by Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Jharkhand and so on

The complete list of name of tribes, along with their location in India, can be found on the below link:  tribal.nic.in

Tribal Economy

• The dominant economies of the tribes are:
• The main tribes which practice these professions are the Raji in Uttar Pradesh; Kharia, Birhor, Korwa, Pariha and Birgias in Jharkhand; Kuki in West Bengal; Bhil in Rajasthan; Konyak and Naga in Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh; etc.
• After 2-3 years, the fertility of the soil is reduced and the farmer shifts to another piece of land
• It is called Jhum in North-East India, Kumari in Western Ghats, Watra in South-East Rajasthan; penda, bewar, dahia and deppa in different parts of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh
• Lumbering involved obtaining wood from forests
• Main tribes involved in shifting cultivation and lumbering are Bhutias in Uttar Pradesh; Korwa in Jharkhand; Bhil in Maharashtra and Gujarat; Naga, Chakmas, Garo, Notia in North eastern states; etc.
• This is generally practiced along with Animal Husbandry
• Main tribes adopting these are Tharu, Bhotias in Uttar Pradesh; Santhal, Polia and Bhumji in West Bengal; Irula in Tamilnadu; Bhil in Maharashtra; etc.

Challenges faced by Indian tribes

• With the advent of industrialisation in India and the discovery of mineral and other resources in tribal inhabited areas, the tribal pockets were thrown open to outsiders and state control replaced tribal control.
• With the impetus to the development process after independence, pressure on land and forests increased
• This resulted in loss of ownership rights over land, owing to chronic indebtedness, unscrupulous landlords, money­lenders, contractors and officials
• With the concepts of protected forests and national forests gaining currency, the tribals felt themselves uprooted from their cultural moorings and with no secure means of livelihood.
• As per Census 2011, literacy rate of Scheduled Tribes (STs) was  59%
• The factors which inhibit the tribals from taking to education are superstitions and prejudices, extreme poverty, nomadic lifestyle of certain tribes, lack of interest in alien subjects taught through an alien language and a lack of suitable teachers and other facilities in the tribal areas.
• Because of economic backwardness and insecure livelihood, the tribals face health problems, such as prevalence of disease, like malaria, cholera, tuberculosis, diarrhoea and jaundice, problems associated with malnutrition like iron deficiency and anaemia, high infant mortality rates, low levels of life expectancy, etc.
• The degradation of the natural environment, particularly through the destruction of forests and a rapidly shrinking resource base, has had its impact on the status of women
• The opening of the tribal belts to mining, industries and commercialisation has exposed tribal men and women to the ruthless operations of the market economy, giving rise to consumerism and to commoditisation of women.

Measures taken towards Tribal Development

• Article 342 lays down that the President may by public notification, specify the tribes or tribal communities or part of or groups within tribes or tribal communities or parts which shall for the purpose of this Constitution deemed to be Scheduled Tribes
• Article 164 provides for a Ministry of Tribal Welfare in each of the State of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa which have large concentration of Scheduled Tribes population
• Article 244 provides for the inclusion of a Fifth Schedule in the Constitution for incorporating provisions for the administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribes of the States which have sizeable tribal population (other than those of Assam)
• Article 275 provides for the grant of special funds by the Union Government to State Government for promoting the welfare of Scheduled Tribes and providing them with a better administration.
• Under Article 330 and 332 of the Indian Constitution, seats have been reserved for Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha and state Vidhan Sabhas.
• Following the introduction of Panchayati Raj, Suitable safeguards have been provided for proper representation of the members of the Scheduled Tribes by reserving seats for them in the Gram Panchayats, Block Panchayats, District Panchayats etc.
• Exemption in age limits
• Relaxation in the standard of suitability
• Under Article 338 of Indian Constitution a Commissioner has been appointed by the President of India. The main duty of the Commissioner is
• to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution and
• to report the President on working of these safeguards.
• The scheme of Mechanism for Marketing of Minor Forest Produce (MFP) through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and Development of Value Chain for MFP covers various activities including procurement of MFPs when their market price falls below their notified MSP, setting up/expansion of storage facilities, expanding the knowledge base on MFP, training for sustainable collection, value addition, etc.
• Pre Matric Scholarship Scheme for ST students
• Post Matric Scholarship Scheme for ST students
• National Overseas Scholarship for ST students for studying abroad.
• National Fellowship and Scholarship for Higher Education of ST students
• Grants-in-aid to Voluntary Organisations Working for welfare of STs
• Strengthening Education among ST Girls in Low Literacy Districts
• Development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)
• Special Central Assistance(SCA) to Tribal Sub-Scheme(TSS)
• Grants-in-aid to Tribal Research Institutes
• Research Information & Mass Education, Tribal Festival and Others

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