how to make a conclusion for research

How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples, frequently asked questions.

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Last Updated: June 29, 2023 Approved

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article received 42 testimonials and 82% of readers who voted found it helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 2,255,377 times.

The conclusion of a research paper needs to summarize the content and purpose of the paper without seeming too wooden or dry. Every basic conclusion must share several key elements, but there are also several tactics you can play around with to craft a more effective conclusion and several you should avoid to prevent yourself from weakening your paper's conclusion. Here are some writing tips to keep in mind when creating a conclusion for your next research paper.

Sample Conclusions

Writing a basic conclusion.

• Do not spend a great amount of time or space restating your topic.
• A good research paper will make the importance of your topic apparent, so you do not need to write an elaborate defense of your topic in the conclusion.
• Usually a single sentence is all you need to restate your topic.
• An example would be if you were writing a paper on the epidemiology of infectious disease, you might say something like "Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease that affects millions of people worldwide every year."
• Yet another example from the humanities would be a paper about the Italian Renaissance: "The Italian Renaissance was an explosion of art and ideas centered around artists, writers, and thinkers in Florence."

• A thesis is a narrowed, focused view on the topic at hand.
• This statement should be rephrased from the thesis you included in your introduction. It should not be identical or too similar to the sentence you originally used.
• Try re-wording your thesis statement in a way that complements your summary of the topic of your paper in your first sentence of your conclusion.
• An example of a good thesis statement, going back to the paper on tuberculosis, would be "Tuberculosis is a widespread disease that affects millions of people worldwide every year. Due to the alarming rate of the spread of tuberculosis, particularly in poor countries, medical professionals are implementing new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and containment of this disease ."

• A good way to go about this is to re-read the topic sentence of each major paragraph or section in the body of your paper.
• Find a way to briefly restate each point mentioned in each topic sentence in your conclusion. Do not repeat any of the supporting details used within your body paragraphs.
• Under most circumstances, you should avoid writing new information in your conclusion. This is especially true if the information is vital to the argument or research presented in your paper.
• For example, in the TB paper you could summarize the information. "Tuberculosis is a widespread disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Due to the alarming rate of the spread of tuberculosis, particularly in poor countries, medical professionals are implementing new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and containment of this disease. In developing countries, such as those in Africa and Southeast Asia, the rate of TB infections is soaring. Crowded conditions, poor sanitation, and lack of access to medical care are all compounding factors in the spread of the disease. Medical experts, such as those from the World Health Organization are now starting campaigns to go into communities in developing countries and provide diagnostic testing and treatments. However, the treatments for TB are very harsh and have many side effects. This leads to patient non-compliance and spread of multi-drug resistant strains of the disease."

• Note that this is not needed for all research papers.
• If you already fully explained what the points in your paper mean or why they are significant, you do not need to go into them in much detail in your conclusion. Simply restating your thesis or the significance of your topic should suffice.
• It is always best practice to address important issues and fully explain your points in the body of your paper. The point of a conclusion to a research paper is to summarize your argument for the reader and, perhaps, to call the reader to action if needed.

• Note that a call for action is not essential to all conclusions. A research paper on literary criticism, for instance, is less likely to need a call for action than a paper on the effect that television has on toddlers and young children.
• A paper that is more likely to call readers to action is one that addresses a public or scientific need. Let's go back to our example of tuberculosis. This is a very serious disease that is spreading quickly and with antibiotic-resistant forms.
• A call to action in this research paper would be a follow-up statement that might be along the lines of "Despite new efforts to diagnose and contain the disease, more research is needed to develop new antibiotics that will treat the most resistant strains of tuberculosis and ease the side effects of current treatments."

• For example, if you are writing a history paper, then you might discuss how the historical topic you discussed matters today. If you are writing about a foreign country, then you might use the conclusion to discuss how the information you shared may help readers understand their own country.

Making Your Conclusion as Effective as Possible

• Since this sort of conclusion is so basic, you must aim to synthesize the information rather than merely summarizing it.
• Instead of merely repeating things you already said, rephrase your thesis and supporting points in a way that ties them all together.
• By doing so, you make your research paper seem like a "complete thought" rather than a collection of random and vaguely related ideas.

• Ask a question in your introduction. In your conclusion, restate the question and provide a direct answer.
• Write an anecdote or story in your introduction but do not share the ending. Instead, write the conclusion to the anecdote in the conclusion of your paper.
• For example, if you wanted to get more creative and put a more humanistic spin on a paper on tuberculosis, you might start your introduction with a story about a person with the disease, and refer to that story in your conclusion. For example, you could say something like this before you re-state your thesis in your conclusion: "Patient X was unable to complete the treatment for tuberculosis due to severe side effects and unfortunately succumbed to the disease."
• Use the same concepts and images introduced in your introduction in your conclusion. The images may or may not appear at other points throughout the research paper.

• Include enough information about your topic to back the statement up but do not get too carried away with excess detail.
• If your research did not provide you with a clear-cut answer to a question posed in your thesis, do not be afraid to indicate as much.
• Restate your initial hypothesis and indicate whether you still believe it or if the research you performed has begun swaying your opinion.
• Indicate that an answer may still exist and that further research could shed more light on the topic at hand.

• This may not be appropriate for all types of research papers. Most research papers, such as one on effective treatment for diseases, will have the information to make the case for a particular argument already in the paper.
• A good example of a paper that might ask a question of the reader in the ending is one about a social issue, such as poverty or government policy.
• Ask a question that will directly get at the heart or purpose of the paper. This question is often the same question, or some version of it, that you may have started with when you began your research.
• Make sure that the question can be answered by the evidence presented in your paper.
• If desired you can briefly summarize the answer after stating the question. You could also leave the question hanging for the reader to answer, though.

• Even without a call to action, you can still make a recommendation to your reader.
• For instance, if you are writing about a topic like third-world poverty, you can various ways for the reader to assist in the problem without necessarily calling for more research.
• Another example would be, in a paper about treatment for drug-resistant tuberculosis, you could suggest donating to the World Health Organization or research foundations that are developing new treatments for the disease.

Avoiding Common Pitfalls

• These sayings usually sound stiff, unnatural, or trite when used in writing.
• Moreover, using a phrase like "in conclusion" to begin your conclusion is a little too straightforward and tends to lead to a weak conclusion. A strong conclusion can stand on its own without being labeled as such.

• Always state the main argument or thesis in the introduction. A research paper is an analytical discussion of an academic topic, not a mystery novel.
• A good, effective research paper will allow your reader to follow your main argument from start to finish.
• This is why it is best practice to start your paper with an introduction that states your main argument and to end the paper with a conclusion that re-states your thesis for re-iteration.

• All significant information should be introduced in the body of the paper.
• Supporting evidence expands the topic of your paper by making it appear more detailed. A conclusion should narrow the topic to a more general point.
• A conclusion should only summarize what you have already stated in the body of your paper.
• You may suggest further research or a call to action, but you should not bring in any new evidence or facts in the conclusion.

• Most often, a shift in tone occurs when a research paper with an academic tone gives an emotional or sentimental conclusion.
• Even if the topic of the paper is of personal significance for you, you should not indicate as much in your paper.
• If you want to give your paper a more humanistic slant, you could start and end your paper with a story or anecdote that would give your topic more personal meaning to the reader.
• This tone should be consistent throughout the paper, however.

• Apologetic statements include phrases like "I may not be an expert" or "This is only my opinion."
• Statements like this can usually be avoided by refraining from writing in the first-person.
• Avoid any statements in the first-person. First-person is generally considered to be informal and does not fit with the formal tone of a research paper.

Community Q&A

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• ↑ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/04/
• ↑ http://www.crlsresearchguide.org/18_Writing_Conclusion.asp
• ↑ http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html#conclusion
• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/conclusions/
• ↑ http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/conclude.html

About This Article

To write a conclusion for a research paper, start by restating your thesis statement to remind your readers what your main topic is and bring everything full circle. Then, briefly summarize all of the main points you made throughout your paper, which will help remind your readers of everything they learned. You might also want to include a call to action if you think more research or work needs to be done on your topic by writing something like, "Despite efforts to contain the disease, more research is needed to develop antibiotics." Finally, end your conclusion by explaining the broader context of your topic and why your readers should care about it, which will help them understand why your topic is relevant and important. For tips from our Academic co-author, like how to avoid common pitfalls when writing your conclusion, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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One of the most common questions we receive at the Writing Center is “what am I supposed to do in my conclusion?” This is a difficult question to answer because there’s no one right answer to what belongs in a conclusion. How you conclude your paper will depend on where you started—and where you traveled. It will also depend on the conventions and expectations of the discipline in which you are writing. For example, while the conclusion to a STEM paper could focus on questions for further study, the conclusion of a literature paper could include a quotation from your central text that can now be understood differently in light of what has been discussed in the paper. You should consult your instructor about expectations for conclusions in a particular discipline.

With that in mind, here are some general guidelines you might find helpful to use as you think about your conclusion.  

Begin with the “what”  

In a short paper—even a research paper—you don’t need to provide an exhaustive summary as part of your conclusion. But you do need to make some kind of transition between your final body paragraph and your concluding paragraph. This may come in the form of a few sentences of summary. Or it may come in the form of a sentence that brings your readers back to your thesis or main idea and reminds your readers where you began and how far you have traveled.

So, for example, in a paper about the relationship between ADHD and rejection sensitivity, Vanessa Roser begins by introducing readers to the fact that researchers have studied the relationship between the two conditions and then provides her explanation of that relationship. Here’s her thesis: “While socialization may indeed be an important factor in RS, I argue that individuals with ADHD may also possess a neurological predisposition to RS that is exacerbated by the differing executive and emotional regulation characteristic of ADHD.”

In her final paragraph, Roser reminds us of where she started by echoing her thesis: “This literature demonstrates that, as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Highlight the “so what”  

At the beginning of your paper, you explain to your readers what’s at stake—why they should care about the argument you’re making. In your conclusion, you can bring readers back to those stakes by reminding them why your argument is important in the first place. You can also draft a few sentences that put those stakes into a new or broader context.

In the conclusion to her paper about ADHD and RS, Roser echoes the stakes she established in her introduction—that research into connections between ADHD and RS has led to contradictory results, raising questions about the “behavioral mediation hypothesis.”

She writes, “as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Leave your readers with the “now what”  

After the “what” and the “so what,” you should leave your reader with some final thoughts. If you have written a strong introduction, your readers will know why you have been arguing what you have been arguing—and why they should care. And if you’ve made a good case for your thesis, then your readers should be in a position to see things in a new way, understand new questions, or be ready for something that they weren’t ready for before they read your paper.

In her conclusion, Roser offers two “now what” statements. First, she explains that it is important to recognize that the flawed behavioral mediation hypothesis “seems to place a degree of fault on the individual. It implies that individuals with ADHD must have elicited such frequent or intense rejection by virtue of their inadequate social skills, erasing the possibility that they may simply possess a natural sensitivity to emotion.” She then highlights the broader implications for treatment of people with ADHD, noting that recognizing the actual connection between rejection sensitivity and ADHD “has profound implications for understanding how individuals with ADHD might best be treated in educational settings, by counselors, family, peers, or even society as a whole.”

To find your own “now what” for your essay’s conclusion, try asking yourself these questions:

• What can my readers now understand, see in a new light, or grapple with that they would not have understood in the same way before reading my paper? Are we a step closer to understanding a larger phenomenon or to understanding why what was at stake is so important?  
• What questions can I now raise that would not have made sense at the beginning of my paper? Questions for further research? Other ways that this topic could be approached?  
• Are there other applications for my research? Could my questions be asked about different data in a different context? Could I use my methods to answer a different question?  
• What action should be taken in light of this argument? What action do I predict will be taken or could lead to a solution?  
• What larger context might my argument be a part of?  

What to avoid in your conclusion  

• a complete restatement of all that you have said in your paper.  
• a substantial counterargument that you do not have space to refute; you should introduce counterarguments before your conclusion.  
• an apology for what you have not said. If you need to explain the scope of your paper, you should do this sooner—but don’t apologize for what you have not discussed in your paper.  
• fake transitions like “in conclusion” that are followed by sentences that aren’t actually conclusions. (“In conclusion, I have now demonstrated that my thesis is correct.”)
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Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Conclusion

Definition:

A research paper conclusion is the final section of a research paper that summarizes the key findings, significance, and implications of the research. It is the writer’s opportunity to synthesize the information presented in the paper, draw conclusions, and make recommendations for future research or actions.

The conclusion should provide a clear and concise summary of the research paper, reiterating the research question or problem, the main results, and the significance of the findings. It should also discuss the limitations of the study and suggest areas for further research.

Parts of Research Paper Conclusion

The parts of a research paper conclusion typically include:

Restatement of the Thesis

The conclusion should begin by restating the thesis statement from the introduction in a different way. This helps to remind the reader of the main argument or purpose of the research.

Summary of Key Findings

The conclusion should summarize the main findings of the research, highlighting the most important results and conclusions. This section should be brief and to the point.

Implications and Significance

In this section, the researcher should explain the implications and significance of the research findings. This may include discussing the potential impact on the field or industry, highlighting new insights or knowledge gained, or pointing out areas for future research.

Limitations and Recommendations

It is important to acknowledge any limitations or weaknesses of the research and to make recommendations for how these could be addressed in future studies. This shows that the researcher is aware of the potential limitations of their work and is committed to improving the quality of research in their field.

Concluding Statement

The conclusion should end with a strong concluding statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader. This could be a call to action, a recommendation for further research, or a final thought on the topic.

How to Write Research Paper Conclusion

Here are some steps you can follow to write an effective research paper conclusion:

• Restate the research problem or question: Begin by restating the research problem or question that you aimed to answer in your research. This will remind the reader of the purpose of your study.
• Summarize the main points: Summarize the key findings and results of your research. This can be done by highlighting the most important aspects of your research and the evidence that supports them.
• Discuss the implications: Discuss the implications of your findings for the research area and any potential applications of your research. You should also mention any limitations of your research that may affect the interpretation of your findings.
• Provide a conclusion : Provide a concise conclusion that summarizes the main points of your paper and emphasizes the significance of your research. This should be a strong and clear statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.
• Offer suggestions for future research: Lastly, offer suggestions for future research that could build on your findings and contribute to further advancements in the field.

Remember that the conclusion should be brief and to the point, while still effectively summarizing the key findings and implications of your research.

Example of Research Paper Conclusion

Here’s an example of a research paper conclusion:

Conclusion :

In conclusion, our study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Our findings suggest that there is a significant association between social media use and increased levels of anxiety and depression among college students. This highlights the need for increased awareness and education about the potential negative effects of social media use on mental health, particularly among college students.

Despite the limitations of our study, such as the small sample size and self-reported data, our findings have important implications for future research and practice. Future studies should aim to replicate our findings in larger, more diverse samples, and investigate the potential mechanisms underlying the association between social media use and mental health. In addition, interventions should be developed to promote healthy social media use among college students, such as mindfulness-based approaches and social media detox programs.

Overall, our study contributes to the growing body of research on the impact of social media on mental health, and highlights the importance of addressing this issue in the context of higher education. By raising awareness and promoting healthy social media use among college students, we can help to reduce the negative impact of social media on mental health and improve the well-being of young adults.

Purpose of Research Paper Conclusion

The purpose of a research paper conclusion is to provide a summary and synthesis of the key findings, significance, and implications of the research presented in the paper. The conclusion serves as the final opportunity for the writer to convey their message and leave a lasting impression on the reader.

The conclusion should restate the research problem or question, summarize the main results of the research, and explain their significance. It should also acknowledge the limitations of the study and suggest areas for future research or action.

Overall, the purpose of the conclusion is to provide a sense of closure to the research paper and to emphasize the importance of the research and its potential impact. It should leave the reader with a clear understanding of the main findings and why they matter. The conclusion serves as the writer’s opportunity to showcase their contribution to the field and to inspire further research and action.

When to Write Research Paper Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper should be written after the body of the paper has been completed. It should not be written until the writer has thoroughly analyzed and interpreted their findings and has written a complete and cohesive discussion of the research.

Before writing the conclusion, the writer should review their research paper and consider the key points that they want to convey to the reader. They should also review the research question, hypotheses, and methodology to ensure that they have addressed all of the necessary components of the research.

Once the writer has a clear understanding of the main findings and their significance, they can begin writing the conclusion. The conclusion should be written in a clear and concise manner, and should reiterate the main points of the research while also providing insights and recommendations for future research or action.

Characteristics of Research Paper Conclusion

The characteristics of a research paper conclusion include:

• Clear and concise: The conclusion should be written in a clear and concise manner, summarizing the key findings and their significance.
• Comprehensive: The conclusion should address all of the main points of the research paper, including the research question or problem, the methodology, the main results, and their implications.
• Future-oriented : The conclusion should provide insights and recommendations for future research or action, based on the findings of the research.
• Impressive : The conclusion should leave a lasting impression on the reader, emphasizing the importance of the research and its potential impact.
• Objective : The conclusion should be based on the evidence presented in the research paper, and should avoid personal biases or opinions.
• Unique : The conclusion should be unique to the research paper and should not simply repeat information from the introduction or body of the paper.

Advantages of Research Paper Conclusion

The advantages of a research paper conclusion include:

• Summarizing the key findings : The conclusion provides a summary of the main findings of the research, making it easier for the reader to understand the key points of the study.
• Emphasizing the significance of the research: The conclusion emphasizes the importance of the research and its potential impact, making it more likely that readers will take the research seriously and consider its implications.
• Providing recommendations for future research or action : The conclusion suggests practical recommendations for future research or action, based on the findings of the study.
• Providing closure to the research paper : The conclusion provides a sense of closure to the research paper, tying together the different sections of the paper and leaving a lasting impression on the reader.
• Demonstrating the writer’s contribution to the field : The conclusion provides the writer with an opportunity to showcase their contribution to the field and to inspire further research and action.

Limitations of Research Paper Conclusion

While the conclusion of a research paper has many advantages, it also has some limitations that should be considered, including:

• I nability to address all aspects of the research: Due to the limited space available in the conclusion, it may not be possible to address all aspects of the research in detail.
• Subjectivity : While the conclusion should be objective, it may be influenced by the writer’s personal biases or opinions.
• Lack of new information: The conclusion should not introduce new information that has not been discussed in the body of the research paper.
• Lack of generalizability: The conclusions drawn from the research may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, limiting the generalizability of the study.
• Misinterpretation by the reader: The reader may misinterpret the conclusions drawn from the research, leading to a misunderstanding of the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to write a strong conclusion for your research paper

Last updated

17 February 2024

Reviewed by

Writing a research paper is a chance to share your knowledge and hypothesis. It's an opportunity to demonstrate your many hours of research and prove your ability to write convincingly.

Ideally, by the end of your research paper, you'll have brought your readers on a journey to reach the conclusions you've pre-determined. However, if you don't stick the landing with a good conclusion, you'll risk losing your reader’s trust.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper involves a few important steps, including restating the thesis and summing up everything properly.

Find out what to include and what to avoid, so you can effectively demonstrate your understanding of the topic and prove your expertise.

• Why is a good conclusion important?

A good conclusion can cement your paper in the reader’s mind. Making a strong impression in your introduction can draw your readers in, but it's the conclusion that will inspire them.

• What to include in a research paper conclusion

There are a few specifics you should include in your research paper conclusion. Offer your readers some sense of urgency or consequence by pointing out why they should care about the topic you have covered. Discuss any common problems associated with your topic and provide suggestions as to how these problems can be solved or addressed.

The conclusion should include a restatement of your initial thesis. Thesis statements are strengthened after you’ve presented supporting evidence (as you will have done in the paper), so make a point to reintroduce it at the end.

Finally, recap the main points of your research paper, highlighting the key takeaways you want readers to remember. If you've made multiple points throughout the paper, refer to the ones with the strongest supporting evidence.

• Steps for writing a research paper conclusion

Many writers find the conclusion the most challenging part of any research project . By following these three steps, you'll be prepared to write a conclusion that is effective and concise.

• Step 1: Restate the problem

Always begin by restating the research problem in the conclusion of a research paper. This serves to remind the reader of your hypothesis and refresh them on the main point of the paper. 

When restating the problem, take care to avoid using exactly the same words you employed earlier in the paper.

• Step 2: Sum up the paper

After you've restated the problem, sum up the paper by revealing your overall findings. The method for this differs slightly, depending on whether you're crafting an argumentative paper or an empirical paper.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

Argumentative papers involve introducing a thesis statement early on. In crafting the conclusion for an argumentative paper, always restate the thesis, outlining the way you've developed it throughout the entire paper.

It might be appropriate to mention any counterarguments in the conclusion, so you can demonstrate how your thesis is correct or how the data best supports your main points.

Empirical paper: Summarize research findings

Empirical papers break down a series of research questions. In your conclusion, discuss the findings your research revealed, including any information that surprised you.

Be clear about the conclusions you reached, and explain whether or not you expected to arrive at these particular ones.

• Step 3: Discuss the implications of your research

Argumentative papers and empirical papers also differ in this part of a research paper conclusion. Here are some tips on crafting conclusions for argumentative and empirical papers.

Argumentative paper: Powerful closing statement

In an argumentative paper, you'll have spent a great deal of time expressing the opinions you formed after doing a significant amount of research. Make a strong closing statement in your argumentative paper's conclusion to share the significance of your work.

You can outline the next steps through a bold call to action, or restate how powerful your ideas turned out to be.

Empirical paper: Directions for future research

Empirical papers are broader in scope. They usually cover a variety of aspects and can include several points of view.

To write a good conclusion for an empirical paper, suggest the type of research that could be done in the future, including methods for further investigation or outlining ways other researchers might proceed.

If you feel your research had any limitations, even if they were outside your control, you could mention these in your conclusion.

After you finish outlining your conclusion, ask someone to read it and offer feedback. In any research project you're especially close to, it can be hard to identify problem areas. Having a close friend or someone whose opinion you value read the research paper and provide honest feedback can be invaluable. Take note of any suggested edits and consider incorporating them into your paper if they make sense.

• Things to avoid in a research paper conclusion

Keep these aspects to avoid in mind as you're writing your conclusion and refer to them after you've created an outline.

Dry summary

Writing a memorable, succinct conclusion is arguably more important than a strong introduction. Take care to avoid just rephrasing your main points, and don't fall into the trap of repeating dry facts or citations.

You can provide a new perspective for your readers to think about or contextualize your research. Either way, make the conclusion vibrant and interesting, rather than a rote recitation of your research paper’s highlights.

Clichéd or generic phrasing

Your research paper conclusion should feel fresh and inspiring. Avoid generic phrases like "to sum up" or "in conclusion." These phrases tend to be overused, especially in an academic context and might turn your readers off.

The conclusion also isn't the time to introduce colloquial phrases or informal language. Retain a professional, confident tone consistent throughout your paper’s conclusion so it feels exciting and bold.

New data or evidence

While you should present strong data throughout your paper, the conclusion isn't the place to introduce new evidence. This is because readers are engaged in actively learning as they read through the body of your paper.

By the time they reach the conclusion, they will have formed an opinion one way or the other (hopefully in your favor!). Introducing new evidence in the conclusion will only serve to surprise or frustrate your reader.

Ignoring contradictory evidence

If your research reveals contradictory evidence, don't ignore it in the conclusion. This will damage your credibility as an expert and might even serve to highlight the contradictions.

Be as transparent as possible and admit to any shortcomings in your research, but don't dwell on them for too long.

Ambiguous or unclear resolutions

The point of a research paper conclusion is to provide closure and bring all your ideas together. You should wrap up any arguments you introduced in the paper and tie up any loose ends, while demonstrating why your research and data are strong.

Use direct language in your conclusion and avoid ambiguity. Even if some of the data and sources you cite are inconclusive or contradictory, note this in your conclusion to come across as confident and trustworthy.

• Examples of research paper conclusions

Your research paper should provide a compelling close to the paper as a whole, highlighting your research and hard work. While the conclusion should represent your unique style, these examples offer a starting point:

Ultimately, the data we examined all point to the same conclusion: Encouraging a good work-life balance improves employee productivity and benefits the company overall. The research suggests that when employees feel their personal lives are valued and respected by their employers, they are more likely to be productive when at work. In addition, company turnover tends to be reduced when employees have a balance between their personal and professional lives. While additional research is required to establish ways companies can support employees in creating a stronger work-life balance, it's clear the need is there.

Social media is a primary method of communication among young people. As we've seen in the data presented, most young people in high school use a variety of social media applications at least every hour, including Instagram and Facebook. While social media is an avenue for connection with peers, research increasingly suggests that social media use correlates with body image issues. Young girls with lower self-esteem tend to use social media more often than those who don't log onto social media apps every day. As new applications continue to gain popularity, and as more high school students are given smartphones, more research will be required to measure the effects of prolonged social media use.

What are the different kinds of research paper conclusions?

There are no formal types of research paper conclusions. Ultimately, the conclusion depends on the outline of your paper and the type of research you’re presenting. While some experts note that research papers can end with a new perspective or commentary, most papers should conclude with a combination of both. The most important aspect of a good research paper conclusion is that it accurately represents the body of the paper.

Can I present new arguments in my research paper conclusion?

Research paper conclusions are not the place to introduce new data or arguments. The body of your paper is where you should share research and insights, where the reader is actively absorbing the content. By the time a reader reaches the conclusion of the research paper, they should have formed their opinion. Introducing new arguments in the conclusion can take a reader by surprise, and not in a positive way. It might also serve to frustrate readers.

How long should a research paper conclusion be?

There's no set length for a research paper conclusion. However, it's a good idea not to run on too long, since conclusions are supposed to be succinct. A good rule of thumb is to keep your conclusion around 5 to 10 percent of the paper's total length. If your paper is 10 pages, try to keep your conclusion under one page.

What should I include in a research paper conclusion?

A good research paper conclusion should always include a sense of urgency, so the reader can see how and why the topic should matter to them. You can also note some recommended actions to help fix the problem and some obstacles they might encounter. A conclusion should also remind the reader of the thesis statement, along with the main points you covered in the paper. At the end of the conclusion, add a powerful closing statement that helps cement the paper in the mind of the reader.

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Conclusions

What this handout is about.

This handout will explain the functions of conclusions, offer strategies for writing effective ones, help you evaluate conclusions you’ve drafted, and suggest approaches to avoid.

About conclusions

Introductions and conclusions can be difficult to write, but they’re worth investing time in. They can have a significant influence on a reader’s experience of your paper.

Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the “place” of your analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives. Such a conclusion will help them see why all your analysis and information should matter to them after they put the paper down.

Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to synthesize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.

Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.

Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader’s life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.

Strategies for writing an effective conclusion

One or more of the following strategies may help you write an effective conclusion:

• Play the “So What” Game. If you’re stuck and feel like your conclusion isn’t saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, “So what?” or “Why should anybody care?” Then ponder that question and answer it. Here’s how it might go: You: Basically, I’m just saying that education was important to Douglass. Friend: So what? You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen. Friend: Why should anybody care? You: That’s important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally. You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself “So What?” as you develop your ideas or your draft.
• Return to the theme or themes in the introduction. This strategy brings the reader full circle. For example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay is helpful in creating a new understanding. You may also refer to the introductory paragraph by using key words or parallel concepts and images that you also used in the introduction.
• Synthesize, don’t summarize. Include a brief summary of the paper’s main points, but don’t simply repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together.
• Include a provocative insight or quotation from the research or reading you did for your paper.
• Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader’s thought process and help them to apply your info and ideas to their own life or to see the broader implications.
• Point to broader implications. For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies to avoid

• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as “in conclusion,” “in summary,” or “in closing.” Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.
• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
• Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

Four kinds of ineffective conclusions

• The “That’s My Story and I’m Sticking to It” Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can’t think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
• The “Sherlock Holmes” Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don’t want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then “wow” them with your main idea, as in a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders’ power and also an important step toward freedom.
• The “America the Beautiful”/”I Am Woman”/”We Shall Overcome” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
• The “Grab Bag” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn’t integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Douglass, Frederick. 1995. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. New York: Dover.

Hamilton College. n.d. “Conclusions.” Writing Center. Accessed June 14, 2019. https://www.hamilton.edu//academics/centers/writing/writing-resources/conclusions .

Holewa, Randa. 2004. “Strategies for Writing a Conclusion.” LEO: Literacy Education Online. Last updated February 19, 2004. https://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/conclude.html.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• Writing Tips

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

3-minute read

• 29th August 2023

If you’re writing a research paper, the conclusion is your opportunity to summarize your findings and leave a lasting impression on your readers. In this post, we’ll take you through how to write an effective conclusion for a research paper and how you can:

·   Reword your thesis statement

·   Highlight the significance of your research

·   Discuss limitations

·   Connect to the introduction

·   End with a thought-provoking statement

Rewording Your Thesis Statement

Begin your conclusion by restating your thesis statement in a way that is slightly different from the wording used in the introduction. Avoid presenting new information or evidence in your conclusion. Just summarize the main points and arguments of your essay and keep this part as concise as possible. Remember that you’ve already covered the in-depth analyses and investigations in the main body paragraphs of your essay, so it’s not necessary to restate these details in the conclusion.

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Highlighting the Significance of Your Research

The conclusion is a good place to emphasize the implications of your research . Avoid ambiguous or vague language such as “I think” or “maybe,” which could weaken your position. Clearly explain why your research is significant and how it contributes to the broader field of study.

Here’s an example from a (fictional) study on the impact of social media on mental health:

Discussing Limitations

Although it’s important to emphasize the significance of your study, you can also use the conclusion to briefly address any limitations you discovered while conducting your research, such as time constraints or a shortage of resources. Doing this demonstrates a balanced and honest approach to your research.

Connecting to the Introduction

In your conclusion, you can circle back to your introduction , perhaps by referring to a quote or anecdote you discussed earlier. If you end your paper on a similar note to how you began it, you will create a sense of cohesion for the reader and remind them of the meaning and significance of your research.

Ending With a Thought-Provoking Statement

Consider ending your paper with a thought-provoking and memorable statement that relates to the impact of your research questions or hypothesis. This statement can be a call to action, a philosophical question, or a prediction for the future (positive or negative). Here’s an example that uses the same topic as above (social media and mental health):

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 9. The Conclusion
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-level research papers, one or two well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, more paragraphs may be required in summarizing key findings and their significance.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research problem. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis that advance new understanding about the research problem, that are unusual or unexpected, or that have important implications applied to practice.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly re-emphasize  the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.
• Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed . The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [described in your literature review section] has been filled by your research.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you the opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings. This is particularly important if your study approached examining the research problem from an unusual or innovative perspective.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Bunton, David. “The Structure of PhD Conclusion Chapters.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 4 (July 2005): 207–224; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

The function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by stating clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. Make sure, however, that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your essay.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• Present your conclusions in clear, simple language. Re-state the purpose of your study, then describe how your findings differ or support those of other studies and why [i.e., what were the unique or new contributions your study made to the overall research about your topic?].
• Do not simply reiterate your findings or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
• Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem and that further investigations should take place.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is presented well:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data. 

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have conducted will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way.

NOTE : If asked to think introspectively about the topics, do not delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply, not to guess at possible outcomes or make up scenarios not supported by the evidence.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Although an effective conclusion needs to be clear and succinct, it does not need to be written passively or lack a compelling narrative. Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following strategies:

• If your essay deals with a critical, contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem proactively.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend authority and support to the conclusion(s) you have reached [a good place to look is research from your literature review].
• Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates urgency in seeking change.
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the most important finding of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point by drawing from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction, but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results to recast it in new or important ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a succinct, declarative statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid

Failure to be concise Your conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too lengthy often have unnecessary information in them. The conclusion is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, and other forms of analysis that you make. Strategies for writing concisely can be found here .

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from the general [the field of study] to the specific [the research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from a specific discussion [your research problem] back to a general discussion [i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In short, the conclusion is where you should place your research within a larger context [visualize your paper as an hourglass--start with a broad introduction and review of the literature, move to the specific analysis and discussion, conclude with a broad summary of the study's implications and significance].

Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. These are problems, deficiencies, or challenges encountered during your study should be summarized as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative or unintended results [i.e., findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section and discuss their implications in the discussion section of your paper. In the conclusion, use your summary of the negative results as an opportunity to explain their possible significance and/or how they may form the basis for future research.

Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits within your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize briefly and succinctly how it contributes to new knowledge or a new understanding about the research problem. This element of your conclusion may be only a few sentences long.

Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives in the social sciences change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine the original objectives in your introduction. As these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you presumably should know a good deal about it [perhaps even more than your professor!]. Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts! Don't undermine your authority by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches that...." The overall tone of your conclusion should convey confidence to the reader.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin Madison; Miquel, Fuster-Marquez and Carmen Gregori-Signes. “Chapter Six: ‘Last but Not Least:’ Writing the Conclusion of Your Paper.” In Writing an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation: A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research . John Bitchener, editor. (Basingstoke,UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 93-105; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining to read, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper and, as such, the conclusion rarely has citations to sources. If you have new information to present, add it to the discussion or other appropriate section of the paper. Note that, although no actual new information is introduced, the conclusion, along with the discussion section, is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; the conclusion is where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate that you understand the material that you’ve presented, and locate your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic, including describing how your research contributes new insights or valuable insight to that scholarship.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Table of Contents

Writing a conclusion for a research paper is a critical step that often determines the overall impact and impression the paper leaves on the reader. While some may view the conclusion as a mere formality, it is actually an opportunity to wrap up the main points, provide closure, and leave a lasting impression. In this article, we will explore the importance of a well-crafted conclusion and discuss various tips and strategies to help you write an engaging and impactful conclusion for your research paper.

Introduction

Before delving into the specifics of writing a conclusion, it is important to understand why it is such a crucial component of a research paper. The conclusion serves to summarize the main points of the paper and reemphasize their significance. A well-written conclusion can leave the reader satisfied and inspired, while a poorly executed one may undermine the credibility of the entire paper. Therefore, it is essential to give careful thought and attention to crafting an effective conclusion.

When writing a research paper, the conclusion acts as the final destination for the reader. It is the point where all the information, arguments, and evidence presented throughout the paper converge. Just as a traveler reaches the end of a journey, the reader reaches the conclusion to find closure and a sense of fulfillment. This is why the conclusion should not be taken lightly; it is a critical opportunity to leave a lasting impact on the reader.

Moreover, the conclusion is not merely a repetition of the introduction or a summary of the main points. It goes beyond that by providing a deeper understanding of the research findings and their implications. It allows the writer to reflect on the significance of their work and its potential contributions to the field. By doing so, the conclusion elevates the research paper from a mere collection of facts to a thought-provoking piece of scholarship.

In the following sections, we will explore various strategies and techniques for crafting a compelling conclusion. By understanding the importance of the conclusion and learning how to write one effectively, you will be equipped to create impactful research papers.

Structuring the Conclusion

In order to create an effective conclusion, it is important to consider its structure. A well-structured conclusion should begin by restating the thesis statement and summarizing the main points of the paper. It should then move on to provide a concise synthesis of the key findings and arguments, highlighting their implications and relevance. Finally, the conclusion should end with a thought-provoking statement that leaves the reader with a lasting impression.

Additionally, using phrases like "this research demonstrates," "the findings show," or "it is clear that" can help to highlight the significance of your research and emphasize your main conclusions.

Tips for Writing an Engaging Conclusion

Writing an engaging conclusion requires careful consideration and attention to detail. Here are some tips to help you create an impactful conclusion for your research paper:

• Revisit the Introduction: Start your conclusion by referencing your introduction. Remind the reader of the research question or problem you initially posed and show how your research has addressed it.
• Summarize Your Main Points: Provide a concise summary of the main points and arguments presented in your paper. Be sure to restate your thesis statement and highlight the key findings.
• Offer a Fresh Perspective: Use the conclusion as an opportunity to provide a fresh perspective or offer insights that go beyond the main body of the paper. This will leave the reader with something new to consider.
• Leave a Lasting Impression: End your conclusion with a thought-provoking statement or a call to action. This will leave a lasting impression on the reader and encourage further exploration of the research topic.

Addressing Counter Arguments In Conclusion

While crafting your conclusion, you can address any potential counterarguments or limitations of your research. This will demonstrate that you have considered alternative perspectives and have taken them into account in your conclusions. By acknowledging potential counterarguments, you can strengthen the credibility and validity of your research. And by openly discussing limitations, you demonstrate transparency and honesty in your research process.

Language and Tone To Be Used In Conclusion

The language and tone of your conclusion play a crucial role in shaping the overall impression of your research paper. It is important to use clear and concise language that is appropriate for the academic context. Avoid using overly informal or colloquial language that may undermine the credibility of your research. Additionally, consider the tone of your conclusion – it should be professional, confident, and persuasive, while still maintaining a respectful and objective tone.

When it comes to the language used in your conclusion, precision is key. You want to ensure that your ideas are communicated effectively and that there is no room for misinterpretation. Using clear and concise language will not only make your conclusion easier to understand but will also demonstrate your command of the subject matter.

Furthermore, it is important to strike the right balance between formality and accessibility. While academic writing typically requires a more formal tone, you should still aim to make your conclusion accessible to a wider audience. This means avoiding jargon or technical terms that may confuse readers who are not familiar with the subject matter. Instead, opt for language that is clear and straightforward, allowing anyone to grasp the main points of your research.

Another aspect to consider is the tone of your conclusion. The tone should reflect the confidence you have in your research findings and the strength of your argument. By adopting a professional and confident tone, you are more likely to convince your readers of the validity and importance of your research. However, it is crucial to strike a balance and avoid sounding arrogant or dismissive of opposing viewpoints. Maintaining a respectful and objective tone will help you engage with your audience in a more persuasive manner.

Moreover, the tone of your conclusion should align with the overall tone of your research paper. Consistency in tone throughout your paper will create a cohesive and unified piece of writing.

Common Mistakes to Avoid While Writing a Conclusion

When writing a conclusion, there are several common mistakes that researchers often make. By being aware of these pitfalls, you can avoid them and create a more effective conclusion for your research paper. Some common mistakes include:

• Repeating the Introduction: A conclusion should not simply be a reworded version of the introduction. While it is important to revisit the main points, try to present them in a fresh and broader perspective, by foregrounding the implications/impacts of your research.
• Introducing New Information: The conclusion should not introduce any new information or arguments. Instead, it should focus on summarizing and synthesizing the main points presented in the paper.
• Being Vague or General: Avoid using vague or general statements in your conclusion. Instead, be specific and provide concrete examples or evidence to support your main points.
• Ending Abruptly: A conclusion should provide a sense of closure and completeness. Avoid ending your conclusion abruptly or leaving the reader with unanswered questions.

Editing and Revising the Conclusion

Just like the rest of your research paper, the conclusion should go through a thorough editing and revising process. This will help to ensure clarity, coherence, and impact in the conclusion. As you revise your conclusion, consider the following:

• Check for Consistency: Ensure that your conclusion aligns with the main body of the paper and does not introduce any new or contradictory information.
• Eliminate Redundancy: Remove any repetitive or redundant information in your conclusion. Instead, focus on presenting the key points in a concise and engaging manner.
• Proofread for Clarity: Read your conclusion aloud or ask someone else to read it to ensure that it is clear and understandable. Check for any grammatical or spelling errors that may distract the reader.
• Seek Feedback: Consider sharing your conclusion with peers or mentors to get their feedback and insights. This can help you strengthen your conclusion and make it more impactful.

How to Write Conclusion as a Call to Action

Finally, consider using your conclusion as a call to action. Encourage the reader to take further action, such as conducting additional research or considering the implications of your findings. By providing a clear call to action, you can inspire the reader to actively engage with your research and continue the conversation on the topic.

Adapting to Different Research Paper Types

It is important to adapt your conclusion approach based on the type of research paper you are writing. Different research paper types may require different strategies and approaches to writing the conclusion. For example, a scientific research paper may focus more on summarizing the key findings and implications, while a persuasive research paper may emphasize the call to action and the potential impact of the research. Tailor your conclusion to suit the specific goals and requirements of your research paper.

Final Thoughts

A well-crafted conclusion can leave a lasting impression on the reader and enhance the impact of your research. By following the tips and strategies outlined in this article, you can create an engaging and impactful conclusion that effectively summarizes your main points, addresses potential counterarguments, and leaves the reader with a sense of closure and inspiration. Embrace the importance of the conclusion and view it as an opportunity to showcase the significance and relevance of your research.

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• How to conclude an essay | Interactive example

How to Conclude an Essay | Interactive Example

Published on January 24, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The conclusion is the final paragraph of your essay . A strong conclusion aims to:

• Tie together the essay’s main points
• Show why your argument matters
• Leave the reader with a strong impression

Your conclusion should give a sense of closure and completion to your argument, but also show what new questions or possibilities it has opened up.

This conclusion is taken from our annotated essay example , which discusses the history of the Braille system. Hover over each part to see why it’s effective.

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.

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Table of contents

Step 1: return to your thesis, step 2: review your main points, step 3: show why it matters, what shouldn’t go in the conclusion, more examples of essay conclusions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about writing an essay conclusion.

To begin your conclusion, signal that the essay is coming to an end by returning to your overall argument.

Don’t just repeat your thesis statement —instead, try to rephrase your argument in a way that shows how it has been developed since the introduction.

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Next, remind the reader of the main points that you used to support your argument.

Avoid simply summarizing each paragraph or repeating each point in order; try to bring your points together in a way that makes the connections between them clear. The conclusion is your final chance to show how all the paragraphs of your essay add up to a coherent whole.

To wrap up your conclusion, zoom out to a broader view of the topic and consider the implications of your argument. For example:

• Does it contribute a new understanding of your topic?
• Does it raise new questions for future study?
• Does it lead to practical suggestions or predictions?
• Can it be applied to different contexts?
• Can it be connected to a broader debate or theme?

Whatever your essay is about, the conclusion should aim to emphasize the significance of your argument, whether that’s within your academic subject or in the wider world.

Try to end with a strong, decisive sentence, leaving the reader with a lingering sense of interest in your topic.

The easiest way to improve your conclusion is to eliminate these common mistakes.

Don’t include new evidence

Any evidence or analysis that is essential to supporting your thesis statement should appear in the main body of the essay.

The conclusion might include minor pieces of new information—for example, a sentence or two discussing broader implications, or a quotation that nicely summarizes your central point. But it shouldn’t introduce any major new sources or ideas that need further explanation to understand.

Don’t use “concluding phrases”

Avoid using obvious stock phrases to tell the reader what you’re doing:

• “In conclusion…”
• “To sum up…”

These phrases aren’t forbidden, but they can make your writing sound weak. By returning to your main argument, it will quickly become clear that you are concluding the essay—you shouldn’t have to spell it out.

Don’t undermine your argument

Avoid using apologetic phrases that sound uncertain or confused:

• “This is just one approach among many.”
• “There are good arguments on both sides of this issue.”
• “There is no clear answer to this problem.”

Even if your essay has explored different points of view, your own position should be clear. There may be many possible approaches to the topic, but you want to leave the reader convinced that yours is the best one!

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• Literary analysis

This conclusion is taken from an argumentative essay about the internet’s impact on education. It acknowledges the opposing arguments while taking a clear, decisive position.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

This conclusion is taken from a short expository essay that explains the invention of the printing press and its effects on European society. It focuses on giving a clear, concise overview of what was covered in the essay.

The invention of the printing press was important not only in terms of its immediate cultural and economic effects, but also in terms of its major impact on politics and religion across Europe. In the century following the invention of the printing press, the relatively stationary intellectual atmosphere of the Middle Ages gave way to the social upheavals of the Reformation and the Renaissance. A single technological innovation had contributed to the total reshaping of the continent.

This conclusion is taken from a literary analysis essay about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein . It summarizes what the essay’s analysis achieved and emphasizes its originality.

By tracing the depiction of Frankenstein through the novel’s three volumes, I have demonstrated how the narrative structure shifts our perception of the character. While the Frankenstein of the first volume is depicted as having innocent intentions, the second and third volumes—first in the creature’s accusatory voice, and then in his own voice—increasingly undermine him, causing him to appear alternately ridiculous and vindictive. Far from the one-dimensional villain he is often taken to be, the character of Frankenstein is compelling because of the dynamic narrative frame in which he is placed. In this frame, Frankenstein’s narrative self-presentation responds to the images of him we see from others’ perspectives. This conclusion sheds new light on the novel, foregrounding Shelley’s unique layering of narrative perspectives and its importance for the depiction of character.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay’s conclusion should contain:

• A rephrased version of your overall thesis
• A brief review of the key points you made in the main body
• An indication of why your argument matters

The conclusion may also reflect on the broader implications of your argument, showing how your ideas could applied to other contexts or debates.

For a stronger conclusion paragraph, avoid including:

• Important evidence or analysis that wasn’t mentioned in the main body
• Generic concluding phrases (e.g. “In conclusion…”)
• Weak statements that undermine your argument (e.g. “There are good points on both sides of this issue.”)

Your conclusion should leave the reader with a strong, decisive impression of your work.

The conclusion paragraph of an essay is usually shorter than the introduction . As a rule, it shouldn’t take up more than 10–15% of the text.

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McCombes, S. (2023, July 23). How to Conclude an Essay | Interactive Example. Scribbr. Retrieved March 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/conclusion/

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How to Write a Research Paper Conclusion Section

What is a conclusion in a research paper?

The conclusion in a research paper is the final paragraph or two in a research paper. In scientific papers, the conclusion usually follows the Discussion section , summarizing the importance of the findings and reminding the reader why the work presented in the paper is relevant.

However, it can be a bit confusing to distinguish the conclusion section/paragraph from a summary or a repetition of your findings, your own opinion, or the statement of the implications of your work. In fact, the conclusion should contain a bit of all of these other parts but go beyond it—but not too far beyond! 

The structure and content of the conclusion section can also vary depending on whether you are writing a research manuscript or an essay. This article will explain how to write a good conclusion section, what exactly it should (and should not) contain, how it should be structured, and what you should avoid when writing it.  

Table of Contents:

What does a good conclusion section do, what to include in a research paper conclusion.

• Conclusion in an Essay
• Research Paper Conclusion 
• Conclusion Paragraph Outline and Example
• What Not to Do When Writing a Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper has several key objectives. It should:

• Restate your research problem addressed in the introduction section
• Summarize your main arguments, important findings, and broader implications
• Synthesize key takeaways from your study

The specific content in the conclusion depends on whether your paper presents the results of original scientific research or constructs an argument through engagement with previously published sources.

You presented your general field of study to the reader in the introduction section, by moving from general information (the background of your work, often combined with a literature review ) to the rationale of your study and then to the specific problem or topic you addressed, formulated in the form of the statement of the problem in research or the thesis statement in an essay.

In the conclusion section, in contrast, your task is to move from your specific findings or arguments back to a more general depiction of how your research contributes to the readers’ understanding of a certain concept or helps solve a practical problem, or fills an important gap in the literature. The content of your conclusion section depends on the type of research you are doing and what type of paper you are writing. But whatever the outcome of your work is, the conclusion is where you briefly summarize it and place it within a larger context. It could be called the “take-home message” of the entire paper.

What to summarize in the conclusion

Your conclusion section needs to contain a very brief summary of your work , a very brief summary of the main findings of your work, and a mention of anything else that seems relevant when you now look at your work from a bigger perspective, even if it was not initially listed as one of your main research questions. This could be a limitation, for example, a problem with the design of your experiment that either needs to be considered when drawing any conclusions or that led you to ask a different question and therefore draw different conclusions at the end of your study (compared to when you started out).

Once you have reminded the reader of what you did and what you found, you need to go beyond that and also provide either your own opinion on why your work is relevant (and for whom, and how) or theoretical or practical implications of the study , or make a specific call for action if there is one to be made.   

How to Write an Essay Conclusion

Academic essays follow quite different structures than their counterparts in STEM and the natural sciences. Humanities papers often have conclusion sections that are much longer and contain more detail than scientific papers. There are three main types of academic essay conclusions.

Summarizing conclusion

The most typical conclusion at the end of an analytical/explanatory/argumentative essay is a summarizing conclusion . This is, as the name suggests, a clear summary of the main points of your topic and thesis. Since you might have gone through a number of different arguments or subtopics in the main part of your essay, you need to remind the reader again what those were, how they fit into each other, and how they helped you develop or corroborate your hypothesis.

For an essay that analyzes how recruiters can hire the best candidates in the shortest time or on “how starving yourself will increase your lifespan, according to science”, a summary of all the points you discussed might be all you need. Note that you should not exactly repeat what you said earlier, but rather highlight the essential details and present those to your reader in a different way. 

Externalizing conclusion

If you think that just reminding the reader of your main points is not enough, you can opt for an externalizing conclusion instead, that presents new points that were not presented in the paper so far. These new points can be additional facts and information or they can be ideas that are relevant to the topic and have not been mentioned before.

Such a conclusion can stimulate your readers to think about your topic or the implications of your analysis in a whole new way. For example, at the end of a historical analysis of a specific event or development, you could direct your reader’s attention to some current events that were not the topic of your essay but that provide a different context for your findings.

Editorial conclusion

In an editorial conclusion , another common type of conclusion that you will find at the end of papers and essays, you do not add new information but instead present your own experiences or opinions on the topic to round everything up. What makes this type of conclusion interesting is that you can choose to agree or disagree with the information you presented in your paper so far. For example, if you have collected and analyzed information on how a specific diet helps people lose weight, you can nevertheless have your doubts on the sustainability of that diet or its practicability in real life—if such arguments were not included in your original thesis and have therefore not been covered in the main part of your paper, the conclusion section is the place where you can get your opinion across.    

How to Conclude an Empirical Research Paper

An empirical research paper is usually more concise and succinct than an essay, because, if it is written well, it focuses on one specific question, describes the method that was used to answer that one question, describes and explains the results, and guides the reader in a logical way from the introduction to the discussion without going on tangents or digging into not absolutely relevant topics.

Summarize the findings

In a scientific paper, you should include a summary of the findings. Don’t go into great detail here (you will have presented your in-depth  results  and  discussion  already), but do clearly express the answers to the  research questions  you investigated.

Describe your main findings, even if they weren’t necessarily the ones anticipated, and explain the conclusion they led you to. Explain these findings in as few words as possible.

Instead of beginning with “ In conclusion, in this study, we investigated the effect of stress on the brain using fMRI …”, you should try to find a way to incorporate the repetition of the essential (and only the essential) details into the summary of the key points. “ The findings of this fMRI study on the effect of stress on the brain suggest that …” or “ While it has been known for a long time that stress has an effect on the brain, the findings of this fMRI study show that, surprisingly… ” would be better ways to start a conclusion. 

You should also not bring up new ideas or present new facts in the conclusion of a research paper, but stick to the background information you have presented earlier, to the findings you have already discussed, and the limitations and implications you have already described. The one thing you can add here is a practical recommendation that you haven’t clearly stated before—but even that one needs to follow logically from everything you have already discussed in the discussion section.

Discuss the implications

After summing up your key arguments or findings, conclude the paper by stating the broader implications of the research , whether in methods , approach, or findings. Express practical or theoretical takeaways from your paper. This often looks like a “call to action” or a final “sales pitch” that puts an exclamation point on your paper.

If your research topic is more theoretical in nature, your closing statement should express the significance of your argument—for example, in proposing a new understanding of a topic or laying the groundwork for future research.

Future research example

Future research into education standards should focus on establishing a more detailed picture of how novel pedagogical approaches impact young people’s ability to absorb new and difficult concepts. Moreover, observational studies are needed to gain more insight into how specific teaching models affect the retention of relationships and facts—for instance, how inquiry-based learning and its emphasis on lateral thinking can be used as a jumping-off point for more holistic classroom approaches.

Research Conclusion Example and Outline

Let’s revisit the study on the effect of stress on the brain we mentioned before and see what the common structure for a conclusion paragraph looks like, in three steps. Following these simple steps will make it easy for you to wrap everything up in one short paragraph that contains all the essential information: 

One: Short summary of what you did, but integrated into the summary of your findings:

While it has been known for a long time that stress has an effect on the brain, the findings of this fMRI study in 25 university students going through mid-term exams show that, surprisingly, one’s attitude to the experienced stress significantly modulates the brain’s response to it. 

Note that you don’t need to repeat any methodological or technical details here—the reader has been presented with all of these before, they have read your results section and the discussion of your results, and even (hopefully!) a discussion of the limitations and strengths of your paper. The only thing you need to remind them of here is the essential outcome of your work. 

Two: Add implications, and don’t forget to specify who this might be relevant for: 

Students could be considered a specific subsample of the general population, but earlier research shows that the effect that exam stress has on their physical and mental health is comparable to the effects of other types of stress on individuals of other ages and occupations. Further research into practical ways of modulating not only one’s mental stress response but potentially also one’s brain activity (e.g., via neurofeedback training) are warranted.

This is a “research implication”, and it is nicely combined with a mention of a potential limitation of the study (the student sample) that turns out not to be a limitation after all (because earlier research suggests we can generalize to other populations). If there already is a lot of research on neurofeedback for stress control, by the way, then this should have been discussed in your discussion section earlier and you wouldn’t say such studies are “warranted” here but rather specify how your findings could inspire specific future experiments or how they should be implemented in existing applications. 

Three: The most important thing is that your conclusion paragraph accurately reflects the content of your paper. Compare it to your research paper title , your research paper abstract , and to your journal submission cover letter , in case you already have one—if these do not all tell the same story, then you need to go back to your paper, start again from the introduction section, and find out where you lost the logical thread. As always, consistency is key.    

Problems to Avoid When Writing a Conclusion 

• Do not suddenly introduce new information that has never been mentioned before (unless you are writing an essay and opting for an externalizing conclusion, see above). The conclusion section is not where you want to surprise your readers, but the take-home message of what you have already presented.
• Do not simply copy your abstract, the conclusion section of your abstract, or the first sentence of your introduction, and put it at the end of the discussion section. Even if these parts of your paper cover the same points, they should not be identical.
• Do not start the conclusion with “In conclusion”. If it has its own section heading, that is redundant, and if it is the last paragraph of the discussion section, it is inelegant and also not really necessary. The reader expects you to wrap your work up in the last paragraph, so you don’t have to announce that. Just look at the above example to see how to start a conclusion in a natural way.
• Do not forget what your research objectives were and how you initially formulated the statement of the problem in your introduction section. If your story/approach/conclusions changed because of methodological issues or information you were not aware of when you started, then make sure you go back to the beginning and adapt your entire story (not just the ending). 

Consider Receiving Academic Editing Services

When you have arrived at the conclusion of your paper, you might want to head over to Wordvice AI’s AI Writing Assistant to receive a free grammar check for any academic content. 

After drafting, you can also receive English editing and proofreading services , including paper editing services for your journal manuscript. If you need advice on how to write the other parts of your research paper , or on how to make a research paper outline if you are struggling with putting everything you did together, then head over to the Wordvice academic resources pages , where we have a lot more articles and videos for you.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper that Resonates

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial part of the entire document. The final section summarizes the main points, restates the thesis statement, and provides closure to the reader. Writing a strong conclusion for a research paper can be challenging because you must bring together all the ideas you’ve presented concisely and compellingly. Don’t fret, as we’ll let you know how to write a conclusion for a research paper like a professional  paper writing service  provider. So, let’s dive in!

Table of Contents

The Ultimate Guide on How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

A great conclusion makes your paper stand out and leaves a lasting impression on your readers. Let us help you figure out how to write a killer conclusion for your research paper.

Four Important Elements of a Research Paper Conclusion

These are the essential elements you must include in the conclusion of your  research paper writing  for a lasting impression.

Restate the Thesis Statement

It’s really important to remind readers of the main argument in your paper. You should state the  thesis statement  in the intro and then again in the conclusion. But don’t just copy and paste the same words! It’s better to rephrase it in a slightly different way so readers know you understand the topic.

Summarize the Main Points of the Research Paper

It’s important to sum up the paper’s main points to show the reader it’s covered the topic well. Just use the topic sentences from the body paragraphs and make it brief; that should do it.

Discuss the Implications of the Research

It’s important to cover the implications of the research so the reader can understand the bigger picture. This part should emphasize the real-world or theoretical implications of the research and explain why the results are important. These implications can involve multiple topics, such as policy, practices, theories, or further research.

Provide Closure to the Reader

A satisfying research paper conclusion is the key to its success. This last section should link together the main points made throughout the paper and make the reader feel like the paper has come to its natural conclusion. It’s a great idea to finish the conclusion with a thought-provoking statement, an invitation to take action or a question that will leave the reader pondering.

For Example:

Tips for Writing A Strong Conclusion

These are the expert tips to help you write a strong conclusion for your research paper:

Tip 1: Keep it Concise and to The Point

Make sure your conclusion is short and sweet, summing up the main points of your research paper without adding anything new. Don’t use different words or phrases to fill up space – say what needs to be said in a simple, straightforward way.

Tip 2: Use language that is clear and easy to understand

Make sure everyone easily understands your conclusion. Don’t use technical words. Stick to the main points and make sure everyone can follow along.

Tip 3: Avoid Introducing New Information

Your conclusion should wrap up the ideas you’ve presented in your paper, not add anything new. Summarize the main ideas and arguments that you’ve presented and show how they back up your thesis.

Tip 4: Use a Strong Concluding Sentence

Wrapping up your paper with a strong conclusion helps tie everything together and leaves an impact on the reader. Why not finish with a thought-provoking question, a call to action or a powerful statement? It’ll be sure to stick with them.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Here are some common mistakes you should avoid when writing a conclusion for your research paper:

Don’t Repeat the Information

In your research paper conclusion, try not to copy what’s already been said in the body of the paper. Sum up the main points, but don’t just repeat them word for word. Show how the evidence and ideas in the paper back up the thesis.

Avoid Including Personal Opinions and or Biases

Be careful not to let your feelings sneak into the conclusion. Stick to the facts and sum up the main points of your paper instead of giving your own opinion. Keep it objective!

Don’t Use Weak Language or Cliches:

Don’t use weak language or cliches like “in conclusion” or “it can be said that.” Also, don’t say “more research is needed” since it makes your conclusion seem unfulfilled. Instead, be clear about when and where you’re talking about and emphasize the importance of your research.

Example of Good Research Paper Conclusions

It’s important to make a lasting impression on your reader, so having a good conclusion to your research paper is key. Here are some examples of what makes a strong conclusion and the elements that make it effective:

Example 1 – A Research Paper on The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health:

Through the research analysis, it is clear that social media use can significantly negatively affect mental health. To address this issue, individuals and society need to recognize social media’s impact and take steps to mitigate its negative effects. This research highlights the need for further investigation into the relationship between social media and mental health, as well as the development of strategies to promote healthy social media use.

Example 2 – A Research Paper on The Benefits of Exercise:

The findings of this study demonstrate the numerous benefits of regular exercise, including improved cardiovascular health, increased strength, and reduced stress levels. These benefits highlight the importance of physical activity for individuals of all ages and abilities. Individuals and society need to prioritize exercise and promote physical activity to improve overall health and well-being.

Finishing your research paper with a strong conclusion is key to leaving a lasting impact on your reader. We are summarizing the conclusion for a research paper in brief points.

•  Sum up the main points of your paper and restate your thesis statement.
• Think about the implications of your research and provide closure for your reader.
• Keep your language clear and avoid introducing new info.
• Use a strong conclusion sentence, and don’t make mistakes like repeating yourself or adding personal opinions or bias.

Hopefully you won’t need to search how to write conclusion in research again. Still, if you need help with a conclusion in research paper, you can order today so  our writers  can assist you immediately.

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How to Write an Effective Conclusion for a Research Paper

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HOME » Knowledge » How to Write an Effective Conclusion for a Research Paper

Introduction

The conclusion of a research paper is your final opportunity to make an impression on your readers. Far from being a mere summary, it serves as the capstone of your argument, tying all your points together and underscoring the significance of your study.

When you search “ Pay someone to write my research paper ,” the paper writer who will do so already knows an effective conclusion and leaves your audience with a clear understanding of your research’s implications and contributions to the field. This guide will walk you through the steps to craft compelling conclusions that resonate with your readers.

Restate the Thesis

The conclusion kicks off by revisiting your thesis statement. This restatement serves as a reminder of the research problem you set out to explore and the stance you’ve advocated throughout your paper. It’s crucial for reinforcing the argument you’ve developed.

Tips for Paraphrasing Your Thesis Statement Effectively

Paraphrasing your thesis in the conclusion requires skill. Aim for clarity and strength; rephrase your thesis in a way that reflects the depth and breadth of your argument without merely repeating it word for word. This shows your readers that your paper has successfully tackled the initial query.

While the introduction sets the stage for your research, restating the thesis in the conclusion reflects the journey and insights gained. It’s not just about repeating the statement; it’s about showcasing its validity and the weight of evidence backing it.

Summary of Main Points

Overview of how to summarize key findings or arguments.

Your conclusion should succinctly summarize the main findings or arguments presented, drawing together the threads of your research. This doesn’t mean listing every detail but highlighting the pivotal points that underscore your thesis.

Conciseness ensures your conclusion is impactful. Focus on the core insights of your research, ensuring each point directly supports or relates to your thesis. This relevance reinforces the coherence of your argument.

To maintain clarity, use straightforward language and structure your summary logically. Consider using signposting to guide your readers through the recap, making the connections between your thesis and key points unmistakable.

Discuss the Significance

Importance of highlighting the relevance and implications of the research.

An effective conclusion goes beyond the confines of the research to explore its broader significance. It answers the “So what?” question, demonstrating why your findings matter in the real world or within the academic community.

To contextualize your findings, relate them to the larger issues or debates addressed in your introduction. This might involve discussing how your research fills a gap in the literature, contributes to a particular field, or has practical applications.

Discussing future implications or potential applications shows the forward-looking dimension of your research. It suggests pathways for further study or how your findings could be employed to address specific challenges. Be speculative yet grounded in the evidence you’ve presented.

Recommendations for Future Research

Towards the end of your conclusion, it’s beneficial to look ahead and suggest areas for further research. This shows you’ve thought deeply about the implications of your work. Identify specific questions your research has raised but not answered, or propose extending the study to other contexts or populations.

Your recommendations should directly stem from the findings and limitations of your current research. Being specific about the next steps helps underscore the contribution of your work to the field and provides a clear direction for future scholars.

Balancing Optimism with Realism in Proposing Future Research

While it’s great to be hopeful about what future research can uncover, it’s also important to be realistic. Consider the feasibility of your recommendations, given current technology, methodologies, and ethical guidelines. This balance demonstrates a mature understanding of the research process, which “Write my paper for me” services do naturally.

End with a Strong Closing Sentence

Your final sentence is your last chance to make an impact on your reader. An effective closing sentence reinforces the significance of your research and leaves a lasting impression.

Examples of Effective Closing Techniques

You might end with a call to action, encouraging further research or practical application of your findings. A poignant quotation related to your topic can also resonate deeply. Alternatively, posing a thought-provoking question can leave readers contemplating the implications of your work long after they’ve finished reading.

Tips to Avoid Common Pitfalls

Be wary of introducing new information in your final sentence—this can confuse readers. Also, steer clear of overly emotional language that might undermine the academic tone of your paper. Keep it professional and reflective of your research’s impact, just like “Write my paper” services try to do.

Revising the Conclusion

Importance of revising and editing.

Just like the rest of your paper, your conclusion needs careful revising and editing to ensure it’s clear, concise, and compelling. A well-crafted conclusion can significantly enhance the effectiveness of your research paper writing.

Checklist for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Your Conclusion

Review your conclusion to ensure it restates the thesis, summarizes key findings, discusses significance, and suggests future research clearly and coherently. Ensure your final sentence is impactful and that the conclusion as a whole reinforces the strength of your argument.

Getting feedback from peers or mentors can also provide valuable insights. They might catch issues you’ve overlooked and suggest improvements. Constructive criticism is a crucial part of refining your conclusion to make it as effective as possible, and when you pay for research paper, expert feedback is already included.

Crafting an effective conclusion requires careful attention to detail and an understanding of how to present your research in a broader context. Remember to reiterate your thesis with fresh insight, concisely summarize your main points, highlight the significance of your findings, suggest future research, and leave a lasting impression with a strong closing sentence.

Revising your conclusion and seeking feedback can further refine its impact. Investing time and effort into your conclusion pays off by leaving your readers with a clear understanding of your research’s importance and potential. A well-written conclusion not only wraps up your paper neatly but also underscores the value of your work and its contribution to the field.

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How to Make a Web Series on YouTube?

Are you seeking ways to develop your channel and capture a large number of your target audience? Making a YouTube web series might be the key to unlocking your content’s true potential and improving your channel’s performance. In this post provided by MiniTool Video Converter , we will focus on the crucial steps of finding out how to make a web series on YouTube, which helps you boost views on your YouTube videos and enhance your subscriber base potentially.

A ton of research and planning goes into making a successful web series on YouTube. You can take the steps outlined below:

Research and Identify a Feasible Idea

The most important step in creating a web series on YouTube is to conduct detailed research online and generate feasible topic ideas that can be developed into a web series. Choose a topic that is in line with your target audience’s interest. The following ideas can help you brainstorm and come up with great topics for your videos.

• Delve deeper into YouTube Analytics to create a list of popular videos that have captured the most viewership and utilize them as inspiration for future videos.
• Research using Google Analytics or Google Trends to come up with motivating ideas that the target audience is actively searching for.
• Use a story poll or an email survey to ask the target audience for input to find out what they’re interested in.

Examining the data gathered from the aforementioned research, you’ll get a treasure of ideas to understand what your viewers are looking for and identify relevant topics that you can use to make a web series on YouTube. To ensure you never run out of ideas for YouTube videos, we recommend that you plan one month’s calendar at a time.

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Make an Outline

As soon as you have your ideas and a list of relevant topics, make an outline that breaks your topic into different events that can be made into episodes. Include a compelling story in the content and give it a structure that will captivate viewers.

Besides, search for related keywords to add to your video’s title, description, and tags. Offering an in-depth description with related words helps the YouTube algorithm display your videos to the maximum number of people when they look for them.

Turn Your Outline into a Fun Script

Making a script for your YouTube web series offers you clarity on what content you should select when creating videos. In addition, it also helps you know the props and background you will need while shooting your video.

We recommend starting with a series of at least 5 videos because it provides decent content for the viewers to watch and enhances the average watch time. Get to your topic immediately within the first 60 seconds since the viewers wish to find a solution to their query as soon as possible.

What is a YouTube video script? How do I start writing YouTube video scripts? How do I create the YouTube script outline? It's all on this page!

Make a Trailer for Your Web Series on YouTube

Making a fun trailer before releasing or promoting your YouTube video web series is an excellent method to pique the interest of your viewers.

But the trailer should be dramatic, exciting, and engaging to attract a huge pool of viewers to your channel.

Schedule the Premiering Dates

Once you have prepared your web series and released trailers, arrange the release dates for your video series in stages. It’s best to choose a weekend because there are higher chances of the target audience interacting with your videos.

Moreover, decide whether you can make another season of your YouTube web series according to your content and the response from your viewers. If the demand looks higher, you can use the steps above to brainstorm more ideas and make another season of the YouTube web series.

Want to grow your channel with more views and subscribers? YouTube Premiere is a must-try feature. How to do a YouTube Premiere? This post is right for you!

Learning how to make a web series on YouTube requires a significant investment of time and energy. But your hard work eventually pays off with a potentially wider subscriber base and substantially more views on your YouTube videos. It provides your subscribers with a reason to come back and view the most recent videos uploaded on your channel. Consistently offering high-quality content and engaging the right audience will help you take your YouTube channel to enormous heights and make it a significant revenue-generating source.

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Making desync attacks easy with TRACE

Martin Doyhenard

@tincho_508

Published: 19 March 2024 at 14:00 UTC

Updated: 19 March 2024 at 14:38 UTC

Have you ever found an HTTP desync vulnerability that seemed impossible to exploit due to its complicated constraints? In this blogpost we will explore a new exploitation technique that can be used to completely compromise a web application using TRACE - an ancient HTTP method that's more widely supported than you might think. 

I recently came across an HTTP/2 Desync vulnerability (a.k.a HTTP request smuggling ) in a Bug Bounty program that had some HTTP/2 header injection issues. Specifically, it was possible to inject a line break character in a header’s value, letting me smuggle transfer-encoding header which would eventually split the request at backend.

After confirming the vulnerability and submitting it to the program, I received the following message:

“ Thank you for your submission. Being able to smuggle a request is not a vulnerability in itself. How are you able to exploit the smuggling request? .”

Although saying that smuggling a request is not a vulnerability by itself seems like a bold statement in 2024, I was confident enough I could craft a good Proof of Concept to demonstrate impact.

But after looking at the application for a few hours I started worrying, as there was no endpoint I could use to create my payload. There were no other vulnerabilities to leverage with request smuggling, nor reflected parameters that could be used with response smuggling, and even worse, the connections between the frontend and backend appeared to be isolated from each other so I couldn't directly attack other users. I was able to use a HEAD smuggled request to split messages in the response queue, but besides that, this host seemed to be unexploitable.

The TRACE method

At that moment I noticed something interesting. The backend server was configured to respond to TRACE requests. 

For those unfamiliar with this method, the HTTP RFC states:

" The TRACE method requests a remote, application-level loop-back of the request message. The final recipient of the request SHOULD reflect the message received… ”

This means that if we send a request like:

We would obtain a response with the same request in the body, and with “message/http” as the content-type:

TRACE request can be really helpful when analysing a smuggling vulnerability. That’s because the response will show us exactly what is being received by the backend.

Being able to see the forwarded request can give information about headers that are modified or added (like the X-Forwarded-For header) by the proxy and even protocol modifications, such as downgrading from HTTP/2 to HTTP/1.1, which is the source of many desync vulnerabilities.

But what’s even more interesting is that we can use the TRACE response to build a payload to completely compromise the application, by combining it with Response Smuggling and Web Cache Poisoning . Let's see how:

Response Smuggling Recap

For those unfamiliar with Response Concatenation, the basic idea is to smuggle a HEAD request which will produce a response containing only headers. According to the HTTP RFC, this response can contain a content-length header which must have the same value that the GET response would have. This header should be ignored by a proxy when the response is matched to the HEAD request.

However, as the HEAD message was smuggled and the proxy never noticed this, the content-length will not be ignored, causing a concatenation with the next available response.

As an example, consider the following request which is used to exploit a server vulnerable to CL.0 desynchronization:

The first response will be forwarded to the attacker as usual. 

But, as the proxy never saw a HEAD request, it will parse the content-length of the next response as it would normally do, using the next response as part of the body.

Using this technique, an attacker can concatenate responses, using headers as body and modifying the behaviour of a message, by changing the content-type of a payload like in the previous example.

Exploiting Desync with TRACE

Going back to the HTTP/2 Desync vulnerability, I had no endpoint that reflected something useful in either the headers or the body of a response. But what about the TRACE request?

As TRACE responses will reflect any header that the backend receives, we can use it to generate a malicious script and place it in the body of the HEAD response:

Resulting in the following responses:

The response will be forwarded to the next request that arrives through the same connection, taking control of the browser with a malicious JavaScript!

This technique, as powerful as it seems, requires the server to respond to TRACE requests, which might seem unlikely in most production environments. 

As this method should only be used for debugging purposes, it's common for proxies to block these requests using some firewall rule which will return a Forbidden response.

But, as smuggling can be used to bypass firewall rules, it is possible to hide a TRACE message from the proxy and deliver it directly to the backend. So even if the method is forbidden, exploitation through desynchronization is still possible.

So far I was able to desynchronize the connections to reflect an arbitrary payload in a response. Yet, as the backend connections were isolated from each other, the malicious response will only be received by the user who issued it.

Even when connections are not shared between users, there are two techniques that can be used to exploit this condition: Web Cache Poisoning and Client-Side Desync. 

In this case, Client-Side desync was out of the table (HTTP/2 injection was required), but the application was storing static responses in the cache, which meant that Web Cache Poisoning was possible.

Using Response Concatenation, it is possible to choose a response that contains a Content-Length and Cache-Control headers that forces the response to be stored in the cache.

Even though I was able to find many potential candidate endpoints, none of them had a Content-Type header with value text/html. This means that even if I was able to store my payload with one of these responses, the browser would not execute my malicious Javascript.

At that point I could have just sent the desync attack first, followed by a request to a static resource like “/payload.css” through the same HTTP/2 connection and store the response for that endpoint. Anyone requesting for “/payload.css” would receive the evil payload from the cache and the javascript would be executed. 

Although this attack might have worked, to affect a user it was necessary to overwrite the cached response of an existing resource, and depending on how the page is loaded and the max-age of the response, it could be quite hard to effectively exploit a victim’s browser.

From TRACE to Response Splitting

Still, there was a better option. When I researched response smuggling I theorised a case in which the attacker could split a response in order to create an arbitrary message that would be stored in cache. 

For this to be possible it is necessary that the application allows some content reflection which includes line breaks, so that the attacker can write response headers as well as the payload:

Which would create the following responses:

As previously explained, the last message will be used to complete the HEAD response, but in this case, only the first 78 bytes will be concatenated. 

If the remaining bytes do not correspond to a valid HTTP message, the proxy would forward a 500 error message or just close the connection after forwarding the previous response.

But, in that case, the proxy is able to correctly parse the remaining payload as a valid HTTP response. For that reason, the message will be forwarded as the response of the next available request. 

By this, the attacker was able to generate an arbitrary response including headers and body, that will be stored in the cache for the URL specified in a following request.

Finding an endpoint that allows us to reflect any byte sent in the body is extremely rare, but if TRACE requests are permitted, the attack is completely practical.

Note that, depending on the configuration, TRACE requests cannot contain a content-length header bigger than 0, and therefore is not possible to add the Javascript payload in the same request. We can add an extra response that generates the body of the payload using the same technique described above. 

Some servers like Apache will allow a body If the “TraceEnabled extended” directive is present, which makes the attack even more simple.

If the body is not allowed, the message length header can be added using a smuggled transfer-encoding or with an extra response which will be appended right after the last header of the TRACE message:

Which would generate the following responses

If the TRACE implementation makes it impossible to append a message-length header in the response, it is also possible to create a redirect response that will be stored in the cache. This can either redirect to a stored payload (using the cache deception/poisoning technique), or to an attacker’s page to launch another attack like client-side desync or classic phishing.

In summary, this case shows how using forgotten methods like TRACE, combined with modern techniques such as HTTP Desync and Cache Poisoning, can lead to serious security issues in web applications. Even though TRACE is an old method, it proves to be very effective for attackers who know how to use it creatively. 

This reminds us that we should never underestimate older technologies, as they can be used in new ways to create significant challenges for cybersecurity.

Back to all articles

Related Research

Making http header injection critical via response queue poisoning, how to turn security research into profit, browser-powered desync attacks, http/2: the sequel is always worse.

POLICY AND PRACTICE REVIEWS article

Forcing a square into a circle: why south africa’s draft revised material transfer agreement is not fit for purpose.

• School of Law, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

The South African National Health Research Ethics Council (NHREC) recently released a final draft revision of the standard material transfer agreement (MTA) that was promulgated into law in 2018. This new draft MTA raises pertinent questions about the NHREC’s mandate, the way in which the draft MTA deals with data and with human biological material, and its avoidance of the concept of ownership. After South Africa’s data protection legislation, the Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA), became operational in mid 2021, the legal landscape changed and it is doubtful that the NHREC has a residual mandate to govern personal information in health research. Furthermore, data is dealt with in a superficial, throw-away fashion in the draft MTA. The position with human biological material is not substantially better, as the draft MTA fails to recognise that human biological material can contain pathogens, which has important legal and ethical ramifications that are not sufficiently addressed. A central problem with the draft MTA is its use of the term ‘steward’, and avoidance of the legal concept of ‘ownership’. This is not only misaligned with the South African legal framework, but also fails to consider the ethical case for recognising ownership. Finally, a call to embrace decolonial thinking in health research underscores the importance of recognising ownership in order to foster the growth of the local bio-economy. Key recommendations to reshape the draft MTA include: Making use of the eventual revised MTA optional, and allowing it to evolve with input from scientific and legal communities; regulating the transfer of associated data in a separate data transfer agreement that can be incorporated by reference in the MTA; enhancing guidance on liability and risk management in respect of human biological material that contains pathogens; and, finally, adopting a decolonial approach in health research governance, which requires recognising the ownership rights of South African research institutions.

In 2018, the South African Minister of Health published a standard material transfer agreement (MTA) in the Government Gazette and gave notice that research institutions sharing human biological material for health research or clinical trials must use this MTA (SA MTA) ( Material Transfer Agreement for Human Biological Materials, 2018 ). The SA MTA was controversial from the outset ( Thaldar, 2020 ; Thaldar et al., 2020 ). The notion of the state in a supposedly open and democratic society, forcing the use of a single template onto everyone is clearly suspect. The situation could, however, have been palatable had the SA MTA been a well-drafted document. However, it was not. Thaldar et al. (2020) highlighted several problems with the SA MTA, ranging from misalignment with extant law to absurdly overbroad clauses.

The only saving grace was that the SA MTA described itself as a “framework,” hence leaving latitude for parties that are legally forced to use it to amend the substantive provisions—and hopefully in the process resolve the problematic aspects ( Thaldar et al., 2020 ; Steytler and Thaldar, 2021 ; Thaldar and Shozi, 2021 ; Swales et al., 2023a ). Using this latitude, a group of South African law academics developed a revised version of the SA MTA in an attempt to rectify the most serious issues while remaining within the bounds of the framework of the original version of the SA MTA ( Pope, 2020 ). The aim of this revised version—called “SA MTA 1.1” and dating from 2020—was to provide the South African research community with a usable version of the SA MTA that would still comply with the law.

Next, in 2022, a research group at the University of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa started with the development of a data transfer agreement (DTA) template for the South African research community. The rationale was that data sharing between researchers requires an expertly drafted agreement that is aligned with South African law—in particular the Protection of Personal Information Act 4 of 2013 (POPIA) that was brought into full operation on 1 July 2021; however, many—if not most—research organisations in South Africa do not have the inhouse legal expertise to have such an agreement drafted ( Swales et al., 2023a ). Accordingly, the aim was to develop a comprehensive, professionally drafted DTA template and to make it freely available for anyone to use ( Swales et al., 2023a ). The DTA template was also complemented with an explanatory memorandum to guide users on how to use and amend the template for their own circumstances ( Swales et al., 2023b ).

The authors of the DTA template explicitly distanced themselves from the authoritarian practice of forcing the use of a document on a country ( Swales et al., 2023a ; Swales et al., 2023b ). Instead, they stated that the South African research community should use the DTA template and explanatory memorandum because these are top quality documents that answer a need, not because they are forced to do so as is the case with the SA MTA ( Swales et al., 2023a ; Swales et al., 2023b ).

However, the controversial SA MTA (the original version) remained in South Africa’s lawbooks. Eventually, South Africa’s Department of Health decided that the best policy solution was to task a statutory body that functions under its aegis, the National Health Research Ethics Council (NHREC), with revising the SA MTA. In August 2023, the NHREC distributed a final draft version of their revised SA MTA to stakeholders for comment ( National Health Research Ethics Council, 2023 ). An interesting observation is that the NHREC’s final draft is largely based on SA MTA 1.1, rather than on the original SA MTA. Thus, the NHREC’s final draft benefits from avoiding the well-documented pitfalls of the original SA MTA. However, the NHREC made some consequential changes to SA MTA 1.1. It is also important to note that the South African legal landscape has changed since SA MTA 1.1 was developed. We have already mentioned POPIA’s coming into operation. This raises the important question of whether the NHREC’s final draft MTA is aligned with POPIA?

In the sections that follow, we delve into a comprehensive examination of the NHREC’s draft MTA and its implications for South Africa’s research community and their international collaborators. We investigate four questions: First, do the Minister of Health and the NHREC have the mandate to regulate data in the health research context, or are they overstepping their respective mandates? Second, does the draft MTA provide sufficient protection for data? Third, is there sufficient guidance on biological material in the draft MTA? Fourth, why does the draft MTA shy away from the concept of ownership? Flowing from our analyses of these four questions, we propose an alternative approach to the draft MTA, and offer recommendations to address the identified shortcomings and to align the draft MTA with legal standards and with the needs of the scientific community.

Are the Minister of Health and the NHREC overstepping their respective mandates?

At a fundamental level, the question must be posed: Do the Minister of Health and the NHREC have the mandate to regulate data in the health research context, or are they overstepping their respective mandates? These entities receive their regulatory mandates from the National Health Act 61 of 2003 (NHA). Chapter 8 of the NHA, in particular, together with relevant regulations, governs the use of human biological material and research with human participants. However, there is also a later statute that is relevant in the health research space, namely POPIA, which deals with personal information. Data in the health research space often includes personal data—or to use POPIA terminology, “personal information.” Moreover, data in the health research space are often sensitive personal data—or to use POPIA terminology, “special personal information.” Accordingly, there is an overlap between the scopes of application of the NHA and POPIA. The question then is: In the case of a conflict, which statute prevails? We consider two relevant legal principles.

In the context of health research, the NHA is general legislation, while POPIA is special legislation, meaning that POPIA governs only a specific part of health research, namely the way in which the personal information of research subjects is dealt with ( National Health Act, 2003 ). Accordingly, the maxim generalia specialibus non derogant (general words and rules do not derogate from special ones) applies. This means that the scope of application of the general statute must be constrained by the presence of the specific legislation ( Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development v Southern African Litigation Centre, 2016 ). Applied to health research, this principle means that the governance of personal information is now governed by POPIA first and the NHA second. It follows that the Minister of Health and the NHREC—who get their respective mandates from the NHA—no longer have a mandate to regulate personal information in the health research milieu. This is now done by POPIA and its implementation mechanism, the Information Regulator. In turn, the Information Regulator can, among others, issue guidance notes, and approve codes of conduct and compliance frameworks. For example, ASSAf developed a draft Code of Conduct for Research ( Academy of Science of South Africa, 2023 ), which is likely to be converted into a compliance framework based on the Information Regulator’s feedback.

Furthermore, POPIA itself contains a supremacy clause in section 2(a). In the context of the processing of personal information, POPIA (2013) supersedes any other legislation that is inconsistent with it. There is however an exception to POPIA’s supremacy clause in section 2(b). If any other legislation provides for conditions for the lawful processing of personal information that are “more extensive” than those set out in POPIA, the more extensive conditions in the other legislation prevail. Although some have argued that the NHA is more extensive (in the sense that it is certainly more voluminous), this is mistaken ( Bronstein and Nyachowe, 2023 ). In context, “more extensive” clearly refers to better protection of data subjects , not to being more voluminous ( Thaldar, 2023 ). This exception may apply in specific instances where other legislation provides better protection of data subjects. However, as we discuss below, this is evidently not the case with the draft MTA. Accordingly, there is no realistic possibility of relying on the exception to POPIA’s supremacy clause.

As a result, to the extent that the NHREC’s draft MTA contains provisions regarding personal information, it is beyond the Minister of Health’s and the NHREC’s statutory mandate. The Minister of Health and the NHREC are overstepping into the terrain of the Information Regulator. To the extent that they overstep, their conduct is invalid and can be challenged in a court of law ( Sasol Oil Pty Ltd v Metcalfe, 2004 ). The solution to this problem is obvious: The NHREC should remove all references to “associated data” in its draft MTA.

Next, we analyse the way in which the draft MTA deals with “associated data.”

Is there sufficient protection for the associated data in the draft MTA?

Although trite, it bears repetition: POPIA sets out eight conditions for the lawful processing of personal information ( De Stadler et al., 2021 ; Burns and Burger-Smidt, 2023 ). These conditions are aimed at protecting the rights of data subjects, but POPIA also recognises that a balance must be struck between the right to privacy and the right of access to information and freedom of speech. POPIA therefore establishes conditions that regulate how personal information may be processed. For the avoidance of doubt, POPIA applies to the processing (including transfer) of all personal information, including personal information derived directly and indirectly from health research, such as genetic data generated from human biological material.

In terms of current best practice—in South Africa and internationally—an agreement that facilitates the transfer of data containing personal information should contain detailed provisions articulating compliance with applicable data protection legislation. Parties to an MTA must be aware that by transferring data that contains personal information, several legal obligations arise—and these obligations require careful consideration. The parties must determine, inter alia , the nature of the personal information being transferred, the identity of the responsible party, and the data privacy obligations on each party. Critically, sections 107 and 109 of POPIA (2013) provides that failure to comply with POPIA can result in a fine of up to R10 million or imprisonment for a period not exceeding 10 years, or to both a fine and such imprisonment—as well as significant reputational harm.

However, the draft MTA fails to live up to best practice. The draft MTA’s “Guidance” section notes that the draft MTA is a template that contains “minimum standards.” However, as it stands, there are simply no minimum standards in the draft MTA dealing with data protection. The draft MTA refers to data in a superficial, throw-away fashion.

The “Guidance” section further provides that where “data alone” is transferred a data transfer agreement (DTA) is “appropriate.” We suggest that in all circumstances where data containing personal information are transferred, in order to ensure full compliance with POPIA, and to abide by international best practice, a DTA is not only appropriate, but necessary. Although it is true that some of the content in a DTA will be similar to a MTA, the similarity relates only to standard legal clauses, and not to the actual substance of the agreement. The primary purpose of the agreements will be entirely different, and both will seek to comply with distinct pieces of legislation. For this reason, the decision to conflate data with human biological material—something inherited from the original SA MTA via SA MTA 1.1—is a mistake.

To illustrate the issues caused by this conflation, consider the following three definitions:

• “Material” is defined as including both human biological material and associated data.

• “Associated data” includes personal information relating to human biological material.

• “Permit” is defined as “authorisation of the National Department of Health to transfer and/or export Material.”

However, in relation to personal information (which is part of ‘Material’ as defined above), the National Department of Health plays no role in its regulation.

Some of the changes that the NHREC’s draft MTA introduced to SA MTA 1.1 seem not to have been sufficiently considered. For example, consider the second sentence added to clause 3.5. The clause now reads as follows: “The Provider must inform the HREC [health research ethics committee] and wherever possible the Participant/s if the Provider is informed that the Material has Become Identifiable for any reason whatsoever. This must be clarified as Material remain [sic] coded and hence potentially identifiable.” The second sentence is not comprehensible.

Another example is the definition of “Becomes Identifiable.” In the draft MTA the word “directly” was added before “personally identified.” This is ill-advised, as it makes the draft MTA narrower than POPIA, which can lead to inconsistency and confusion.

The NHREC’s draft MTA is inadequate in relation to the transfer of data. We suggest that the conflation between data and biological material be avoided. These concepts should be dealt with distinctly, as they are governed by different disciplines in the law. Preferably, the envisioned MTA should avoid regulating the transfer of data altogether—rather, it should only regulate the transfer of human biological materials to avoid misalignment with POPIA. In conjunction with such a pure MTA, parties must consider the use of a professionally drafted DTA that takes account of applicable legislation and is designed to lawfully manage the processing of data. Here there is a ready solution, namely the DTA template that was developed for South Africa’s research community. It is fully aligned with POPIA and freely available ( Swales et al., 2023b ).

Next, we move the focus from the incorporeal to the corporeal—from data to biological material.

Is there sufficient guidance on biological material in the draft MTA?

It is interesting that the NHREC’s draft MTA—similar to its predecessors—focuses only on human biological material, to the exclusion of other biological material that is important in health research, such as human pathogens. However, ‘Human Biological Material’ is defined sufficiently broadly in the draft MTA as to include pathogens. The definition reads as follows:

‘Human Biological Material’ means a biological sample or tissue from a person, living or deceased, including Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Ribonucleic Acid (RNA), blastomeres, polar bodies, cultured cells, embryos, gametes, progenitor stem cells, growth factors and blood specimens, biopsy tissue and any modifications or derivatives thereof

Consider the following scenario: When, during a pandemic, blood samples are drawn from infected persons and sent from one research institution to another, the blood sample would qualify as “Human Biological Material.” However, such “Human Biological Material” would also contain a human pathogen, such as a bacteria or a virus. This is a matter of concern, as the draft MTA does not sufficiently cater for such a possibility. For a researcher there is a vast difference between a human biological material sample that contains a pathogen and a sample that does not, and the procedure for dealing with each is quite different.

Ultimately, the person that the revised SA MTA will govern will be the person who will need to organise the transfer of human biological material—which may include pathogens—and so they need to be aware of the legal and physical dangers relating to this. It may not be apparent that human biological material could be a weapon of mass destruction and yet that is exactly what it could be if the human biological material contains certain pathogens, such as the Ebola virus. This is acknowledged in the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act (1993) and yet the draft MTA does not mention this important consideration. International standards, such as the WHO Manual on Laboratory Biosafety ( World Health Organisation, 2020 ), the National Institutes of Health Shipping Policies and Procedures ( National Institutes of Health, 2022 ), the International Air Transport Association’s Infectious Substances Shipping Regulations ( International Air Transport Association, 2023 ), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities (C enters for Disease Control and Prevention, 2008 ) are examples of useful links. However, these are also omitted from the draft MTA leaving it up to scientists to source the relevant material on their own. In this respect, the draft MTA misses a vital opportunity to help and educate scientists by alerting them to the requirements that they need to comply with in order to transfer certain kinds of human biological material.

Apart from missing this opportunity to create awareness among scientists, the issue of pathogens being present in human biological material also opens up the issue of legal liability. At present, the draft MTA includes a provision that obliges the recipient to indemnify the provider of material from any liability, except insofar as the provider is required to be liable in law. The recipient is also required to maintain “adequate” insurance cover against liability to third parties. However, the draft MTA provides no assistance as to when the provider will be liable in terms of the law, nor does it require checks and balances to avert the harm that may or may not be covered by the “adequate” insurance. It is important to consider that the agreement may deal with the transfer of a biological weapon of mass destruction and so liability could be huge, possibly even worldwide. It is unlikely that this type of harm could be cured by any insurance cover and therefore greater effort should be invested in the eventual revised SA MTA to ensure that the harm does not occur.

The provider of the biological material should consider the infectious nature, volume and frequency of the transfer (among other factors) when considering the risk posed by the transfer of the human biological material. The identified risks would also influence the safeguards the provider would need to adopt. In this regard, the process to identify and deal with risks as set out in section 19(2) of POPIA could be considered to be a template for this purpose. The provider can, for example, create an appropriate risk matrix to be added as an annexure to the agreement. In addition, a right to audit compliance by either party should be included. The exercise of this right should be based on the risk profile of the other party.

We now proceed to the last research question, which pertains both to human biological material and associated data: the issue of ownership.

Why shy away from ownership?

The legal ownership of human biological material.

The NHA is clear that the only way in which a research participant can provide a sample of his or her bodily material for research, such as tissue or blood, is by donating it to a research institution (section 63). Donation is a legal technical term for a nominate contract that entails the transfer of ownership from the donor to the donee ( Mankowitz v Loewenthal, 1982 , para. 765A; Thaldar and Shozi, 2021 ). Accordingly, when a research participant provides a sample of his or her bodily material for research, the only legal way in which this can transpire is for the research participant to transfer ownership to the research institution ( DE v CE, 2020 , para. 24; Thaldar and Shozi, 2021 ). That means that the research institution is the owner of the human biological material that it collects for research ( Thaldar and Shozi, 2021 ).

Moreover, the Regulations regarding the General Control of Human Bodies, Tissue, Blood, Blood Products and Gametes (2012) also provides that a person who acquires human biological material in terms of the NHA acquires exclusive rights in such human biological material (Regulation 26). This is not only consistent with the transfer of ownership to the research institution, but it also makes it clear that the transfer of ownership must be absolute and unqualified ( National Health Act, 2003 , s. 63; Regulations regarding the General Control of Human Bodies, Tissue, Blood, Blood Products and Gametes, 2012 , reg. 24). In other words, the donor is not allowed to retain any rights whatsoever in the donated human biological material.

However, despite these clear statutory provisions, the NHREC decided to obfuscate and confuse the issue by introducing the concept of a “steward”—a concept that is not part of any branch of South African law that is relevant to health research ( National Health Research Ethics Council, 2023 ). The NHREC defines “steward” as “a person or entity entrusted by the Participant to safeguard and protect the Material” ( National Health Research Ethics Council, 2023 ) (Emphasis added). This is misaligned with ownership, for two reasons: First, an owner has the right to destroy the owned object—most certainly not the duty to “safeguard and protect” the owned object ( Pope, et al., 2020 ). Second, the word “entrusted” points to a trust relationship between the research institution and the research participant with respect to the donated material ( National Health Research Ethics Council, 2023 ). This is in conflict with the Regulations regarding the General Control of Human Bodies, Tissue, Blood, Blood Products and Gametes (2012) which provides that the research institution enjoys exclusive rights in the donated material (Regulation 26).

South Africa’s NHA was enacted by the democratically elected representatives of the people of South Africa. It embraces ownership of human biological material by research ( National Health Act, 2003 , s. 63; Regulations regarding the General Control of Human Bodies, Tissue, Blood, Blood Products and Gametes, 2012 , reg. 24). However, the NHREC is not respecting the democratic process. The NHREC is promoting ownership-denial. We suggest that the NHREC should take the law of South Africa more seriously.

The legal ownership of data

“Material” as defined in the MTA includes “associated data.” The problematic nature of conflating these two very different kinds of object—human biological material and data—into one term was highlighted above. “Associated data” is defined as “the information associated with the Human Biological Material, including personal information, derived directly or indirectly prior and during the conduct of the research Project” ( National Health Research Ethics Council, 2023 ). Accordingly, associated data includes all data—personal and non-personal—that are in any undefined way ‘associated’ with the human biological material ( National Health Research Ethics Council, 2023 ). Superficially, the notion of a data steward seems to make sense, given that POPIA (2013) places various duties on a responsible party in relation to personal data. These statutory rights of the data subject qualify the common law ownership rights that a research institution may have in the personal data ( Protection of Personal Information, 2013 ). However, the problem that lurks below the surface is that associated data as defined in the MTA are not limited to personal data but can also include de-identified data ( Thaldar, et al., 2020 ). Consider that POPIA (2013) applies only to personal data, and ceases to apply when that same data is not personal or is de-identified to become non-personal data (section 3(1)). However, the NHREC’s final draft would have a data steward safeguard and protect associated data even if it is not personal data. This makes no sense and is counter-productive. Moreover, the creation of a data steward does not consider the role of the Information Officer, who plays a crucial role in POPIA.

Using human genomic sequence data as an example, and applying the well-established requirement for private ownership in South African law, Thaldar et al. (2022) argue that a data instance—i.e., the computer file containing the data—is a digital object that is susceptible of private ownership in South African law. The authors further consider the rules concerning the acquisition of ownership in South African law, and suggest that the research institution that generates genomic sequence data is in the best position to acquire ownership in the data instances that it generates ( Thaldar et al., 2022 ). In line with this conclusion, the DTA template embraces data ownership ( Swales et al., 2023a ; Swales et al., 2023b ). Because data is a new kind of object and data ownership is not yet well established in the law, it is essential that data owners—South African research institutions—should clearly and explicitly record their ownership of the data that is being shared in their DTAs ( Swales et al., 2023a ).

Some may think that since data is incorporeal, ownership of data is an intellectual property right. However, this is mistaken. As analysed by Thaldar et al. (2022) , common law ownership is not limited to corporeal objects. In fact, at least since the Second Century, when the Roman jurist Gaius wrote his Institutes, property law included incorporeal objects ( Gaius, 1946 ). More recent examples of private ownership of incorporeal objects are, inter alia , digital money, digital books, and digital music ( Nightingale v Devisme, 1770 ; Nissan South Africa Pty Ltd v Marnitz, 2006 ; S v Ndebele, 2012 ; Competition Commission v British American Tobacco South Africa Pty Ltd, 2009 ; S v De Vries, 2008 ; Curemed CC v Van Onselen, 2015 ). Millions of people buy music (as digital objects) on their smart phones using digital money (which is also a digital object). Intellectual property law, by contrast, is a more recent branch of the law, mostly found in statute and not in common law, and only applicable to specifically defined kinds of incorporeal objects, such as inventions and artistic creations ( Copyright Act, 1978 , s. 2; Patents Act, 1978 , s. 3). It is however possible for intellectual property rights to overlap with common law property rights ( Thaldar et al., 2022 ). Intellectual property law would typically not apply directly to data, but rather indirectly ( Thaldar et al., 2022 ). This would be the case if, for example, data is used in an invention (patent law) or as part of a database (copyright law) ( Copyright Act, 1978 ; Patents Act, 1978 ). However, the application of intellectual property law in no way overrides or supplants ownership in a data instance ( Thaldar et al., 2022 ). Various rights can co-exist and qualify one another. For example, if one buys a book, one becomes the owner of the book, but the author still retains copyright in the content ( Thaldar et al., 2022 ). The author’s copyright qualifies the owner’s rights in the sense that the book owner may not make copies of the book without the author’s consent ( Thaldar et al., 2022 ). The ways in which the rights emanating in various branches of South African law interact in the context of data are explored in detail by Thaldar et al. (2022) .

The ethical case for owning the data that one generates

Not only is there a solid legal case for data ownership in the health research context, but there is also an ethical case, provided by John Locke’s labour theory of property ( Locke, 1963 ). In brief, this entails that persons ought to acquire ownership in the fruits of their own labour ( Locke, 1963 ). Applied to the generation of data, it is the research institution that collects the pheno-clinical data from research participants, and that generates genetic and genomic data by sequencing DNA isolated from samples donated by research participants. In other words, the research institution is the party that invests its labour into producing the data, and therefore ought to own such data. In health research, this typically requires significant investment in expensive equipment and highly trained human resources. Accordingly, it is ethically justified for the research institution to actively claim the fruits of its labour. Why does the NHREC shy away from supporting research institutions to claim what they are ethically entitled to?

Decolonial thinking about health research

In the colonial way of thinking about health research, global health research is conceptualised as an eternal cycle where Africa provides raw “genetic resources” to the Global North, while the Global North conducts value-added research on the “genetic resources” of Africa and owns the intellectual property in inventions such as new precision medicines, which are then sold to Africa for profit. Although this colonial way of thinking about health research is based on historical and (sometimes at least) current facts, it can become self-perpetuating when simply assumed and used as the basis for policy-making.

Allow us to explain: If policymakers make it more difficult for commercial research companies to acquire and control human biological samples and derivatives therefrom, such as DNA, cell-lines and data, the policymakers may think—because of the colonial paradigm in which they conceive health research—that they are protecting Africa from possible exploitation. However, what they may also be doing at the same time is to suppress the growth of the nascent biotechnology sector in Africa itself. In this way, the policy measure that are intended to protect Africa have the perverse effect of ossifying the colonial power structure and hence perpetuating the colonial paradigm of conceiving health research.

We therefore call for decolonial thinking about health research . Policymakers should reflect on their paradigms and how their resulting policy decisions can self-perpetuate the colonial power structures. Policymakers should actively strive to think anew about health research, and envision a (future) vibrant and sustainable African bio-economy, and then consider what policy choices would best assist the country to achieve that vision. To the extent that the NHREC has decided to become involved in health research policy development—revising the SA MTA is indeed policy development—the NHREC members should ensure that they are intimately familiar with South Africa’s Bio-economy Strategy ( Department of Science and Technology, 2013 ). If their answer is “but our mandate is ethics,” then they should rethink why they have taken up the project of revising the SA MTA.

Firmly acknowledging research institutions’ data ownership is not only ethical, but also core to developing a bio-economy that can compete globally in the Knowledge Economy. In the decolonised vision that we propose, South African biotech companies will act in lawful and ethically appropriate ways towards research participants, including respecting the research participants’ privacy rights in the personal data that relate to them. In this way, the data owner can also have a “custodian” or “steward” function, by ensuring the safety of personal data. However, without clarity on ownership, being a mere “custodian” or “steward” is legally toothless ( Thaldar, 2024 ). Furthermore, in the decolonised vision that we propose, South African biotech companies will build South Africa’s bio-economy by generating a wealth of data. These data can be used for research in South Africa, and can be monetised by licencing access to such data in trusted research environments, or, where such data is de-identified, licencing access in less restrictive ways, such as data transfers. However, if a biotech company is merely the “steward” of the data that it generates, with uncertainty about ownership, there is no legal basis for any of these commercial actions ( Thaldar, 2024 ). Ownership provides this essential legal basis ( Thaldar, 2024 ). Without it, South Africa will be a knowledge colony .

At this point, it must be clear that we believe that the NHREC’s draft revised version of the SA MTA is misdirected in several respects and the entire paradigm underlying the creation and content of the draft MTA needs to be considered anew. The NHREC needs to return to first principles to determine what they seek to achieve with a revised SA MTA and whether those are appropriate goals. In order to assist with this, we have the following four main recommendations on how the draft MTA could be reimagined:

Recommendation 1: make the use of the SA MTA voluntary, not mandatory

The draft MTA is not a mature document and it will take some time for it to reach a level of maturity where it is appropriate for it to be considered to be mandatory. The scientific and legal community should be encouraged to work together to progressively improve on the content of the draft MTA and to stress-test it against the actual lived experience of scientists who transfer human biological material. In addition, a mandatory document is inherently less flexible—and thus less able to be updated regularly—than a voluntary document.

Recommendation 2: data should be dealt with separately

The transfer of human biological material and the transfer of data are different disciplines, and different legal rules apply. Moreover, the current definition of “Associated Data” in the draft MTA merges the concept of personal and non-personal information in an unfortunate and unhelpful manner which contributes to confusion. If there are any associated data transferred alongside human biological material, it would be more appropriate to indicate that the DTA template developed for the South African research community ( Swales et al., 2023b ) as amended by the parties would govern such data.

Recommendation 3: enhanced liability and risk management provisions

Given that the draft MTA involves handling human biological materials—which can contain pathogens—the potential for harm is significant. The MTA should require providers of human biological material to assess the transfer risk by considering factors such as the infectious nature, volume, and frequency of the transfer. Recognising these risks will determine the necessary safeguards that can also be built into the eventual revised SA MTA, such as contractual warranties by the provider. Moreover, the eventual revised SA MTA should include a provision allowing either party to audit compliance, with the decision and scope of the audit informed by the other party’s risk profile.

Recommendation 4: adopt a decolonial approach in the governance of health research

In the context of South Africa, it is crucial to ensure that health research does not perpetuate colonial legacies. Adopting a decolonial approach entails having a clear vision of a thriving bio-economy in South Africa—built not merely on being a raw material provider, but on adding value to such material—and strategically aiming for policy decisions that achieve this vision. Clarity on ownership of human biological material and associated data (primary and inferential) is crucial in order to have confidence and certainty in transactions entailing the transfer of these (corporeal and incorporeal) objects. This in turn is vital for building a thriving bio-economy in South Africa. Accordingly, policy instruments such as the eventual revised SA MTA should strive to empower local research institutions by clearly recognising their legal ownership of the material that they share.

Note that the draft MTA was not made public by the NHREC. Instead, the NHREC disseminated it to the health research ethics committees, who were given the opportunity to submit comments.

Author contributions

PE: Writing–review and editing, Writing–original draft, Conceptualization. LS: Writing–review and editing, Writing–original draft, Conceptualization. DB: Writing–review and editing, Writing–original draft, Conceptualization. BM: Writing–review and editing, Writing–original draft, Conceptualization. DT: Writing–review and editing, Writing–original draft, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The authors acknowledge the support by the US National Institute of Mental Health and the US National Institutes of Health (award number U01MH127690).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Roasia Hazarilall for her assistance with the technical editing of this article, and acknowledge the use of ChatGPT4 from Open AI to improve the language and readability of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Author disclaimer

The content of this essay is solely the authors’ responsibility and does not necessarily represent the official views of the US National Institute of Mental Health or the US National Institutes of Health.

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Keywords: data, decolonial, human biological material, material transfer agreement, ownership, pathogens, POPIA, stewardship

Citation: Esselaar P, Swales L, Bellengère D, Mhlongo B and Thaldar D (2024) Forcing a square into a circle: why South Africa’s draft revised material transfer agreement is not fit for purpose. Front. Pharmacol. 15:1333672. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1333672

Received: 05 November 2023; Accepted: 28 February 2024; Published: 12 March 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Esselaar, Swales, Bellengère, Mhlongo and Thaldar. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Donrich Thaldar, [email protected]

† ORCID: Paul Esselaar, orcid.org/0009-0003-5357-8420 ; Lee Swales, orcid.org/0000-0002-4030-1874 ; Devarasi Bellengère, orcid.org/0009-0007-8525-143X ; Banele Mhlongo, orcid.org/0009-0005-4030-3086 ; Donrich Thaldar, orcid.org/0000-0002-7346-3490

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Scientists make sense of vast amounts of molecular data

Team used machine learning to group data so it can be applied to advance human health and science.

Thanks to technological advances, scientists have access to vast amounts of data, but in order to put it to work and draw conclusions, they need to be able to process it.

In research recently published in Genome Biology , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's Boleslaw Szymanski, Ph.D., Claire and Roland Schmitt Distinguished Professor of Computer Science and director of the Network Science and Technology Center, and team have found a method that effectively organizes and groups the data for a variety of applications. The process is referred to as clustering in machine learning.

The clustering method they devised, called SpeakEasy2: Champagne, was tested alongside other algorithms to analyze its effectiveness in bulk gene expression, single-cell data, protein interaction networks, and large-scale human networks data. Bulk gene expression tends to be tissue and disease specific with implications on function and phenotype, or how a genotype interacts with the environment. Single cell data is grouped according to a cell's distinctions. Protein binding is a core mechanism for signal propagation in cells, and identifying proteins that assemble into complexes is useful for defining functions within a cell.

The team's testing of SpeakEasy2: Champagne alongside other methods revealed that no single method is perfect for all situations, and the performance can vary. However, SpeakEasy2 performed well across different types of data, suggesting that it's an effective way to organize molecular information.

"We tested to determine if the methods worked well even if the data included a lot of irrelevant information and also new, unseen data," said Szymanski. "We wanted to measure their reliability and performance in a number of ways, so we tested across a wide range of networks. SpeakEasy2: Champagne proved to have consistent and acceptable performance across diverse applications and metrics."

"Optimizing machine learning methods to effectively integrate large amounts of noisy data is critical to advancing science across many research fields," said Curt Breneman, Ph.D., dean of Rensselaer's School of Science. "Dr. Szymanski's work will allow new insights into cell function and gene expression and may illuminate new potential drug targets and their inhibitors to treat disease."

This work was done in collaboration with Chris Gaiteri, Ph.D., of Rush University Medical Center and his team, and it is a result of a decade-long collaboration. Eight years ago, they collectively developed a novel clustering algorithm named SpeakEasy that, in light of vast new sources of biomedical data thanks to advances in computer science technologies, required more intelligent and faster software that will work for more diverse and greater amounts of biomedical data.

Gaiteri's team includes David R. Connell; Faraz A. Sultan, M.D.; Artemis Latrou, Ph.D.; Bernard Ng, Ph.D.; Ada Zhang; and Shinya Tasaki, Ph.D.; all of whom contributed to the findings.

• Information Technology
• Computers and Internet
• Computer Modeling
• Computer Programming
• Distributed Computing
• Markets and Finance
• Data mining
• Scientific method
• Scientific visualization
• 3D computer graphics
• History of computing hardware
• Artificial intelligence

Story Source:

Materials provided by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute . Original written by Katie Malatino. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Chris Gaiteri, David R. Connell, Faraz A. Sultan, Artemis Iatrou, Bernard Ng, Boleslaw K. Szymanski, Ada Zhang, Shinya Tasaki. Robust, scalable, and informative clustering for diverse biological networks . Genome Biology , 2023; 24 (1) DOI: 10.1186/s13059-023-03062-0

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Global Liquidity Squeeze: Navigating Market Volatility and Asset Sensitivity

I n the rapidly evolving landscape of global finance, Gavekal Research has shed light on a critical issue that could significantly impact market stability and investor strategies: the impending global liquidity drain. 

This comprehensive analysis comes at a crucial time when the dynamics of the market are undergoing significant shifts, making the understanding of liquidity more important than ever for investors navigating these turbulent waters.

The driving forces behind the Liquidity Squeeze

At the forefront of Gavekal Research’s findings are several key factors contributing to the anticipated liquidity drain, which could have profound implications for the global financial ecosystem. The Federal Reserve’s policy decisions are highlighted as a primary influence, given their substantial impact on global liquidity conditions. Moreover, the increased issuance of US Treasuries, coupled with potential cash repatriation to Japan following interest rate adjustments, adds layers of complexity to the liquidity scenario. These elements collectively paint a picture of a dynamic and interconnected global financial landscape, where shifts in liquidity can ripple through markets with significant consequences.

One of the core insights from Gavekal Research’s analysis is the potential for increased market volatility in light of the changing liquidity conditions. As liquidity tightens, markets may experience heightened turbulence, particularly affecting assets with high valuations. This scenario calls for a strategic approach to risk management and asset allocation, as investors prepare to navigate the potentially stormy conditions ahead.

Assets such as technology stocks, gold, and cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin are identified as particularly susceptible to these market fluctuations. Their valuations, already stretched in a climate of uncertainty, may face further challenges as liquidity conditions evolve. For investors, understanding which assets are most vulnerable in this environment is crucial for making informed decisions and developing effective risk mitigation strategies.

Cryptocurrency Market: Navigating uncertain waters

The cryptocurrency market , with its diverse array of assets from established players like Bitcoin and Ethereum to newer entrants like Solana and Avalanche, presents a unique set of challenges and opportunities in the current market context. Each cryptocurrency’s performance is influenced by a variety of factors, making it essential for investors to stay informed about the latest trends and developments.

Currently, the crypto market is enveloped in a cloud of uncertainty, with bearish sentiment prevailing and raising concerns about a potential correction on the horizon. Investors are advised to exercise caution, seeking out stable support levels and focusing on resilience and adaptability in their investment strategies. The ability to navigate this uncertain landscape will be key to weathering the potential storms ahead and capitalizing on opportunities that arise from market fluctuations.

Gavekal Research’s analysis of the global liquidity drain and its potential impact on market volatility and asset sensitivity offers valuable insights for investors looking to navigate the complexities of the current financial landscape. As the global economy continues to grapple with shifting dynamics, understanding the nuances of liquidity and its implications for various asset classes becomes increasingly important.

Investors are encouraged to adopt a proactive approach to risk management, staying informed about the factors driving liquidity changes and the assets most likely to be affected. By doing so, they can position themselves to navigate the challenges of increased market volatility and capitalize on the opportunities that emerge. As the financial landscape continues to evolve, adaptability and strategic foresight will be key to achieving success in the unpredictable waters of global finance.