reference in an essay

How to Reference in an Essay (9 Strategies of Top Students)

Are you feeling overwhelmed by referencing?

When you’re first asked to do referencing in an essay it can be hard to get your head around it. If it’s been a while since you were first taught how to reference, it can be intimidating to ask again how to do it!

I have so many students who consistently lose marks just because they didn’t get referencing right! They’re either embarrassed to ask for extra help or too lazy to learn how to solve the issues.

So, here’s a post that will help you solve the issues on your own.

Already think you’re good at referencing? No worries. This post goes through some surprising and advanced strategies for anyone to improve no matter what level you are at!

In this post I’m going to show you exactly how to reference in an essay. I’ll explain why we do it and I’ll show you 9 actionable tips on getting referencing right that I’m sure you will not have heard anywhere else!

The post is split into three parts:

• What is a Reference and What is a Citation?
• Why Reference? (4 Things you Should Know)
• How to Reference (9 Strategies of Top Students)

If you think you’ve already got a good understanding of the basics, you can jump to our 9 Advanced Strategies section.

Part 1: What is a Reference and What is a Citation?

What is a citation.

An in-text mention of your source. A citation is a short mention of the source you got the information from, usually in the middle or end of a sentence in the body of your paragraph. It is usually abbreviated so as not to distract the reader too much from your own writing. Here’s two examples of citations. The first is in APA format. The second is in MLA format:

• APA: Archaeological records trace the original human being to equatorial Africa about 250,000–350,000 years ago (Schlebusch & Jakobsson, 2018) .
• MLA: Archaeological records trace the original human being to equatorial Africa about 250,000–350,000 years ago (Schlebusch and Jakobsson 1) .

In APA format, you’ve got the authors and year of publication listed. In MLA format, you’ve got the authors and page number listed. If you keep reading, I’ll give some more tips on formatting further down in this article.

And a Reference is:

What is a Reference?

A reference is the full details of a source that you list at the end of the article. For every citation (see above) there needs to be a corresponding reference at the end of the essay showing more details about that source. The idea is that the reader can see the source in-text (i.e. they can look at the citation) and if they want more information they can jump to the end of the page and find out exactly how to go about finding the source.

Here’s how you would go about referencing the Schlebusch and Jakobsson source in a list at the end of the essay. Again, I will show you how to do it in APA and MLA formats:

• APA: Schlebusch, C. & Jakobsson, M. (2018). Tales of Human Migration, Admixture, and Selection in Africa. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics , 11 (33), 1–24.
• MLA: Schlebusch, Carina and Mattias Jakobsson. “Tales of Human Migration, Admixture, and Selection in Africa.” Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics , vol. 11, no. 33, 2018, pp. 1–24.

In strategy 1 below I’ll show you the easiest and fool proof way to write these references perfectly every time.

One last quick note: sometimes we say ‘reference’ when we mean ‘citation’. That’s pretty normal. Just roll with the punches. It’s usually pretty easy to pick up on what our teacher means regardless of whether they use the word ‘reference’ or ‘citation’.

Part 2: Why Reference in an Essay? (4 Things you Should Know)

Referencing in an essay is important. By the time you start doing 200-level courses, you probably won’t pass the course unless you reference appropriately. So, the biggest answer to ‘why reference?’ is simple: Because you Have To!

Okay let’s be serious though … here’s the four top ‘real’ reasons to reference:

1. Referencing shows you Got an Expert’s Opinion

You can’t just write an essay on what you think you know. This is a huge mistake of beginning students. Instead this is what you need to do:

Top Tip: Essays at university are supposed to show off that you’ve learned new information by reading the opinions of experts.

Every time you place a citation in your paragraph, you’re showing that the information you’re presenting in that paragraph was provided to you by an expert. In other words, it means you consulted an expert’s opinion to build your knowledge.

If you have citations throughout the essay with links to a variety of different expert opinions, you’ll show your marker that you did actually genuinely look at what the experts said with an open mind and considered their ideas.

This will help you to grow your grades.

2. Referencing shows you read your Assigned Readings

Your teacher will most likely give you scholarly journal articles or book chapters to read for homework between classes. You might have even talked about those assigned readings in your seminars and tutorials.

Great! The assigned readings are very important to you.

You should definitely cite the assigned readings relevant to your essay topic in your evaluative essay (unless your teacher tells you not to). Why? I’ll explain below.

• Firstly, the assigned readings were selected by your teacher because your teacher (you know, the person who’s going to mark your essay) believes they’re the best quality articles on the topic. Translation: your teacher gave you the best source you’re going to find. Make sure you use it!
• Secondly, by citing the assigned readings you are showing your teacher that you have been paying attention throughout the course. You are showing your teacher that you have done your homework, read those assigned readings and paid attention to them. When my students submit an essay that has references to websites, blogs, wikis and magazines I get very frustrated. Why would you cite low quality non-expert sources like websites when I gave you the expert’s article!? Really, it frustrates me so, so much.

So, cite the assigned readings to show your teacher you read the scholarly articles your teacher gave to you. It’ll help you grow your marks.

3. Referencing deepens your Knowledge

Okay, so you understand that you need to use referencing to show you got experts’ opinions on the topic.

But there’s more to it than that. There’s actually a real benefit for your learning.

If you force yourself to cite two expert sources per paragraph, you’re actually forcing yourself to get two separate pieces of expert knowledge. This will deepen your knowledge!

So, don’t treat referencing like a vanity exercise to help you gain more marks. Actually view it as an opportunity to develop deeper understandings of the topic!

When you read expert sources, aim to pick up on some new gems of knowledge that you can discuss in your essays. Some things you should look out for when finding sources to reference:

• Examples that link ideas to real life. Do the experts provide real-life examples that you can mention in your essay?
• Facts and figures. Usually experts have conducted research on a topic and provide you with facts and figures from their research. Use those facts and figures to deepen your essay!
• Short Quotes. Did your source say something in a really interesting, concise or surprising way? Great! You can quote that source in your essay .
• New Perspectives. Your source might give you another perspective, angle or piece of information that you can add to your paragraph so that it’s a deep, detailed and interesting paragraph.

So, the reason we ask you to reference is at the end of the day because it’s good for you: it helps you learn!

4. Referencing backs up your Claims

You might think you already know a ton of information about the topic and be ready to share your mountains of knowledge with your teacher. Great!

So, should you still reference?

Yes. Definitely.

You need to show that you’re not the only person with your opinion. You need to ‘stand on the shoulders of giants.’ Show what other sources have said about your points to prove that experts agree with you.

You should be saying: this is my opinion and it’s based on facts, expert opinions and deep, close scrutiny of all the arguments that exist out there .

If you make a claim that no one else has made, your teacher is going to be like “Have you even been reading the evidence on this topic?” The answer, if there are no citations is likely: No. You haven’t.

Even if you totally disagree with the experts, you still need to say what their opinions are! You’ll need to say: “This is the experts’ opinions. And this is why I disagree.”

So, yes, you need to reference to back up every claim. Try to reference twice in every paragraph to achieve this.

Part 3: Strategies for How to Reference in an Essay (9 Strategies of Top Students)

Let’s get going with our top strategies for how to reference in an essay! These are strategies that you probably haven’t heard elsewhere. They work for everyone – from beginner to advanced! Let’s get started:

1. Print out your Reference Style Cheat Sheet

Referencing is hard and very specific. You need to know where to place your italics, where the commas go and whether to use an initial for full name for an author.

There are so many details to get right.

And here’s the bad news: The automated referencing apps and websites nearly always get it wrong! They tell you they can generate the citation for you. The fact of the matter is: they can’t!

Here’s the best way to get referencing right: Download a referencing cheat sheet and have it by your side while writing your essay.

Your assignment outline should tell you what type of referencing you should use. Different styles include: APA Style, MLA Style, Chicago Style, Harvard Style, Vancouver Style … and many more!

You need to find out which style you need to use and download your cheat sheet. You can jump onto google to find a cheat sheet by typing in the google bar:

Download a pdf version of the referencing style cheat sheet, print it out, and place it on your pinboard or by your side when writing your essay.

2. Only cite Experts

There are good and bad sources to cite in an essay.

You should only cite sources written, critiqued and edited by experts. This shows that you have got the skill of finding information that is authoritative. You haven’t just used information that any old person popped up on their blog. You haven’t just gotten information from your local newspaper. Instead, you got information from the person who is an absolute expert on the topic.

Here’s an infographic listing sources that you should and shouldn’t cite. Feel free to share this infographic on social media, with your teachers and your friends:

3. Always use Google Scholar

Always. Use. Google. Scholar.

Ten years ago students only had their online university search database to find articles. Those university databases suck. They rarely find the best quality sources and there’s always a big mix of completely irrelevant sources mixed in there.

Google Scholar is better at finding the sources you want. That’s because it looks through the whole article abstract and analyses it to see if it’s relevant to your search keywords. By contrast, most university search databases rely only on the titles of articles.

Use the power of the best quality search engine in the world to find scholarly sources .

Note: Google and Google Scholar are different search engines.

To use Google Scholar, go to: https://scholar.google.com

Then, search on google scholar using keywords. I’m going to search keywords for an essay on the topic: “What are the traits of a good nurse?”

If you really like the idea of that first source, I recommend copying the title and trying your University online search database. Your university may give you free access.

4. Cite at least 50% sources you found on your Own Research

Okay, so I’ve told you that you should cite both assigned readings and readings you find from Google Scholar.

Here’s the ideal mix of assigned sources and sources that you found yourself: 50/50.

Your teacher will want to see that you can use both assigned readings and do your own additional research to write a top essay . This shows you’ve got great research skills but also pay attention to what is provided in class.

I recommend that you start with the assigned readings and try to get as much information out of them, then find your own additional sources beyond that using Google Scholar.

So, if your essay has 10 citations, a good mix is 5 assigned readings and 5 readings you found by yourself.

5. Cite Newer Sources

As a general rule, the newer the source the better .

The best rule of thumb that most teachers follow is that you should aim to mostly cite sources from the past 10 years . I usually accept sources from the past 15 years when marking essays.

However, sometimes you have a really great source that’s 20, 30 or 40 years old. You should only cite these sources if they’re what we call ‘seminal texts’. A seminal text is one that was written by an absolute giant in your field and revolutionized the subject.

Here’s some examples of seminal authors whose old articles you would be able to cite despite the fact that they’re old:

• Education: Vygotsky, Friere, Piaget
• Sociology: Weber, Marx, C. Wright Mills
• Psychology: Freud, Rogers, Jung

Even if I cite seminal authors, I always aim for at least 80% of my sources to have been written in the past 10 years.

6. Reference twice per Paragraph

How much should you reference?

Here’s a good strategy: Provide two citations in every paragraph in the body of the essay.

It’s not compulsory to reference in the introduction and conclusion . However, in all the other paragraphs, aim for two citations.

Let’s go over the key strategies for achieving this:

• These two citations should be to different sources, not the same sources twice;
• Two citations per paragraph shows your points are backed up by not one, but two expert sources;
• Place one citation in the first half of the paragraph and one in the second half. This will indicate to your marker that all the points in the whole paragraph are backed up by your citations.

This is a good rule of thumb for you when you’re not sure when and how often to reference. When you get more confident with your referencing, you can mix this up a little.

7. The sum total of your sources should be minimum 1 per 150 words

You can, of course, cite one source more than once throughout the essay. You might cite the same source in the second, fourth and fifth paragraphs. That’s okay.

But, you don’t want your whole essay to be based on a narrow range of sources. You want your marker to see that you have consulted multiple sources to get a wide range of information on the topic. Your marker wants to know that you’ve seen a range of different opinions when coming to your conclusions.

When you get to the end of your essay, check to see how many sources are listed in the end-text reference list. A good rule of thumb is 1 source listed in the reference list per 150 words. Here’s how that breaks down by essay size:

• 1500 word essay: 10 sources (or more) listed in the reference list
• 2000 word essay: 13 sources (or more) listed in the reference list
• 3000 word essay: 20 sources (or more) listed in the reference list
• 5000 word essay: 33 sources (or more) listed in the reference list

8. Instantly improve your Reference List with these Three Tips

Here’s two things you can do to instantly improve your reference list. It takes less than 20 seconds and gives your reference list a strong professional finish:

a) Ensure the font size and style are the same

You will usually find that your whole reference list ends up being in different font sizes and styles. This is because you tend to copy and paste the titles and names in the citations from other sources. If you submit the reference list with font sizes and styles that are not the same as the rest of the essay, the piece looks really unprofessional.

So, quickly highlight the whole reference list and change its font to the same font size and style as the rest of your essay. The screencast at the end of Step 8 walks you through this if you need a hand!

b) List your sources in alphabetical order.

Nearly every referencing style insists that references be listed in alphabetical order. It’s a simple thing to do before submitting and makes the piece look far more professional.

If you’re using Microsoft Word, simply highlight your whole reference list and click the A>Z button in the toolbar. If you can’t see it, you need to be under the ‘home’ tab (circled below):

You’ve probably never heard of a hanging indent. It’s a style where the second line of the reference list is indented further from the left-hand side of the page than the first line. It’s a strategy that’s usually used in reference lists provided in professional publications.

If you use the hanging indent, your reference list will look far more professional.

Here’s a quick video of me doing it for you:

9. Do one special edit especially for Referencing Style

The top students edit their essays three to five times spaced out over a week or more before submitting. One of those edits should be specifically for ensuring your reference list adheres to the referencing style that your teacher requires.

To do this, I recommend you get that cheat sheet printout that I mentioned in Step 1 and have it by your side while you read through the piece. Pay special attention to the use of commas, capital letters, brackets and page numbers for all citations. Also pay attention to the reference list: correct formatting of the reference list can be the difference between getting the top mark in the class and the fifth mark in the class. At the higher end of the marking range, things get competitive and formatting of the reference list counts.

A Quick Summary of the 9 Top Strategies…

Follow the rules of your referencing style guide (and that cheat sheet I recommended!) and use the top 9 tips above to improve your referencing and get top marks. Not only will your referencing look more professional, you’ll probably increase the quality of the content of your piece as well when you follow these tips!

Here’s a final summary of the 9 top tips:

Strategies for How to Reference in an Essay (9 Strategies of Top Students)

• Print out your Reference Style Cheat Sheet
• Only cite Experts
• Always use Google Scholar
• Cite at least 50% sources you found on your Own Research
• Cite Newer Sources
• Reference twice per Paragraph
• The sum total of your sources should be minimum 1 per 150 words
• Instantly improve your Reference List with these Three Tips
• Do one special edit especially for Referencing Style

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 50 Durable Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 100 Consumer Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 30 Globalization Pros and Cons

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How to Write an Academic Essay with References and Citations

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Written by  Scribendi

If you're wondering how to write an academic essay with references, look no further. In this article, we'll discuss how to use in-text citations and references, including how to cite a website, how to cite a book, and how to cite a Tweet, according to various style guides.

You might need to cite sources when writing a paper that references other sources. For example, when writing an essay, you may use information from other works, such as books, articles, or websites. You must then inform readers where this information came from. Failure to do so, even accidentally, is plagiarism—passing off another person's work as your own.

You can avoid plagiarism and show readers where to find information by using citations and references. 

Citations tell readers where a piece of information came from. They take the form of footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical elements, depending on your style guide. In-text citations are usually placed at the end of a sentence containing the relevant information. 

A reference list , bibliography, or works cited list at the end of a text provides additional details about these cited sources. This list includes enough publication information allowing readers to look up these sources themselves.

Referencing is important for more than simply avoiding plagiarism. Referring to a trustworthy source shows that the information is reliable. Referring to reliable information can also support your major points and back up your argument. 

Learning how to write an academic essay with references and how to use in-text citations will allow you to cite authors who have made similar arguments. This helps show that your argument is objective and not entirely based on personal biases.

How Do You Determine Which Style Guide to Use?

Often, a professor will assign a style guide. The purpose of a style guide is to provide writers with formatting instructions. If your professor has not assigned a style guide, they should still be able to recommend one. 

If you are entirely free to choose, pick one that aligns with your field (for example, APA is frequently used for scientific writing). 

Some of the most common style guides are as follows:

AP style for journalism

Chicago style for publishing

APA style for scholarly writing (commonly used in scientific fields)

MLA style for scholarly citations (commonly used in English literature fields)

Some journals have their own style guides, so if you plan to publish, check which guide your target journal uses. You can do this by locating your target journal's website and searching for author guidelines.

How Do You Pick Your Sources?

When learning how to write an academic essay with references, you must identify reliable sources that support your argument. 

As you read, think critically and evaluate sources for:

Objectivity

Keep detailed notes on the sources so that you can easily find them again, if needed.

Tip: Record these notes in the format of your style guide—your reference list will then be ready to go.

How to Use In-Text Citations in MLA

An in-text citation in MLA includes the author's last name and the relevant page number: 

(Author 123)

How to Cite a Website in MLA

Here's how to cite a website in MLA:

Author's last name, First name. "Title of page."

Website. Website Publisher, date. Web. Date

retrieved. <URL>

With information from a real website, this looks like:

Morris, Nancy. "How to Cite a Tweet in APA,

Chicago, and MLA." Scribendi. Scribendi

Inc., n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2021.

<https://www.scribendi.com/academy/articles/how_to_cite_a_website.en.html>

How Do You Cite a Tweet in MLA ?

MLA uses the full text of a short Tweet (under 140 characters) as its title. Longer Tweets can be shortened using ellipses. 

MLA Tweet references should be formatted as follows:

@twitterhandle (Author Name). "Text of Tweet." Twitter, Date Month, Year, time of

publication, URL.

With information from an actual Tweet, this looks like:

@neiltyson (Neil deGrasse Tyson). "You can't use reason to convince anyone out of an

argument that they didn't use reason to get into." Twitter, 29 Sept. 2020, 10:15 p.m.,

https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/1311127369785192449 .

How to Cite a Book in MLA

Here's how to cite a book in MLA:

Author's last name, First name. Book Title. Publisher, Year.

With publication information from a real book, this looks like:

Montgomery, L.M. Rainbow Valley. Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1919.

How to Cite a Chapter in a Book in MLA

Author's last name, First name. "Title of Chapter." Book Title , edited by Editor Name,

Publisher, Year, pp. page range.

With publication information from an actual book, this looks like:

Ezell, Margaret J.M. "The Social Author: Manuscript Culture, Writers, and Readers." The

Broadview Reader in Book History , edited by Michelle Levy and Tom Mole, Broadview

Press, 2015,pp. 375–394.

How to  Cite a Paraphrase in MLA

You can cite a paraphrase in MLA exactly the same way as you would cite a direct quotation. 

Make sure to include the author's name (either in the text or in the parenthetical citation) and the relevant page number.

How to Use In-Text Citations in APA

In APA, in-text citations include the author's last name and the year of publication; a page number is included only if a direct quotation is used: 

(Author, 2021, p. 123)

How to Cite a Website in APA

Here's how to cite a website in APA:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year, Month. date of publication). Title of page. https://URL

Morris, N. (n.d.). How to cite a Tweet in APA, Chicago, and MLA. 

https://www.scribendi.com/academy/articles/how_to_cite_a_website.en.html       

Tip: Learn more about how to write an academic essay with  references to websites .

How Do You  Cite a Tweet in APA ?

APA refers to Tweets using their first 20 words. 

Tweet references should be formatted as follows:

Author, A. A. [@twitterhandle). (Year, Month. date of publication). First 20 words of the

Tweet. [Tweet] Twitter. URL

When we input information from a real Tweet, this looks like:

deGrasse Tyson, N. [@neiltyson]. (2020, Sept. 29). You can't use reason to convince anyone

out of an argument that they didn't use reason to get into. [Tweet] Twitter.

https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/1311127369785192449

How to Cite a Book in APA

Here's how to cite a book in APA:   

Author, A. A. (Year). Book title. Publisher.

For a real book, this looks like:

Montgomery, L. M. (1919). Rainbow valley.

Frederick A. Stokes Company.

How to Cite a Chapter in a Book in APA

Author, A. A. (Year). Chapter title. In Editor Name (Ed.), Book Title (pp. page range).

With information from a real book, this looks like:

Ezell, M. J. M. (2014). The social author: Manuscript culture, writers, and readers. In

Michelle Levy and Tom Mole (Eds.), The Broadview Reader in Book History (pp. 375–

394). Broadview Press.

Knowing how to cite a book and how to cite a chapter in a book correctly will take you a long way in creating an effective reference list.

How to Cite a Paraphrase in APA

You can cite a paraphrase in APA the same way as you would cite a direct quotation, including the author's name and year of publication. 

In APA, you may also choose to pinpoint the page from which the information is taken.

Referencing is an essential part of academic integrity. Learning how to write an academic essay with references and how to use in-text citations shows readers that you did your research and helps them locate your sources.

Learning how to cite a website, how to cite a book, and how to cite a paraphrase can also help you avoid plagiarism —an academic offense with serious consequences for your education or professional reputation.

Scribendi can help format your citations or review your whole paper with our Academic Editing services .

Take Your Essay from Good to Great

Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample, about the author.

Scribendi's in-house editors work with writers from all over the globe to perfect their writing. They know that no piece of writing is complete without a professional edit, and they love to see a good piece of writing transformed into a great one. Scribendi's in-house editors are unrivaled in both experience and education, having collectively edited millions of words and obtained numerous degrees. They love consuming caffeinated beverages, reading books of various genres, and relaxing in quiet, dimly lit spaces.

Have You Read?

"The Complete Beginner's Guide to Academic Writing"

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How to Reference Essays

Last Updated: January 8, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Alexander Peterman, MA . Alexander Peterman is a Private Tutor in Florida. He received his MA in Education from the University of Florida in 2017. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 365,615 times.

When you begin writing a research essay, you must take into account the format of your writing and reference pages. There are several reference styles that may be assigned to you, including MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological Association), and Chicago. Each one has its own set of rules. There's no need to familiarize yourself with all 3 unless you have to, but you do need to learn at least one if you’re in any field involving academic writing. Here are summaries of each style to help you start your essay on the right track.

Referencing Essays Templates

• You will need a citation directly after every sentence (or group of sentences if you're citing the same source in multiple consecutive sentences) containing information you didn't think of yourself. These include: paraphrases, facts, statistics, quotes, and examples.
• An in-text citation using MLA will simply have the author last name (or title if no author) followed by the page number. No comma between author and page number. For example: (Richards 456) Richards is the author last name, and 456 is the page number.
• If you have an author name (or title, if no author) but no page number, simply use author last name (or title).

• The easiest way to keep track of MLA citations while doing research is to copy and paste copyright information into a word processing document as you go, or to write it down in a notebook.
• Things to include for any source are author(s), date published, publisher, page number, volume and issue number, website, date accessed, anything that appears on the copyright page or indicates how to find it again. [2] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source

• As an example, the format for a standard book citation using MLA style is as follows: Last name of author, First name. Title of Book. City published: Publisher Name, Year published. Source Medium.
• An MLA website citation looks like the following. If there's no author listed, begin citation with the name of the page: Last name, first name. "Page Title." Website Title. Publisher. Date published. Source Medium. Date accessed.
• An MLA scholarly article citation looks like the following: Last name, First name. "Title of Article." Title of Journal . Volume.Issue (Year): page numbers. Source Medium.
• Write the title of the main work (book, magazine, journal, website, etc.) in italics, or underline if you’re writing references by hand.
• Chapter or article titles should be in quotation marks.

• If there is no author listed, as is common on websites, simply skip the author’s name and begin the entry with the title of the work.
• Alphabetize by the first letter that appears in the entry, whether it has an author name or not.

• The formatting should be in Times New Roman font, size 12, with “Works Cited” centered at the top of a new page.
• Each entry should have hanging indent, meaning all lines below the first line are indented by half an inch.
• Make sure there is a period after each section of the citations. A period should always end the citation.

• Place a parenthetical citation at the end of every sentence (or group of sentences if you're using the same source for multiple consecutive sentences) containing information you didn't know before doing research.
• An in-text citation using APA will simply have the author last name (or title if no author) followed by the year it was published. No comma between name and year. For example: (Richards 2005) Richards is the author last name, and 2005 is the year.
• If you have an author name (or title if no author) but no page number, simply use author last name (or title). This is common when citing websites.
• APA document formatting is very important. APA papers are divided up into 4 sections: the title page, the abstract, the main body, and the references page. The citations of a research paper using APA appear in the References section, the last portion of an APA document. [7] X Research source

• To form APA reference page citations, you will need such information as author name(s), date published, website URL, date you accessed the website, title of work, and so on. [8] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source

• For example, the format for an APA reference of a scholarly journal article is as follows: Author last name, First initial. (Year published). Article or chapter title. Journal or book title, Issue number , page number range. [10] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• The format for an APA book reference looks like: Last name, First name. (Year.) Title of Book: Capital letter also for subtitle . Location: Publisher.
• The format for an APA website reference looks like: Author, A.A. First name, & Author, B.B. (Date published.) Title of article. In Title of webpage or larger document or book (chapter or section number). Retrieved from URL address

• Capitalize the author's last name and first initial, followed by a period.
• Only capitalize the first word of a journal article title, unless the title contains a proper noun (called sentence case). Titles of books should preserve the published capitalization.
• Capitalize the city of publication, and use correct state abbreviations for states. Also capitalize the name of the publisher and end the reference with a period.
• The title of larger works, whether a book, journal, website, or magazine, is in italics (or underlined if handwriting), as is the issue number that appears right after the title. Titles for shorter works like articles and chapters should not have any indicative punctuation in an APA entry. [12] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• A period should end all citations.

Using Chicago Manual of Style

• For Notes and Bibliography, you will use a superscript at the instance of each quote in the text with a corresponding footnote at the end of the page. All footnotes are compiled into endnotes at the end of the work, on the bibliography page. [14] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• For Author Date, you will use parenthetical in-text citations that include author last name and year published, using no punctuation between name and year. The full version of each parenthetical citation is listed alphabetically on the references page. For example: (Simon 2011) Simon is the author last name, and 2011 is the year.
• You will need a citation directly after every sentence (or group of sentences if you're using the same source for multiple consecutive sentences) containing information you didn't think of yourself. These include: paraphrases, facts, statistics, quotes, and examples.

• If using a book, write down all pertinent information found on the copyright page, including the name of the publisher and the city and year of publication.
• For other sources, look for this information near the title of the piece you’re looking at. Publication date is often at the bottom of webpages.

• Title your references page “Bibliography” centered at the top of the page. Leave 2 blank lines between this title and the first entry, and one blank line between entries.
• Notes and Bibliography style uses footnotes for page endings and endnotes for chapter endings. The bibliography page will be an alphabetized list of all sources in hanging indent.
• An example format for a book is as follows: Last name, First name. Book Title . City: Publisher, Year.
• An example format for a chapter in a print scholarly journal is as follows: Author last name, first name. "Title of Chapter or Article." Book or journal Title Issue Number (Year): Page number range. (For an online scholarly journal article, tack on the following at the end: Date accessed. URL address.)
• When there is no known author, the entry should begin with the title of the document, whether it's a webpage, chapter, article, and so on.
• When there are multiple authors, the first listed author appears last name, first name, so that the citation is alphabetized by this author's last name. Subsequent authors are listed by first name, like this: Alcott, Louisa May, Charles Dickens, and Elizabeth Gaskell.
• Always end a citation with a period.

• When using Author Date style, title your references page “References” centered at the top of the page. Leave 2 blank lines between this title and the first entry, and 1 blank line between entries.
• Author Date style bibliographies should be organized alphabetically by last name (or by title if no author) in hanging indent.
• An example format for a book is as follows: Last name, first name. Year. Book Title . City Published: Publisher.
• An example format for a chapter in a print scholarly journal is as follows: Author last name, first name. Year. "Title of Chapter or Article." Book or journal title issue number: page numbers. (for an online scholarly journal article tack this onto the end: Date accessed. URL address.)
• An example format for a website is as follows: Name of Website. Year. "Page Title." Date last modified. Date accessed. URL address.

Expert Q&A

• You don't have to write each bibliography or reference entry on your own. You can download citation management software like Endnote [17] X Research source (purchase required on this one), Zotero [18] X Research source (it's free), or use websites like http://www.bibme.org/ and http://www.easybib.com/ . Select the name of your style manual before you begin creating citations. Copy and paste the citation into your bibliography or references list. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• If you are assigned to write a paper or other written document in one of these styles, you need to purchase the style manual. It will contain nearly every instance not only of source citation, but paper formatting as well as grammar and punctuation that is unique to that style. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• This article only lists how to cite research for each style manual. Each style has its own instructions for setting up the format of the essay, including heading, spacing, margins, font, and so on. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0

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• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_formatting_and_style_guide.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_works_cited_page_books.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/in_text_citations_author_authors.html
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_electronic_sources.html
• ↑ https://libguides.jcu.edu.au/apa/reference-list
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_author_authors.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_basic_rules.html
• ↑ https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/chicago_manual_of_style_17th_edition.html
• ↑ http://guides.nyu.edu/c.php?g=276562&p=1844734
• ↑ http://endnote.com
• ↑ https://www.zotero.org

About This Article

To reference an essay using MLA style, add a citation after any information you found through a source, like facts or quotes. When citing the reference, include the author’s name and the page number you pulled the information from in parenthesis, like “(Richards 456).” Once you’ve finished your essay, add a Words Cited page with all of the information you used to research your essay, like books or articles. To create a Works Cited page, list the sources in alphabetical order using the author’s last name, and include additional information, like year published and the medium. For more tips from our Writing reviewer, like how to reference an essay using APA style, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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• Harvard In-Text Citation | A Complete Guide & Examples

Harvard In-Text Citation | A Complete Guide & Examples

Published on 30 April 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 5 May 2022.

An in-text citation should appear wherever you quote or paraphrase a source in your writing, pointing your reader to the full reference .

In Harvard style , citations appear in brackets in the text. An in-text citation consists of the last name of the author,  the year of publication, and a page number if relevant.

Up to three authors are included in Harvard in-text citations. If there are four or more authors, the citation is shortened with et al .

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Table of contents

Including page numbers in citations, where to place harvard in-text citations, citing sources with missing information, frequently asked questions about harvard in-text citations.

When you quote directly from a source or paraphrase a specific passage, your in-text citation must include a page number to specify where the relevant passage is located.

Use ‘p.’ for a single page and ‘pp.’ for a page range:

• Meanwhile, another commentator asserts that the economy is ‘on the downturn’ (Singh, 2015, p. 13 ).
• Wilson (2015, pp. 12–14 ) makes an argument for the efficacy of the technique.

If you are summarising the general argument of a source or paraphrasing ideas that recur throughout the text, no page number is needed.

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When incorporating citations into your text, you can either name the author directly in the text or only include the author’s name in brackets.

Naming the author in the text

When you name the author in the sentence itself, the year and (if relevant) page number are typically given in brackets straight after the name:

Naming the author directly in your sentence is the best approach when you want to critique or comment on the source.

Naming the author in brackets

When you  you haven’t mentioned the author’s name in your sentence, include it inside the brackets. The citation is generally placed after the relevant quote or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence, before the full stop:

Multiple citations can be included in one place, listed in order of publication year and separated by semicolons:

This type of citation is useful when you want to support a claim or summarise the overall findings of sources.

Common mistakes with in-text citations

In-text citations in brackets should not appear as the subject of your sentences. Anything that’s essential to the meaning of a sentence should be written outside the brackets:

• (Smith, 2019) argues that…
• Smith (2019) argues that…

Similarly, don’t repeat the author’s name in the bracketed citation and in the sentence itself:

• As Caulfield (Caulfield, 2020) writes…
• As Caulfield (2020) writes…

Sometimes you won’t have access to all the source information you need for an in-text citation. Here’s what to do if you’re missing the publication date, author’s name, or page numbers for a source.

If a source doesn’t list a clear publication date, as is sometimes the case with online sources or historical documents, replace the date with the words ‘no date’:

When it’s not clear who the author of a source is, you’ll sometimes be able to substitute a corporate author – the group or organisation responsible for the publication:

When there’s no corporate author to cite, you can use the title of the source in place of the author’s name:

No page numbers

If you quote from a source without page numbers, such as a website, you can just omit this information if it’s a short text – it should be easy enough to find the quote without it.

If you quote from a longer source without page numbers, it’s best to find an alternate location marker, such as a paragraph number or subheading, and include that:

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

In Harvard style , when you quote directly from a source that includes page numbers, your in-text citation must include a page number. For example: (Smith, 2014, p. 33).

You can also include page numbers to point the reader towards a passage that you paraphrased . If you refer to the general ideas or findings of the source as a whole, you don’t need to include a page number.

When you want to use a quote but can’t access the original source, you can cite it indirectly. In the in-text citation , first mention the source you want to refer to, and then the source in which you found it. For example:

It’s advisable to avoid indirect citations wherever possible, because they suggest you don’t have full knowledge of the sources you’re citing. Only use an indirect citation if you can’t reasonably gain access to the original source.

In Harvard style referencing , to distinguish between two sources by the same author that were published in the same year, you add a different letter after the year for each source:

• (Smith, 2019a)
• (Smith, 2019b)

Add ‘a’ to the first one you cite, ‘b’ to the second, and so on. Do the same in your bibliography or reference list .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, May 05). Harvard In-Text Citation | A Complete Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 25 March 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-in-text-citation/

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For information on how to reference this website for non-academic purposes, see the SkillsYouNeed referencing guide .

Citing and referencing information can be daunting for students who do not understand the principles.

There are numerous ways to reference. Different institutions, departments or lecturers may require different styles so check with your teacher, lecturer or instructor if you are unsure.

Bad referencing is a common way for students to lose marks in assignments so it is worth taking the time and effort to learn how to reference correctly.

Why Do We Cite and Reference?

When writing any academic essay, paper, report or assignment, you need to highlight your use of other author's ideas and words so that you:

• Give the original author credit for their own ideas and work
• Validate your arguments
• Enable the reader to follow up on the original work if they wish to
• Enable the reader to see how dated the information might be
• Prove to your tutors/lecturers that you have read around the subject
• Avoid plagiarism

Referencing Styles

There are many different styles of referencing, including Harvard, APA (from the American Psychological Association), Chicago and Vancouver. The Harvard referencing system is of the most popular styles and the remainder of this article deals with this system. However, your university may prefer the use of a different system so check with your lecturer or in your course information as to which referencing style to use.

What is Plagiarism?

• Presenting another's ideas as if they are your own – either directly or indirectly
• Copying or pasting text and images without saying where they came from
• Not showing when a quote is a quote
• Summarising information without showing the original source
• Changing a few words in a section of text without acknowledging the original author

Plagiarism is a serious academic offence.  You are likely to be awarded 0% for an assignment which has evidence of plagiarism. If you continue to plagiarise then you may be excluded from your course.

Most universities will want a signed declaration with submitted work to say that you have not plagiarised. 

Universities use anti-plagiarism software to quickly find plagiarised work. This software usually draws on huge databases of web sources, books, journals and all previously submitted student work to compare your work to so you will be found out.

Therefore, if you plagiarise, you are likely to be caught so don't take the risk and reference properly.

Be Organised

When writing an essay, report, dissertation or other piece of academic work, the key to referencing is organisation. As you go along, keep notes of the books and journal articles you have read and the websites you have visited as part of your research process.

There are various tools to help here. Your university may be able to provide you with some specialist software (Endnote – www.endnote.com ) or you can simply keep a list in a document or try Zotero ( www.zotero.org ) a free plugin for the Firefox browser.

What Needs to be Recorded?

Record as much information as possible in references to make finding the original work simple.

Include the author/s name/s where possible. You should write the surname (last name) first followed by any initials.  If there are more than three authors then you can cite the first author and use the abbreviation 'et al', meaning 'and all'.

For one, two or three authors: Jones A, Davies B, Jenkins C

For more than three authors Jones A et al.

For some sources, especially websites, the name of the author may not be known. In such cases either use the organisation name or the title of the document or webpage.

Example:  SkillsYouNeed or What Are Interpersonal Skills.

Date of Publication

You should include the year of publication or a more specific date if appropriate, for journal or newspaper articles/stories. For webpages look for the when the page was last updated. Include dates in brackets (2020) after author information. If no date can be established, then put (no date).

Title of Piece

Include the title of the piece; this could be the name of the book, the title of a journal article or webpage. Titles are usually written in italics . For books you should also include the edition (if not the first) to make finding information easier. Often when books are republished information remains broadly the same but may be reordered, therefore page numbers may change between editions.

Publisher Information

Usually only relevant for books, but for these you should include the publisher name and place of publication.

Page Numbers

If you are referencing a particular part of a book, then you should include the page number/s you have used in your work. Use p. 123 to indicate page 123 or pp. 123-125 to indicate multiple pages.

URL and Date Accessed

For webpages you need to include the full URL of the page (http://www... etc.) and the date you last accessed the page. The web is not static and webpages can be changed/updated/removed at any time, so it is therefore important to record when you found the information you are referencing.

Once you have recorded the information, you have everything you need in order to reference correctly. Your work should be both referenced in the text and include a reference list or bibliography at the end. The in text reference is an abbreviated version of the full reference in your reference list.

Direct Quotes

If you are directly quoting in your text you should enclose the quote in quotation marks, and include author information:

"Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another." SkillsYouNeed (2019)

For longer direct quotations it may be neater to indent the quotation in its own paragraph.

Your reference list should then include the full version of the reference:

SkillsYouNeed (2022) What is Communication? [online] available at www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/what-is-communication.html (Accessed October 14 2022)

For a book you would use, in your text:

“Long before the twelfth century rhetoricians had collected quotations, particularly from classical authors, into anthologies called florilegia…” (Clanchy, M.T, 1993)

The reference list would then include the full reference:

Clanchy, M.T. (1993) From Memory to Written Record England 1066 – 1307 Oxford, Blackwell, p. 115

The same rules also apply when you are referencing indirectly and you have not included a direct quote. If you have used the ideas of another source, reference both in your text at the relevant point and in your reference list or bibliography at the end of your document.

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Additional Information

When quoting you may sometimes want to leave out some words , in which case use … (three dots).

"Communication is … transferring information from one place to another"

If you need to add words to a quote for clarity, then square brackets are used:

“Communication is simply the act [in communication skills] of transferring information from one place to another.”

You can use [sic] to note an original error and/or foreign spelling , SkillsYouNeed is a UK site and therefore uses UK spellings:

"The color [sic] of the water..."

Continue to: Common Mistakes in Writing Sources of Information

See Also: Note-Taking for Reading What is Theory? | Writing an Essay | Punctuation

How to Reference in an Essay

In the world of academia, names and dates are important! Just look at your lecture slides. Whenever your lecturer introduces a new theory, they’ll tell you who came up with the theory and when .

So, it’s no surprise that you’d need to do this in your essays, too. Indeed, whenever you refer to someone else’s ideas in your essays, you should cite the author’s surname and the publication date. In some cases, you should cite the page number, too.

The rules of referencing can be confusing, especially if you’re new to higher education. That said, let’s explore the ins-and-outs-of how to reference in an essay provided by experts from our writing service .

Why is referencing important?

Referencing other people’s ideas is important because it:

• Demonstrates you have done wider reading – In turn, this enhances your credibility as a student and as a writer.
• Provides context – More specifically, if you reference the key theories and debates that relate to your essay topic, your tutor will be convinced that you understand the wider contextual issues.
• Helps you think critically – When you reference other people’s work, this encourages you to critically evaluate their findings. Critical evaluation is key to achieving first-class grades.
• Helps you develop an argument – Building upon other people’s ideas helps you to develop a strong argument.
• Prevents plagiarism – Perhaps most importantly, referencing other people’s ideas (rather than copying them) prevents you from being accused of the worst academic sin.

In essence, referencing (when done well), gets you better grades!

Is referencing the same as quoting?

Strictly speaking, whenever you refer to another person’s idea in your essay, this is classed as ‘referencing’. However, it’s important to distinguish between:

• Direct quotes – this is when you quote another person’s ideas verbatim (word-for-word).
• Paraphrasing – this is when you rephrase another person’s ideas in your own words.

This article refers to paraphrasing, though we do offer specific guidance on how to quote in an essay .

What will happen if I don’t reference in my essays?

If you hand in an essay that has no (or very few) references, it’ll look as if you haven’t tried very hard. After all, at degree level, lecturers expect you to be able to do your own research and develop your own arguments.

So, a poorly referenced essay shows that you have not ‘done your homework’. Worse still, if you copy/paraphrase someone else’s ideas without referencing them, you risk being accused of plagiarism.

Having said that, from time-to-time you may be asked to write an assignment without references, such as a reflective report . But these types of assignments are few-and-far-between.

Therefore, it’s best to hone your referencing skills as early as possible. You’ll find this skill particularly useful when it comes to writing your dissertation .

Where should the references go?

Often, students worry about putting the references in the wrong place. But try not to worry too much as the rules of referencing can be learnt.

First and foremost, find out which referencing style your faculty uses. Although there are many different referencing styles, they all fall into two main categories :

• In-text referencing styles
• Footnote referencing styles

Check the tables below for detailed guidance!

Regardless of which style you use, you must provide a ‘reference list’ at the end of your essay. Need some help with this? Learn how to write a reference list for an essay .

Top tips for referencing in an essay

Once you’ve got the hang of the basics, it’s time to hone your referencing skills! Here are some pointers to get you started:

• Strike a balance – A good essay will include a good range of references, but it won’t be stuffed full of names and dates. If you include too many references, you run the risk of producing a list rather than an essay. So, make sure you clearly explain and/or critically evaluate every reference you include in your essay.
• Credibility is key – When selecting materials to include in your essay, make sure they are credible. Journals, academic books, and policy documents tend to be the most credible resources. Some web resources are also acceptable, but these should not feature too heavily in your essay.
• Critically evaluate – As previously mentioned, you should critically evaluate some of the references you use in your essay. This does not mean that you have to rip the author’s ideas to shreds. Rather, you could propose a new application for the author’s theory, or consider their findings from a novel perspective.
• Check your university’s referencing guide – It has been said before, but it’s worth saying again – check your university’s referencing requirements! Many UK universities adopt a variant of Harvard style, with ‘variant’ being the operative word. That’s why it’s so important to check your handbook for specific guidance.

Common mistakes to avoid

Finally, try to avoid the following mistakes when referencing in your essays:

• Referencing the same source many times throughout your essay.
• Including too many citations in the same sentence, thereby making it unclear who said what.
• Paraphrasing half-heartedly, thereby risking plagiarism.
• Forgetting to include necessary information such as the date of the publication or the page number (where applicable).

Typically, referencing is worth between 5 and 15% of your overall marks, so it’s worth getting it right. Plus, in theory, bad referencing could cost you 100% of your marks if you’re accused of plagiarism!

That said, time spent on referencing is time well-spent!

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Understanding How, When and Why to Reference

Learn how to acknowledge your sources of information

It is important that you acknowledge your sources of information in your academic writing. This allows you to clearly show how the ideas of others have influenced your own work. You should provide a citation (and matching reference) in your essay every time you use words, ideas or information from other sources.  If you would like to learn how, when and why to reference by watching a video, you can do so on Capstone Editing's YouTube channel .

Why reference?

Not referencing correctly can be perceived as plagiarism. It is expected and required at the university level that all your assignments will contain references. Otherwise, you are saying that the essay is made up entirely of your own original ideas, and that you have not engaged critically in any way with the literature. A passing grade requires that you use a minimum number of references (check your assignment marking criteria or ask your lecturer), and a good grade requires many more references than this. The purpose of referencing is to demonstrate the depth and breadth of your research, to show that you have read and engaged with the ideas of experts in your field. It also allows you to give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed words or ideas. For your reader, referencing allows them to trace the sources of information you have used and to verify the validity of your work. For this reason, your referencing must be accurate and provide all necessary details to allow your reader to locate the source. It is therefore a good idea to keep careful records of all the sources you accessed when researching your assignment. This way, you do not have to hunt for these details after you have finished writing.  

How to incorporate the ideas of others into your essay

It can be difficult for new academic writers to know how to incorporate others’ work into their own writing. By learning how to use quotations effectively, and how to summarise and paraphrase the words and ideas of others, you can better avoid unintentional plagiarism. 

A quotation is a word-for-word reproduction of someone else’s words, either spoken or written. When quoting from another source, you must: 

• Exception: For long quotations (e.g. over 40 words in APA or over 30 words in Harvard), indent the quotation instead of using quotation marks. The quotation should be introduced by a colon and followed by a citation. 
• Use quotation marks even if only borrowing a single phrase or word from another source. 
• Exception: If the source does not have numbered pages (e.g. a website, an interview), no page number is needed. However, if there is some other way of pointing to the specific location from which the quotation was taken (e.g. paragraph number, clause number, line in transcript), include that in the citation. 

Quotations should be logically integrated into your text. One way to do this is to lead into the quotation or paraphrase by using the author’s name (e.g. ‘According to Lines,’) followed by the quotation from Lines or a summary of Lines’s ideas. 

Quotations must fit grammatically into your text. It is allowable to modify quotations slightly to ensure a good fit. However, it is essential that these changes are clearly marked using square brackets ([ ]). It is also possible to omit words from a quotation, shown using an ellipsis (…). Note that if you omit words, you must be sure that the original meaning of the quotation is retained. You should never omit words to change the meaning of a quotation. 

The below examples show ways to integrate the original quotation ‘Most of the time, they don’t, and I mean really don’t, behave well’, showing changes to 1) the verb and 2) a pronoun. Notice the use of the square brackets to show your modifications to the quotation, and the ellipsis to show omitted words. 

• The teacher reported that the children were not ‘behav[ing] well’.
• According to the teacher, ‘Most of the time, [the children] don’t … behave well’. 

Finally, you should avoid using quotations that have not been adequately introduced. If a quotation is inserted without appropriate integration into your text, this can negatively affect the logical and grammatical flow of your work, and lower the quality of your writing. Not introducing quotations or incorporating them into your own sentences usually also means you are relying too heavily on the words of others, and your grades can suffer as a result.

Summarising and paraphrasing

Another option for integrating others’ ideas into your own assignments is by summarising and paraphrasing. Summarising means giving an overview of the main ideas in condensed form. Paraphrasing means putting an idea (usually in detail) into your own words.  

To summarise or paraphrase well, you need to read carefully and understand the ideas in the source. Then, you can think about what those ideas mean in the context of your assignment and write them in your own words, integrating them well into your own writing. If you take sentences completely from the original source and just change a few words, this is not paraphrasing, and may be considered plagiarism. 

For some students, the temptation to use a source’s original wording is high. To avoid this, after reading and understanding the author’s ideas, write just the keywords on a separate piece of paper. See if you can change some of the keywords to other words, while keeping the original meaning. Then, think about whether you can reorganise the order of the keywords, to write sentences that keep the original meaning, but that are quite different to the original. Using your keywords, and without referring to the original source, write your new sentences. It takes a while at first, but the process becomes automatic with practice. 

The importance of writing in your own words

Putting others’ work into your own words will not only ensure the material is effectively integrated into your writing, it also demonstrates to your reader (e.g. your lecturer) that you have understood, absorbed and interpreted the information. This is a key purpose of essay writing at university and will help you to get a better grade. In addition, the better you get at putting complex ideas into your own words, the more developed your writing style will become. 

Acknowledge every source

Remember that the need to reference is not limited to academic sources like books and journal articles. You need to reference ALL words, ideas or information taken from ANY source. 

These sources might include: 

• books and journal articles
• newspapers and magazines
• pamphlets or brochures
• films, documentaries, television programs or advertisements
• computer programs
• diagrams, illustrations, charts or pictures
• letters or emails
• personal interviews
• lecturers or tutors. (This is not always necessary, but check with your lecturer or tutor about his or her preferences before you draw on his or her ideas.)

Note that if the source you are citing is retrievable (i.e. can be located by another person using the information you provide in the reference list), you must provide a reference for the source. However, if the source is only available to you (e.g. a personal interview or email, or a private Facebook post), you should cite all necessary details in the text, but should not provide a reference in the reference list. ONLY irretrievable sources are not included in the reference list, and even these are still cited in the text. 

The only times you would not reference are:

• when referring to your own observations (e.g. a report on a field trip) or experiment results
• when writing about your own experiences (e.g. a reflective journal)
• when writing your own thoughts, comments or conclusions in an assignment
• when evaluating or offering your own analysis (e.g. parts of a critical review)
• when using ‘common knowledge’ (facts that can be found in numerous places and are likely to be known by a lot of people) or folklore
• when using generally accepted facts or information (this will vary in different disciplines of study. If in doubt, ask your tutor).

If you are concerned that you may not have referenced correctly, you should ask your tutor, lecturer or Academic Learning Advisor for their advice before submitting your assignment. Capstone Editing can also edit your work to correct your referencing and provide advice about how to reference correctly in the future.   

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Quick guide to Harvard referencing (Cite Them Right)

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There are different versions of the Harvard referencing style. This guide is a quick introduction to the commonly-used Cite Them Right version. You will find further guidance available through the OU Library on the Cite Them Right Database .

For help and support with referencing and the full Cite Them Right guide, have a look at the Library’s page on referencing and plagiarism . If you need guidance referencing OU module material you can check out which sections of Cite Them Right are recommended when referencing physical and online module material .

This guide does not apply to OU Law undergraduate students . If you are studying a module beginning with W1xx, W2xx or W3xx, you should refer to the Quick guide to Cite Them Right referencing for Law modules .

Table of contents

In-text citations and full references.

• Secondary referencing
• Page numbers
• Citing multiple sources published in the same year by the same author

Full reference examples

Referencing consists of two elements:

• in-text citations, which are inserted in the body of your text and are included in the word count. An in-text citation gives the author(s) and publication date of a source you are referring to. If the publication date is not given, the phrase 'no date' is used instead of a date. If using direct quotations or you refer to a specific section in the source you also need the page number/s if available, or paragraph number for web pages.
• full references, which are given in alphabetical order in reference list at the end of your work and are not included in the word count. Full references give full bibliographical information for all the sources you have referred to in the body of your text.

To see a reference list and intext citations check out this example assignment on Cite Them Right .

Difference between reference list and bibliography

a reference list only includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text

a bibliography includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text AND sources that were part of your background reading that you did not use in your assignment

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Examples of in-text citations

You need to include an in-text citation wherever you quote or paraphrase from a source. An in-text citation consists of the last name of the author(s), the year of publication, and a page number if relevant. There are a number of ways of incorporating in-text citations into your work - some examples are provided below. Alternatively you can see examples of setting out in-text citations in Cite Them Right .

Note: When referencing a chapter of an edited book, your in-text citation should give the author(s) of the chapter.

Online module materials

(Includes written online module activities, audio-visual material such as online tutorials, recordings or videos).

When referencing material from module websites, the date of publication is the year you started studying the module.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

OR, if there is no named author:

The Open University (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Rietdorf, K. and Bootman, M. (2022) 'Topic 3: Rare diseases'. S290: Investigating human health and disease . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1967195 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

The Open University (2022) ‘3.1 The purposes of childhood and youth research’. EK313: Issues in research with children and young people . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1949633&section=1.3 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

You can also use this template to reference videos and audio that are hosted on your module website:

The Open University (2022) ‘Video 2.7 An example of a Frith-Happé animation’. SK298: Brain, mind and mental health . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2013014&section=4.9.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

The Open University (2022) ‘Audio 2 Interview with Richard Sorabji (Part 2)’. A113: Revolutions . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1960941&section=5.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Note: if a complete journal article has been uploaded to a module website, or if you have seen an article referred to on the website and then accessed the original version, reference the original journal article, and do not mention the module materials. If only an extract from an article is included in your module materials that you want to reference, you should use secondary referencing, with the module materials as the 'cited in' source, as described above.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of message', Title of discussion board , in Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Fitzpatrick, M. (2022) ‘A215 - presentation of TMAs', Tutor group discussion & Workbook activities , in A215: Creative writing . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/forumng/discuss.php?d=4209566 (Accessed: 24 January 2022).

Note: When an ebook looks like a printed book, with publication details and pagination, reference as a printed book.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title . Edition if later than first. Place of publication: publisher. Series and volume number if relevant.

For ebooks that do not contain print publication details

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title of book . Available at: DOI or URL (Accessed: date).

Example with one author:

Bell, J. (2014) Doing your research project . Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Adams, D. (1979) The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy . Available at: http://www.amazon.co.uk/kindle-ebooks (Accessed: 23 June 2021).

Example with two or three authors:

Goddard, J. and Barrett, S. (2015) The health needs of young people leaving care . Norwich: University of East Anglia, School of Social Work and Psychosocial Studies.

Example with four or more authors:

Young, H.D. et al. (2015) Sears and Zemansky's university physics . San Francisco, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Note: You can choose one or other method to reference four or more authors (unless your School requires you to name all authors in your reference list) and your approach should be consistent.

Note: Books that have an editor, or editors, where each chapter is written by a different author or authors.

Surname of chapter author, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of chapter or section', in Initial. Surname of book editor (ed.) Title of book . Place of publication: publisher, Page reference.

Franklin, A.W. (2012) 'Management of the problem', in S.M. Smith (ed.) The maltreatment of children . Lancaster: MTP, pp. 83–95.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference.

If accessed online:

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference. Available at: DOI or URL (if required) (Accessed: date).

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326.

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326. Available at: https://libezproxy.open.ac.uk/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/log... (Accessed: 27 January 2023).

Barke, M. and Mowl, G. (2016) 'Málaga – a failed resort of the early twentieth century?', Journal of Tourism History , 2(3), pp. 187–212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/1755182X.2010.523145

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference if available. Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Mansell, W. and Bloom, A. (2012) ‘£10,000 carrot to tempt physics experts’, The Guardian , 20 June, p. 5.

Roberts, D. and Ackerman, S. (2013) 'US draft resolution allows Obama 90 days for military action against Syria', The Guardian , 4 September. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/04/syria-strikes-draft-resolut... (Accessed: 9 September 2015).

Surname, Initial. (Year that the site was published/last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Organisation (Year that the page was last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Robinson, J. (2007) Social variation across the UK . Available at: https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/social-variation... (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

The British Psychological Society (2018) Code of Ethics and Conduct . Available at: https://www.bps.org.uk/news-and-policy/bps-code-ethics-and-conduct (Accessed: 22 March 2019).

Note: Cite Them Right Online offers guidance for referencing webpages that do not include authors' names and dates. However, be extra vigilant about the suitability of such webpages.

Surname, Initial. (Year) Title of photograph . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Kitton, J. (2013) Golden sunset . Available at: https://www.jameskittophotography.co.uk/photo_8692150.html (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

stanitsa_dance (2021) Cossack dance ensemble . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/COI_slphWJ_/ (Accessed: 13 June 2023).

Note: If no title can be found then replace it with a short description.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Reference List: Basic Rules

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

This resourse, revised according to the 7 th  edition APA Publication Manual, offers basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper. Most sources follow fairly straightforward rules. However, because sources obtained from academic journals  carry special weight in research writing, these sources are subject to special rules . Thus, this page presents basic guidelines for citing academic journals separate from its "ordinary" basic guidelines. This distinction is made clear below.

Note:  Because the information on this page pertains to virtually all citations, we've highlighted one important difference between APA 6 and APA 7 with an underlined note written in red.  For more information, please consult the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , (7 th  ed.).

Formatting a Reference List

Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.

Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page "References" in bold, centered at the top of the page (do NOT underline or use quotation marks for the title). All text should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.

Basic Rules for Most Sources

• All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
• All authors' names should be inverted (i.e., last names should be provided first).
• For example, the reference entry for a source written by Jane Marie Smith would begin with "Smith, J. M."
• If a middle name isn't available, just initialize the author's first name: "Smith, J."
• Give the last name and first/middle initials for all authors of a particular work up to and including 20 authors ( this is a new rule, as APA 6 only required the first six authors ). Separate each author’s initials from the next author in the list with a comma. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name. If there are 21 or more authors, use an ellipsis (but no ampersand) after the 19th author, and then add the final author’s name.
• Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
• For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in chronological order, from earliest to most recent.
• Note again that the titles of academic journals are subject to special rules. See section below.
• Italicize titles of longer works (e.g., books, edited collections, names of newspapers, and so on).
• Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as chapters in books or essays in edited collections.

Basic Rules for Articles in Academic Journals

• Present journal titles in full.
• Italicize journal titles.
• For example, you should use  PhiloSOPHIA  instead of  Philosophia,  or  Past & Present   instead of  Past and Present.
• This distinction is based on the type of source being cited. Academic journal titles have all major words capitalized, while other sources' titles do not.
• Capitalize   the first word of the titles and subtitles of   journal articles , as well as the   first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and   any proper nouns .
• Do not italicize or underline the article title.
• Deep blue: The mysteries of the Marianas Trench.
• Oceanographic Study: A Peer-Reviewed Publication

Please note:  While the APA manual provides examples of how to cite common types of sources, it does not cover all conceivable sources. If you must cite a source that APA does not address, the APA suggests finding an example that is similar to your source and using that format. For more information, see page 282 of the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7 th  ed.

Reference Essay

In our research, technical, or science papers, it is common that we have a lot of sources from different books and publications. We need them in order to gather some facts, ideas, images, and many other important information. You may also see essay writing examples .

Using words or ideas from other authors without acknowledging them and citing them is a form of plagiarism, the act of stealing someone’s ideas and using it as its own. This is something that every writer must avoid not only to have a good credibility but also to come up with fresh and novel ideas and notions. You may also like short essay examples & samples .

Citing the authors or the publications in your essay is one thing that you must not forget to do. There are a lot of citation styles that you can use depending on the subject area that you are working on and on the paper that you are writing, and this will be fully discussed in the succeeding sections. You may also check out what are the parts of an essay ?

For now, below are some examples of reference essays that you might find useful for your write-up. Additionally, there are other examples of essays that might interest you.

What is Reference Essay? A Reference Essay is an academic writing piece that extensively cites sources and research to support arguments, analysis, or interpretations on a specific topic. It aims to engage with existing literature, theories, or findings within a field, offering a comprehensive overview of the subject matter based on scholarly evidence.

Reference Essay Format

Title of the Essay: Clear and concise, reflecting the essay’s content. Author’s Name Institutional Affiliation Course Instructor’s Name Date

Introduction

Hook: An engaging opening sentence or question to capture the reader’s interest. Background Information: Brief context or background to the topic being discussed. Thesis Statement: A clear, concise statement of the essay’s main argument or purpose. Overview of the Essay Structure: Briefly outline what the reader can expect in the essay.

Body Paragraphs

Each body paragraph should focus on a single main idea that supports the thesis, structured as follows:

Topic Sentence: Introduces the main idea of the paragraph. Explanation/Analysis: Detailed explanation or analysis of the topic, supported by evidence from scholarly sources. Evidence: Direct quotes, paraphrases, or summaries of relevant research, properly cited. Link to the Thesis: Explain how this evidence supports your thesis. Transition: Smooth transition to the next paragraph or idea.

Summary of Main Points: Concisely restate the main arguments or findings presented in the body paragraphs. Restatement of Thesis: Restate the thesis in light of the evidence discussed. Implications: Discuss the implications of your findings or analysis. Suggestions for Further Research: Identify potential areas for future research.

Example of Reference Essay

The Impact of Social Media on Modern Communication In the digital age, social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have revolutionized the way we communicate, both personally and professionally. This essay examines the profound impact social media has had on the dynamics of communication, arguing that while social media facilitates global connectivity, it also presents challenges such as the erosion of privacy and face-to-face interactions. Social media has removed geographical barriers, enabling real-time communication across the globe (Smith, 2020). Platforms like LinkedIn have also transformed professional networking, making it easier to connect with industry peers and potential employers (Johnson, 2019).   Despite its advantages, social media has been criticized for diminishing the quality of face-to-face interactions (Doe, 2018). The convenience of digital communication often replaces more meaningful, personal exchanges (Brown, 2017). The proliferation of social media has raised significant privacy concerns, with personal information often being shared or sold without consent (Kumar, 2021). Furthermore, the rapid spread of misinformation on social media platforms has become a global issue, affecting public opinion and even election outcomes (White, 2020).   Social media has undeniably transformed communication, making it more accessible and efficient but not without drawbacks. As we navigate this digital era, it is crucial to balance the benefits of social media with mindfulness of its potential to disrupt traditional communication and privacy norms.   References   Brown, A. (2017). The impact of social media on face-to-face interactions. Journal of Social Psychology , 58(2), 201-208. Doe, J. (2018). Social media’s effect on daily communication. Media Studies Journal , 45(4), 34-47. Johnson, L. (2019). Networking in the digital age: Opportunities and challenges. Professional Communication Quarterly , 63(1), 55-67. Kumar, R. (2021). Privacy in the age of social media: A critical review. Technology and Society , 39(3), 300-310. Smith, H. (2020). Global connectivity and social media: A new communicative era. Global Communication Review , 12(2), 89-105. White, G. (2020). Misinformation and social media: The effects on democracy. Political Science Today , 7(1), 112-119.

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Basics about Citation

A citation is a way to show within the body of your text a published work such as a book, an article, a chapter of a book, or website, informing the readers that they are your source or sources from which you took your words, ideas, figures, images, and many other important information. The details of these citations can be found in bibliographies and reference lists and are also collected in article and book databases. You may also see essay writing examples & samples .

A citation consists of standard elements, the information necessary to identify and track down a certain publication. The elements in a citation are as follows:

• author name/s
• titles of books, articles, or journals
• date of publication
• page numbers
• volume and issue numbers (for articles)

There are a lot of different presentation on this elements depending on the reference style that the author is using, and this will be discussed in the later part of this article. You may also like concept essay examples .

Importance of Citations

Citations are important in many ways because they are used:

1. To let your readers know that you’ve done proper research in order to get the information that you present in your paper

2. To be a responsible scholar by acknowledging and giving credit to other authors

3. To let your readers be informed for them to be able to track down the sources you used by citing them accurately in your paper through footnotes, a bibliography, or reference list. You may also check out sample essay outlines .

Two Key Elements of Referencing

There are two elements of referencing that you must know and apply in your papers. They are as follows:

1. An in-text marker

This indicates to the reader that certain ideas, concepts, phrases, or words are attributable to other authors.

2. A complete reference list

This provides the full citation details for all sources referred to in the document such as those basic elements of a citation mentioned in the previous section. You might be interested in tips for writing an effective essay .

Referencing Systems

There are two systems that are commonly used for referencing, and they are the following:

1. Note systems

This involves the use of sequential numbers as in-text markers such as footnotes, the notes included at the end of each page, and endnotes, the notes that can be found at the end of a paper. This is typically used in Chicago 16th Edition and Vancouver Reference Styles. You may also see descriptive essay examples .

2. Parenthetical systems

This is also known as the author-date referencing and involves the use of a partial reference, only the author and the date, contained within a parenthesis with the complete details on the last page of the whole document. This is commonly used in APA, Harvard, and MLA reference styles. You may also like persuasive essay examples & samples .

Reference Style Guide

There are different referencing or citation styles that an author can use in his or her write-up depending on the requirement or author’s preference. The common reference styles are APA, MLA, Oxford, Harvard, and Chicago Reference Styles. Here is a brief discussion with regard to the different reference styles that you can use in your paper. You may also check out self-introduction essay examples & samples .

1. APA Reference Style

In-text citation basic format.

The in-text citation must contain basic information of the source which are as follows:

• the author/s
• the year of publication
• the page number (if applicable)

For example:

When testing the usability of a website, it is necessary to gather demographic information about the users (Lazar, 2006).

This is needed when the information or idea you are using is from another source. Similarly, when you paraphrased, summarized, or quoted another author, you must also provide a citation in the text, hence, and in-text citation. You might be interested in descriptive essay examples & samples .

There are some cases when there are two different sources but the same author and year of publication are the same. To distinguish them, a lower-case letter must be attached to the year.

The quotations must be enclosed in quotation marks with the reference citation following the quotations.

When gathering data it is important to remember that “only relevant types of demographic information should be requested” (Lazar, 2006, p. 52).

Quotations must be identical to the original source, but some small changes are acceptable. You may also see informative essay examples & samples .

Reference List Format

Usually, the reference list is presented at the end of the paper. Each reference must have the following parts:

• the name of the author
• other publication information

Bowker, N., & Tuffin, K. (2002). Users with disabilities’ social and economic development through online access. In M. Boumedine (Ed.), Proceedings of the IASTED International Conference on Information and Knowledge Sharing (pp. 122–127). Anaheim, CA: ACTA Press. You may also like samples of formal essays .

2. MLA Reference Style

• the page number

Billy has the ability to relate to others with his voice (Vonnegut 36).

Similarly, this is needed when the information or idea you are using is from another source. Similarly, when you paraphrased, summarized, or quoted another author, you must also provide a citation in the text, hence, an in-text citation. You may also check out high school essay examples & samples .

Quotations must be identical to the original source, but some small changes are acceptable.

• the title of the work
• other publication information including the publishing medium

New Zealand Writers Guild. “Writing for television: A beginners guide.” New Zealand Writers Guild. 2005. Web. 28 June 2011. You might be interested in personal essay examples & samples .

3. Oxford Reference Style

The in-text citation must contain only a footnote.

In-text example:

Every living creature in the sea contains iron.

Footnote example:

Stella Cottrell, The Study Skills Handbook (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). You may also see photo essay examples & samples .

Cottrell, Stella, The Study Skills Handbook (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013)

4. Harvard Reference Style

When testing the usability of a website, it is necessary to gather demographic information about the users (Lazar 2006).

This is similar to APA Reference Style but without comma between the name of the author and the date. You may also see evaluation essay examples .

Quotations must be identical to the original source, but some small changes are acceptable. You may also like analytical essay examples & samples .

• Book – the order of the elements are author, year, book title, publisher, and place of publication (for example, “Wallace, A, Schirato, T, & Bright, P 1999, Beginning university: Thinking, researching and writing for success, Allen & Unwin, St Leonards, NSW.”) You may also see academic essay examples .
• Chapter in a book – the order of elements are author, year, chapter title, editors, book title, publisher, and place of publication (for example, “Amin, A 2000, ‘The economic base of contemporary cities’, in G Bridge & S Watson (eds), A companion to the city, Blackwell, Oxford.”)
• Journal article – the order of elements are author, year, article title, journal title, volume and/or issue number, and page range (for example, “Castles, FG, Curtin, JC, & Vowles, J 2006, ‘Public policy in Australia and New Zealand: The new global context’, Australian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 131–143.”) You may also like scholarship essay examples .
• Web page – the order of elements are author, year, document title, site controller/sponsor, location of controller/sponsor, date of viewing, and URL address (for example, “Benson, A 2006, Potamopyrgus antipodarum, United States Geological Survey, USA, viewed 5 August 2006, <“

5. Chicago Reference Style

Closely similar to Oxford Reference Style, in this style, the authors are identified by a number in the text, and the details are indexed in the form of a footnote or an endnote.

When a source is first used, the complete information must be presented such as the author, title, publisher, year, and page number. If it is cited again, a shortened version can be used. You may also check out argumentative essay examples .

Cottrell¹ emphasises the use of outside source materials in academic writing. When writing an assignment, this will form the crucial second step.²

The footnote or endnote will appear as follows:

1. Stella Cottrell, The Study Skills Handbook , 3rd ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 181. 2. Cottrell, The Study Skills Handbook , 176.

• Book –  the order of elements are author, book title, city of publication, publisher name, year, page number (for example, “Mason Durie, Ng? k?hui pou: Launching M?ori Futures (Wellington: Huia Publishers, 2003), 22.”)
• Chapter in a book – the order of elements are author, chapter title, book title, editors, page range, city of publication, publisher name, year, page number (for example, “Ash Amin, “The Economic Base of Contemporary Cities,” in A Companion to the City, ed. Gary Bridge and Sophie Watson, 115–129 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 120.”) You might be interested in literary essay examples & samples .
• Journal article – the order of elements are author, article title, journal title, volume number, issue number, year, page range (for example, “Francis G. Castles, Jennifer Curtin, and Jack Vowles, “Public Policy in Australia and New Zealand: The New Global Context,” Australian Journal of Political Science 41, no. 2 (2006): 135.”) You may also see synthesis essay examples & samples .
• Web page – the order of elements are author, page title, site owner, and URL address (for example, “A. Benson, “Potamopyrgus antipodarum,” United States Geological Survey, “

These are the common reference styles that you can use in your paper, and hopefully the discussion and examples presented above enlightened you and helped you a lot.

How to Write Reference Essay

Writing a reference essay involves a detailed process of research, analysis, and synthesis of information from various sources to support your arguments or insights on a specific topic. Here’s a structured approach to crafting a comprehensive reference essay:

1. Choose Your Topic

Select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your study or assignment. Ensure it’s broad enough to research but narrow enough to manage within your essay’s scope.

2. Conduct Preliminary Research

Begin with general sources to gain a broad understanding of your topic. Use academic databases, books, and reputable online sources to gather background information and identify key themes, debates, and researchers in the field.

3. Develop a Thesis Statement

Formulate a clear thesis statement that presents your main argument or perspective on the topic. This statement will guide the direction of your essay and help focus your research.

4. Conduct Detailed Research

Dive deeper into your topic by seeking out specific studies, articles, and scholarly discussions related to your thesis. Look for sources that both support and contradict your perspective to ensure a balanced argument.

5. Create an Outline

Organize your main points and supporting evidence into an outline. This will serve as a roadmap for your essay, helping to ensure a logical flow of ideas.

6. Write the Introduction

Introduce your topic, providing necessary background information to contextualize your essay. Clearly state your thesis statement and briefly outline the main points you will cover.

7. Write the Body Paragraphs

Each body paragraph should focus on a single main idea that supports your thesis. Begin with a topic sentence, followed by evidence from your research, analysis of this evidence, and a concluding sentence that ties the evidence back to your main argument. Properly cite all sources using the required citation style.

8. Write the Conclusion

Summarize the main points of your essay and restate your thesis in light of the evidence you’ve presented. Discuss the implications of your findings and suggest areas for further research.

9. Include References

Provide a comprehensive list of all the sources cited in your essay. Follow the specific formatting guidelines (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) for listing references.

How do you reference a source in an essay?

To reference a source in an essay, include an in-text citation within the body that corresponds to a full citation in your bibliography or reference list at the essay’s end.

How do I cite a reference?

To cite a reference, use the prescribed citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.), providing author name(s), publication year, title, and source details (e.g., volume, issue, pages for journals).

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Write a Reference Essay on the influence of Greek mythology on modern literature.

Discuss the role of references in establishing credibility in academic writing in your Reference Essay.

How To Write A Research Paper

Find Sources For A Research Paper

How to Find Sources For a Research Paper | A Guide

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Published on: Mar 26, 2024

Last updated on: Mar 25, 2024

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Research papers are an essential part of academic life, but one of the most challenging aspects can be finding credible sources to support your arguments. 

With the vast amount of information available online, it's easy to feel overwhelmed. However, by following some simple steps, you can streamline the process of finding reliable sources for your research paper . 

In this guide, we'll break down the process into easy-to-follow steps to help you find the best sources for your paper.

On This Page On This Page -->

Step 1: Define Your Topic and Research Questions

Before you venture into your quest for sources, it's essential to have a clear understanding of your research topic and the specific questions you aim to address. Define the scope of your paper and identify keywords and key concepts that will guide your search for relevant sources.

Step 2: Utilize Academic Databases

Academic databases are treasure troves of scholarly articles, research papers, and academic journals covering a wide range of subjects. Institutions often provide access to these databases through their libraries. Some popular academic databases include:

• IEEE Xplore
• Google Scholar

These databases allow you to search for peer-reviewed articles and academic papers related to your topic. 

Use advanced search features to narrow down your results based on publication date, author, and keywords .

Academic Resources Classified by Discipline

Here's a breakdown of prominent databases categorized by academic discipline:

Step 3: Explore Library Catalogs

Your university or local library's catalog is another valuable resource for finding sources. Library catalogs contain books, periodicals, and other materials that may not be available online. 

Use the catalog's search function to locate relevant books, journals, and other materials that can contribute to your research.

Step 4: Consult Bibliographies and References

When you find a relevant source, take note of its bibliography or make a list of sources for the research paper. These lists often contain citations to other works that may be useful for your research. 

By exploring the references cited in a particular source, you can uncover additional resources and expand your understanding of the topic.

Step 5: Boolean Operators for Effective Searches

Boolean operators are words or symbols used to refine search queries by defining the relationships between search terms. The three primary operators include "AND," which narrows searches by requiring all terms to be present; "OR," which broadens searches by including either term or both; and "NOT," which excludes specific terms to refine results further. 

Most databases provide advanced search features for seamless application of Boolean logic.

Step 6: Consider Primary Sources 

Depending on your research topic, primary sources such as interviews, surveys, archival documents, and original data sets can provide valuable insights and support for your arguments. 

Primary sources offer firsthand accounts and original perspectives on historical events, social phenomena, and scientific discoveries.

Step 7: Evaluate the Credibility of Sources

Not all sources are created equal, and it's crucial to evaluate the credibility and reliability of the information you encounter. 

Consider the author's credentials, the publication venue, and whether the source is peer-reviewed. Look for evidence of bias or conflicts of interest that may undermine the source's credibility.

Step 8: Keep Track of Your Sources

As you gather sources for your research paper, maintain a systematic record of the materials you consult.  Keep track of bibliographic information, including author names, publication dates, titles, and page numbers . This information will be invaluable when citing your sources and creating a bibliography or works cited page.

Other Online Sources

In addition to academic databases and library catalogs, exploring popular online sources can provide valuable insights and perspectives on your research topic.  Here are some types of online sources you can consider:

Websites hosted by reputable organizations, institutions, and experts (such as the New York Times) can offer valuable information and analysis on a wide range of topics. Look for websites belonging to universities, research institutions, government agencies, and established non-profit organizations.

Crowdsourced Encyclopedias like Wikipedia

While Wikipedia can provide a broad overview of a topic and lead you to other sources, it's essential to verify the information found there with more authoritative sources. 

Use Wikipedia as a starting point for your research, but rely on peer-reviewed journal articles and academic sources for in-depth analysis and evidence.

Tips for Assessing the Credibility of Online Sources

When using online sources, it's important to exercise caution and critically evaluate the credibility and reliability of the information you find. Here are some tips for assessing the credibility of online sources:

• Check the Domain Extension: Look for websites with domain extensions that indicate credibility. URLs ending in .edu are educational resources, while URLs ending in .gov are government-related resources. These sites often provide reliable and authoritative information.
• Look for DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers): DOIs are unique alphanumeric strings assigned to scholarly articles and indicate that the article has been published in a peer-reviewed, scientific journal. Finding a DOI can help you assess the scholarly rigor of the source.
• Evaluate the Authorship and Credentials: Consider the qualifications and expertise of the author or organization behind the website or blog. Look for information about the author's credentials, affiliations, and expertise in the subject matter.
• Consider the Currency and Relevance: Assess how up-to-date the information is and whether it aligns with the scope and focus of your research. Look for recent publications and timely analyses that reflect current trends and developments in the field.

Wrapping it up!

Finding sources for your research paper may seem like a challenge, but by following these steps, you can locate credible sources to support your arguments and enhance the quality of your paper. 

By approaching the research process systematically and critically evaluating the information you encounter, you can produce a well-researched and compelling research paper.

If you are struggling with finding credible sources or have time constraints, do not hesitate to seek writing help for your research papers . CollegeEssay.org has professional writers ready to assist you. 

Connect with our essay writing service now and receive expert guidance and support to elevate your research paper to the next level.

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Teaching Connections

Advancing discussions about teaching, who’s afraid of academic writing a reflective essay on dispelling anxiety and fear in an academic writing course.

WONG Jock Onn Centre for English Language Communication (CELC)

Jock Onn considers how educators can apply an ethics of care in their teaching, as he takes us through survey findings on students’ perspectives towards academic writing, particularly the emotions they associate with this activity and the challenges they face.

Photo by Brooke Cagle on Unsplash

I had previously spent many semesters in my teaching practice developing methods that I thought would help students excel in academic writing. It did not matter to me at the time that student feedback told me that my coursework was demanding; I took it to mean that I was on the right track (Wong, 2023a). It was only in recent years that I realised the need to show more care in my teaching (Wong, 2023b). Last year, amazingly, for the first time, the word ‘care’ appeared in my student feedback. A student wrote, “Dr Wong displays care for his students…” Realising the importance of care, I decided to find out why students need care and conducted a simple Google survey (entitled “Attitudes Towards Academic Writing”) last semester with my three classes. I asked them to make known the emotions they associate with academic writing, write qualitative comments on their answers, and tell me what challenges they face. I received 41 responses, and the survey yielded some tentative but interesting findings.

The survey asked, “Which of the following emotions do you associate with academic writing?” As shown in Table 1, over 50% of the students associated academic writing with fear and anxiety. Slightly over a quarter associated it with a rather positive feeling (26.8%) and only a very small percentage (4.9%) associated it with something very positive. The fact that over half of the respondents associated academic writing with fear (53.7%) and anxiety (63.4%) was a surprise to me. Fortunately, less than 10% hated academic writing.

Students also gave qualitative comments on why they experienced fear and anxiety in academic writing. Some indicated that they had insufficient linguistic knowledge, including the vocabulary and skills to write academically. A few even claimed that they did not know what academic writing entails. Other respondents indicated a lack of confidence. For example, a student wrote that knowing that their work is being graded caused anxiety. Several students attributed their anxiety to uncertainty and a lack of confidence in academic writing. In some cases, fear or anxiety was a result of bad experiences in junior college (JC). A student recounted their JC experience, when they had to produce an essay in three hours, causing their brain and hand to hurt.

The survey further asked respondents to tick the problems they face in academic writing from a list. Table 2 shows that the top three problems students face in academic writing have to do with not knowing what constitutes academic writing, not having enough ideas, and sentence cohesion . More than half of the students said that they did not know how to write academically (58.5%) and did not have enough ideas for writing (51.2%). Also, over 30% of respondents had problems with the introduction (‘don’t know how to start’) (36.6%), and grammar (34.1%).

Table 2 Problems that students face (in decreasing order of importance)

Anxiety is said to be “one of the critical individual affective factors in the process of learning a second language or a foreign language” (He et al., 2021, p. 1). Presumably, the same could be said of the process of learning academic writing. Anxiety, as studies suggest, is linked to “avoidance of the feared situation and loss of motivation to perform”, which could adversely affect retention (England et al., 2017, p. 2/17). Student anxiety and fear can ultimately affect language performance (Soriano & Co, 2022, p. 450). Thus, dispelling anxiety and fear among students is a pedagogic imperative.   

To dispel anxiety and fear, one would benefit from understanding what they mean. I believe most of us do. However, two co-authors offer an interesting perspective. According to Kastrup and Mallow (2016), fear “deals with things of which there is good reason to be afraid”, whereas anxiety means “being scared of something that is not intrinsically fearful” (pp. 3-1). Although Kastrup and Mallow (2016) speak in the context of science, their definitions seem to make general sense. As educators, we recognise that while some student concerns are practical in nature (e.g., they do not know the rules), others seem to be psychological. The solution to practical concerns could be addressed in a more straightforward fashion by using sound teaching methods; however, psychological barriers may require a different approach.

My proposed way of addressing the psychological challenge is to replace the bad experiences with pleasant ones. As Cook (2021) puts it, teachers “must provide instructor presence by providing a positive education experience for students” and give them “a sense of belonging” (p. 136). The teacher can achieve this by creating a positive learning experience through an ethic of care (Noddings, 2012). The teacher can display “empathic concern” (Patel, 2023) by acknowledging student perspectives in class, using inclusive languages, encouraging open communication, and accommodating student needs (p. 64). The teacher can create “a safe learning environment” by establishing “rules of engagement” and encouraging students to “explain their answers” in class without labelling the answers as “wrong” or “incorrect” (Teo, 2023, p. 79). After all, “harsh criticisms” can impede learning (Soriano & Co, 2022, p. 452), whereas positive feedback can alleviate anxiety (He et al., 2021). A student recently gave feedback that I often asked them whether they understood what I had taught, and this suggests that checking for understanding regularly is reassuring. To this end, the teacher could use ungraded quizzes, which do not cause student anxiety (England et al., 2017). There are many other things a teacher could do in this vein to help address such psychological learning barriers (Harvard Medical School, 2017; Abigail, 2019).

To maximise student learning, the teacher plays a big role, a role much bigger than I had previously thought—the teacher has a responsibility to dispel fear and anxiety among students. I agree with Kastrup and Mallow (2016) that it is the teachers “who most affect the anxiety (or lack thereof) of the students” (pp. 3-12). I would now say that what makes an excellent teacher is not just the use of time-tested teaching methods but also a capacity to care (Wong, 2023b). Thus, for me, the obvious way forward is to ‘integrate care in higher education’ by ‘teaching with heart’ (Holles, 2023, p. 18).

Abigail, H. (2019, March 5). Tips to beat back writing anxiety . Retrieved from IUPUI University Writing Center Blog: https://liberalarts.iupui.edu/programs/uwc/tips-to-beat-back-writing-anxiety/

Cook, M. (2021). Students’ perceptions of interactions from instructor presence, cognitive presence, and social presence in online lessons. International Journal of TESOL Studies (Special Issue “ELT in the Time of the Coronavirus 2020”, Part 3), 3 (1), 134-161. https://doi.org/10.46451/ijts.2021.03.03

England, B. J., Brigati, J. R., & Schussler, E. E. (2017, August 3). Student anxiety in introductory biology classrooms: Perceptions about active learning and persistence in the major. PLoS One, 12 (8), e0182506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182506

Harvard Medical School. (2017, October 13). Write your anxieties away . Retrieved from Harvard Health Blog: https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/write-your-anxieties-away-2017101312551

He, X., Zhou, D., & Zhang, X. (2021, July-September). An empirical study on Chinese University students’ English Language classroom anxiety with the idiodynamic approach. Sage Open, 11 (3), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211037676

Holles, C. (2023). Faculty-student interaction and well-being: The call for care. International Journal of TESOL Studies, 5 (3), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.58304/ijts.20230302

Kastrup, H., & Mallow, J. V. (2016). Student Attitudes, Student Anxieties, and How to Address Them: A Handbook for Science Teachers. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. https://dx.doi.org/10.1088/978-1-6817-4265-6

Noddings, N. (2012). The caring relation in teaching. Oxford Review of Education, 38 (6), 771-81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2012.745047

Patel, S. N. (2023). Empathetic and dialogic interactions: Modelling intellectual Empathy and communicating care. International Journal of TESOL Studies, 3 , 51-70. https://doi.org/10.58304/ijts.20230305

Soriano, R. M., & Co, A. G. (2022, March). Voices from within: Students’ lived experiences on English language anxiety. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 11 (1), 449-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v11i1.21898

Teo, C. (2023). Beyond academic grades: Reflections on my care for university students’ holistic development in Singapore. International Journal of TESOL Studies, 5 (3), 71-83. https://doi.org/10.58304/ijts.20230306

Wong, J. (2023a, March 29). When angels fall: The plight of an ambitious educator. Teaching Connections: Advancing Discussions about Teaching . Retrieved from https://blog.nus.edu.sg/teachingconnections/2023/03/29/when-angels-fall-the-plight-of-an-ambitious-educator/

Wong, J. (2023b). What completes an excellent teacher? Care in higher education English language teaching. International Journal of TESOL Studies2, 5 (3), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.58304/ijts.20230301

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• How to Cite a Website | MLA, APA & Chicago Examples

How to Cite a Website | MLA, APA & Chicago Examples

Published on March 5, 2021 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on January 17, 2024.

To cite a page from a website, you need a short in-text citation and a corresponding reference stating the author’s name, the date of publication, the title of the page, the website name, and the URL.

This information is presented differently in different citation styles. APA , MLA , and Chicago are the most commonly used styles.

Use the interactive example generator below to explore APA and MLA website citations.

Note that the format is slightly different for citing YouTube and other online video platforms, or for citing an image .

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Table of contents

Citing a website in mla style, citing a website in apa style, citing a website in chicago style, frequently asked questions about citations.

An MLA Works Cited entry for a webpage lists the author’s name , the title of the page (in quotation marks), the name of the site (in italics), the date of publication, and the URL.

The in-text citation usually just lists the author’s name. For a long page, you may specify a (shortened) section heading to locate the specific passage. Don’t use paragraph numbers unless they’re specifically numbered on the page.

The same format is used for blog posts and online articles from newspapers and magazines.

You can also use our free MLA Citation Generator to generate your website citations.

Generate accurate MLA citations with Scribbr

Citing a whole website.

When you cite an entire website rather than a specific page, include the author if one can be identified for the whole site (e.g. for a single-authored blog). Otherwise, just start with the site name.

List the copyright date displayed on the site; if there isn’t one, provide an access date after the URL.

Webpages with no author or date

When no author is listed, cite the organization as author only if it differs from the website name.

If the organization name is also the website name, start the Works Cited entry with the title instead, and use a shortened version of the title in the in-text citation.

When no publication date is listed, leave it out and include an access date at the end instead.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

An APA reference for a webpage lists the author’s last name and initials, the full date of publication, the title of the page (in italics), the website name (in plain text), and the URL.

The in-text citation lists the author’s last name and the year. If it’s a long page, you may include a locator to identify the quote or paraphrase (e.g. a paragraph number and/or section title).

Note that a general reference to an entire website doesn’t require a citation in APA Style; just include the URL in parentheses after you mention the site.

You can also use our free APA Citation Generator to create your webpage citations. Search for a URL to retrieve the details.

Generate accurate APA citations with Scribbr

Blog posts and online articles.

Blog posts follow a slightly different format: the title of the post is not italicized, and the name of the blog is.

The same format is used for online newspaper and magazine articles—but not for articles from news sites like Reuters and BBC News (see the previous example).

When a page has no author specified, list the name of the organization that created it instead (and omit it later if it’s the same as the website name).

When it doesn’t list a date of publication, use “n.d.” in place of the date. You can also include an access date if the page seems likely to change over time.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style, footnotes are used to cite sources. They refer to a bibliography at the end that lists all your sources in full.

A Chicago bibliography entry for a website lists the author’s name, the page title (in quotation marks), the website name, the publication date, and the URL.

Chicago also has an alternative author-date citation style . Examples of website citations in this style can be found here .

For blog posts and online articles from newspapers, the name of the publication is italicized. For a blog post, you should also add the word “blog” in parentheses, unless it’s already part of the blog’s name.

When a web source doesn’t list an author , you can usually begin your bibliography entry and short note with the name of the organization responsible. Don’t repeat it later if it’s also the name of the website. A full note should begin with the title instead.

When no publication or revision date is shown, include an access date instead in your bibliography entry.

The main elements included in website citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the date of publication, the page title, the website name, and the URL. The information is presented differently in each style.

In APA , MLA , and Chicago style citations for sources that don’t list a specific author (e.g. many websites ), you can usually list the organization responsible for the source as the author.

If the organization is the same as the website or publisher, you shouldn’t repeat it twice in your reference:

• In APA and Chicago, omit the website or publisher name later in the reference.
• In MLA, omit the author element at the start of the reference, and cite the source title instead.

If there’s no appropriate organization to list as author, you will usually have to begin the citation and reference entry with the title of the source instead.

When you want to cite a specific passage in a source without page numbers (e.g. an e-book or website ), all the main citation styles recommend using an alternate locator in your in-text citation . You might use a heading or chapter number, e.g. (Smith, 2016, ch. 1)

In APA Style , you can count the paragraph numbers in a text to identify a location by paragraph number. MLA and Chicago recommend that you only use paragraph numbers if they’re explicitly marked in the text.

For audiovisual sources (e.g. videos ), all styles recommend using a timestamp to show a specific point in the video when relevant.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2024, January 17). How to Cite a Website | MLA, APA & Chicago Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/cite-a-website/

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Discrimination Power of Short Essay Questions Versus Multiple Choice Questions as an Assessment Tool in Clinical Biochemistry

Basmah eldakhakhny.

1 Clinical Biochemistry, King Abdulaziz University Faculty of Medicine, Jeddah, SAU

Ayman Z Elsamanoudy

2 Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mansoura University, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura, EGY

Assessment is fundamental to the educational process. Multiple choice questions (MCQs) and short essay questions (SEQs) are the most widely used assessment method in medical school. The current study evaluated the discriminating value of SEQs compared to MCQs as assessment tools in clinical biochemistry and correlated undergraduate students' SEQ scores with their overall scores during the academic years 2021-2022 and 2022-2023. This is a descriptive-analytical study in which MCQ and SEQ papers of clinical biochemistry were analyzed. The mean score for SEQs in males was 66.7 ± 1.2 and for females it was 64.0 ± 1.1 SEM, with a p-value of 0.09; for MCQs, the mean score for males was 68.5 ± 0.9 SEM and for females it was 72.6 ± 0.8. When analyzing the difficulty index (DI) and discrimination factor (DF) of the questions, MCQs have a mean DI of 0.70 ± 0.01,and DF of 0.05 to 0.6. SEQs have a mean DI of 0.73 ± 0.03 and DF of 0.68 ± 0.01; there was a significant difference between the DF of MCQs and SEQs (p < 0.0001). Furthermore, there was a significant difference between SEQs and MCQs when categorizing students based on their scores, except for A-scored students. According to the current study, SEQs have a higher discriminating ability than MCQs and help differentiate high-achieving students from low-achieving students.

Introduction

Assessment is fundamental to the educational process. It has benefits beyond measuring knowledge and competence alone. It is also crucial for directing and stimulating the learning process, as well as providing feedback to teachers and learners [ 1 ]. The assessment of the competence of undergraduate medical students is a very crucial mission [ 2 ]. The following three learning domains are to be evaluated: knowledge and understanding, skill, and value. The skills' domain is assessed at the levels of comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and criticism [ 3 ].

There are many methods for assessing the skills domain. They include a free response examination, long essay questions, short essay questions (SEQs), modified essay questions, multiple choice questions (MCQs), and others. Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. The evaluation method's reliability and validity necessitate combining these methods [ 2 , 3 ]. MCQs emphasize mainly on knowledge recall, level I of revised Bloom's taxonomy; they can also assess a higher cognitive level when properly constructed. SEQs are efficient in assessing higher-order thinking and are associated with item writing flaws [ 4 , 5 ].

Assessment can be formative and summative. Formative assessment helps teachers identify students' learning gaps and modify teaching strategies [ 6 ]. Summative assessment is done at midterm and final examinations in most medical schools [ 7 ]. In the Faculty of Medicine at King Abdulaziz University (KAU), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Clinical Biochemistry core course assessment tools are in the form of MCQs, SEQs, and practical examinations. The MCQs and SEQs are components of the written examinations (midterm and final examinations).

The study was conducted to compare and contrast the discriminating value of SEQs and MCQs as assessment tools in clinical biochemistry. Moreover, it aimed to correlate the students' scores of SEQs with their overall academic scores in the clinical biochemistry course at the Faculty of Medicine, KAU.

Materials and methods

This study was conducted in the Clinical Biochemistry Department, School of Medicine, KAU, during the study years 2021-2022 and 2022-2023. It is a descriptive-analytical study in which MCQ and SEQ examinations of clinical biochemistry were analyzed. The ethical committee (Ethics Committee of Human Research at KAU) ruled that no formal ethics approval was required in this case.

Clinical biochemistry (BCHM 201) is a five-credit course for second-year medical students. The contact hours are in the form of four theoretical interactive lectures, one tutorial session, and one practical session per week. The students were familiarized with the assessment plan from day 1 of the course. The total score of the course (out of 100) was divided between different methods of assessments: 75% for written examinations (22.5% SEQs and 52.5% MCQs) which were in the form of midterm and final examinations, 10% for practical laboratory reports, 10% for final practical experiments, and the last 5% for team-based learning, with 60% as a passing grade. Students were divided into five groups based on their total scores in percentage: A for students who scored ≥ 90%, B for those who scored 80-89.99%, C for those who scored 70-79.99%, D for those who scored 60-69.99%, and F for those who scored < 60%.

Study protocol

In the current study, a total of 726 students' grades were analyzed, of whom 358 were male and 368 were female. The detailed scores were analyzed to study how students' achievement may differ between SEQs and MCQs. Each student's MCQ and SEQ scores were recorded, normalized to a percentage (%), and compared to the total score they received upon course completion. After each examination, an item analysis report with difficulty index (DI) and discrimination factor (DF) was created. For MCQs, item analysis was done using QuestionMark perception 5.7 software for Windows, whereas SEQ item analysis was done using the ZipGrade App Version 2.56. SEQs were marked, and the score was recorded on a ZipGrade answer sheet designed to record scores ranging from 0 to 3, with three counts as the primary answer and equal to 100% and zero counts as the lowest mark and equal to 0%. Any number in between is considered a partial answer, and students receive a percentage of the mark based on their score; the SEQs’ DF was calculated by ZipGrade using the Pearson correlation. Examinations were constructed based on the course learning outcome (CLO)-dependent blueprint and included MCQs and SEQs for each CLO from the knowledge and understanding as well as skills domain. All questions were reviewed by the examination committee members, including three professors and two associated professors of clinical biochemistry, to evaluate question quality, scientific information, and the English language. SEQs, as mentioned above, cover all CLOs and are constructed as figure interpretation, pathway completion, comparison, or written a directed brief description. Two raters (one male and one female faculty member) evaluated the SEQs as per the pre-formed standards and model answers.

Statistical analysis

Data analysis was conducted using SPSS Version 23 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY) and GraphPad Prism Version 9.5 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, California). P-value was calculated using an individual t-test to compare the mean score for males and females, a paired t-test was used for individual students' scores (SEQs, MCQs, and total), and the Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the MCQs and SEQs’ difficulty and discrimination. Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was computed to assess the linear relationship between the SEQs and MCQs in different groups. Data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM), and a p-value was considered significant if it was <0.05.

The item analysis of 160 MCQs and 34 SEQs was conducted and is summarized in Table ​ Table1 1 and Figure ​ Figure1. 1 . MCQs have a mean DI of 0.70 ± 0.01 SEM, with a minimum score of 0.25 and a maximum score of 0.98. Their DF ranged from 0.05 to 0.6, with an average of 0.40 ± 0.01. On the other hand, the DI of SEQs ranged from 0.4 to 0.95, with an average of 0.73 ± 0.03. Their DF ranged from 0.45 to 0.85, with an average of 0.68 ± 0.01. There was no statistical difference between the DI of MCQs and SEQs. In contrast, there was a statistical significance with a p-value of <0.0001 for the DF.

P-value was calculated using the Mann-Whitney U test. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

SEQ, short essay question; MCQ, multiple choice question; SEM, standard error of mean

A total of 160 MCQs and 34 SEQs were analyzed. (a) There is no statistically significant difference in the difficulty of SEQs and MCQs. (b) The difference between the DF of SEQs and MCQs shows that SEQs have much higher discrimination with p < 0.0001 (as indicated by asterisks).

The data are presented as mean ± SEM

A total of 726 students' grades were analyzed, of whom 358 were male and 368 were female. The mean score for SEQs in males was 66.7 ±1.2 SEM and for females it was 64.0 ± 1.1 SEM, with a p-value of 0.09. For MCQs, the mean score for males was 68.5 ± 0.9 SEM and for females it was 72.6 ± 0.8 SEM, with p < 0.001. Finally, the total mean scores were 79 ± 1 SEM in males and 81 ± 1 in females, with a p-value of 0.02. Data can be seen in Figure ​ Figure2 2 .

A total of 726 students' grades were analyzed, of whom 358 were male and 368 were female. Data showed statistical significance in MCQs and total scores.

Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

**P-value of 0.001. *P-value of 0.02.

Students were further classified into A-F groups based on their overall course grades, and their SEQ scores were compared to their MCQ and total scores. Group B had the highest number of students (258), while group F had the lowest (47). Interestingly, looking at the average grade of all students, there was a 5% difference between the mean SEQ and MCQ scores, and almost a 15% difference between SEQs and total scores, with the higher grade in MCQs and total scores compared to SEQs. These differences are not statistically significant in students with average grades A. However, the gap keeps increasing in students with lower scores (group F). The difference reaches 15 % between SEQs and MCQs and 30% between SEQs and the total scores. These comparisons are detailed in Table ​ Table2 2 and Figure ​ Figure3. 3 . Finally, a Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was calculated, as shown in Table ​ Table3, 3 , to determine whether there was a linear relationship between SEQs, MCQs, and total grades. When looking at overall students, there was a strong positive correlation between SEQ scores and both MCQ (r = 0.85 and p < 0.0001) and total grades (r = 0.91 and p < 0.0001). Interestingly, this correlation becomes weak when looking at the group individually, ranging from 0.27 to 0.38, between SEQs and MCQs, although it is statistically significant, and ranging from 0.58 to 0.65 between SEQs and total score. Only group D had an r of 0.18, with no significance.

P-value was calculated using paired t-test. SEQs. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

r: Pearson correlation coefficient

SEQ, short essay question; MCQ, multiple choice question

The overall scores of 726 students were divided into five groups (A-F), and the means of their SEQs, MCQs, and total scores were compared. A-F show that the difference in all students and each group between SEQs, MCQs, and totals scores are all statistically significant except for group A.

Data are presented as mean ± SEM. ****p-value < 0.0001.

The current study was designed to assess the use of SEQs (structured essay type and short answer questions) in addition to MCQs as an assessment method for higher cognitive skills in clinical biochemistry.

MCQs have high reliability when the set of questions is valid with sufficient numbers of questions applied [ 8 , 9 ]. From our point of view, MCQs alone are not enough. They must be combined with another type of assessment to test the higher cognitive function.

MCQs are applicable for evaluating knowledge, understanding, and conception of factual information (the lower levels of cognitive processing) [ 10 ]. It can be constructed to measure application and analysis, but it requires a level of experience in formulating questions to measure a higher level of cognition [ 11 ]. MCQs are widely used due to their high reliability, validity, and ease of counting [ 12 ]. On the other hand, SEQs are structured in an open-ended format and intended to increase reproducibility and objectivity [ 9 ]. They are more complex, requiring students to recall facts and use higher-order cognitive skills [ 13 ]. It encourages the students to develop and use their critical thinking capabilities [ 14 ] besides their ability to enable the student to think and come to a conclusion about the answer, which is not a benefit in MCQs [ 15 ]. Therefore, it provides more benefits for assessment despite the time consumption during its preparation and scoring [ 4 ].

In the current study, the SEQs are more discriminating than MCQs, even though there is no statistically significant difference between the two types of questions in their DI scores.

Kunjappagounder et al. [ 16 ] reported that a well-framed essay question is an efficient tool for evaluating students' levels in the cognitive domain [ 16 ]. It is more discriminating than multiple questions. Our study's results are in agreement with those in the studies by Jaleel et al. (2020) [ 17 ], Kunjappagounder et al. [ 16 ], and Maryani et al. [ 18 ].

Evaluating questions item analysis is very important for assessing the SEQs. It consists of the analytical study of the individual questions and the whole test [ 19 ]. Measuring the degree of difficulty and discrimination is necessary for the reliability and validity of the assessment [ 16 ].

Item analysis is used for evaluating the degree of understanding by the students as well as providing feedback to the examiner. The most important indices are discrimination and difficulty indices. The DF shows the ability of a question to differentiate between a higher- and a lower-ability student [ 19 - 21 ].

The mean score of MCQs is much higher than that of the SEQs in the present study, which is consistent with the results of many earlier studies by Oyebola et al. [ 22 ], Wilkinson and Shaw [ 23 ], and Aalaei et al. [ 24 ].

Aalaei et al. [ 24 ] reported a similar finding; good discrimination is documented in the essay question more than in the multiple choice type [ 24 ]. Many factors can explain this finding, including guessing and the presence of the correct answer between the distractors, which can make them easier to be answered. However, the level of thought and concentration applied to the essay questions has a significant impact on distinguishing high achievers from lower achievers [ 24 ].

Moreover, SEQs necessitate students to interpret and analyze their thoughts to provide the answers; they also evaluate written communication skills [ 17 ].

This finding could show that any student with a reasonable degree of conceptual knowledge of the subject can score well in MCQs regardless of the depth of their understanding, which does not apply to essay-type questions. Consequently, the teaching process and examination model must highlight the deep learning approaches and structure concepts rather than memorization learning.

The high discriminating value of the essay question is also confirmed by the finding of the current study when categorizing the grades into A to F, which showed that the low achievers (F grades students) have a 30% gap between their MCQs and total scores in comparison to their SEQ scores.

As expected, the present study revealed positive linear correlations between SEQs, MCQs, and total grades. These correlations were also reported in other subjects, such as pharmacology [ 25 ], otorhinolaryngology [ 26 ], pediatrics [ 27 ], and basic medical sciences, including physiology and medical biochemistry [ 4 , 17 ].

However, the observed weak correlations in the low achiever grades (F) with non-significant correlation in D scorers confirm the previous concept of the higher discrimination ability of the essay question over the MCQs.

The limitation of the current study is the low number of SEQs compared to the MCQs. This is due to examination time limitations, as answering SEQs requires a longer duration than that for MCQs. Therefore, in this study, the proportion of the SEQs is much low in relation to the whole examination.

Conclusions

We conclude that when comparing MCQs and SEQs (the structured and the open-ended ones) with the same level of cognition, SEQs have a higher discriminating ability and are helpful in differentiating high scorers from low scorers. Moreover, it is a good tool for assessing the high cognitive function regarding analysis and building concepts. Therefore, it is recommended to increase the percentage of the SEQs in the summative examinations and apply other types, such as extended essays, modified essays, and constructed-response questions. Moreover, we recommend using these questions in different branches of basic medical science.

The content published in Cureus is the result of clinical experience and/or research by independent individuals or organizations. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes. Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Human Ethics

Consent was obtained or waived by all participants in this study

Animal Ethics

Animal subjects: All authors have confirmed that this study did not involve animal subjects or tissue.

Eating Habits, Body Weight, and Self-Esteem Essay

Several academic studies attempted to reveal relationships between eating habits, body weight, and an individual’s self-esteem. For instance, Nagata et al. (2019) studied 14,891 U.S. young adults and found that muscularity-oriented eating disorders were primarily associated with self-perception of being underweight and lower body mass index scores. Cruz-Sáez et al. (2018) surveyed 806 adolescents in Basque Country, Spain, and confirmed that the development of eating disorders was mediated by body dissatisfaction. In addition, negative self-esteem mediated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and negative affect manifested in depression and anxiety (Cruz-Sáez et al., 2018). A meta-analysis of thirteen primary studies by Colmsee et al. (2021) confirmed that low self-esteem acts as a universal risk factor for adverse eating habits and disorders. Lastly, Jebeile et al. (2020) found that obesity increases the risk of eating disorders in adolescence by causing body dissatisfaction, depression, and self-esteem reduction. In these examples, one can see how eating habits, body weight, and self-esteem may act as mutual predictors. Individuals with self-perceived low or high body weight may become dissatisfied with their appearance. Consequently, they may start practicing unhealthy eating habits to solve their problems.

In this regard, the interconnected relationship between eating habits, body weight, and self-esteem may degrade into a vicious circle. Individuals dissatisfied with their bodies may either begin overeating to gain weight and transform it into muscles or start eating less than necessary in order to lose weight. However, extreme eating habits would likely lead to unsatisfactory results and cause additional damage to self-esteem as an individual fails to improve self-perception of their physical appearance. In turn, increasing body dissatisfaction and reduced self-esteem may reinforce harmful eating habits. Without an intervention from trained medical professionals and psychologists, such a situation may quickly spiral out of control, potentially leading to dangerous health consequences. Overall, the complex nature of the dangerous relationship between eating habits, body weight, and an individual’s self-esteem makes this matter particularly interesting for exploration.

Investigating different ethnic groups may offer valuable insight into matters related to eating habits, body weight, and self-esteem issues. For example, Nagata et al. (2019) found that Black Americans are more susceptible to muscularity-oriented eating disorders. In this regard, research in a typical African setting might yield interesting results due to the novelty of the research context. Nagata et al. (2019) made a notable finding specifically relevant to the Black American population, even though Black Americans’ eating habits may be heavily influenced by the socioeconomic and cultural climate of the United States. In this regard, research in a typical African setting may lead to unique findings and provide healthcare professionals with valuable information for promoting healthy eating habits.

In particular, one can hypothesize that perceptions of healthy eating habits, optimal body weight, attractive physical appearance, and self-esteem may significantly differ in a typical African setting, where a more traditional lifestyle is preserved. Therefore, a questionnaire-based research design would make it possible to elicit culture-specific opinions and perceptions from people who maintain a strong connection with African cultural roots. As a result, the research may contribute to the development of culturally-sensitive strategies for promoting healthy eating habits among people of African origin. Given these considerations, data collection via a questionnaire seems a rational and ethically appropriate methodological choice for a typical African setting.

Colmsee, I. S. O., Hank, P., & Bošnjak, M. (2021). Low self-esteem as a risk factor for eating disorders . Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 229 (1), 48-69. Web.

Cruz-Sáez, S., Pascual, A., Wlodarczyk, A., & Echeburúa, E. (2020). The effect of body dissatisfaction on disordered eating: The mediating role of self-esteem and negative affect in male and female adolescents . Journal of Health Psychology , 25 (8), 1098-1108. Web.

Jebeile, H., Lister, N. B., Baur, L. A., Garnett, S. P., & Paxton, S. J. (2021). Eating disorder risk in adolescents with obesity . Obesity Reviews , 22 (5), e13173. Web.

Nagata, J. M., Murray, S. B., Bibbins‐Domingo, K., Garber, A. K., Mitchison, D., & Griffiths, S. (2019). Predictors of muscularity‐oriented disordered eating behaviors in U.S. young adults: A prospective cohort study . International Journal of Eating Disorders , 52 (12), 1380-1388. Web.

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"Eating Habits, Body Weight, and Self-Esteem." IvyPanda , 30 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/eating-habits-body-weight-and-self-esteem/.

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IvyPanda . 2024. "Eating Habits, Body Weight, and Self-Esteem." March 30, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/eating-habits-body-weight-and-self-esteem/.

1. IvyPanda . "Eating Habits, Body Weight, and Self-Esteem." March 30, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/eating-habits-body-weight-and-self-esteem/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Eating Habits, Body Weight, and Self-Esteem." March 30, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/eating-habits-body-weight-and-self-esteem/.

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